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<$A> Good afternoon Let's continue from where we stopped yesterday We are looking at the Spanish civil war from nineteen thirty-six to nineteen thirty-nine and I think we stopped at further looking at the significance of the war in the history of Europe For one this war brought Germany and Italy closer together It brought them closer together and this led to the establishment of the Rome Berlin axis pact And the pact <-_>the pact<-/> was established in October nineteen thirty-six in October nineteen thirty-six It was a treaty of <O/> between the two countries between Germany and Italy And some months <-_>some months<-/> later in nineteen thirty-seven Hitler and Mussolini signed an <?/>anti-committee pact And this one was directed against the Soviet Union It was uh an alliance aimed against communist Soviet Union And uh point number two the civil war in Spain also provided a training ground for the Second World War It was a training ground for the Second World War The war the civil war gave a very good opportunity for the Germans to try out new weapons of warfare It also gave them an opportunity to try out new weapons For example they tried this uh <foreign/>Blitzkrieg which means lightning war They tried this during the Spanish civil war They also tried out <-/>oh dive bombing whereby the aeroplanes would dive and bomb They also tried high level bombings and the use of paratroopers the use of paratroopers and also high speed tanks So all this equipment <-_were><+_was> tried during the civil war and were perfected where they were found to be lacking As a result when the Second World War broke out <O/> Germany was in a better position compared to that of the French and the British In nineteen thirty-seven in nineteen thirty-seven Hitler formally renounced the war guilt cause of the treaty of Versailles The other step he took was to announce that Germany was no longer bound by the provision of the treaty which said that Germany had been solely responsible for starting the First World War That one he renounced And the <-/>the next move he made was that of union with Austria union with Austria which means <O/> or union with Austria This took place in nineteen thirty-eight but before this in nineteen thirty-four Hitler had tried to unite Austria with Germany But in that year that move had failed The move had failed because the Italians had seemed to be hostile They started to move their troops to the border So he abandoned the move But in nineteen thirty-eight he thought that the <-/>the diplomatic situation was now favourable for him to try again Remember now he had formed a an alliance with Mussolini and also the Japanese so he thought that the preparations were now right for him to try again to unite Austria with Germany So what he did is that uh on eleventh no on twelfth March nineteen thirty-eight on twelfth March nineteen thirty-eight he sent the German army into Austria He sent the German army into Austria And on the following day on the following day the thirteenth of March nineteen thirty-eight Austria was declared to be a part of Germany Austria was declared to be part of Germany So this union with Austria was another clear violation of the treaty of Versailles And uh the allies that is particularly Britain and uh France did nothing All they could do was again to protest against this move by Hitler They took no action except protest and uh in Britain itself there was even sympathy for Hitler's action The British seemed to sympathise with him and there was the view that why shouldn't the Germans get together After all they're all Germans So they seemed to sympathise with Hitler And uh as a result this was another bloodless victory for Hitler When we look at the union what was the importance of this union with Austria How important was it to him We find that uh the union with Austria greatly improved Hitler's strategic position in Central Europe It had greatly improved Hitler's strategic position in Central Europe And this was especially true for the position of Czechoslovakia It was especially true for the position of Czechoslovakia And this union left Czechoslovakia surrounded by Germany on three sides Czechoslovakia was now surrounded by German territory on three sides <-/>oh Czechoslovakia now became the next target for Hitler Since now he had achieved what he wanted with Austria his next move was now against Czechoslovakia So let us now turn to this and look at the Czechoslovakia crisis The Czechoslovakia crisis and this crisis lasted from May to September nineteen thirty-eight from May to September nineteen thirty-eight How did it start What <./>happen happened is that in Czechoslovakia there was about three point five million Germans There were three point five million Germans who lived in the area known as Sudetenland They lived in the area known as Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia and uh what happened is uh that these Germans had been <-/>been in the <./>domi dominant class in the old Austro-Hungarian Empire and as a result they resented their minority status in the Republic of Czechoslovakia So Hitler's excuse for intervening in Czechoslovakia was that these Germans were being persecuted by the Czechs He intervened as the saviour of the persecuted Germans He intervened there to save them from the persecution of the Czechs So what he did what you should know is that Hitler was not really interested in the welfare of the Jews of the German of these Germans in Czechoslovakia His main aim was to break up Czechoslovakia entirely Break it completely apart And uh he wanted to do this because his motives were mainly <./>strat strategic His motives were mainly strategics and for one he wanted to command he wanted the command of the mountain <./>regens regions on the border of Germany and Czechoslovakia He wanted command of those mountains They were very good for strategic purposes Secondly he also wanted the mineral wealth of Bohemia the mineral wealth of Bohemia And thirdly he also wanted to dismantle the Czech frontier fortifications They'd built line of fortification along the frontier against <-_German><+_Germany> So he wanted to dismantle these <./>fortifis <./>fortifis fortifications Fourthly he also wanted to destroy Czechoslovakia Am I too fast very fast
<$B> Yes 
<$A> So fourthly he also wanted to destroy Czechoslovakia as an outpost of the French security system Remember Czechoslovakia was an ally of France so he wanted to destroy this French security system And lastly but far from the least by getting rid of Czechoslovakia by getting rid of Czechoslovakia Hitler was also aiming at removing one of the main obstacles one of the main obstacles of German obstacles to German expansion eastwards one of the main obstacles to German expansion eastwards So as the pressure on <./>Czechoslov Czechoslovakia mounted as pressure on Czechoslovakia mounted from Hitler Britain and France also put very strong pressure on Czechoslovakia Instead of going to the aid of Czechoslovakia they also came in to put more pressure on Czechoslovakia uh The pressure that the British were putting on Czechoslovakia was that Czechoslovakia should accept Hitler's demands And the reason why they did this is that their one big aim their one overriding aim of the British and the French was to avoid another war breaking out in Europe That is why they were pressurising the Czechs to give in to Hitler's demands As a result of that between September fifteenth between September fifteen and September twenty-ninth Chamberlain the British Prime Minister Chamberlain the British Prime Minister made three flights He made three flights to Germany In that <-_>in that<-/> short period he made three flights to Germany in an attempt to appease Hitler in an attempt to appease Hitler and this appeasement was at the expense of the Czechs in order to avoid war So the first visit took place on fifteenth September and during this visit Chamberlain accepted the separation of the <./>Sudet Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia He accepted that this part of Sudetenland where the Germans lived should be separated from Czechoslovakia from Czechoslovakia So what he that is uh Chamberlain and the French Premier was known as <name/>Daladier both of them both of them forced the Czechs to agree to this arrangement They forced them to agree to this separation of Sudetenland and if they refused when the Czechs tried to refuse they were threatened the two threatened to desert them and leave them on their own at their own fate with Hitler So they had no choice but to accept this arrangement Then on twenty-second September of the same month same month and same year Chamberlain made his second visit to Hitler in Germany He went there to announce to Hitler that he had secured an agreement based on the principle of secession of Sudetenland an agreement based on the secession of Sudetenland that is they would be separated from Czechoslovakia But when he arrived there to his dismay he found that uh Hitler had raised his demands He found that Hitler had already raised his demands He needed more that what he had needed previously According to the new demands Hitler wanted the secession of the Sudetenland in three days He wanted the area to be separated within three days and he also wanted an <./>imm an immediate occupation of the area by German troops Secession within three days and occupation of the area by German troops And this now seemed an impossible This one seemed an impossible demand for the British and the French to force on the Czechs It seemed <-_>it seemed<-/> almost impossible now to do anything And as a result both France and Britain began to prepare for war They saw that they could not do anything now to avoid war from coming There was nothing else they could do so they started to prepare for war 
But at the last moment at the last moment Mussolini stepped in Mussolini stepped in and uh he proposed a conference be held to solve the problem He proposed that a conference be held to sort out the problem And uh the conference was uh accordingly held And uh countries represented were Germany Italy France and Britain Only those four countries were represented in the conference The Czechs themselves were not represented They were excluded And you know this was to discuss their territory So they were excluded and it was Hitler himself who insisted that they be excluded from the conference So the British and the French gave in to his demand that the Czechs be excluded from the conference In the case of the Russians they were not even invited Nobody wanted anything to do with them so they were not invited to the conference So this conference met on September twenty-ninth to thirtieth met from twenty-ninth to thirtieth September of the same year and they met at Munich met at Munich in Germany And uh the outcome of the conference is that uh Hitler received almost everything he had demanded He received almost everything he had demanded And as a result the Sudetenland was separated from Czechoslovakia and it became part of the German Reich It became part of the German Reich uh In return in return for this concession the powers that were represented agreed to spare the rest of Czechoslovakia They agreed that the <./>res the rest of <./>Czechos Czechoslovakia remained as it was be spared uh After that at the conference Hitler declared that he had no more territorial demands to make in Europe Said that he had no more All he needed He had now got whatever he needed So he had no more demand territorial demand in Europe At that point Chamberlain returned to England When he returned to England after the conference he announced that he had brought peace with honour that he had brought peace with honour and he claimed that it was peace for our time He claimed that during their time there will be peace But Hitler did not keep his word Hitler did not keep his word because <-_on><+_in> the following year in March nineteen thirty-nine Hitler broke his promise and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia He broke his promise and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia And this occupation had very important repercussions for the history of Europe 
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<$A> Point number five Britain and France also did all they could to include the Soviet Union in a great block of states in a great block of states pledged to resist German aggression Tried to bring the Soviet Union in <-/>in this block of states that had pledged to resist German aggression but this attempt to bring the Soviet Union in did not succeed It did not succeed Point number six Germany responded to this uh formation of this uh alliance these uh guarantees of help to these countries Germany responded to this by making the Rome Berlin axis They responded by making the Rome Berlin axis into a military alliance It was turned into a military alliance and it was called the Pact of Steel This alliance that was formed now between Italy and uh Germany was came to be known as the Pact of Steel Apart from that in addition to this Japan not Japan Germany and Italy also sought to extend this alliance to include Japan Hungary Yugoslavia and Spain You see Tried to include the other Fascist states within this alliance The next point which is also very important which is also very important is that uh after Germany had occupied Czechoslovakia this now compelled the European countries who are opposed to Germany to begin preparing for war They began to prepare for war because now they saw that war was inevitable so they began preparations to prepare for it For example air raid air <-/>air raid shelters were built They started to construct air raid shelters also trenches were dug Trenches were dug They also distributed gas masks to their population to the civilians gas mask masks were supplied to the population and conscription was introduced in Britain Conscription was introduced in Britain and above all a race for armaments began A race for armaments began These Europeans now started to arm themselves just like uh the Europeans before the First World War when there was a race for armaments Now here again it is started But I think the timing was somehow late because the war was just around the corner So it was no longer now From then onwards it was no longer a question of if war comes We are not talking about if war comes but we are talking now of when <-/>when the war comes Because you could say that war was really <./>imm imminent And uh what you should also realise is that uh I mentioned yesterday that Rhineland gave Hitler a springboard for the an attack against France So the same case here Czechoslovakia also now gave him a <./>sp a springboard for an attack in the east <./>Th They provided him with a springboard for an attack in the east And we see that the next crisis the next crisis became the immediate cause of the Second World War The next crisis now became the immediate cause of the Second World War And this one involved Poland It involved Poland So let's look at this crisis German's Germany's Germans' threat against Poland So after the Germans had occupied Czechoslovakia their next target now became Poland and they at once began to put a lot of pressure on Poland uh began to put a lot of pressure on Poland to restore the port of Danzig They wanted Poland to restore the port of Danzig on the <-_>on the<-/> North Sea to Germany They also wanted What happened is that after the First World War I think you have heard this Here we have Germany there was a point which was created which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany And this corridor here belonged to Poland So now Germany also now started to <./>de to demand that Poland allowed Germany to construct a railway and a road across this Polish corridor to connect East Prussia with the rest of Germany So that was the pressure it was now putting on Czechoslovakia To give back Danzig and to allow Germany to construct a railway and a highway across the Polish corridor to join East Prussia But the Poles resisted this move by the Germans They resisted and uh at this stage it appears that uh Hitler did not Hitler appears not to have taken the French and British guarantee of Poland's independence seriously Otherwise if he had done if he had taken it seriously then he would not have attempted to threaten Poland And uh secondly Hitler did not expect the two countries that is Britain and <./>Fo and France to go to war for the sake of Poland He never <./>except expected them to go to war for the sake of Poland And Hitler had come to hold the leaders of the two countries in contempt All they all those years he had dealt with them he had come to hold them in contempt So he thought that he could still get his way with Poland as he had done with uh Czechoslovakia Austria and the others He was also feeling Something else which made him to be very bold is that Hitler also knew that the two countries were not ready for war He knew that they were unprepared for war He also knew that large segments of their population were opposed to fighting a war to save Poland So <-/>So because of all these reasons he kept on pressurising Poland to give back Danzig and to allow Germany to construct a railway and a highway across the Polish corridor On the other hand Britain and France knew that by themselves They <-/>They knew that by themselves they could not be able to defend Poland By the <-/sameself> by themselves they were not strong enough to do it So they tried all they could to bring in the USSR into an alliance against Germany So negotiations were started at this particular period when Germany was threatening Poland Britain and France started to negotiate with the Soviet Union so that to see they could form an alliance collective alliance against Germany But these negotiations seemed to move forward fairly slowly and very cautiously They did make to be They didn't seem to be making any progress because each side was very suspicious of the other The Soviets <-/>Soviets were very suspicious of <./>Ger of the British and the French And the French and the British were also very suspicious of the Soviet There was much distrust so there was no progress being made And it was in the midst it was in the midst of these negotiations that on twenty-third August nineteen thirty-nine on twenty-third August nineteen thirty-nine that the world was shocked to learn of a Nazi Soviet non-aggression pact Did you get that It was just a thunderbolt Nobody was expecting that It came as a great shock to everybody in the world Who could have imagined that after all after everything that Hitler had said against the communists that in the end it'd it would come together and form an alliance or a pact or an agreement of any kind It was a great shock to everybody who was concerned in this and then let's look at this uh Nazi Soviet non-aggression pact What was it all about The main reason why Hitler formed this uh non-aggression pact was that uh the Nazis were not willing to risk war on two fronts at the one at the same time They did not want to fight on two fronts as it had happened during the First World War and that's why on twenty-third August nineteen thirty-nine they signed a ten year a ten year non-aggression pact with the USSR Now this pact divided Poland between the two powers that is between Germany and the Soviet Union And both powers also agreed to attack Poland at once to attack Poland together This pact also allowed the USSR to take over also allowed the Soviet Union to take over the Baltic states take over the Baltic states They in the Baltic states They're very tiny states around the Baltic Sea Lithuania Latvia and Estonia So now Soviet Union was given the green light by Germany to take over those three countries She was also given the green light to take the province of Bessarabiya The province of Bessarabiya from Rumania Those were the secret agreements of this pact And why did the Soviet Union also agree to sign this pact <-/>and with Hitler and yet they knew that Hitler all along was spreading fire against the Soviet Union For one the Soviet Union also wanted to avoid trouble with Germany and two the Red Army was better equipped and better organised following the recent purges There had been very widespread purges in the Soviet Union in the mid nineteen thirties and most uh of the uh army officers had been purged many had been killed So Stalin wanted to give this army time to recover from these purges to be well trained to be well equipped Of course he realised that at that particular moment he was not ready for war Secondly Russia also calculated on a lengthy war in which the great capitalist force of Germany France and Britain would exhaust each other He thought that the war if war broke out it'd be a long one and this capitalist <-/>capitalist force would exhaust each other and he would finally step in and get spoils from these uh exhausted powers So this Nazi Soviet pact sealed the fate of Poland It sealed the fate of Poland and on September first nineteen thirty-nine on September first nineteen thirty-nine the Germans invaded Poland the Germans invaded Poland And two days later two days later on third September Britain and France declared war on Germany Britain and France declared war on Germany and thus the World the Second World War began So we can see that the German invasion of Poland became the immediate cause of the Second World War It became the immediate cause of the Second World War So we have been looking at those events leading to the Second World War and uh so now the question is what were the causes of the Second World War You <AmE/>guys <O/> the causes of the Second World War I think we can handle that question now What were the origins of the Second World War What brought about the Second World War Can you answer that What is Let us start We have some few minutes Let us start on the politics of the Second World War the politics of the Second World War The interpretation I'll not go into details much <-/>much detail because I have already mentioned them when I was talking about this The interpretation was that this was Hitler's war The interpretation was that Hitler and his Nazis were responsible for the Second World War and their contributions were as follows Their contributions were as follows One the nazi ideology The nazi ideology was inherently expansionist and aggressive The Nazi ideology was inherently expansionist and aggressive You have seen how aggressive they were and I'll not <-_>I'll not<-/> <./>rep repeat that So their expansionist and war-like ideas eventually led to the outbreak of the war Secondly Hitler's foreign policy had two major aims Hitler's foreign policy had two major aims a) to repudiate <-_>to repudiate<-/> the treaty of Versailles to repudiate or to dismantle the treaty of Versailles b) to <./>es <-/>to re-establish Germany's national position in Central Europe to re-establish Germany's national position in Central Europe And Hitler's foreign policy was clearly sketched out His policy was clearly sketched out in his book <foreign_>Mein Kampf<foreign/> which was published in nineteen twenty-five He had pointed out in that book that it was not only it was not enough to call for the revision of the treaty of Versailles Revising the treaty by itself was not enough according to what he had written in that book He had also said that oh Germany was to dismantle the treaty completely get rid of it completely and it was that was the only way in which Germany could hope to regain all the territories that she had lost after the First World War by dismantling the treaty Once it was dismantled then Germany would be in a position to regain all the <./>terr territories she had lost after the First World War
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<$A> Good morning ladies and gentlemen Today we have a visitor who goes by the <_>by the<-/> impossible name of <name/> from Germany and he has decided that he would like to learn a little about African history Then I think he's <-/>he's welcome We don't shy from visitors Agreed 
<$B> Yah
<$A> Very good Right I'm told that you dealt with the question of the fight for independence in North Africa in East Africa in West Africa and that I should concentrate on Southern Africa that's what I was told by Mrs <name/> correct 
<$B> Yes
<$A> Okay We'll take to begin with Portuguese Africa and see with particular reference to Angola and Mozambique The main problem with Portuguese possessions is or was the fate of what to do with the peasants as indeed we have seen when we looked at the colonial policies colonial administration in both Portugal <./>an in both <./>Portug Portuguese Angola as well as Portuguese Mozambique Indeed we saw that throughout the colonial period in Portuguese Africa peasants had been systematically squeezed from their land to the extent as we saw they began to organize against the Portuguese colonialism We saw for example that by late nineteen forties peasants were being forced to grow cotton they were being forced to grow cash crops rather than grow their own food And the effect of that was that both in particularly in Angola we find that peasants were faced by frequent famines And these frequent famines definitely arose from the <-_farms><+_fact> that the peasants were emphasizing the growing of cash crops They were embarking on growing cash crops at the expense of growing their own food Consequently we find that the government accused Africans of being psychologically resistant to regular work i e this seemed to them to confirm the idea that these natives were very very lazy That these natives uh did not uh uh uh uh uh have what we call work ethic And it is with that background that we find that by nineteen sixties the peasants were getting a raw deal And this raw deal led to organize uh this time not what we call passive resistance but this time to organize uh open rebellion against the colonial government For example we find that in January nineteen sixty one Angolans were getting very little uh for their cotton We remember that it is this or these low prices that led them to organize open resistance to the colonial government In January nineteen sixty-one for example peasants decided to take the law into their hands in what has come to be called Maria's War Maria's War January nineteen sixty-one And what they did was uh to they banned cotton seeds they decided to ransack European stores They <./>bou they sunk river barges They decided that uh they would kill cattle and they barricaded <-/>barricaded roads uh particularly in Kwanza as well as <-/>Kwando two areas where uh this <-/>this uh happened And the all these are along the railway line Luanda railway line because <-/>because of that they thought this would in fact be able to uh make the Portuguese government listen It was as a result of the Maria's War that we find in February also nineteen sixty-one MPLA come in into being And it was with the coming of MPLA that we find that the government tried as much as they could to see whether in fact they would be able uh uh to meet the demands of the nationalists For example we find that they released nationalists whom they had arrested during Maria's War or Cotton Cotton War Cotton War 
Unfortunately the or fortunately rather the nationalist leaders decided that they would try and release the nationalist leaders who were arrested and they tried to storm Luanda jail to release uh these nationalists who had been arrested The consequence of that was that this led to white panic The Whites panicked and led to what we call pogrom led to what we call pogrom i e the Whites simply decided to take the law into their hands and killed any African that came uh into their sight And hundreds of Blacks were consequently uh uh killed uh by the Whites as because the Whites uh had literally panicked uh uh because they feared that the Blacks might take the law into their hands and also attack them And the question is why Why would you have the Whites panicking Why would you have uh the Whites take the law into their hands Now you recall what we said that in the forties and fifties many poor and ignorant Portuguese had been immigrating into Angola And these poor ignorant Whites were competing for the same jobs that Africans were also trying to get Indeed we find that they were competing for what we call menial jobs menial jobs And that was because they did not have uh they did not have any education at all which would have qualified them for uh uh the more uh uh lucrative uh uh civil servants jobs or even in the private sector And we find therefore that these Whites were employed believe you me as carpenters as drivers as shop assistants as cleaners and even as prostitutes And therefore uh we find that whereas elsewhere in Africa as we have seen Africans were getting opportunities opened up after the Second World War what we find in Angola is that the clock seemed to be reversed and instead of giving uh uh job opportunities to the Africans their jobs in fact were being taken by these Whites uh from Europe And it is this therefore that led to serious colour bars The only way that the blacks could be kept down at laws by introducing barriers uh uh related to their colour In other words colour bar was used as a weapon to strengthen the hold that these Whites had on uh uh job opportunities on economic opportunities or even uh in educational opportunities What it was these whites were not simply restricted to the towns they were also taking jobs in the rural areas Thus we find that the Black élites lost their place in business as well as in government And these uh jobs were as I have said taken up by literally illiterate Portuguese And the effect of that then is that there was very bitter resentment by the Blacks against the Whites Indeed you find interestingly that many whites lived in what we call twilight areas They lived in twilight areas Literally they lived in slums uh uh like Mathare Valley or <name/> or wherever And they too were also literally uh uh disillusioned by what they found uh uh by the sort of life that they were living in Angola 
Now the explosion occurred particularly in the coffee growing areas uh particularly in the northern part of Angola Coffee prices had been high in nineteen fifties And this had led to coffee speculators coming into Angola uh particularly for <O/> And because of the high prices that uh coffee was catching the Portuguese were anxious to settle in northern part of Angola so that they could share in the piece of the cake i e they wanted also to be able to grow uh cash crops And the effect of that was that this led to more elimination of land This led to more elimination of land And with the elimination of land this meant of course that the Blacks were dispossessed of their land and with dispossession of their land they were left with only one commodity which they could sell and of course that was their labour In other words from being land <-/>land owners they were now turned into uh uh servants But labour was never enough as we saw uh uh and the effect of that is that the Portuguese government embarked on a system of recruited labour that amounted to literally forced labour and this forced labour therefore meant in fact that having lost their land now they were being forced to work in their own land but this time for someone else In short then what we find is that the whites became a privileged colonial élite They became a privileged colonial élite literally living off the colonized people who are as we saw uh uh we are talking about both Angola and Mozambique in the forties They were deprived of education they were deprived of health facilities they were deprived of job mobility they were deprived of economic uh prospects And it is this therefore that sparked uh uh the uh uh workers labourers uh underprivileged to embark on war In northern part of <./>ni of Angola this came in March nineteen sixty-one when workers in a plantation called Primavere I don't know what the Portuguese pronunciation is Primavere Plantation uh asked to be paid their wages These <AmE/>guys had not been paid for a whole six months for a whole six months And when they asked for their pay of course the <-/>the <-/>the white farmers uh refused to listen to them and this therefore led to violent demonstrations by the workers And it is as a result of that that fighting uh uh broke up and this started what we call Liberation War Liberation War or War of Liberation
Indeed with the outbreak of war Portugal found out that she would not she certainly could not uh stand the tide of nationalism And to be able to do this she had to spend a lot of money to try and control this nationalist force In other words she was facing very serious armed struggle very serious armed struggle And this was not in fact confined to Angola alone It was uh uh widespread It was present in Guinea-Bissau where they were <-_>there were<-/> A war preparation broke out at the same time It was also a presence in Mozambique For that reason therefore we find that uh Portugal was forced to send uh Portuguese army to these territories to try and contain this nationalist struggle By nineteen seventies uh for example we find that Portuguese in Africa or the Portuguese army in Africa was as follows In Guinea-Bissau for example uh there was an army of forty thousand men In Angola she was forced to send fifty thousand soldiers and in Mozambique uh she was forced to send roughly another fifty thousand uh soldiers By nineteen seventies also we find by mid nineteen seventies we find that the total army in Portuguese Africa was in excess of roughly around two hundred thousand soldiers two hundred thousand soldiers Equally by mid nineteen seventies the <./>cas the casualties had also uh risen indeed by that by mid seventies uh uh Portuguese government had lost uh about eight thousand soldiers eight thousand soldiers uh who uh had been killed by the nationalist forces Two Portuguese soldiers fought very hard inspired us with you remember by the idea that they were safe back in White civilization in Africa but this did not stop the war having fairly serious consequences for the Portuguese themselves For example we find that the government was spending roughly about forty-five per cent of its budget on the war forty-five per cent of the budget on the war which obviously meant that this had very serious uh repercussions on the economy Indeed we find that this was in fact straining the weak uh Portuguese economy And by the way Portugal is uh as far as Europe is concerned is one of the least developed uh Portugal and Spain uh uh are two of probably the least developed countries in Europe Secondly because of this these casualties that we have mentioned this led to very low moral very low moral amongst the <-/>the <-/>the soldiers Now the effect of that then is that Portugal alone could not she was not in a position to be able to control the uh uh nationalist struggle And it is for that reason that we find that Portugal turned to NATO Portugal turned to NATO for assistance For example we find that as early as nineteen sixty-one as early as nineteen sixty-one Portugal was able to blackmail John Kennedy who was then the US president to stop supporting the nationalist forces You will find that John Kennedy was more sympathetic to nationalist struggle indeed by that time the American government was egging him on the uh uh various colonial powers to grant independence to uh uh their <-/>their territories as part and parcel of fighting the Cold the Cold War which was going on uh at this particular time And the way that they twisted John Kennedy was to tell him man if you do not stop supporting these nationalist forces then we will make sure that American planes do not refuel in uh Azores uh Azores uh uh Islands 
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<$A> You will find that if you look at <-/>at a map when planes are flying from the US they had to come and refuel in Azores Islands before <-/>before they go to Jordan Therefore strategically Azores Islands were very <-/>very important to uh American global strategy and for that reason this was evaluated uh <-/>evaluated uh uh a concession being allowed to have their planes refueled in Azores Islands And equally uh this was uh came at a time you remember when there was trouble in Congo what is today Zaire with again the nationalist forces uh fighting uh amongst themselves with Russia coming in uh this seeming to uh frighten the interests of the Western powers 
And it is for that reason therefore that the Portuguese government knew that they really had a very nice weapon to twist the arms of the American government The effect of that was that Portugal was allowed to divert NATO military equipment uh from Europe to uh the colonies For example they were allowed to use napalm bombs uh to uh <O/> back these African nationalists And it is because of that that we find in nineteen sixty-one sixty-two because of this diversion of NATO military equipment the Portuguese were fairly well armed in comparison with the Africans And in nineteen sixty-one sixty-two we find that twenty thousand uh uh Africans died in Angola Equally arising from that we find that the war was also internationalized The war was also internationalized i e it has ceased to be a local problem and in many respects became an international problem For example we find that because of the cold war the various powers supported different nationalist groups FNLA for example gained support from Zaire Congo as it then it was because at that time Mobutu had become a target of the Americans It gained support also from the USA through of course uh uh uh Mobutu and it also gained support uh from China MPLA on the other hand gained support uh from Zambia and also uh uh from certainly USSR as well as from Tanzania 
However apart from internationalizing the war the Portuguese government also thought perhaps that it ought to embark on other or a new policy to try and make sure that it contained the uh uh it contained the nationalist forces For example in nineteen sixty-three Portugal decided to invite foreign investors decided to invite foreign investors from Britain from Germany from USA from France etcetera Hitherto she was very reluctant to invite foreign investors arguing that this uh ought to be left uh to Portuguese uh uh investors Now by inviting foreign investors she hoped that by so doing she would gain support against the nationalists' forces Equally she hoped that not only would she gain support from the countries where the investors would come from but she hoped also that by having investors come into Angola this would help to create wealth This would generate wealth and this wealth would then be used uh to finance the what we call counter-insurgency counter-insurgency i e she would be able to finance the war against the nationalists <./>Bu and in the fact this what I would call ruse the ruse in fact worked the trick worked Because as soon as these <./>nationalist uh uh as soon as these businessmen European business men were allowed to invest in Angola they took it upon themselves to try and sell to their countries the idea that after all Portugal was not as bad a colonial power as the nationalists had in fact uh uh painted it to be And we find therefore that international support for the Angolan freedom fighters in fact declined So to that extent therefore Portugal had managed to convince the international community that she was not as bad uh uh uh as bad as she was painted as the colonial power Equally the second strategy was apart from calling for investors the second strategy was to try and split up the political parties i e deliberately engineer deliberately engineer divisions within the nationalist forces And this in fact Portugal succeeded in doing For example FNLA split up uh and led in nineteen sixty-five to the formation of UNITA of UNITA under <-/>under uh Savimbi uh This was deliberately uh uh carried by uh Portuguese intelligence forces as far as uh we can tell Equally the Portuguese government apart from splitting FNLA it also encouraged uh competition rivalry between particularly between MPLA and <./>FN FNLA And again this was deliberate to weaken the nationalist forces to ensure that in fact they were not able uh uh to put the Portuguese government at a corner And I would like to suggest therefore that the delay which we find we find that in apart from Namibia and South Africa uh uh Angola and Portugal were the last uh uh territories to gain independence
And I would like to suggest that the reason for <./>sis <-/>for this is twofold one the international support that the Portuguese government was getting support from NATO <-/>NATO countries and secondly the division that had been deliberately engineered by Portuguese intelligence forces However in spite of uh uh this we find that by nineteen sixties by late nineteen sixties by late nineteen sixties Portugal had begun to loosen colonial shackles She had begun to loosen colonial shackles in order to create what they thought would be a middle class what they thought would be a middle class that would in fact resist uh nationalist <./>fo forces as well as nationalist policies Again look at Kenya for example from your Kenyan history you recall the <-/>the way <name/> plan for example was designed to <./>crea <-/>to create oh an African middle class that would be able to support the uh uh uh British government It is a similar situation And this was done for example by and paying attention to agriculture For example the government introduced what you're call <./>produc producer cooperatives producer cooperatives to market uh uh produce obviously therefore make sure that you are assisting uh uh farmers' uh introduction of producer cooperatives
Secondly and unlike uh uh previously there was introduced agricultural extension services agricultural extension services again to be able uh uh to service uh uh the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the uh uh agriculture uh particularly in the rural areas And again the idea here was that you would create a uh uh cohort you would create a cohort of wealthy <-/>wealthy Africans who would be able to uh uh be recruited against socialist <-/>socialist ideas And thirdly the third strategy was to pay attention to education and African education was expanded in order uh uh to ensure again that they were able through gaining education that they would qualify uh to be employed uh in the lower ranks of the civil service Finally again the government decided that in order to be able to reduce the number of White casualties uh in this war they decided that uh they could recruit Africans into the army One of course the Africans would be paid less therefore you would reduce the costs but also you would also ensure that you would reduce the casualties Let these Blacks slaughter one another while you sit back and enjoy the scene And this policy is very similar to <-/>to the US policy in Vietnam where again if you look at the statistics you will find that invariably it is the Black Americans uh who were uh uh probably more in terms of their population during the Vietnam War And again also the NATO tried and contain these the <-/>the these uh uh anti- anti-Portuguese forces They embarked on policy that you are familiar with i e they embarked on villagisation particularly in Eastern Angola they embarked on villagisation particularly in Eastern Angola The idea here was that by putting people in these security villages you would cut them off uh particularly from MPLA which was propagating in Eastern Angola And if you deny uh uh uh MPLA access to the rural population obviously you are denying them African support of various types Indeed they <-/>they also made it clear not only villagisation but they also in fact began to spray crops They would be spraying crops to make sure that the crops died particularly uh using the napalm bombs But even with these attempts there was no way that the Portuguese government was going to succeed uh to control uh the nationalist forces largely because uh Portugal was facing fairly skilled guerrillas fairly skilled guerrillas and these guerrillas particularly in Angola were trained by USSR They were trained by USSR We know in Mozambique they were trained uh by China So you are not dealing uh in contrast to your Mau-Mau where you had uh uh fellows uh and axes and spears in uh uh Angola in Mozambique in Guinea-Bissau you uh uh facing a fairly well trained and sophisticated guerrilla force Faced by that situation events outside Angola uh turned the tide In April nineteen seventy-four largely because of the strained costs by the these nationalist wars in Africa or these guerrilla wars in Africa the soldiers in Portugal were simply fed up with their government And in April nineteen fifty-four a group which called <./>it itself Armed Forces Movement Armed Forces Movement staged a coup and took over uh the government in Portugal itself And the new rulers decided that they would grant independence to its African empire Hitherto you remember that uh the Portuguese rulers leaders were arguing that the <-/>the Angola Mozambique Guinea-Bissau were part and parcel of the uh Portuguese uh uh Portuguese uh uh country uh Now the tide was turned and the Armed Forces Movement was prepared to grant uh independence And indeed this started for example with Guinea-Bissau which was granted independence in September nineteen seventy-four Guinea-Bissau granted independence in September nineteen seventy-four Mozambique got its independence in June nineteen seventy-five and Angola as we shall see gained independence in November nineteen seventy-five 
Now once it was clear that independence was coming there were attempts to try and reconcile particularly UNITA and MPLA as well as FNLA And in January nineteen seventy-five for example Kenyatta attempted your then president attempted to try and reconcile uh the two the three warring political parties And under his chairmanship MPLA FNLA and UNITA agreed that for the sake of independence they would be prepared to share uh power i e that the three parties would form a coalition and share power as they moved into independence But <-/>but the scheme was sabotaged by Zaire obviously acting on behalf of their master the <./>U <-/>the US the USA It was sabotaged by USSR and it was sabotaged by South Africa And indeed so you have Zaire USSR South Africa uh sabotaging the <-/>the <-/>the plan And also mercenaries We will find that all three parties were employing <./>merc mercenaries during the war And of course the mercenaries would sabotage the peace agreement because once there was peace then it this meant that they would not have anyone to employ them And the effect of that is that this led to a foreign supported civil war a foreign supported civil war 
Mobutu for example feared that if MPLA gained power and MPLA was regarded as a communist party was regarded as a communist party <./>Mob Mobutu feared that if MPLA came into power then they would be able to support anti-Mobutu forces and therefore that this uh would in fact uh spell trouble for uh Mobutu himself And for that reason Mobutu supported Holden Roberto who was uh uh the leader of FNLA What Mobutu hoped was that by supporting Holden Roberto uh he would be able to place FNLA into power and FNLA would also would <-/>would be pro Zaire However FNLA was defeated by MPLA and not only that but MPLA in fact uh uh threatened to invade southern Zaire and indeed to overthrow uh uh uh Mobutu himself And it was only Mobutu only survived because he was supported by two NATO countries He was supported by USA and he was supported by France It is only the uh the intervention In fact France intervened twice It was only the intervention of US and the French which managed to save uh Mobutu's neck Now with FNLA being supported by NATO countries MPLA decided to go to the Warsaw Pact decided to go to the Warsaw Pact i e they looked to socialist countries for support certainly for military support and from April nineteen seventy-five we had literally <-_aids><+_aid> uh uh uh uh pouring literally pouring into Ruanda Russia uh East Germany Czechoslovakia you name it they all uh uh decided that they would support MPLA Street fighting started uh in Ruanda and by July nineteen seventy-five MPLA had won control of the capital uh parties Luanda and they decided to expel Whites
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<$A> Good afternoon What's the joke Why the what I said good afternoon You don't respond by laughing do you Uh Anyway what were we saying at uh at ten We said uh I remember we mentioned belief in witchcraft and sorcery and blablabla yeah yeah And we talked about the tradition of bad eye I forgot to ask Is this a <-/>a phenomenon a common phenomenon in all ethnic communities or is it just uh among the Nyanza people It is everywhere The fact that somebody can look at you and food turns into stone in your stomach It is yeah so anyway the <-/>the idea is before I proceed the idea is that traditional systems are usually about the same thing yeah and when we are talking about their effect on human health then you are <./>iman imagining a situation where what you believe in as a society not just as an individual determines the state of health And it's a very tricky uh relationship because you are looking for uh uh uh uh What are you looking for You are looking for determinants Yeah that why is this room dark today Is it my eyes You <AmE/>guys are probably absorbing all the light anyway since you are so boring There's uh a <-/>a <-/>a <-/>a continuum yeah an axis of health And then there is the usual good health bad health and poor health yeah And then whichever way you are looking at it it's still determined by tradition because you are talking about practice based on cultural systems And when you're talking about a cultural system you're talking about habitual behaviour that is uh recurrent in society yeah I believe these are things that you know So uh we have said earlier and I'll say this again all diseases are said to have originally are said to have originally been deeply entrenched or rooted Yeah I don't know if that is good language They are said to have originally been deeply rooted or entrenched in the human social action system in the human social action system And remember we said that social action vis-à-vis health is very crucial because social action determines health and everything that you do is directed at somebody else And that somebody else has to be able to respond to your action And that response sometimes determines uh your health I don't know how but uh if <-/>if it doesn't if it's an emotional response or a physical response or a social response somehow or another it can still make a difference Like <-/>like if it's a physical thing and if you're not thinking of the bad side if <-/>if say you meet somebody at the stadium yeah Who went to watch <ea/>Harambee Stars <-/>Ha you <AmE/>guys are not patriotic uh There was no time The what Moi was there So you couldn't go I thought that was more reason you should go You <AmE/>guys have so many problems he might just solve some of them Why do you always wait even though these days they don't take that route but when they take that route why do you all crane your necks out and then wait For <-/>for what reason To scream at him Don't say that in public uh It might be dangerous What was I saying before then Yeah if <-/>if you get into a <-/>a crowd-behaviour situation and then you say something unpleasant like what this <AmE/>guy was saying that you know uh the president was sitting on the VIP dais and I'd like to scream at him And that time maybe whatever has just scored a goal yeah People are thinking of the football People are having fun they are enjoying themselves and you <-/>you are having personal differences with the president of the republic yeah Somebody will probably punch you out of <-_>out of<-/> He's not being nasty he's just it's just a spontaneous response Not that he likes the president himself but he might just decide that you are disrupting the peace And then if he punches you that's social action which derives from your own action And that punch is going to produce of course an effect on your health how You'll probably lose a tooth or two Yeah or <-/>or <-/>or like if it was in the movies you probably just fall unconscious Yeah you know how they punch you once in the movies and you're dead Yeah so if uh <-/>if it is a situation where your action derives or <-/>or produces counteraction from somebody else then whether there is a traditional value to it or not it still determines your health So either way you look at uh modernity as an intrusion on <-/>on uh health behaviour because modernity states that this person is not supposed to have punched you and that he's just supposed to have told you this and this and this courtesy yeah And then uh traditionally it is the opposite People sort out their differences through war and do all sorts of uh good or bad things which they consider to be uh supported by tradition uh traditional perception or explanation of sickness Has somebody ever owed you money for a very long time and then he suddenly calls you out of nowhere and he tells you he wants to pay you How does it feel Like for seven months or eight months or a year uh You don't believe it uh You probably refuse to believe that <AmE/>guy because you've been chasing him for a year and he's he hasn't paid you But when when such a feeling engulfs you then you project it onto other people and that's why I'm so happy today Anyway uh traditional perception or explanation of sickness is usually very mechanical Put that in capital if you don't mind and look for your own explanations uh is usually very mechanical If you remember <name/> that <AmE/>guy of the solidarities you know what mechanical solidarity is all about yeah with the said mechanical explanations And I'm sure you're aware of that Because of this therefore basic illnesses easily kill traditionally oriented people who dismiss those illnesses with the said mechanical explanations And please add there that traditionally oriented people not only live in the rural areas Even those who are thoroughly urban or modern like you can stay traditionally oriented and therefore the basic diseases that would affect anybody and somebody would dash to hospital and get quick medical attention and get out you dismiss it as just one of those things that you were told by your mother or father that will happen at such a time because of this and this and this and therefore you don't give it uh the attention it deserves Modern medicine is therefore relegated by uh uh that traditional orientation The belief system in a traditional make-up approach to <./>d <-/>to <-/>to <-/>to disease yeah affects it relegates modern medicine uh to <-/>to the dustbin because of that Lay beliefs and theories l a y lay lay from layman Welcome home Lay beliefs and theories about points of causation yeah like an origin of a disease yeah points of causation lay beliefs and theories about points of causation of various illnesses usually determine health behaviour usually determine health behaviour at a quantifiable rate of about eighty-eight per cent This is from research that has been done by people At a quantifiable rate of about eighty-eight per cent amongst traditionally oriented persons So we are saying that modern medicine is only given <./>mo medical theory modern medical theory is only given about twelve per cent by <-/>by the people we are talking about And therefore it is up to you as a student or as the <-/>the researcher to decide who is the <./>medica the <-/>the traditionally oriented person What kind of a person is that Stop holding yourself like this I'm sure you don't have those in your traditions But we are told it's bad Yeah the next thing you know is somebody will drop dead yeah Who are <-_>who are<-/> traditionally oriented persons What's wrong with them What's right with them uh Come on Now you cough who are these people who You <AmE/>guys suffer from some disease uh Is it like this in all the other classes or is it just mine Really I'm that boring I shall leave you very fast Uh uh It is for such a reason therefore It is for the said reason what we just uh mentioned that the spread of STDs Sexually Transmitted Diseases including HIV it is for such a reason that the spread of STDs including HIV What is HIV in full Uh It's something to do with AIDS uh It is for such a reason that the spread of STDs including HIV is difficult to inhibit in most communities in the rural areas in most communities in the rural areas and in most communities in the rural areas and amongst those of us who maintain strong traditional bias and amongst those of us who maintain strong traditional bias And that's why I was asking you who traditionally oriented persons are but since you are not interested <O/> Yeah and especially among uh the coast <-/>coast that among the Digo and the Luo and the Luo from Nyanza Yeah they <-/>they have a that problem You know what we are saying if you're <-/>you're talking about traditional practice and <-/>and uh uh <-/>and <-/>and <-/>and belief then you imagine uh those death rites that the Luos have to perform yeah whether you you like it or not If you don't do it then the whole family gets wiped out by some strange hand or fate You know that and it happens actually it's not a lie yeah but a Believe me it does yeah If <-/>if <-/>if say like your <-/>your <-/>your father dies and your mother say she's such a strong Christian she doesn't want to hear those things to do with that and that yeah uh which ones like having to spend the night with a body on <-/>on <-/>on uh on the same bed yeah to <-/>to <-/>to say that final farewell yeah And <-/>and <-/>And eventually uh the next day after immediately after burial the day after or is it two days after there's a certain limit yeah and <-/>and within that period she has to have been inherited sexually not just uh <-/>signi uh what is it called not just uh symbolically yeah somebody has to <-/>to <-/>to <-/>to prove to people to the villagers that uh she's actually accepted to be inherited yeah And <-/>and like the other day was it in the Weekly Review or one of these weekly magazines but this was in Ukambani surprisingly There's uh a very learned lady who I shall not mention she actually went public with this She <-/>she was taking her husband home and they're very strong Christians the husband and her and the family And uh there was a crisis when they reached there because things were going on slowly You know how Christians take their time Yeah and then there was this <AmE/>guy who's been I think he's a charcoal dealer or something and <-/>and he's he was looking very scruffy The Standard <AmE/>guy drew a cartoon of him in the People Magazine And this <AmE/>guy interrupted the ceremony and said that this uh the <-/>the <-/>the Christians are taking too long he wants to finish his job and go away And and the wife <-/>the <-_>the wife<-/> of the deceased apparently asked what job does he have to do here and then somebody whispered and told her that this is the <AmE/>guy who is supposed to take over You know like finish and before the husband was <-/>was lowered into the grave she went and locked herself in the car and it was so bloody hot she was sweating and she fainted inside the car In fact that's why it made the news otherwise it wouldn't have because it's an ordinary thing yeah But because she went and because of the worry and anxiety yeah that this <AmE/>guy she's been seeing helping around with the chores or whatever they are suddenly says they are wasting his time he wants to go away you know is uh She <-/>she got a bit too worried and then she fainted and then luckily for her she was taken to I think Machakos Medical whatever uh the district hospital and she made it back to Nairobi without having to fulfil uh those things I didn't know the Kambas do them as well I <-/>I <-/>I just learned yeah they do No then there must have been some Luo blood in one of them 
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<$A> Traditional practices and beliefs traditional practices or practice if you want and belief thus leads not only to <-_behavourial><+_behavioural> apathy that is towards the uh uh medical embetterment yeah <-_behavourial><+_behavioural> apathy but also to defaults in the search for early treatment of any disease or ailment It creates <-_behavourial><+_behavioural> apathy People don't bother yeah Because of traditional belief and and practice a certain apathy is <-/>is uh cultivated amongst the population because they know that blablabla And also to default yeah like somebody defaulting from a loan not paying to default in the early search in the search for early treatment of any ailment or any disease Yeah yeah I hope you <-/>you get that clear By <-/>by this apathy we <-/>we are saying that uh in your behaviour because of tradition your behaviour gets directed at uh uh uh at satisfying the cultural goals of your community Yeah and I believe we all strive to do that You want to please your father You want to please your grandfather if he's still alive by not doing things which they don't expect But having been through the university maybe you know that what you are doing is not very healthy like <-/>like yeah <./>wha what which unhealthy traditional practice do you know Apart from inheriting wives <-/>Huh female circumcision actually that's very deadly uh does it still <-_>does it still<-/> prevail 
<$All> Yes 
<$A> How do <-_>how do<-/> the mothers allow I mean at this in this age and times but uh I understand anyway one of the best reasons they've always given it is supposed to heighten pleasure yeah And then keep <./>yo because for the men they they've always given those good reasons It's biblically sanctioned and it's got things to do with your health and you stay clean But for the women what does it do Oh my god Yeah so uh uh there's a star I put here I need to remind you about uh yes leprosy Don't <-/>don't write this please I forbid you from writing leprosy What did we say about leprosy I mentioned something to do with leprosy last week or the other week yeah yeah uh It is <-/>it's socially stigmatizing and therefore what Can you remember if you may The person is isolated But that is after he starts losing limbs yeah but when you <-_>when you<-/> suffer from leprosy at the beginning you know in your head that leprosy <./>i creates uh this labelling Yeah it's <-/>it's a stigmatizing disease Therefore what do you do Expose yourself Isolate yourself Yeah and what <-/>what is the effect of that on your health Actually what did I say if it matters to you Are you bothered What did I say uh Somebody was asking me this morning about that party I'm still going to throw it yeah so you <AmE/>guys don't give up The one I promised at the end of the year the end of this semester Yeah I'll <-/>I'll invite all of you whom those who want to come If you don't want to come you can go to hell yeah But uh those who want to come I'll invite you and <-/>and a few who are ready to help will help me with the cooking and then we can all eat and be merry yeah But first let's finish this What did I say about leprosy Yeah what I <-/>what I'm referring to the reason I put a star here is when I talk about uh uh what I just said uh uh uh about defaulting in <-/>in the search for treatment leprosy comes to mind because the problem with leprosy and the only reason that is the where the medics have found it so hard to take care of leprosy is because once people realize that they suffer from that limb-snatching disease they disappear And instead of seeking medical attention or telling people what their problem is so they can be referred to the various medical facilities that exist or some money can be raised for them instead people withdraw and get isolated as she says And you <-/>you <-/>you begin to suffer until it is at an <./>ad whatever an advanced stage Then you expose yourself because you can't take the suffering anymore but then it's too late You already lost your fingers or your <-/>your <-/>your <-/>your toes or whatever they are So in the morning when I told you about socially stigmatising diseases uh I don't know if I mentioned I think I mentioned leprosy The reason for that I'm listing those things like cholera TB uh uh all those things is because when <-/>when you live in a society where respect means a lot to anybody yeah and <-/>and that is true in almost all societies that you want to carry yourself around like even if you are poor you want to pretend that you're okay and you had your last meal about an hour ago yeah But if that were not to be the case you <-/>you <-/>you <-/>you try and portray a situation where your stomach is rumbling but you don't want to show people that you're not <./>ha you're not you've not eaten Because they'll probably traditionally they'll probably dismiss you as a lazy person because you can till the land and get the maize out or you can go and harvest the maize and roast it for yourself So they'll probably just get rid of you and say that's mentally not physically They'll probably just say uh <-/>uh <-/>uh <-/>uh Shikoko is not able to do these things so just forget about him yeah But it's not because he likes it like that it's because at that particular moment maybe he's a village idler yeah who just hangs about And uh eventually he <-/>he happens to chance by your house at about quarter to one yeah And uh every day he goes to a different house and he has so many stories to tell And being able to afford food you probably just invite him for lunch And then people the <-/>the community gets to learn yeah because of <foreign/>Gemeinschaft and those mechanical <./>sodalities solidarities that we're talking about You you're <-/>you're operating in a situation where almost everybody knows the other So if <-/>if you suffer from a disease they'll know If you are healthy they'll know If you are thin they'll know why you are thin even before you know why yeah And <-/>and then you're told all sorts of theories yeah lay <-/>lay based on <-/>on the layman's perspective lay theories about your own health So what <-/>what we are driving at here in a nutshell is the fact that society defines the health status for an individual traditionally yeah And they they're able to say at any one time that you know uh uh that foolish man called Ken he has a problem but he doesn't know yeah His stomach keeps protruding out by the day and he thinks you know it's like this like this Society explains it for you And then on the street you hear them giggling about it and and laughing about it with baritones and all that And they say that you know this <AmE/>guy has got this problem You <-/>you don't know that you have that problem Yeah so <-/>so the stigmatization does not start at that stage but because of that traditional outlay the approach we give to people's health yeah like the bible says we <-/>we look at the speck in other people's eyes before we see the log in our own yeah After that then the individual begins to define his own <-_>his own<-/> health status and <-/>and that's the time you begin to think What's the problem with me actually Then you start a soul-searching process and then you look for medical facilities if they exist If they don't you look for traditional explanations and you go to an old man the sages of the community and you ask them what is wrong with you as if you don't know what's wrong with you yeah And that's the role that tradition plays and that's why somebody says eighty-eight per cent of our health uh health activity and health status and health-related behaviour is determined by tradition <ea/>Maswali Questions We've talked too much about tradition Move on to something else But since I'm being paid for <O_><O/> yeah That's why I like you <AmE/>guys You never have any problem When the exams come you all get seventy and over per cent and and life goes on and you get out you get jobs so you come up and you get married and you die So uh uh uh uh uh there's a question I've written down somewhere which I wanted you to think about <-/>Oh no I left it on the other yeah It should be here By the way did have you asked yourself uh this is just a side-show have you asked yourself why I think we mentioned this things like raw beef and unboiled milk or untreated water or <ea/>mutura all those things that we mentioned the other time when we're talking about health beliefs Have you ever asked yourself why they don't affect those who eat them and if you try then you diarrhoea You don't 
<$B> Yes 
<$A> Sorry I mean then you are among the category who <-/>who eats them But if <-/>if <-/>if <-/>if <-/>if <-/>if <-/>if I went and ate them yeah or I <-/>I mean then there <-/>there are people who are not used to those things maybe you are I don't know but if you know it's <-/>it's traditional when <-/>when they are <-_>when they are<-/> slaughtering uh uh lamb or <-/>or a cow or whatever then the <ea/>wazees are supposed to taste the <ea/>matumbo They take a bit of the liver as raw as it is and swallow it And they take a bit of uh the <ea/>kitabu that part that opens out like a book yeah I don't know what's it called And they swallow it And then they drink some of the blood and then whatever yeah It's supposed to bless the <-/>the <-/>the animal before you eat it yeah But if you went from Nairobi through you you've been through the university for four years then you finally go and this goat is being slaughtered for you Then you decide to taste as well You probably end up not eating that goat yeah For what reason It's not that you're not used to it And it's not that the man is stronger than you Why Thank you it's <-/>it's just the approach You know there's nothing wrong with drinking unboiled milk and there's nothing wrong with eating raw beef yeah Maybe there is I don't know but Mad-cow disease Those things don't exist That is <ea/>kazumba This is but have you <-_>have you<-/> ever seen a mad cow You have Where <-/>where what was the origin of <-/>of that disease actually Talking about people's health I did notice the response the British gave uh to that thing yeah Everybody shied away and McDonald's was losing business like crazy apart from the chicken burgers which they make Everybody stopped eating beef yeah that that's Where did that idea come from Of course there was no cow that went mad Do you remember how it started I don't myself That's why I'm asking you For once I don't have an answer to my own question like I always do How did it start <O_><O/> It was a virus What kind of virus No no <-/>no <-/>no I mean we hardly have any brains to destroy They should have sent it to wherever But anyway uh by way of summary on those traditions and health belief and whatever whatever uh Please remember uh and I think we've said this before that uh social and economic class usually determines traditional behaviour Yeah if <-/>if you're a very rich person or if you live if you happen to belong to very uh uh uh high high social class yeah whatever then usually your traditional uh uh bias or traditional slant is reduced you know that yeah You <./>tr you tend to ignore a lot of those things But if <-/>if you are poor like me and you have many problems yeah then you probably go back to your home and <-/>and try and start from there and find out what the problem is as you come back into Nairobi where life is so difficult yeah So social class and economic uh class both work together yeah to create traditional bias That bias determines health behaviour And that health behaviour determines the health status of either an individual or a community I think I'm done with you You <AmE/>guys are so boring yeah if you don't have any questions yeah 
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<$A> Last time we did our test isn't it uh You'll get them on Thursday uh You get the results back on Thursday Today let's continue with the expansions isn't it 
<$B> yes 
<$A> right and uh I must have given you an exercise for your homework right <$B>no 
<$A> I did not to expand some symbolic statement statements <O/> seems never did it <$C> I forgot
<$A> You forgot It's terrible Okay Now today let's continue with expansions all right But today we want to look at uh symbolic oppositions which are overlapping quantifiers uh Okay so for instance okay Let's have that symbolic statement right okay and further for purposes let's limit our viable base also the discourse the universe of discourse to two things namely a and b okay So in our universe we have two things a and b okay Now these statements would mean that everything is let's take h to b happier Everything is happy everything in relation to anything else is happy isn't it okay which technically would be more <O/> therefore That a is happy to a isn't it and a is happy to b right one which have a combination and b is happy to a all right and the last combination is b is happy to itself isn't it Okay In other words in a two dimensional universe so to speak that is in a universe where we have two entities a and b all right than there are four possible combinations okay is a to a - a to b - b to a and last thing b to b okay or more simply more accurately All right if you are to be systematic all right we can partly <./>dis Right We can first expand in relation to the first quantifier the x-quantifier right the first quantifier which is x right We can expand in relation to that quantifier first right And we are also still limiting our universe to two things right namely a b When we expand in relation to the universal quantifier x then what would we have isn't it That is in case where we expand in relation to the first quantifier x okay x We have a there and the b there seems we only have those two entities in our world in our universe so to speak And then secondly we can call back the first step and then secondly back we can go and now and expand it in relation to the second quantifier the y uh And there we have it as a is happy to a isn't it and h to b okay in other words And on the other end of it we have this okay So in other words it amounts to the same thing uh but it's good always to have those steps in mind all right Assuming we have the symbolic statement with three quantifiers those steps would still be very useful okay Another example uh let's have uh the symbolic statement This time let's introduce an existential quantifier okay Let's expand that again uh Again limiting our uh universe of discourse to two entities right just a and b right So here again let's do it step by step The first step let's <O/> in relation to the first quantifier right the universal x quantifier okay And what would we have We have statements okay all right And then our next step now is to expand it further in relation to the existential or the particular quantifier right limiting Bearing in mind that we are limiting it to just two things a and b So in our second step therefore What would we have We have <-/haa> and then or this time isn't it 'cause it's an existential quantifier or <-/hab> isn't it the other side we get it <-/hba> and then or <-/hb> There we are isn't it We come again all right uh uh right That's our statement isn't it okay And take note that in that statement now we have two different quantifiers isn't it universal and existential And take note of what we say to us when expanding using a universal quantifier which symbol do you use which symbol 
<$D> conjunction
<$A> conjunction now uh the y it is the existential quantifier which symbol do you use <$D> disjunction
<$A> disjunction right Now our first step in our step take note to get expanding these are the <O/> in relation to the universal quantifier isn't it uh And there we are saying uh we have so we raise universal quantifier and change predicate x to a and b take note we use the conjunction saying it is the universal quantifier in which we are expanding right Now in our second step now we are expanding in relation to the existential quantifier isn't it which means that or the <-/>the symbol we use therefore is the disjunction right And here we are saying that h to either ba or to bb <O/> we are doing two things isn't it okay And the second side we also say that it could either be a or it could be b <O/> Alternatively assuming we have it Let's interplay the quantifiers right assume we have this symbolic expression right have now that symbolic expression and we want to expand it uh So we expand it first in relation to the existential quantifier isn't it as opposed to the other one right rather we expand it first saying it's the universal quantifier which was the first <-/>first one So here first step What do we have hax and then or or right or hbx okay the universe we are limiting the universe to two things uh a and b And in our next step now we have to expand it in relation now to the universal quantifier So how would we have it now We have our haa isn't it and hab okay or hba and hbb uh So take note the way it differs second example Do I need to come again or it's you to come now okay let's look at this <-/>this uh Yes let's have that one Who wants to give that a try Who wants a try that yes And as you do it explain it to them uh so that they follow you 
<$E> The first step now we want to do away with this one since our universe of discourse is limited to two elements 
<$A> yes uh 
<$E> so this <-/>this one is an existential statement which I have where a a is happy with y or 
<$A> yes or 
<$E> yeah or b is happy with y I mean that b is happy with y
<$A> yes <O/> think you for is it 
<$E> yeah
<$A> yes or is it our thinking for you 
<$E> Now the second step is to do with the other quantifier which is still a existential quantifier For this reason alone we shall have to expand on this we have it first done the first step 
<$A> Therefore we shall have ha is happy with a or a is happy with b since <O/> <O/> existential and no matter <O/> <O/> this one which means that this one in bracket security reasons yes it seems to be secure [
<$E> and then we have b is happy with a all right b is happy with itself
<$A> right isn't it okay all right So take note he <-_say><+_says> that we parenthesise these uh as he <-_say><+_says> correctly for security reasons right Although we know that in our way since we are sent to give you the same isn't it okay Even if you omitted there is no logical difference okay just as much as I see the first example which I gave we were dealing with all of the conjunctions isn't it and possibly that's why I never put the parentheses okay The parentheses become very important when the symbols are different but there's no harm even in including them when we're using the same okay uh Let's look at one more or two more uh All right there we are Let's expand that <O/> somehow different in that it has a negation sign now isn't it okay But take note the negation sign tells us it is not the case it negates everything that follows isn't it okay So in a way we can just expand and then thereafter we negate whatever we have expanded all right So let's expand that for the time being ignore the negation sign And this one is the first one isn't it So again let's limit things in our universe right to a and b So first step we have it as this a and this b isn't it okay We're limiting our universal discourses two things right on this valuable x and on this a or b okay Then second step right we expand now in relation to other universal quantifier y so that in relation to a and <O/> universal quantifier that in relation to b and then as you brought it to attention for security purposes right parenthesise it The other side also we have b in relation to a and b in relation to b okay But take note that symbolic expression is negated So therefore what we do We negate the expansion isn't it And how we negate the expansion and that therefore becomes the expansion of that symbolic statement right Now take note that would be different isn't it we don't <O/> it uh it would be different isn't it What's the difference What would be the difference between this statement and the previous one or this expansion uh and the previous one The difference would be yes Yes we have its only base which is negated right and not the second <?/>major right But in that move the core statement is negated all right uh Let's look at this other one uh okay let's have that symbolic expression First step who wants to try that <O/> try it to myself or we go ahead okay Let's limit it to two universe discourse right So first let's expand it in relation to the first existential quantifier So what we have uh sorry ha and then and or or okay Have I forgotten something What have I forgotten the y uh Then our second step to expand in relation to the second existential quantifier So what we have ha in relation to a itself or ha in relation to b all right or hb in relation to a or b in relation to itself isn't it Am I clear all right yes all right uh Lastly I want one of you to do this before we move on yes who'll do that Let's be a bit gender sensitive now uh two <O/> here so we have the two we want you to succeed in your in your desire uh 
<$F> okay the first step uh sorry so excited to do that <O/> 
<$A> right the universal 
<$F> so I will have uh you see the a and 
<$A> yeah 
<$F> then because it's universal uh because it's the uh expanding to the universal uh dimension with the second step
<$A> yeah 
<$F> uh we consider it the extension so
<$A> yeah so the a 
<$F> we call it the 
<$A> right 
<$F> then we we call it the existential 
<$A> right isn't it okay right uh uh Take down this right okay During your own free time right I tell you to do those four all right And here of course again limit your universal discourse to two entities right a and b yes 
<$?> expand 
<$A> sorry 
<$A> yes you are saying the same thing isn't it By the rule isn't it right 'cause by the rule we know that this and this are the same right It negates that and change the conjunction to a disjunction So you end up with that same because the <O/> is an equivalence rule isn't it We are saying from this you can do this and the vice versus way okay is possible all right Now the question to ask now is why the expansion You know the expansions are important especially when it comes to proving invalidity okay of symbolic arguments right something very cardinal In other words we want to say within predicate logic right the predicate logic right if and when you are given uh an argument and you are asked or required to prove its invalidity then the very first step which you must do is expand the argument okay 
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<$A> So we'd like to continue What I'd like to do today is that if possible we wind up and then uh so you can use <-_>you can use<-/> tomorrow's hour to prepare for uh <-/>for our test And uh so <-/>so we have enough questions uh <./>The There are <-_>There are<-/> eleven questions to choose from So that should not be a problem Uh No in the <-_>in the<-/> main exam Uh and in the I mean in the CAT we agreed that there are going to be twenty isn't it Yeah so uh uh there'll be twenty So if you had to do the eleven that would be good enough I'll choose four I'll choose four from those ones So <-/>So we were looking at uh polar oppositions uh We looked at polar oppositions I think we were through with that one Where did we end Uh Speaker related Oh okay <-/>okay <-/>okay So we didn't finish So we have been looking at these uh oppositions for example we are trying to look at uh a logical way in which we can characterise uh semantic relations or the semantic the uh uh relations within the a <-/>a sentence so that we can be able to deduce meaning We are trying to find out for example how do speakers uh uh uh characterise the meanings of sentences How are they able to interpret sentences Now we know that uh this is something that is learned by the speaker And if the speaker learns to distinguish the meanings not only of <./>o <-/>of words but also of sentences then we also know that uh there is some uh logical basis upon which we can explain it So the patterns of the <./>o The nature of semantic oppositions that we are trying to characterise is to enable us to find a logical basis to explain the semantic meanings of sentences Now the question is Is it possible for us to work out a theory of semantics which logically and uh conclusively explains the semantic meanings of sentences Now we find that the theory that we have been looking at is what is referred to as componential analysis And that componential analysis tries to for example reduce the meanings of sentences the meanings of words into features and that these features as we said are binary That uh the presence of one feature necessarily excludes the other Now this is uh a way of uh analysing for example meaning in the same way as uh we analyse the contrastiveness of sounds in language But for us to be able to understand the relations between sounds in language and the manner in which speakers distinguish sounds from one another it is necessary for us to identify features which we can use for example to uh characterise such distinctions So the features that we use in phonology for example are the distinctive features of sounds and uh we can use the same methodology to characterise semantic distinctiveness or semantic contrasts by means of these features and the model that allows us to do that is what we are referring to as componential analysis Now we were looking at polar oppositions and we said that uh when we look at uh these kinds of oppositions for example of the type old and young rich and poor uh <./>w we can see that they are more less they are not fixed They can be characterised on the point of view of a scale that uh we for example start from a particular point and from there we can go progressively towards one end that is uh different for example uh categorisations of uh rich and then on the other extreme you can go towards different <./>character uh <./>carac categorisations of poor and so on But we also noted that uh it is not possible for us to fix a norm which is uh which is true for all cases of rich or poor It is not possible for us to do that because different people depending on their for example cultural or social experiences will have different <./>perce uh perceptions of what constitutes rich or poor Now for this reason therefore we said that the norm keeps on changing depending on the person Now if the norm keeps on changing And that the norm is what enables the speaker to make a judgement with respect to meaning The question is how does he therefore uh conceptualise or how does he understand what is meant by rich or poor when he comes across it in a particular sentence Now uh it is for this reason that we said that uh different speakers may have different ways of uh understanding For example if we were to say that so and so is rich and then we ask somebody how much wealth does this particular person have we find that to different people the amount of wealth that the person have <./>ha uh uh has that will enable him to be characterised as being rich may differ So for example to some people it may be somebody who has got so much money to others uh money including so many other assets and so on and so forth We also said that in the case of uh age we can talk about uh When we talk of young and old that uh so and so is young we'll have uh different uh uh uh perceptions to different people and the reason is that uh when we are referring to a particular kind of situation for example an athlete When we say so and so is a young athlete then we can uh the kind of uh imagination that we can uh have with respect to this particular person would be that uh this is probably somebody who is in his uh uh uh early uh uh uh uh for example from his uh uh from uh the <-/>the age is such as uh eighteen maybe to twenty-five and so on and so forth But when we talk we <-/>we use the same kind of uh uh adjective with respect to the <./>wo a word such as president or a word uh such as archbishop Then we find that uh the perception that we get of a young president or a young archbishop would uh give us the picture of somebody much older Now the reason that uh a young athlete will be conceptualised as somebody much younger than a young president is simply that uh our everyday experiences show that uh athletes are much more youthful persons than presidents and since uh presidents are generally in uh <-/>in office during the later years of uh their lives then a young president would probably be <-/>be somebody who is in the age between forty and fifty or <-/>or uh sixty and so on and so forth So it is this therefore that tells us that uh it is not possible with polar relations to fix a norm from which we can constantly relate the other uh uh uh positions within the particular relation that if we want to relate the different positions they will differ depending for example on the speaker depending also on the situation And this is what determines the manner in which we interpret these situations So we <./>s <-/>we stopped at the sentence Some polar oppositions are not only object-related but also speaker-related isn't it Yeah so we can continue from there and uh wind up with this one 
So next we look at uh relative oppositions relative oppositions Now this is another type of uh binary opposition and uh it involves uh a contrast in direction For example if we look at uh uh terms such as up and down or uh above below uh before and after and so on and so forth All these are contrast <-_>feature<+_>features used in English to indicate for example uh uh a relation which uh involves a direction so that when we say up or down really we are referring to up in relation to a specific kind of norm or down in relation to a specific kind of norm Now <./>the these contrasts therefore are also uh uh binary and that uh we can the <-/>the fact that we have got a norm uh from which we make a relation of what constitutes up or what constitutes down uh also shows that uh we can use them for example as uh binary contrasts Now as we have said uh these terms can also not be used as absolute kind of representations of uh what constitutes up or down simply because of the fact that as we have said we have to have a certain norm from which we relate or from which we indicate what <./>conf what constitutes uh what is uh uh up or down and uh uh or what is above or below and so on And that uh it is the norm that we <-/>we fix uh that uh will enable us for example to be able to <-/>to assess or to fix what constitutes up and what constitutes down or what constitutes uh left or what constitutes right Now some of these relations can also be used for example to relate entities for example uh which are in a uh <-_>in a<-/> uh uh <-_>in a<-/> relation of uh for example uh a relation by virtue of marriage or a relation by virtue of birth and so on and so forth So that when we say that John is the parent of or John is the father of John uh John is the father of Joseph we are also implying something else that uh Joseph is the child of and that uh this kind of uh these kinds of relations therefore not only exist by virtue of the fact that we can make one statement but also that whenever we make a particular statement we are also implying uh the <-/>the existence of the other that when we say that John is the father of Joseph we are also implying and that is what the <-/>the speaker and also the listener come to understand that if John is the father of Joseph then Joseph is the child of and that that is a kind of necessary uh uh <-/>necessary relation between the two persons Now this is also similar when we talk about uh Adam is the husband of Eve But uh when we use this kind of statement we are also implying that uh Eve is also is the wife of Adam and so on and so forth So the question is since the two sentences are synonymous in terms of meaning how do we represent them that if we say Adam is the husband of Eve and Eve is the wife of the two sentences would be <./>understa I mean would be understood to mean the same thing by this by <-/>by the listener How do we then <./>res uh represent the two meanings since uh uh especially because of the fact that we are dealing with uh two different kinds of syntactic uh <-/>syntactic structures Now we have considered for example when we were looking at uh synonymy that uh we may be dealing with uh different words but which mean the same thing Now in this case we are dealing with two different uh uh sentences syntactically but which mean the same thing uh semantically that is to the speaker these two sentences would be assumed to refer to the same thing Now because of this therefore we find that it is necessary for us to interpret as the I mean to interpret the syntactic order of the words in the sentence as really meaning the same thing and that uh in order to represent this kind of uh this kind of uh representation then we need to use for example a feature for example the <-/>the semantic feature that would uh want to use uh parent uh which in this case covers both father and mother and that when we say that John is the parent <-_>is a parent is the parent of Joseph we're also saying that uh Joseph is also necessarily a son uh uh uh of John and so on And in this case we need to use a feature what which can be able to represent these two relations because of the fact that they are uh uh they represent the same meaning So to do this we can use this with the arrow and that uh it uh for example and that we can use this uh uh uh this feature as uh that is the feature uh uh is uh parent and that parent can be used either way uh because the important uh uh thing that we want to show here is that uh we are using features contrastively and therefore in order to use features contrastively it has to be uh uh possible for us to use <./>th one and the same feature but uh that we can interpret it uh <-/>in uh <-/>in either of two ways That is to mean that uh either John is the parent of or Joseph is the child of Then we need to use to devise features which we can use uh binarily that uh with one sign this feature will tell us one particular information and that when we change the sign then it will also tell us the opposite information because of the fact that uh uh I mean because of the existence of the synonymy in these kinds of uh sentences 
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<$A> Okay we want to move on to the next topic and that is uh monopoly Now monopoly just like uh perfect competition is uh a market structure <-/>is <-/>a <-/>market structure which is only in theory It's only in theory Pure monopoly refers to a market structure in which there is only one supplier of a commodity for which there is no close substitute Pure monopoly we are saying is a market structure in which there is only one supplier of a commodity for which there is uh no close substitute
Under A Barriers to entry That means that you cannot just enter this market Now barriers to entry and that is perhaps where we only have one uh supplier In this market structure we have uh many buyers okay The people who buy it So the buyers are many but the supplier of the product is just one as we said Now because uh we have no close substitutes for this product it means that if the price of the commodity increases okay if the price of the commodity increases then you would not observe that is there will be no significant increase in the price in <-/>in the demand there will be no significant increase in the demand for any other product okay We are saying that because there are no close substitutes to the commodity under this market structure If the price increases for this product there will be no significant increase in the demand for any other product because uh there will be no shifting you know You cannot shift from this product to another because it doesn't have uh close substitutes Now although pure monopoly is only in theory there are situations when firms we are saying that uh monopoly is just in theory but there are cases where many firms or countries would come together and form a collusion over prices or production levels over prices or production levels and in this way act as a monopolist In this way they will act as monopolists That is you have uh many firms coming together or many countries coming together to collude or to act in collusion over prices and uh sometimes on production levels And in that way you see they will act like a monopolist For example the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries The Organisation of uh Petroleum Exporting Countries These are countries which produce and export oil So they have come together to form what we call uh a cartel So you see in that way even if uh there are many countries producing an exporting oil when they come together like that they can sometimes restrict the production level sometimes they can raise the price and in that way they will be acting like a monopolist So you see as much as you may not only have one country doing that even if there are many if they come together they can form what uh something similar to monopoly as a market structure Now these uh OPEC the <-/>the <-/>the oil uh Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries sometimes in the early nineteen seventies they came together and uh reduced the oil production on the world market and the price of oil increased so much that there was inflation all over the world okay Because of what they did they restricted the oil production and therefore the supply on the world market was lower And uh in that way the price increased And the impact was to cause inflation because oil is used in many other sectors So when the price increased for oil many other products will be affected And of course prices tend to move in the same direction 
Next let's look at courses of uh monopoly power Courses Causes of monopoly power 
Now the first cause of monopoly power is ownership of strategic raw materials ownership of strategic raw materials or exclusive knowledge of production processes or exclusive knowledge of production processes So sometimes a firm may act as a monopolist because it is the only firm which owns a particular raw material or which has exclusive knowledge of production of a particular item And then it <./>i <./>i <-/>it will have a monopoly power For example during the Gulf War the <-/>the <-/>the Iraqi uh government thought that there is no enemy who knew about the Scud missile because this is a missile which will be sent from far and is very accurate in uh hitting that the target So the Scud missile the Iraqi people thought there were the only ones who knew about it its use and that you don't have to be near the enemy So they can send it from far On the other hand the allied forces the Americans had uh the Patriot The Patriot is uh an anti-missile missile So that means it will intercept the Scud missile But that you know it will only be effective if it does soar before reaching the target So it has to be somewhere in the middle <./>An and that means that uh the Patriot has to be sent just immediately the Scud missile has been sent so that they meet somewhere in the middle where <./>no <./>no nothing will be destroyed It won't hit the enemy So the Patriot which is an anti-missile missile the Iraq people didn't know about it So you see they knew if the enemy doesn't know about the Scud missile they will make it you know They wouldn't have to be close to <-/>to <-/>to <-/>to <-/>to fight So you can do it from far But the Patriot can also intercept it before it hits the target So uh uh then it is because of the war the Gulf War that now you see countries came to know about the two Before that then nobody knew about it So it is a strategic information which you have to keep until uh when need arises So it will be an example okay of a strategic uh uh knowledge okay some exclusive knowledge about uh production of these two uh missiles So ownership of strategic raw materials and the exclusive knowledge about production processes can be a form of a monopoly power okay You become the only one 
And then the other form of monopoly power Number two is uh the case of copyrights and uh patents 
Now what are patents Patents would uh give uh the only production rights the only production rights to the person who has invented a particular product for a given time period Now so <-/>so what does is it gives you the <-/>the right to be the only producer because of the research you've done because of the investments you have made into coming up with that particular product So because you've done so much in terms of research you've spent so much money to come up with that product so a patent will give you the right to be the only producer okay of that product for some time okay Most likely for you to be able to recover say the money you've spent the <-/>the time you've put in before others could be allowed to do so So you see if <-/>if <-/>if <-/>if you have a patent over a production of a particular item then that stops others from imitating now what you have producing the same uh thing A copyright of course is very similar to a patent uh Here <./>i <./>i <./>i <./>i the <-/>the <-/>the a <-/>a <-/>a copyright would restrict the reproduction of uh printed or recorded material you know printed or recorded material So it is specific on uh the item It is printed It could be a book a paper you presented somewhere or some recorded material like cassettes for example okay musical cassettes would be an example So you have a <-/>a copyright over that That means then you <-/>you become the only uh producer of that particular material just in a similar way like a patent because of the research you <-/>you you've put in okay because of the knowledge you've put in to come up with it for a specific period of time and uh idea the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the purpose would be to enable you recover the costs okay of uh the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the investment you've <-/>you've put in Many books you look at them and you'll see who holds uh that copyright It could be the author or the publisher could be the ones who are holding it And uh and it would restrict the reproduction of any material you know in that book or on the cassette itself for a specific period of time and some times indefinite okay so that you should not reproduce any part of that without permission from say the author or the publisher whoever holds the <-/>the <-/>the copyrights But of course many times people just go on to photocopy you know books without uh they don't even bother to know whether there is some copyright somewhere But <-/>but it should uh give somebody the monopoly power to be the only producer of uh the item okay So <-/>so then the second uh point we've made is that the case of patents and copyrights who would give uh or create monopoly power
Number three the other uh source of monopoly power is uh government licensing or the imposition of foreign trade barriers 
Government licensing that is you see the law you know the government law uh may require that there'll be only one supplier of a particular product in the market So you see the <-/>the <-/>the law may require that there'll be only one producer one supplier of a product in the <-/>in <-/>the market For example now here in Kenya you see initially we had a law which required that there'll be only one co-operation in the form of Kenya Power and Lighting Company which would be the only supplier of electricity So you see even if we are able to uh generate electricity then the law would uh stop you from doing that you know So with the Kenya Power and Lighting Company is an example of uh uh a monopolist in the <-/>the form of supplying electricity in <-/>in <-/>in Kenya Now is it it's not exactly pure monopoly because we have got other sources of energy you know apart from electricity we have got other sources of energy However you see in terms of electricity itself then Kenya Power and Lighting Company would be a monopolist <./>i <./>i in supplying electricity in <-/>in the country And uh sometimes uh these laws may go beyond the boundaries of the country They can stop the importation of uh products from outside in that uh <-/>in <-/>that way you see you're cutting away any foreign <-_>any foreign<-/> products coming in to compete with the local ones In many cases the reason is you want to protect you know the local producers And the local producers could just be one So you are creating and strengthening monopoly by stopping foreign goods from coming in to compete with the locally produced ones Of course what's happening at the moment is that uh <./>w we are moving away from monopoly to <-/>to free our market structures okay Colonies are opening up but we just trying to give examples of where monopoly can be created by law <./>i in the country
Number four another source of monopoly power is uh the size of the market the size of the market
Now the size of the market may be suitable for only one supplier The size of the market may be suitable for only one supplier one optimum firm You see the <-/>the technology being used the technology being used uh may indicate or may show economies of scale if only one firm is in operation <O/> being used to the saying may indicate economies of scale which would be enjoyed only if only one firm is in operation Now an example again could be uh electricity Electricity would be an example of a case where in that market economies of scale would be enjoyed only if there is only one firm because if there are two firms then you'll have two lines in the same area say one line serving the say from the Kenya Power and Lighting Company and then another one from another source another supplier It is uh uneconomical if we were to maintain two lines you know Two suppliers in the market so you have two lines of electricity One belonging to one firm and than another to another firm supplying the same item The <-/>the <-/>the economies of scale <./>w would not be enjoyed you know It becomes very expensive in terms of uh resource use for the whole economy for the whole country and it becomes uneconomical 
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<$A> Another source of monopoly power number five The pricing policy the pricing policy of the existing firm The pricing policy of the existing firm may be such that it prevents new entrance into the market The pricing policy of the existing firm may be such that it prevents entrance of new firms in the market or the industry The pricing policy here you see the prices may have been set quite low and uh that price is affordable by a firm which is producing on a very large scale a firm which is well established So <-/>so the prices could be kept low to keep away uh new prospective firms in the market You see the price would have been kept very low so that new firms would not afford to enter without making losses So you see uh new entrance prospective entrance are kept away from this market because of low prices that are charged by a firm which is well established in the market Sometimes uh these uh pricing policy may be combined with uh advertising you know heavy advertising And if sometimes you know we've just told that this is the only product you recommended So the chances are that new <O/> will find it very difficult to penetrate uh in this market if uh the existing firm is charging very low prices advertising very heavily and uh the message is like this is the only known product new products will find it very difficult to sell in such a market And uh in that way you see uh new firms would not enter this market structure or will find it very difficult Sometimes the other policy that can be used by the existing firm is to keep uh changing the nature of the product supplied on the market That is uh continuous product differentiation continuous product differentiation They keep changing the product And so you see you'll find it very difficult to cope as a new uh supplier if you are to enter this market So we are saying that the existing firm may adopt this policy of uh continuing to differentiate the product to keep changing the product okay So in that way they can keep off the other uh potentially uh firms in uh the industry 
And then finally number six another source of monopoly power is uh heavy initial costs heavy initial costs The <-/>the initial costs may be very high And uh what it implies is that to begin with you make very heavy losses To begin with you make very heavy losses So for a firm to enter such an industry or for a firm to enter that uh kind of market it will require a lot of resources It'll require a lot of resources which may not be available which may not be available So then that becomes a barrier you know to new firms entering that industry New firms will find it very difficult to enter because of uh heavy initial uh resources required and the fact that to begin with you make a lot of uh losses or very heavy losses And so you see maybe when that firm was establishing there were uh resources available There were say some donors who were willing to uh sponsor such an investment uh the moment they <O/> uh readily available So that will stop uh new firms from entering such a market structure leaving there only one supplier of a product which will have no close substitutes And that is what we would refer to as monopoly So then those would be the sources of monopoly power okay Those are uh sources of monopoly power
Now the other bit of uh a market structure which we want to look at is a situation where you have uh a monopolist who'll be selling in different markets at different prices That is a discriminating uh monopolist So before we move on to the analysis of uh a monopolist uh market structure sharing the demand the <O/> we want to look at a discriminating monopolist situation A monopolist may be able to charge different prices to different consumers of similar commodities in different markets A monopolist may be able to charge different prices to different consumers of similar commodities in different markets Now you know this is what we refer to as price discrimination So a monopolist will be selling a similar or the same product in different markets to different consumers at different prices Of course in one market the price will be higher and then in another market the price will be lower The purpose of uh price discrimination here would be to maximise profits The purpose of price discrimination would be to maximise profits Okay so the purpose of price discrimination is to maximise total profits for <-/>for the monopolist How can price discrimination be practised How can you uh price discriminate That means you've got to be able to separate the two markets Okay what is been sold in one market should not be transferred to other market at some profit at some margin So we want to look at uh ways in which markets can be separated Ways in which markets can be separated okay Ways in which markets can be separated
Number one is geographically Now the best example here is where you find a single producer of a product who sells in both the local market and some foreign market So you find a single producer of a product who sells in both the local market and a foreign market So this supplier of a product uh simply sells here uh say in Kenya and also exports part of the product to another country So here you have a single producer of a product who also exports outside the country Now what may be the case is that the item on the export market will be sold at a different price from the price which is charged on the local market on the local market In many cases the price in the export market is higher than the price on the local market In many cases we are saying the price on the local market I mean on the export market would be higher than that on the local market So this uh monopolist will be charging a higher price to uh foreigners in that uh export market and then a lower price on the local market or the home market Now sometimes even if those people in the export market know about this okay They know that in the home market it is cheaper the transport costs you know of coming to buy from here may cancel out that difference okay may cancel out that difference so that uh <./>i if you are to come and buy here then you don't gain anything okay you don't gain anything But the exporter himself or herself because of the large quantities involved would still uh benefit from that uh difference in uh the transport costs okay So because of uh distance because of the distance that is <O/> different places uh a monopolist is able to price discriminate in the home market from the export market The other source of uh power to discriminate price number two is by type of demand by type of demand An example for example the demand for milk The example we are giving here is the case of milk Now milk we have uh two types of demand The household use of milk and the industrial use of milk which they uh process it into other products like cheese And so in the case of say our own country Kenya for quite some time there was only one firm in the milk industry which would uh buy milk from farmers process it and uh distribute it to the consumers KCC the Kenya Co-operative Creameries So as a monopolist in that area they would charge a lower price to household consumers and then a higher price to the industrial users of milk Now the <-/>the <-/>the idea here is on <-/affordebility> Who can afford to pay more The <-/>the <-/>the industrial users of milk can afford to pay a higher price for the same milk yeah than the household consumers So you see how much you can afford is looked at <-_as> by a monopolist But again uh the industrial users of milk cannot buy the milk used by households you know to use it for processing because uh some of the elements have already been removed by the time it reaches the household consumers So the same milk could not be used for the same purpose uh by the industrial uh users And so the KCC can comfortably you know discriminate price between household consumers and the industrial consumers because of the nature of the milk you know it's not the same that they offer for sale to the two different groups of uh consumers
Another source of price discrimination number three is by time by time <./>Th <./>th the best example here is uh in transport <./>i in transport In transport they charge uh a higher price during the peak hours and then a lower price in the off peak hours <./>I In our own country uh public transport in urban areas would either be by <ea/>matatus or <-/>or busses and <-/>and in Nairobi in particular would be KBS KBS could be very good at that I don't know about the <ea/>matatu but I think they also do the same But sometimes they also take advantage of situations like when it has rained you know they'll <-/>they'll charge a higher price than when it is not <./>wh when it hasn't Uh so what we see then is uh see they can discriminate uh by time you know In the morning people have to go to work In the evening they have to go back home So those are the peak hours So you can charge a higher price without uh uh making any losses because people have to go During the day people have got a choice to make you know The <-/>the numbers of people wants have reduced and then it's like the <-/>the <-/>the means of transport are so many people have got a choice to make So that time then the price is lowered the price is lowered So the off-peak hours they pay less The price is lower than during the peak hours And so you can discriminate by time
And then finally number four discrimination could also be by the nature of the product You see the nature of the product can also allow you to price discriminate And the best example is uh the case of medical treatment You see doctors uh uh can discriminate so well when it comes to medical treatment because uh you see with medical treatment it is very difficult to transfer the treatment you have received somewhere else So even if you have the same problem two people and uh you know that you'll be charged a lower price and the next person will be charged a higher price and he's going to pay You cannot receive a treatment and then transfer it to the next person Sometimes if it is drugs you know you can be told to begin there So you take two and you fall ill you've already disturbed the dose You've already taken two on yourself <./>A And another thing the best example again would be in the same medical treatment if it's an injection okay so they'll give you an injection there so you cannot transfer the same to another person who'll be willing to pay a higher price So doctors would charge you according to how much you can afford Uh I was talking to an doctor who had uh he's a surgeon so he had operated on two people a housewife and an accountant okay The <-/>the <-/>the housewife for the same condition paid five thousand and then the accountant was charged twenty-five thousand for the same condition okay So this is how we explain You see he let the housewife choose what she can afford which is five thousand but the accountant has a lot of money parts of which is just to obtain business friends So there is no problem charging five thousand twenty-five thousand After all he had the money in fact in the pocket and he could comfortably pay for it So you can compensate and the poor could also benefit from this charging a high fee to the rich and then a lower for the poor 
S2BLEC1K
<$A> During the lecture we're going to have a bit of recording so I would like you not to get conscious self-conscious We'll continue with the lecture as usual with little interceptions and intercessions so now let's go back let's start it from the first set of lectures and we discover so look at your notes that you make sure what you have is what we did Now the first question we investigated was what was permanent existence okay what is permanent existence and we looked at the early Ionian philosophers so we <-_look><+_looked> at Thales we looked at Anaximander we looked at Anaximenes At the end of the lecture we tried to find out what was the importance of the Miletians yeah Anaximander Anaximenes and Thales And we said to our knowledge these philosophers were first the first ones to have brought into attention the question of permanent existence were the first ones to question what is everything what is the stuff that everything is made of Two we said these philosophers were important because again to our knowledge they seem to have been the first to express scientific concern and do so in their philosophy We said if we are to investigate these philosophers we will note that they did not form hypotheses in the modern manner And therefore the yardstick that we might use to look at the work of whom of <-/>of Thales cannot be the same yardstick that we use to look at the work of for example Hobbes who comes much later yeah not only because they did not form hypotheses in the modern manner not only because they did not have access to modern scientific technologies and knowledge but also because most of the works most of the ideas that we assume to be theirs are not given to us by them but they come to us second hand and also because the come in bits and pieces and therefore we say they're fragments And then we note that these philosophers did not present positive assertions sorry <./>pr presented positive assertions i e they seem to have said this is the truth rather than tentative suggestions They did not say maybe Maybe the stuff that <-/>the everything is made of is water They said everything comes from water everything is from the indeterminate boundless We note that the Miletians seem not to have distinguished between spirit and body And maybe because of these they do not refer to that relation if there is any between body and spirit And then we note that maybe also because of their lack of distinction between body and spirit they reduce everything to a material factor Another major theme is that we find that for the Miletians everything all reality is reduced to one Now if this is if <-/>if we look at all these points we seem to have quite a bit of negatives weighing against the union philosophers But what importance are they to us and to the history of philosophy For us as I've said just before the importance is they made that first step into the inquiry of what nature is really made of After that we investigated Heracleitos And what was the question that Heracleitos introduced to philosophy
What was the question that Heracleitos introduced to the history of philosophy 
The question of change okay Kahara how did he try to resolve the question of change How did he do this <name/> He tried to find out not he <-/>he <./>trie in observing we find that Heracleitos sees that although the earlier philosophers have claimed that reality is one this reality changes and therefore he tries to look not just for that which changes but the principle of change itself okay And he finds this principle in that characteristic that he calls the characteristic of flux and therefore the world is an ever-living fire whereby fire gives fire takes We noted that in his discussion of change of flux he introduces the question of justice He says that there is a fair exchange for everything that is taken in the flux something equal is given We found out that he introduced an important aspect into philosophy the aspect of reason as universal law In his explanation he also introduced and discussed the conflict of opposites which he said is the basis of change Therefore with the first with reason he seeks to explain that change is not haphazard It doesn't just happen It happens to some order to some reason to some rule With the conflict of opposites he tries to demonstrate to explain what the essence of change is We found out that the first the first part of his theory that is reason as universal law was to have a major influence in Western political thought It was to have a major influence on the Stoics and it has continued to have a major influence on the theory of natural law Next we looked at Parmenides Sorry before that we looked at Pythagoras I looked at Pythagoras and the Pythagorean society and we found that for them everything could be reduced into what <name/>Kamonde Into numbers thank you And we looked at his explanation of the three kinds of people which he based on the Olympic games and which he uses to illustrate a thinker a proper thinker We have the profit makers we have the competitors and we have the observers and we discovered that for him the observer is the philosopher For the Pythagorean society we discovered that he or he and his society thought that if you're a proper observer a proper philosopher you will find out that everything like he has said consist of numbers and these numbers are contained within fields that he's among the first to begin relating the sciences the arts emerging into a philosophy But for the society they discover a relationship between arithmetic and geometry that they introduce the wheel of birth into philosophy The wheel of birth is an idea that we see has influence both in Western and more so in Eastern philosophy We find that they take their <./>philosoph they take philosophy to the realm of music also and use music to explain philosophy <name/> yes
<$A> The wheel of birth introduce the <-/>the <./>id <-/>the <-/>the idea of the wheel of birth because we <-/>we said that they were concerned with the study of purification and <./>mor <-/>and mortality yeah immortality mortality and immortality
And this was mainly so with the study of the soul yeah so what new element has been introduced there <name/>
What new element has been introduced by the Pythagoreans <-/>mhm The Pythagoreans tried to introduce the aspects of the soul its liberation its purification and the civil liberation as contained within that wheel of birth cycle
So we find that not only in philosophy but the Pythagoreans in other fields have a major impact They were the first ones to discover the mathematical aspect in music They were the first ones it is claimed to discover the idea of the hypothesis in mathematics They introduced the aspect of harmony in the universe harmony in health They introduced the aspect of balance within harmony between good and evil rest and motion one and many who is <./>exc to be excused sorry
but I said by <-_>I said by<-/> who is it Kamonde the impact and the impact is in their explanation that everything is based on number In science which was later which and this was a theory that was to be used later they introduced the aspect of field yeah points and field Now their the <-/>the <-/>the impact was in who the later influenced We find that Plato used the ideal of the Pythagoreansinhis division of society into three And into what three groups did Pythagoras divide Sorry uh when <-/>when Plato adapts the theory of the Pythagoreans into what three groups does he divide society Kite <-/>Kite <-/>Kite into what three classes does he divide I beg your pardon you were <?/>waving in the last lecture in Dr <name/> lectures where you did political philosophy Plato's political philosophy Did you read The Republic as recommended to you as asked of you
I beg your pardon
Did you read The Republic <-/>mhm Moira what <-/>what three classes does Plato debate to <?/>set in <-/>in an ideal republic
<-/>aha
Who can remember the three the rational element okay So who are those Who are the three classes
Philosophers amongst who we get the philosopher king okay
It was with Pythagoras that the importance of the soul is brought out and also the importance of mathematics to forming forms Immediately after we looked at Parmenides And with Parmenides there's a reversion sort of to the earlier philosophers There's an insistence that there is no change that being is one that appearance and reality may and often conflict The appearance will often cheat us as to what reality is and therefore that being simply is and that being is one And if this is so that plurality is an illusion Change is what is this illusion and this is why he gives the arguments that if anything comes to be then it comes out of being or out of not being and nothing can come out of not being and if it comes out of being then it already was and therefore and his catchphrase cover 
<-/>mhm
Becoming is an illusion only being is real okay So if anything comes to be it either comes out of being or out of not being Nothing can come out of not being and if anything comes out of being then it already was therefore it did not come from anywhere So what is his catchphrase the line that helps us to remember Parmenides
<-/>mhm another one Nothing comes from nothing okay We find that he insisted on a very radical distinction between truth and belief Belief he says is mainly based on the senses which often cheat and it is belief that seems to tell us that there is change yet there can be no change because change is unthinkable and inexpressible and change is impossible because there's only one single substance behind everything Now we find that Parmenides and his student Zeno did not seek to tell us what the substance is really They just say it's being So philosophy is being raised from the aspect of the material that reality is water reality is fire that's a material thing to another level We're now entering the metaphysical level in <./>metaphys in philosophy And therefore we find for him and his major importance to us is that distinction that we have mentioned the distinction between way of truth way of believe or opinion with appearance we see change with <-/>with uh sorry with uh the senses with opinion we <-/>we perceive of appearance and see change and it is appearance that produces opinion while reality only produces truth And it's this opinion that sees and tells us there's flux there's change while reason and reality reason and reality will allow us to design truth And this truth will lead us to knowing that there is only a single substance of which everything consists i e there is no movement Now what's its importance Uh he made he seems to maybe have borrowed a bit from the early philosophers from Thales in the sense that Thales had conceived of everything as water but if everything is water then things appear differently then maybe appearance doesn't tell us the truth So maybe there's a borrowing of ideas from before to be used in the present i e from the times of Thales to be used in the times of Pythagoras He's important because he introduces the aspect of appearance and reality a question that is to be investigated in philosophy until the present time He seems to have influenced Plato as we have said not only in the division of society and people but also in his distinction of what is intelligible and visible i.e between the intelligible world and the visible world and therefore theory of forms which I'm told you looked at last week 
S2BLEC2K
<$A> Uh let's uh come back to our mnemonic devices Last time we defined what mnemonic devices for are for improving our attention or improving memory so uh this uh <-/>this <-/>this afternoon I'd like to continue with it and uh give you some examples Last time I used a imagery method Remember the case of uh uh trying to teach about imagery or improving the memory where you are using uh like it is in languages You can use the <-/>the picture and then you write the name against it so that you look at the picture of whatever item one is looking at and then you put the name against that I gave you the case of a banana and you know with the yellow colour and a shape and a name against that like the name of cheese you know for <O/> This morning I would like to give you another way and this is the <-/>the chain method the chain method which is also known as the <-/>the link method and this is uh uh a method where sometimes you want to improve like if you want to make three journeys to a place in town Sometimes now I give you if you <-_>if you<-/> do not uh prepare your memory for aid You may not be able to remember you may get to one and don't remember the other places you are supposed to go to So you <-/>you know you may want to create a visual <./>imi you know imagery so that you remember the three places you are going to For example you want to go to a bookstore you want to go to a supermarket you want to go to a post office so you may decide well you have something drawn showing the three journeys you are going to make and one is uh uh a book sale inside a supermarket right and within the supermarket you may have uh a corner somewhere where <-/>where it is written a special postal area So we mean that you still you go and you pick your items from <-/>from the book sale then you move to the <-_>to the<-/> supermarket you buy what you want also within within the same place so you remember to go to the <-/>the three places by the same time Now another one is the <-/>the keyword method the keyword method and uh the keyword method what it does to use to improve your memories like you try to use associations between new words and familiar words that sound the same I'll come back use associations between new words between new words and familiar words that sound the same
Like if you've got a language like Spanish and the word for duck in Spanish is <foreign/>pato yeah so we just pronounce <foreign/>pato that right now our keyword in this <-_>in this<-/> method <-/>mnemethic mnemonic method is pot We all know pot so for us to be able to remember that word one may have to create a visual imagery whereby you draw the picture of the duck with the pot upon over his head So that when you look at it you remember that because this one is uh sounding like pot so pot becomes our <./>key keyword So when you look at that kind of uh diagram you remember what <-/>what it stands for The last one I want to mention is something we are all familiar with and this is what we call the <-/>the acronyms And that one we <-/>we <-/>we are familiar with it a is a word which is formed from the first letters like in our case our university's uh KU Kenyatta University now and we have got many others KISE Kenya Institute of Special Education KIE KIE Kenya Institute of Education and uh you keep on uh shortening all that so the meaning you use that is an acronym and you remember that name which helps you to remember Now having said that then uh I <-/>I want to move on something you know moves on to something else which is still related to memory and these are the basic basic principles for improving memory basic principles for improving memory There're at least four basic principles four basic principles One is attention In order to improve memory we need to increase interest in our learners and focus their attention to whatever is being taught or to improve memory We need to increase the attention and the interest of our learners and focus on the interest of what is being taught So we as teachers we are supposed to select a study environment which does not distract them 'cause we are talking about attention So if you want to pay attention to what is being taught you need that quiet environment where there isn't a disturbance So whatever is being taught you can hear it without noise interfering with it or people moving around and that's why sometimes when we <-/>we <-_>when we<-/> arrange learning environments sometimes we've got a way of constructing classrooms <#/>We have seen in most of ours cause now uh depending on where it is you have found that the windows sometimes are higher on <-/>on one side where there is disturbance and lower on the other side where there isn't a disturbance We're not talking about a hall like this one but uh that's why we <-/>we know to minimise the <./>distract no the <-/>the that distraction of the their attention they are to pay So you listen to everything You can actually process a information and you see if it makes sense Two is organisation So we are saying that memo our memory is like a huge library It is like a huge library and so for us to retrieve the information in the long-term memory it has to be organised in the <./>sys systematic way For us to retrieve that information from our long-term memory it has to be organised in the systematic way So we are saying now when we are teaching for attention and proper retrieval that information has to be organised in such a way that you know where you started and where it ends in between there has to be outlines there has to be divisions for these people to get the information So we are thinking now if you want to <-/>to visualise it is like the way the library is If you work in the library and you don't know what catalogues are <-/>are there you may find it you may take too long to find your books but if you know what catalogues there are you first move to that section because you know the <./>na the title or their name the title <-_>the title<-/> of the book and the name of the author So using that you can go to any shelf and you pick any book if it is there So that is what the same way we are saying now for to in order to help our learners or students in the schools to be able to retrieve or return the information they have learned it has to be organised And this is what this is the key now to the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the work the <-/>the that's why we teach you in instructional methods to prepare lessons what we call the lesson plans that's why you have to start as in a <-_>in a<-/> particular way which your object is and whatever you want these people to learn and then in between what we are going to teach and how you are going to present it and how you are going to summarise it and how you are going to evaluate it you know <-/>know whether the learners have learned or not okay The other principle is association association We are saying that uh you know there is need to associate new information with our own experiences There is need to associate new information with our own experiences So and this is this is now is especially new experiences is very key toward uh the object talked about In saying make the environment reach let the children manipulate and it's not just the young children but also for the other learners in the secondary schools they need that experience as much of information as possible for them to feel to see to touch to read so that whatever is being taught can be associated with people's experiences when you like with the young children we are saying if we are talking about a banana what does a banana look like why is it yellow why are some yellow why are others green and are they all yellow when they are ripe when they are ripe are they all are there some which are you know other colours when they are ripe so and what are they used for So this what we are saying now they need that association for the information again to be retrieved or to be returned of their memory The last principle is the rehearsal rehearsal And with rehearsal we are talking about practise the need to practise the information which has been taught in the class room and it you know you have to remember as teachers to avoid what we call the must-practice we trying to think about rehearsal or practice which is broken in into small bits over a long period of time rather than teaching a whole information of within a very short time That is what we are calling massing and when it is massed it may not have that meaning and students also get tired and they lose interest So it should be spread over a long period of time maybe hours maybe be several periods maybe over weeks maybe over months maybe over period of years depending on when that information will be required So that at the end of it it makes sense So those are the four basic principles of improving memory
Having said that then uh we have been talking about cognitive learning theories from where we started We talked about cognitive theories and the people who talked about them we came in and talked about information processing you know information processing as a way of learning and we came to memory in terms of remembering and forgetting So let us look at the application of cognitive learning principles application of cognitive learning principles So these are the <-/>the <-/>the now the implications for <-/>for teaching and also for education One as a teacher concentrate on the fundamentals first concentrate on the fundamentals first We are saying now you you know depending on what you are teaching and we know in <-/>in various subjects we are teaching there are lot of concepts to be taught so depending on what you are teaching and the new area of specialisation you look at the topic look at the fundamentals of whatever topic you want to teach what are the main concepts and you start with those ones you must <./>poif point out for the students the main points which they have to remember That is the first thing Then having <-/>then them that then you need now to go to the details and these information may have to be broken depending on how <-/>how much it is So you have to spread it so that the learners learn bits by bits until they've mastered everything they master you know the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the <-/>the first things fast and you <?/>others they continue so that they master the important concepts and principles Two get the students involved get the students involved We are saying now what we are saying in this one is let the students use discussions rather than broad memory Let them discuss find time for them to discuss issues let them <./>de <./>de debate about it rather than encourage them to <-/>to <-/>to <-/>to actually <./>crea getting <O/> in our memorising information because if they forget one thing they will not remember what <?/>for comes after that So rigid memorising should be discouraged but the discussion in most of that age that you teach for understanding Now point number three is make time for overlearning make time or have time for overlearning Make time or allow time for overlearning That is use repeated practice use a repeated practice review basic skills review basic skills