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1. Five reasons why educational psychology is important to teachers
It provides knowledge of educational foundation practise that contribute to understanding the principles of teaching and learning.
It helps in application of principles teaching to more classroom instruction more effective and <-/enhencement> of teaching students.
It also helps in application of principle of measurement and education in monitoring students progress.
Education Psychology is also important because it helps the teachers to identify the conditions conducive for learning and how teaching can bring effective learning.
It also helps to identify effective strategies for prospective teaching and practising [...] and how those strategies can be used in a learning situation.
Educational psychology also helps the teachers to evaluate their methodology and strategies in teaching. It also helps the teacher to assess learners in many aspects like social background, values, interests and interests.
Educational Psychology is also vital because it helps the teacher to identify learners with special needs. Final educational psychology helps the teachers to provide guidance and <-/councelling> to learners.
1.2. Application
At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to add & digit numbers.
Organisation.
At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to organise themselves and form group discussions.
Sound production
- At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to produce the sound ch and sh.
- At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to read the word belief and believe, loose and lose.
1.3 Identification. this is a kind of defence mechanism which a particular person uses by associating himself with a person who left say is handsome, beautiful, rich or popular so that he can also be seen in that highlight. He wants to be seen by other people to be possessing those qualities of the person he is identifying with.
Projection: Projection [...] attributing ones undesirable behaviour or problem to someone else. For instance student who fails in an area may say that he failed because the examiners had set the exam so the areas that he had read yet he knows that he was not serious with the studies. Also a teacher might blame other teachers due to a mass failure in his or her teaching subject.
1.4. Screening Test - This is carried out to pick exceptional children from a general population who are thought to be having some problems. Diagnostic test is carried out to test the magnitude of the deficit with the learners or the degree of the problems with the exceptional children
4.2 Four strategies that a teacher can employ in order to maintain her/his authority and efficiency.
Authority.
A teacher should be able to maintain his or her authority in a classroom in order to promote effective management of the class. There are various ways in which he/she can maintain his/her authority in a classroom.
It is advisable that the teacher maintains his or her dignity in a classroom. He/She should not lower his/her dignity to the matter that the learners are likely to disrespect him or her. The teacher should also be firm but fair in running the classroom. It is also vital for the teacher to be consistent in dealing with various matters affecting the class. For example the teacher should be in a position to control his or temper in case he is argued. He should treat all learners <-/equaly>.
In case of providing rewards to giving punishments the teacher should use the two very wisely.
In order to maintain efficiency the teacher can do the following:
The teacher should always be prepared when going to classroom to instruct learners
The teacher should also be methodical in teaching.
It is also <-/crusial> for the teacher to be punctual all the times. He should be in classroom preferable before the lesson starts.
The teacher should also be energetic and healthy.
6.1 Four reasons for assessing exceptional children.
It helps the teacher to identify learners with a kind of deficit or those who have some disabilities and also those who require special needs.
Assessment also helps the teacher to develop an individual educational programme. This helps the teacher to provide special services to exceptional children.
It also helps the teachers in evaluating the individual learners problems and also evaluating the curriculum.
Assessment of exceptional children also provides the bases on which the teacher can keep learners in the appropriate educational relevant programme.
6.2. Four advantages of labelling exceptional children
It helps in making facilities for the exceptional children
It also helps in sensitising the requirements of the exceptional children. This also helps in identifying the children who need special attention from those who are normal.
It also helps in <-/carring> out research on prevalence and cause. Prevalence is the process of identify the number of children with problems from a certain population of people.
It also helps in getting the knowledge about the incidence of the problems in a given population.
Labelling exceptional children has some disadvantages. The exceptional children are likely to lack a self-concept. The may not have a positive feeling towards themselves This also does not lead to good educational programmes.
The children are also likely to feel that they are not accepted in the society.
4.1 The two laws of good classroom management are
(1) Prevention is better than cure
(2) Self-control of behaviour is better than that that behaviour that is imposed.
Prevention is better than cure. It is very important for the teacher to prevent any sort of misbehaviour with barriers before it develops the roots. Once a problem is anticipated it is worthy to get all ways and means of avoiding it because once it is not prevented, it becomes hard to stump out such problem.
On the question of self-control, it is worthy noting that the learners should have the ability to control their behaviours. A self-controlled behaviour is more satisfying that the imposed one because that behaviour that is imposed to learners may not be sound to them and they are likely to take time to side with in.
5.2 How to minimize the frustration of learners.
The teacher should give challenging tests that are with the capability of the learners in case the problem is hard the learners should be assisted. If it still proves hard to them then the teacher should simplify them or keep aside for another time.
The classroom climate can be improved by involving the learners in planning various things in the classroom. The teacher can also provide guidance and <-/councelling>. The learners should also be involved in active activities. The learners should be involved in such activities like discussion, drama and group work.
For the case of the unexpected the teacher should approach such cases with maturity, fact and common sense. In absence of the teacher, another teacher should have been informed in advance to [...] the class.
5.1 Reinforcement is provision of a stimulus in a given situation that increases the probability of a response <-/occuring> again. Positive reinforcement tends to control the behaviour of learners in a classroom. Once they are reinforced because of a good behaviour they tend to repeat the same behaviour in order to achieve a reward or success in future.
A negative reinforcement can also be applied because it tends to determinate undesirable behaviour in the classroom. This happens for instance a teacher withdraws a privilege given to learners because of learners misbehaviour. The learners will realise that such a privilege has been withdrawn from them because of a certain misconduct hence the need to change to a better behaviour. By so doing the teacher will be able to control learners behaviour.
Punishment is the application of a stimulus to suppress a behaviour. Punishment should be applied wisely. Punishment in general involved applying something that will make the learners to face pains for instance pinching and slapping. Punishment just like reinforcement is used to control behaviour in a classroom. Unfortunately if punishment is applied unwisely, the learners may even tend to misbehave in a more worse manner than before. Also excessive punishment for instance use of corporal punishment, the learners are likely to react against such treatments. It also causes fear amongst the learners and this makes them not to attend to what is taught.
Psychological punishment is a bit fairer than corporal or physical punishment.
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7.1
1) Enables the teacher to assess the objectives of the lesson to present and see that they are somehow or are related to learners interest.
2) Enables the teacher to asses the age of the learner and know what is preferable for that age for example more jokes involved in learners of 6 to 12 years than of above 18 years.
3) Enables the teacher to evaluate the <-/>the level of intellectual competence of learner <-/inorder> to present instructions of their level.
4) Enables teacher to single out students who need extra care <-/incase> of maladjustment or physical defects 
5) Enables the teacher to know that students are individuals who are different in many ways and need individual attention.
1.2.
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to give reasons, <-/atleast> five for the cause of poverty in 3rd world countries.
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to show <-/atleast> three reasons for <-/inculturating> traditional values in modern economic life and show how this can be done.
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to tap the desk to produce a sound <-/rythmical> to the national anthem.
1.3
Identification is a defence <-/mechanizism> whereby one tries to identify himself or relate oneself with one who is strong, handsome, athletic, successful for example one always talking of the Armed forces and want always to wear clothes of the colour of armed forces and participating in rough games like rugby and taekwodo.
Projection is where one fails and would want to show that by <-/quarraling> other for example where a wife is quarrelled by the husband and she goes to beat the children or being rough to them. A teacher who doesn't get on well with the fellow teachers would always want to quarrel the learners.
1.4 
Screening is singling out without any testing using any gadget. This is by observation only. A learner with problematic eyes can be screened by observing how he look on to the book and far away objects.
Diagnostic is where a test is performed using instrument for example  there can be clinical blood test to see the number of student who have been infected by Aids virus. For special children a speed test can be given to see the highly talented learners who can take short-hand in the least time possible.
2.1
1) The learner must be protected from bodily harm.
The learner in boarding school must have their halls of residence burglar proved to prevent any entry by foreigner and harming the learners
2) No amount of money exceeding one hundred shillings should be kept by the learner.
The school should ensure that it collects excess money and have in a save place for the learners who can request for it when in need.
3) When constructing classrooms and other buildings for educational purposes, the direction of the prevailing wind must be taken into consideration.
There have been cases where classes have been blown up while learners are in them. It is the responsibility of the administration of the school to have stronger building with windbrakers from the wind prevailing direction.
4) Psychological safety for the learner. In an educational instruction serious information should pass through the school guidance and <-/councilor> before teaching the learner, information such as sudden lose of a parent, sibling or any other close relative of the learner should not reach him/her directly for it can threaten deeply his/her educational achievements.
2.2
Intervariations are differences found among learners in how they present themselves in class and when with the others, this can be observed by seeing that some student tend to make <-/alot> of deafening noise while others are quiet, some read loudly while others quietly.
The Educational Strategy is to try very much to give work that is instructional work requiring group discussion so that through the presence of them the loud readers can minimize their loudness or the <-/noice> makers are influenced by other to keep quiet or have minimal <-/noice> while working with others.
Intra variation is the differences <-/occuring> within oneself. These differences are the <-/>the attitudes and value one have toward things thoughts, feelings and actions. They are manifested by for example self-withdrawal from others or one being rough to the others. The intra variations are mostly hereditary unlike intravariations which may be <-/environmentary> acquired through interactions.
Education strategy to foster the desirable variations (intra) for example having individualized instructions for the highly talented learners to avoid boredom.
Give the extra talented or gifted a challenging task different from the less talented.
3.1
1) The person has a low opinion of him or herself. He or she looks oneself down as unable to succeed in various activities. The person of this kind keep away from challenging activities and won't want to attempt because of fear of failure.
A good example is where a learner may think himself ugly may be due a certain physical defect and which always be keeping to himself to avoid ladies be it in the mess or in class.
2) The tendency to overdo any given activity.
This is as a result of extra high opinion of oneself and even does not follow instructions.
An example is where a learner is asked to list at least three cases of maladjustment and goes on giving ten or fifteen. cases.
3) One is unable to relate to others of opposite sex and whenever he meets anyone of opposite sex, he either abuses her or acts to disgust her.
An example is where a learners <-/bullys> or is always quarrelling others of opposite sex and projects his failure to them and talking negatively of their actions ie ladies are thick headed, they can't be able to reason like men, they say 'yes' where they mean 'no'.
3.2 Kwame Nkuma was one of the best philosopher who advocated for African rights in their own land.
Mzee Kenyatta was the first President of Kenya after independence.
The most universalized celebration is the Christmas that most people in the world are much concerned.
The sun is at the tropic of cancer on 21st June every year.
Kenya is located on middle eastern part of African continent.
Iceland is the world most exporter of Tomatoes.
Most deserts (hot) are located on the northern hemisphere.
3.3
1) Encouraging individual activities
2) Offering freedom in personal activities
3) providing with varieties of activities
4) giving challenging task and asking for personal attitudes towards the task.
6.1
1) The Assessing is to provide them with necessary education or career that they are interested in or are most capable of.
2) To provide with the necessary learning and teaching <-_equipments><+_equipment> to effect their educational instructions.
3) The assessing can call upon the government to provide with special schools or opportunity to go abroad where these schools are available.
4) To individual the educational instructional information because now the teacher knows of the individual differences of the exceptional ones.
6.2
Advantages
1) The community is alerted of the Presence of the exceptional ones <-/inorder> to develop an attitude to appreciate them and provide the necessary material or financial assistance towards their development ie in their chosen career.
2) The training of special teachers can be initiated to deal with the education of the exception ones.
3) There can be develop an international awareness of the exceptional ones and in this respect is the exchange of financial, material and moral or technology skills on an international scale.
4) The exceptional ones can be utilized for helping others within the same class, school or on a wider scale assisting in the community development where his or her skills are in scarcity. Some exceptional children are highly capable of leading others to working on their newly initiated tasks.
disadvantages
1) labelling may result in creating a high or low opinion of the exception ones by themselves and may result in adopting <-/uncessary> psychological defence mechanism.
2) In a rigid community the people will always look down on these exceptional ones because they don't want change or as a curse to the community.
3) The labelling will call forth for creation of new specialized schools or colleges to cater for the exceptional ones and this shall call upon extra funds which may not be available.
4) There is always the act of brainwash from one county to another where for example when a country like U.S.A. know of an exceptional gifted child, it will work  to it's best to have the child educated and work in that county, this is depriving the other country of its gift.
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1.1.
Educational psychology is important to teachers because:
It helps to assess all the aspects of learners. This includes  attitudes, interests, family background, values and intellectual capacity of the learner. It helps to identify effective learning and teaching strategies that can be used by both practising and prospective teachers and show that strategies can be used in teaching. It helps to identify learners with special needs for example the special children who includes the physically disabled, mentally handicapped.
It helps the teachers to evaluate their teaching methods and instructional materials. And this helps to identify effective learning.
It helps to identify effective teaching and learning materials that facilitate effective classroom instructions.
It also helps to identify conducive learning conditions that inhibit and facilitate desired learning such as classroom climate.
1:2
At the end eg the lesson, the learner should be able add One to two and get the correct answer. (1+2).
At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to write a composition on the heading, My first day in Secondary School. 
At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to pronounce the word choose and  chose so as to he got clearly by the teacher.
(1.3)
Identification is a kind of defence mechanism Where a person tends to relate or associate with somebody else whom he believes he has some better characteristics of qualities so that he can also be valued or viewed at the same level with that person. For example a short girl may by to stay always close or make friends with a tall one so as to be recognised. Or a lady may by to relate with a handsome or beautiful lady so that she can also be seen beautiful.
Projection is a kind of defence mechanism where a person tries to project or direct his or her undesirable qualities to another person. For example a student who cheats in class will accuse or blame others of cheating for example in an examination. Or a woman who is selfish will call other women selfish people.
(1.4)
Screening in special education is a kind of an examination whereby the children who have special needs are identified. This is done following some criteria  where children are assessed from a large population or a big group are picked out. They use some kind of questionnaire. There is set limit for assessing the need for example in Kenya children from six years  are tested of the <-/defficiency>.
Diagnostic test is used to detect the degree or magnitude of the <-/defficiency>. This is done in a classroom which has the same level of students. They check language, cognitive, emotional, and speech development plus psychomotor development of the child. Also sight is included. There are various equipment used of test devices, these include such thing as a torch, a red <-/tassle> for the test of visions, colourless heeds, a ball to test <-/cordination> of hand - eye and also the sound producing for test of hearing.
4.1
The two laws of good classroom management state that self control is better than imposed control.
The other states that prevention is better than cure.
In reference to the first one, the teacher should not impose rules and regulations on students without giving them freedom to choose what they would like to do but he should consult them. Students should not be left to behave they way they want despite the freedom. The teachers should intervene.
The other law means that the teacher should not leave the problem to continue when he notices it appearance but should apply corrective and preventive strategies for the control of the problem. If the problem is just left to grow and continue, to extinguish it will be quite hard so at the first notice of the problem, the teacher should apply all the control techniques.
4.2.
In order for the teacher to maintain his Activity he must be:
The teacher must maintain dignity in front of the class. He should conduct himself in a way that students recognize himself as the class teacher and not just an age mate to joke with.
The teacher should be consistence. This means that he should know how he is going to conduct himself throughout the teaching period. Not to be too strict sometimes and other times he is too harsh such that learners are defeated on how to behave.
Also the teacher should reward and punish appropriately. This means that he should reward the desirable behaviour and punish the undesirable behaviour without discriminating against any student. Punishment and reward should follow or should be done immediately.
In order to maintain his authority the teacher should be firm but fair. This means that he should not for example give student the marks they do not deserve simply because he knows them. Also he should not be too strict to students as to cause threats to them.
4.2
<-/Inorder> for a teacher to maintain his efficiency in classroom, he should be prepared and also organise his materials systematically. This calls for the preparation of a lesson plan and a scheme by work which will include lesson objectives.
The teacher should be punctual in his work. This  means that he should not come very late in class but if possible, he should try to reach the class even before the students so that he may teach whatever he has without wasting time. Also the teacher should be highly methodical if he wants to be efficient in his classroom. This means that he should have good and clear methods of instructions that are going to help the learner to achieve their goals.
And the other point, the teacher must have self clarity this means that he must make himself clear to the learners. And for him to have clarity, he must do this.
The teacher should get the attention of learners, he should give them instructions clearly as possible, then he should call a pupil to repeat the instructions <-/occassionally>. The <-/>the teacher should alternate talk activities with silent activities in the classroom. He should not allow students to ask questions on procedures while the lesson is on.
During the silent period or activities, none should talk, including both the teacher and the learners. The teacher should use body language ie gestures be give any necessary instructions.
Assessing exceptional children is important because it helps to identify the children with special needs. For example identifying the mentally handicapped. It also helps the teacher to develop the individual instructional programme which helps in meeting the needs of these child who needs special attention. It helps to improve the curriculum in regard to the needs of these children for example to lay new objectives which put them in considerate.
Assessing children with special needs is also important because it helps to provide the learning materials required by these children.
6.1.
There are four limitations of levelling those children.
It can lead to wrong classification whereby the child is put in the wrong group or category.
It lowers self concept whereby these children feel that they are less or inferior to the others.
It can affect the <-/carreer> of the learners due to wrong classification.
It does not lead to relevant educational programmes because it might not be easy to meet all their needs.
Advantages.
If [educational] policy matters on the needs of these children whereby they put them into consideration. It helps in provision of effective or corrective  learning and teaching materials that are required by the children.
It raises research for laws and prevalence so as to try and minimize the causes for this problem.
5.1
Reinforcement in classroom is effective more than punishment because reinforced responses  tends to be repeated more than the ones that are not reinforced.
Positive reinforcement will make students to repeat or put more effort. For example if you tell a student 'very good' after he has performed well, he will put more effort than when you just keep quiet without saying anything. The law of reinforcement states that reinforced <-/responces> tend to be repeated but the ones that are not reinforced tends to be discontinued.
Excessive reinforcement may be destructive. So the teachers should reinforce occasionally. Punishment is less effective as compared to reinforcement. This is so because the learners may hate vary severe punishment and severe punishment may make a undesirable behaviour permanent. All the same, they are effective because the wrong behaviour has to be eliminated. You cannot reward wrong behaviour but it should be eliminated. Both reinforcement and punishment are effective to learning but reinforcement is more effective since learning under reinforcement is more effective than learning under punishment.
(5.2)
<-/Inorder> the teacher to minimize the frustrations of learners, he should <-/asign> the learners activities that are of his level of performance of ability: If the task is <-/>is challenging or hard, he should help them to tackle it or should be kept to be attempted some other time.
Improving the classroom climate.
The teachers should personalize the instructions. This is where he will relate to a learner as an individual and should help them in individual problems.
The teacher should not dictate to learners but should consult them and involve them in decision making. He should provide activities that make the learner to be active and not passive for example should have discussions. The teacher should reward the desirable behaviour and push the undesirable behaviour properly.
He should not use verbal punishing behaviour.
Also he should let the learners to feel his presence and establish good teacher student relationship.
In order to deal with unexpected events, for example if it is an accident, he should change the lesson activity to another practical activity such as field activity from the classroom.
In case of visitors, he should ask another teacher to come and keep watch in classroom while he is away. Also he can ask the students to appoint a class teacher who they think will guide them in absence of the teacher. The teacher should also <-/asign> the learners a task to perform while he is away for example, he can give them a mathematics <-/asignment>.
In case of others like the appearing of a snake, the teacher should act in a responsible and mature manner.
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6.1.
Reasons for assessing exceptional children are:- 
The assessments enable us to confirm the <-/defficiencies>. A disability or a special case might cease yet we keep the learner in the same conditions of real cases on that <-/defficiencies>. This may affect his performance since <-_hes><+_he's> in a different category of persons after healing.
We also assess to determine the magnitude of the <-/defficiencies> if its presence is confirmed. We identify mild cases, moderate cases and intensive cases (severe cases)
Placement of the right person at the right place is another reason why we assess special children, we're able to take successful victims to further classes while we repeat the education of those whose development hasn't yet satisfied conditions
We also assess to guide the parents and teachers on the best means of handling the victim whether socially, academically or physically depending on the noted disability.
We also assess to establish, if any, the type of external help that we may seek to the affect eg doctors, physiotherapists and oral therapists
To be able to formulate an (I.E.8) for them that is individual education programme.
6.2.
Four advantages of labelling exceptional children are:- 
The <-/labells> enable us to formulate the appropriate individual educational programmes. After confirmation of the <-/defficiency> cases and their Magnitudes we are able to establish the best programme of studies and experiences for the individuals which we then recommend.
The establishment of disabilities <-/labells> enables the teachers to search the appropriate external assistance. He <O/> for the Physiotherapists or even <*/>oratherapists to assist in the development of the leavers.
Through the labelling of these cases we are able to direct the parents and family or community in general to the right and appropriate institution where to take the learner.
For guiding and counselling purposes we make use if the <-/labells> given by the assessors of the special children. We are able to know what social, political, spiritual and moral advice we can give to the children and their families We are also able to know the <-/dissabilities> our learners have The limitations of labelling are: The <-/labells> themselves punches an inferiority complex in the victims. They feel neglected and unfortunate members of their society. This affects their academic and even social progress
Mistaken identifications are so detrimental to the victims life. If we locate or place a learner with the wrong case or the wrong magnitude of the right case, we end up exposing him to a very meaningless and <O/> curriculum which ruins his development
We must <-/labell> but give no definite magnitude of degree of <-/defficiency>. We talk of mentally <-/handicaped> but don't know the degree. This paralyses and makes difficult the efforts to assist the victim.
Over disadvantages in those with multiple <-/defficiencies> like mentally <-/handicaped> blind and physically crippled persons. If you take him to a blinds' school you deny the physical side as dues, if you take him to physically disabled schools, the same So you cud up in a confusion.
The <-/labells> <-/allienates> the learners from the community especially if it leads to him being him being taken to a school of residence a boarding school.
5.2.
Quite a number of preventive <-/controll> strategies that a teacher can employ to deal with unexpected cases in his class. These unexpected cases are to do with accidents where members of the class and for school community might be victims. They also could be unexpected festivals like drama, music, tournaments and even parents and special schools with no short notices. They could be unexpected noises from Airforce or army operations around or above the institution.
First aid kits should be installed in every building in the school to deal with urgent cases. Learners should be educated of first aid to provide for services in case of demand. If the accident is severe enough the teacher in the company, of another and some students should take the victim for medical attention. However he should leave the class under the <-/controll> of another teacher <O/> by the learners of a class monition assorted or <-/ellected> by the learners. When left they should engage in some activity opted on by learners or the teachers selection <-/Incase> of air and ground noise the teacher should try to get full attention of the learners to minimise the experience of the noise
Visiting days should be organised by the teacher by informing his students and preparing with them some activities to be carried out which will have some <*/>acadim benefits like topical public lectures and exhibits
Classroom climate includes spacing of the facilities in there, spacing and crowding of leavers; Air conditions in the class Temperatures in the classroom and <-/infact> the psychological climate of other boredom of activity in the class
To <-/controll> this the teacher should make sure that the lighting system is perfect before using any room. If bulbs and tubes are <-/inorder> they be replaces. Good ventilation for light during the day should be taken advantage of through longer portions of the walls being transparent by mirrors. There should be good circulation of air and if possible overhead or side fans to fan the air in the room.
The class should be kept moody and jovial by jokes and relevant topics with maximum involvement of the learners.
Frustrations in a class are caused by too difficult tasks and continuous failures of learners despite efforts put in the <-/opperations>.
The teacher should give relevant topics of discussion or assignment to learns The teacher should issue out tasks that match with the level of the learns knowledge. Not too hard or too simple. The teacher should give challenging tasks When the tasks are performed the teacher should thank and congratulate all for their trials. More regards should be to the best performers and encouragement to low performers given hopes and morale to try harder and with assurances of success.
5.1.
Reinforcement is the activity by the teachers to enhance, facilitate and encourage positive feedback got from the learners.
Punishment is the activities engaged in by the teachers as a measure of suppressing unwanted or negative reactions and behavior of the leans.
Its better for a learner to advance through reinforcements than through punishments.
When students do well and they are rewarded the behavior is <-/internaled> and repeated but when they do poorly and they are punished they tend to try to conform. They are <*/>extrinsically motivated while in the cases of reinforcement and reward they develop intrinsic motivation in the responses. Reward and reinforcements when used for poor performers uplift their morale of working harder and hence improving positive behavior. This contrasts punishments when used for the same poor performers. They feel neglected, unwanted and <-/allienated> from the community. They develop a negative attitude towards the lesson and even memorize just to pass and avoid punishments.
2.1.
Four safety/psychological needs are.
Safety and security of learners property
Safety and security of learners body
Safety and security of learners health
The <-/Maintanance> of learners dignity
The <-/Maintainace> of learners esteem needs
The <-/Maintanace> of leaner need to progress
The love the leans requires from society
The handling of the learners as a human being with worth
Some educational strategies for these are.
property: The school should provide facilities for safe storage of students properties. The administration should discourage learners against carry large sums of cash money.
Safety of the body: The school should be fenced to prevent wild animals It should be burglar proof to prevent thieves and robbers who might shoot or hurt physically, The learners. the health should be maintained through proper sanitation; proper wastes and garbage disposal.
The dignity of the learners should be upheld by praising and due thanks. The learner should not be insulted or humiliated. Neither should he be subjected to corporal punishments which may ruin him psychologically
The learners curiosity should be taken seriously and when he asks questions he should be assisted.
2.2
Inter-variations of learners <-/reffers> to the differences between learners while intra-variations implies the differences inside or within one particular learner.
An example of inter-variation is found in interests, abilities attitudes and even in career.
One learner could be more <-/inteligent> in terms of IQ than another.
Where interest vary you may have a learner interested in mathematics while another is interested in music.
An Educational strategy for diagnosing these is taking learners as individuals and encouraging each in his/her ow-field of interest. The learns interest should be respected. Where gifted and talented cases are. The attention should be directed there.
Intra-variations examples are: One person may have s positive attitude and liking for one subject and fail to have such for the other eg Mathematics and Language. If this happens an educational strategy could be to encourage him to develop the area of his interest fully.
Also a learner could be clever in class but poor at home economically A strategy to prevent wastage of such a brain would be application for a bursary or a <ea/>harambee funds drive for him.
1
II Educational psychology provides us with relevant theories and principles of establishing good learning environments for our pupils.
It also enables us to establish learners with special needs and hence take relevant measures in that effect. It enables us to be able to evaluate own teaching methodologies noting the strengths and weaknesses
It enables us to stall objectives relevant for our teaching and learners parts.
It enables us to acquire knowledge of assessing own learners progress.
I.3
<-/Defense> mechanism of identification is a situation where one weak person or one who in one way or another feels inferior identifies or associates with a <-/successfull>, known, respected, reputable and a social figure in efforts to share the glory of the character and be viewed as of the same type.
Projection is a situation where one tries to suppress his weaknesses or <-/inabilites> by attributing then to others. One might blame and pretend to look down upon those who are <-/anable> to win ladies, be rich or be <-/successfull> by saying that they are wrong or weak. Unfortunately <-_hes><+_he's> talking of himself.
If one is caught stealing in an exam or cheating he may say that others were also copying and cheating.
I.4
Screening is a test which is carried out in special learners.
it is meant to establish whether the disability test exist or not.
The test is also used to determine the magnitude of the disability in learners eg. Their reading problem, their psychomotor weaknesses, their recall problems. It tests all levels - cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
Diagnostic testing is used to determine the level of achievement of a learner it deals with, <-/suposedly> tree levels of knowledge but in most cases we find <-/defficiencies> in these tests such exams like K.C.P.E, KC.S.E are examples.
I.2
Application: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to state clearly five advantages and four disadvantages of <*/>pointry.
Organization: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to name four reasons for dependence and interdependence in the society bearing in mind the friendships and socialization systems.
Sound Production: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to articulate and state the following statement continuously in three seconds: "She sells sea shells at the <OM/>
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Looking at the discourse fragment, we find that a speaker in spoken discourse will employ certain methods so as to achieve the communicative purpose. Firstly the speaker may employ the use of prosodic feature in communicating for example the speaker will use prosodic features such as tone and pitch to communicate effectively. This can be seen when the tone is high eg "John get out!" here the message will have been effectively communicated for the interlocutor will get to know that the speaker of the message is serious and will <-/definately> abide by the instruction on the other hand, the speaker may employ the politeness maxim to communicate effectively for example "Mary, please get me some water." The use of this politeness maxim will create a conducive atmosphere such that the recipient will accomplish what is being asked that is action will result due to the politeness of the request. 
Another method that the speaker may employ is the use of paralinguistic features such as body movement and gestures to attain effective communication For example when using gesture, the <-/>the speaker may [...] and say "You didn't do better than me anyway" there the facial expression will register the message and the communicative purpose will have been achieved. Yet still the speaker may regard his audience when talking that is 'eye contact" this is very important for the speaker if its through such methods that he will be able to get a Feedback if the message is communicated or not, For <-/atimes> one may end up boring his interlocutor, hence eye contact is very necessary.
Yet still the speakers choice of words of lexical features should not be sidelined since we know that discourse occurs within a context so for effective communicative purposes, the speaker has to use the language that is applicable within the given environment for example if its a headmaster talking to P.T.A meeting he may open his address as follows "ladies and gentlemen... Parents teachers ..." this choice of words will be very different with words to address the school assembly, hence the speaker in this instance will have to bear in mind the a choice of words or rather the code of language to be used. However it is also important for the speaker to be fluent in his/her speech and also avoid ambiguity where <-/Neccesary>.
Looking at a discourse fragment by a writer we find that the writer too have to employ certain methods so as to achieve the communicative purpose This includes the type of orthographic and graphics that the writer tends to use the type face of the material and arrangements in chapters where necessary to make the unity in the message clear. 
The writer has to be clear on the use of cohesion in his work and this he can do by using cohesive devices such as <-/elipsis> and conjunctions the conjunctions such as and <-/>and besides will join up his ideas into a systematic flow of thought, whereas <-/elipses> will make the work more clear by eliminating unnecessary repetition. The writer has a wide range and time to choose his words especially that suits his intended recipients. For example his choice of words when writing a story to primary children will <-/definately> differ with those used when writing to <-/tartiary> institutions, when this is put into consideration, the communicative purpose of the writer will have been achieved
The writer will employ the use of Metalinguistic features to deliver his message home.
The writer may also bring in the idea of using photographs in his works, lets say a story book for emphasis and thus he can flip in a picture on of the scenes, just to captivate the readers interest, so we find that the writer too has many method at this disposal to help him acquire the communicative purpose.
Therefore looking at the above points one can infer then that for effective communicative purpose to be achieved, certain methods have to be employed by discourse participants.
Q 3a. Discourse is language in use and it can be either written or spoken discourse it is functional language. However there are certain elements found within discourse fragments or need to be employed to make discourse <-/coherant>. Taking the case of spoken discourse, we find that the sequential presentation of information is very important to <-/attein> <-/coherant>. i.e the ideas should flow <-/systematicaly> without unnecessary <-/breakages> or interruptions for example speaker A may say
A "How much do these oranges cost?
	then without interruption speaker b should follow and reply on the same topic eg
B "The ones in front here are ten shillings each bundle ... ehm but I'll add you don't worry." So such presentation of information in a sequential manner helps to make discourse <-/coherant> especially in spoken discourse. On the other hand, we find that in written discourse this can be <-/atteined> by adhering to certain grammatical rules eg the use of conjunctions to link up ideas is very important and it <-/creats> the smooth flow of thoughts in a given discourse. Written discourse has an advantage in the sense that in most cases, the topic does not change quite frequently as in spoken discourse hence we find that in written discourse the use of linear presentation of ideas makes discourse <-/coherant>. So the systematic representation of events for example in a Novel helps to <-/creat> <-/coherance> in the discourse. In written discourse the sequence of presentation is very important such that this must be the introductory part, the middle and the conclusion when it is followed then written discourse will be <-/coherant>. Another important element to consider is the Mode of the discourse fragment that is how the massage has to be passed across.
Q 3b. In a discourse fragment, it is very important to achieve unity in the massage being <-/determinated> or put across, for its only when the message has achieved unity that one can be assured of a clear message being put across that is a message free from ambiguities to attain this unity, there are certain cohesive devices that are employed, in a piece of text such as 
1. Conjunction: These are very important in creating unity in a discourse fragment for example the use of copular conjunctions such as and helps in linking ideas together especially those that have some similarities instead of repeating the whole phrase again, so here we find that ideas are effectively linked through conjunctions. also the use of other conjunctions such as but, however etc for contrasting ideas and furthermore besides for additional information all <-/creat> writing in a given piece of discourse hence creating <-/coherance> in the work. This is not only important for creating unity but also to avoid repetition which otherwise makes the work to be cumbersome.
2. Substitution: This cohesive device is very important in creating unity in a discourse Text. and its use to substitute certain words which can make the text long and clumsy for example instead of using "... Mary and Jane were punished." especially in a subordinate clause, we can substitute this with They. also substitution is important in a piece of discourse for it helps in erasing Monotony for instance by substituting Nouns with pronouns eg "Peter went to town and *Peter met his friend John" This can be replaced by <-/possesive> pronoun eg "Peter went to town and met his friend John." Thus we find that substitution is very <-/neccesary> for it not only creates unity but also removes the ambiguity that can be found therein.
3. <-/Elipses>: This is a cohesive devices that helps to <-/creat> unity in a text for it helps in omitting certain repetitive words in a text which makes the text ambiguous and so <-/elipses> helps in making the text more clear. hence we find that omission is very important in creating cohesion in a given text. but then its the omission of a constituent that will not affect the meaning of the given text.
4. Choice of lexical features: This is very important in creating unity within a piece of text. Here I mean words that some from the same family tree, this helps in creating unity for example if the topic is on Mountains then certain words like ascending, descending Peek of the Mountain should come in the same text, this choice of same word group. helps in creating unity within a given text and so it makes the message to be quite clear and understood.
Q 4a. Conversation is the communication (oral) between two or more people. However in discourse Analysis, there are certain general principles to be followed to enable effective communication, for example for an effective conversation to take place, it is <-/neccesary> that all the participants have to contribute to the conversation, this makes the conversation more lively with not only one person dominating the scene, and even when it comes to this, the participants or each one of them have to contribute or rather come in at the right time thus avoiding <-/unneccesary> interruptions as much as possible 
	Another principle of communication demands that the politeness maxim has to be observed for the smooth flow of the conversation. One has to be polite to the people he/she in <-/interracting> with for this will <-/creat> harmony among the concerned participants. 
	Another conversational principle is that the people involved, have to listen to each other, at least give time to listen and, think what the other participant is saying. Yet still the principles demand that whatever one is contributing, have to be true in the sense that you can verify the information you are putting across to the other participants. In contribution one has to be relevant to the topic being discussed and not digress outside the issue at hand for things will <-/creat> unity and meaning of the conversation. 
4b. The four maxim discussed below are very important in conversation for they help the sender and receiver to interpret and understand each other in communicative exchange.
(a) Quantity: here the participants are required to make contribution as informative as is required. This is <-/neccesary> for the sender has to given information only on an issue that he is well conversant with and so there's the need to avoid irrelevancy hence one has to be informative as required. This becomes <-/neccesary> especially in a spoken discourse since the speaker who could be the sender is under pressure of time to give the information according to time allotted hence there's no room for irrelevance by giving <-/alot> of stories before coming to the main issue. 
	This on the other hand also helps the receiver to <-/interprete> well and understand the message since <-/alot> of tit bits have to be eliminated by this maxim hence it stresses and calls on the sender to be straight to the point. Thus one has to contribute only what one is required to or is expected to offer without stretching outside the zones. This is important for if the sender has many things to say, the receiver may even sideline the main issue or forget due to these other small topics brought about in the conversation. 
b. Quality: This maxim demands that the participants should not say what they believe is false. This maxim is important, one doesn't have to give false information just to keep the conversation going for this will eradicate trust on the part of the participants eg the receiver and may lead to wrong interpretation of the message altogether. Again this maxim is important for effective conversation to take place since if one tends to give false information, this may result to arguments by the other participants calling on the sender to verify the information and this is time wasting and also erodes the harmony of the conversation therefore for the sender and the receiver to understand each other, this false information has to be avoided, in any case effective communication normally prevails where there's trust and confidence for example if you constantly give false information, eventually the receivers <-/sumarily> dismissed for the sender and doesn't look at any information given by such a sender as meaningful and purposeful; This too will <-/creat> luck of understanding among the participants as falsehood has to be avoided at all costs For if understanding is not there, thus communication cannot take place effectively 
c) Relation:- This maxim call on the participants to be relevant. This maxim in very <-/neccesary> especially in verbal communicative exchange, this is because in most cases, spoken discourse tends to drift away from one topic to another and if not taken into consideration the participants may deviate from the main topic of discussion. Thus both the sender and receiver must contribute to the relevance of the conversation by trying to stick to the main topic of discussion without bringing in new ideas that are not relevant to the subject. Once the participants stick to the relevant issue of the conversation then they will attain unity in the conversation and will understand one another quite clearly. This will mean that they are talking on the same issue and so be able to <-/interprete> it correctly and so contribute effectively hence the success of the communicative exchange. Relevance as a maxim is very important for it erodes the ambiguity that could otherwise have resulted in leading to misinterpretation and confusion among the participants. Therefore adhering within the lines of a given topic is very important to <-/creat> understanding
D. Manner: The manner of communicative exchange calls on participants to be clear, brief and orderly avoiding any ambiguity. This maxim is very important for any effective communicative exchange to take place, take for example the sender, he has to be clear in his speech i.e be fluent so as to avoid misunderstanding of the message being communicated, the information given also has to be clear with no mixing up of points, this is to make the receiver on the other hand to understand well the message being passed across. brief; its important to be brief in a communicative exchange this is <-/neccesary> since all the participants need to have a chance to respond also on the given topic Yet briefness still embodies clarity, hence being briefs helps the sender and the receiver to <-/interprete> messages effectively for long messages tends to be confusing and this creates lack of understanding due o misinterpretation of so many points put together.
	Orderly. This is a very important maxim for it creates unity in the discourse through the linear presentation of facts in a given manner. Orderliness is important for it erodes ambiguity, for this is avoided by not mixing issues, but better the facts should be presented in a sequential flow, this will help the receiver to follow and have a clear interpretation which will eventually lead to understanding of what actually the sender wanted to convey. Mixed up information is very difficult to interpret and also due to time pressure that the participants may find themselves in so its <-/neccesary> to contribute in a brief clear and orderly manner, that is to be explicit enough for better understanding among the two participants.
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(i) Language always occurs in a context.
This means that language always gets its meaning when it is used within a context, which could be social, cultural, formal, informal and even cognitive. For example, in a social context where there are a group of men in a drinking situation the language that that they use there is only the type that is appropriate for that context. In the same way language gets its meaning when it is used within a cultural context and that, for example refers to the cultural background of those who are involved, for instance an African speaking with a European or it could be on tribal basis, the language that that they use <-/>use there must be within that particular context-
Another example of language <-/occuring> always in a context, could be cognitive, that is <-/refering> to the past or what is already known and again the language that is spoken to a university student cannot be used for a primary school child because the context is different, this applies to religious and political context.
So language always occurs in a context means that it occurs within a particular background for which particular words and language used must be appropriate.
(ii) Language is context sensitive.
That means that in language use one must <-/interprete> the language within the context in which it is used, because for every context, there are particular language patterns that must be used for appropriateness, like if you find on the road the word stop! - Obviously within that context it is appropriate because you know accidents have to be avoided on the rod. But if you find that kind of notice at the door of a church it would be out of context. 
Again, for example on the way when people are walking and somebody begins to ask people to pray it is out of context and inappropriate. So language is context sensitive means that language gets meaning within the context, when it is used appropriately - because if you don't consider the context in which you use your language you are likely to go wrong or sound as if you are not alright.
(iii) Language is always communicative.
This means that language is meant to communicate information, it is informative, that language carries a message that has to be delivered, but not just for the sake of it - but it carries within it something of use that has to inform someone who is to receive it and it has to have a message for example when you read on the road. ACCIDENT AHEAD! that is communicative. It gives you a message that you should be careful. It informs you of the possibility of having accidents if you are not careful.
(IV) Language is designed for communication.
This means that when you use language you mean it for somebody to receive it. That is there have to be recipients of whatever is communicated. If you are a speaker, you must have the audience in mind who are the recipients of the message and if you are a writer you must have in mind the reader, who are the audience and recipients in the mind, a speaker does not speak alone but to a receiver of the message and in the same way a writer does not write for himself but for the reader and in that case whatever or whenever language is used it has to be communicative it must communicate having in mind the audience the reader, eg in a rally there has to be audience and a writer for instance of a novel has in mind the reader.
The four rules that help the speaker and hearer <-/interprete> and understand each other in a conversational exchange are.
1) Both the speaker and the hearer must contribute in the conversation. That is because communication is a two way traffic kind of relationship, they must both give their views, when they contribute there must be response.
2) When they contribute they must attribute at the right time. That is they must take turns in this, because it is not one person to dominate the talk without giving chance to the other, and there must be no <-/interuption> when the other is speaking but you must patiently wait for your turn in order to hear exactly what the other has to say. And so that the other may explain himself or herself properly.
3) Another rule of communication between a speaker and hearer is that, they must contribute what is informative, that is they don't just say anything but they must communicate or give a message in their contribution in the conversation because if someone comes up with something which does not inform the other interlocutor it means that it is just for the sake of it.
4) Again in a conversational exchange, one must not contribute or say anything which is is convinced is not true. In other words whatever is said must not be false, because it is possible for one to say something which he or she knows is not true but they just go a head to say it for sake of keeping the conversation going on.
5) One must say something that he or she is able to verify, that is you must be able to support your contribution, you must be able explain yourself and make it clear, in case there is any doubt about it.
2. a)
In spoken discourse the speaker has to pay <-/alot> of attention when speaking because once he has spoken it is not possible to correct the words, for example if it is an insult it is not possible to take the words back so the speaker has to pay <-/alot> of attention and choose his or her words before he speaks then unlike in written discourse because in written discourse the writer writes in the privacy of his or her study and has the time to choose his or her words. In this case again the writer is not under pressure like the speaker who has to say what he wants to say when the time allocated to him or her and because of that he or she is under pressure of time.
The speaker has at the disposal a wide range of linguistic features that he can use to communicate his language, (message) for instance he can vary his tone or voice from loud to low, he can shout and he can whisper and in this way he can also reveal his feelings, he can use intonation, stress, and can even use his body can nod his head or shake it and like that he can be helped to bring home the message as he wants it. But all these paralinguistic features are denied to the writer, he has not way he can reveal his feelings as he writes because he has no immediate audience as such. 
And also in spoken discourse, the speaker has control of the audience, that is he has to speak to them face to face and therefore he can get the feedback immediately because he audience are immediate unlike the writer who cannot get immediate feedback from the audience because the reader is not around as the writer writes.
Another thing is that the speaker and the writer are both having the same purpose they both use the language to communicate an information and they must have recipients to the message either immediate or intended like in the case of written and they must both be communicative
While the written discourse's function is to keep information, that is it is meant for recording of information for example a word is meant to keep a record or information about whatever the writer thought.
Spoken discourse is mostly meant for social interaction, or that is for establishing relationships among friends or <-/interacters> - or it is also used for transactional reasons that is to move information from one place to another or from one person to another.
Written discourse moves language or discourse from oral domain to visual domain where it is kept and is read using eyes. 
Another difference in written discourse and spoken discourse is that written discourse is permanent that is once it is written it can be kept almost <-/permanentely> if it is not <-/distroyed>. Like books are kept permanently in libraries and achieves. but spoken discourse in not permanent because somebody can forget what he or she said sometimes back or even deny that he or she said it in that case it is not permanent like written discourse.
2b(a) This is a whole story of the councillor charged. It develops slowly from the introduction which has the topic of the councillor charged. Then we are introduced to the reason why he is charged that is for burning down the residence of the city mayor.
We are introduced to the kind of man he is, his age - and that it was he was arrested after a man armed with paraffin can was hiding near a telephone booth.
And the structure develops when we are told of what was the problem between him and the <-/>the mayor.
Before that we had been told of his name and lastly we are told of the possible consequences of what he is accused of that is if he is found guilty - the structure in the discourse is then a narrative of an arrest in a topic followed by identification of who the arrested is, that is a city councillor and the structure goes on to tell of the reasons for the arrest using different lexical words like, that shows that the narration flows, introducing one thing at a time the whole discourse is developed.
2b(b) Discourse conveys meaning.
That is the whole discourse is conveying everything meaningfully because, we are introduced to the topic, which would be meaningless in away because we would just be told that city councillor is charged, but we would not anything more about him and what he tried to do or what he did but we get the whole meaning about the charge with <-/explainations> of why and he is charged and the result of that kind of deed, we also get to know that it was not him who was going to do with act of burning but that another man was caught hiding with a paraffin can in the telephone booth and so this discourse conveys meaning. Anybody who reads it can picture the context of the arrest and get the full meaning because everything is explained.
We know that any councillors and mayors are high authorities in a town or city and mostly they are rivals and because of that one can easily take an <-/offense> at the remarks, such as explained in the discourse fragment. And we get the meaning of the offence that he tried to commit and having known that then we understand the charges he is likely to get if he is found guilty because as at now we know that he is just accused because he looked furious when a remark was made and there is no evidence apart from the man hiding with paraffin can that he is the one who did the offence.
2(c) Discourse accomplishes action.
This means that the discourse is not only meaning full but it is complete too. because it gives the full message. Whatever is in the mind of the writer, it is communicated to the reader, NO reader of this discourse can ask anymore questions about whatever appeared in this paper voice because it is complete as it is.
- Starting from the topic - 
Councillor charged with <*/>arsow -
it goes right into why the councillor was charged and - then we are told his name - then we are even told of his age - 35 yrs which contributes to the meaning because we know he is a young man and we are told he made a remark on the councils bankruptcy and that they had been in disagreement with the mayor for a period of six months. Thus the discourse is complete and accomplishes actions because, it is not left hanging anywhere. We are given the background of the people we are dealing with and so we get also the meaning of the actions that are done in the discourse and also we get to know that it is complete accomplished.
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Structural Linguistics 
Some languages were considered "dead" and others "living" while some were "sophisticated" and others "primitive".
Many <-/linguistic> appeared to believe that the present-day language was in some sense "degenerate" and that the purest form of the language would be found in the recent past - especially in the works of prominent writers.
We may therefore summarise the main views of traditional grammarians as follows:
1) Language is an organism: growth and change are of more interest than the static format was which might describe contemporary usage. This is what de Saussure later disagreed with and showed how a synchronic study is of more importance than a diachronic study.
2) Language is writing: The written record of the language is the "purest" form. Speech is secondary and to be restricted since it is ephemeral and being contemporary, degenerate. This view was later criticised by the American structuralists of the <*/>IGHOS when they studied non <O/> of unwritten languages.
3) Language is conventional: This means that language is invented and that even in its progressive advancement it is varied for the purposes of practical convenience.
In terms of description of language, there were two major schools of thought in traditional linguistics:
1) The motion of universal grammar and the application of the principles of such a grammar in a particular language. This distinction is taken up by the Transformational Generative grammar.
universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. Particular grammar applies those general principles to a particular language. However, the models of the "universal grammar" were Latin and to a lesser extent, Classical Greek and the inevitable result was that any lack of fitting between the ideal and the actual was treated as a mistake; and a further example of degeneration. Hence, in their analysis of English for example, traditional grammarians would <O/> on the "parts of speech" which may not necessarily fit into English. Speakers of English are warned not to end sentences with prepositions, the reason being that this cannot be done in Latin!
The traditional grammarian produces "rules" and "explanations" when it comes to creating a grammar. These rules first <O/> to square <O/> with the facts of the rules of traditional grammar derive from logic (having inherited a lot of philosophy from earlier times). A rule may insist that two negatives make a positive which is an excellent logical or mathematical rule but when it comes to language, it cannot be applied:
I haven't no money
I have some money
cannot mean the same thing in English. Many of the rules and explanations are incoherent e.g an object is described as "the term indicating the being or the object acted upon". This is a sentence like
Jane hit Mary
Mary is defined as the object. However it is not clear what Mary will be defined as in the passive form of the same sentence:
Mary was hit by Jane.
The <-/definations> of the so-called "parts of speech" are often vague and irrational. e g "a verb is a doing word", "a noun is the name of a person, a thing or place". We know that there are some nouns which don't refer to any of the above e. g "knowledge" "love", "kindness".
In traditional grammar, the word rather than the sentence is the centre of analysis. This is because traditional grammarians focused on written material. Today, the word has been found wanting especially when it is known that in normal speech people do not use 'words' but rather chunks of speech. The traditional grammarians were only concurrent with "what words can combine with others to form sentences and in what order".
Concepts such as "concord" and "government" were part of any linguistic description in traditional grammar. These have been borrowed and modified by Chomsky in his Government and Binding Theory. According to traditional grammar, concord is when a verb agrees with its subject in person and number. An adjective (in Latin) agrees with the noun it modifies in person, number, gender and case. Thus in Spanish (very similar to Latin) we have:
una mujer gorda (a fat woman).
un hombre gordo. (A fat man)
In English, case can be established only for pronouns. The choice of case does not depend on the verb but on the function of the pronoun i e is it a subject (nominative) or an object (accusative)?
In terms of language learning, traditional grammarians focused purely on "grammar" and this was inadequate since it secured that the written code was the norm; the learner was already in possession of the general rules of the language and therefore required a prescription of structures and forms to be avoided rather than description of what was permitted.
Where the grammar attempted to describe its categories were so ambiguous that the "explanations" were mere confusion. The description in most cases emphasized morphology to the virtual exclusion of syntax and so deprived the learner of the knowledge he needed to create sentences for speaking.
It was this learning of "rules" rather than performing the language that led to the structuralist emphasis on practice rather than explanations and prescription.
EARLY MODERN LINGUISTS 
These were the linguists who came immediately after the 19th century. They include especially de Saussure and grammarians like Jespersen. During this period, the physical sciences were beginning to assert themselves as models of scientific endeavour. The linguist would answer the question "what is language?" by comparing it with physical objects. He would avoid reference in his description as earlier stages of the development of the language - the diachronic approach - and would attempt to explain the language synchronically ie by reference to its present structure. This view combined with the intention of making linguistics a purely objective and descriptive science necessarily had an emphasis on the contemporary language and a refusal to accept that it was inferior to earlier forms.
Saussure considered language to be a social fact. This view was influenced by <O/> Durkheim's sociological theories. A language is a "thing" whose data can be obsessed. He came up with two elements of language - Parole - speaking- and Langue- the general system of language. The concrete data of parole are produced by individual speakers; langue however exists only written in collectivity - this language is a "product of the collective mind of linguistic groups". <-_Its><+_It's> Saussure's view of language as a social fact and the related distinction between langue and parole which have become a live issue because of a conflicting view put forward by Chomsky in his distinction between competence and performance.
Chomsky identifies his notion of competence with Saussure's langue. But there is a crucial difference. Chomsky's competence is an attribute of the individual, a psychological matter. He defines competence as "the speaker - hearer's knowledge of his language." For Chomsky therefore the individual's idiolect is primary while for Saussure the opposite is true: "Language ... exists perfectly only within a collectivity".
To Saussure, language comprises a set of "signs" each sign being the union of a significant (portion of speech sound) and the 'signifikat' (portion of meaning). Signs cannot be considered in isolation since both their pronunciation and their meaning are defined by their contrasts with the other signs in the system.
Saussure's distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships in language have led two emphases in current schools of linguistics. In America for example, their interest is in syntagmatic relations ie the way in which linguistic units can be construed into larger constructions. Europeans concentrate on paradigmatic relations ie the relationships between elements that can substitute for one another in the same "slot" in a linguistic structure. Saussure's argument that the nature of a linguistic element depends on the elements with which it contrasts forces one to consider paradigms <O/> to <O/> relationships. Hence his influence is greater in Europe than in America.
The linguistics practised today therefore owes an intellectual debt to the great linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. He is in fact the founder of structural linguistics which grew slowly after his death. It was to be formed in academic centres such as in Prague and in America.
Three key elements of the linguistics of Saussure's period are:
1) Language is a system: Each element of the language has a value only in terms of the ones under which it operates and in relation to all other elements.
2) Language is speech: The written system is no more than a crude approximation to the spoken language; it is secondary and derivative.
3) Language is conventional: There was some social agreement on language hence language is "a social fact".
The linguists of the period were therefore in direct conflict with the views of the traditional grammarians. It is true that these ideas which derive from the scholarship of people like de Saussure form the starting point from which linguistics set out to describe and explain language.
With regard to language learning, early modern linguists concentrated on teaching grammatical structures rather than isolated words and an attempt was made to grade items and structures in terms of their "easiness" and "usefulness". Today, this has had an effect on syllabus design.
The commitment to the primacy of speech led to an emphasis on pronunciation as the foundation of learning. Teaching was no longer prescriptive as in traditional grammar period.
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS 
Structural linguistics arose in the 1930s as a result of two needs felt by the academic community in the USA. First, there was a general feeling of dissatisfaction with "traditional" grammar and secondly, linguists in the Americas were faced by a practical problem: the description and the preservation of the native Indian languages before they literally died out. Field workers such as Boas and Sapir discovered that the structures of the American Indian languages were utterly different from those of Europe and traditional grammar was quite unable to promote the kind of analysis required. This kind of analysis was advanced by different structuralists of the time:
Franz Boas gathered a lot of information about American Indian languages. He used a method of analysis that did not impose the grammatical categories of Indo-European languages upon all other languages. He worked at his own scheme for the orderly description of languages which called for three basic divisions in the description:
1) the phonetics of the language
2) the meaning categories expressed in the language
3) the grammatical processes of combination and modification by which these meanings were expressed. He noted that the number of sounds which may be produced is unlimited. In our own language we select only a limited number of all the possible sounds.
Unlike de Saussure, Boas focused on parole and therefore defined language as: "articulate speech".
Besides having its own peculiar phonetic system, Boas held that each language has its own grammatical system. Boas insisted that we cannot impose the form of our language upon others. We must only look to see what kinds of forms the language uses and how it expresses relations among ideas. Boas concluded that the "national unit of expression is the sentence" and not the word.
Boas considered the study of the grammatical categories peculiar to each language to be the most important task of the linguist, since the European grammarians had tended to assure that the categories of their own languages are universal, while his experience showed this to be false. The mistake of the traditional grammarians was to deal with all languages in terms of sole signification ignoring the difference in content.
To Boas, while it is important to stress the difference among languages, it should not be done to such an extent as to suggest that they have nothing in common. This view is reinforced by Chomsky later.
Eduard Sapir, another structuralist emphasized the relationship between thought and speech. He varied two ideas:
1) that language form can be studied for its own sake and 2) that meaning must be considered as the highest latent potential at each step of the analysis. He noted that there is a necessary connection between culture and language - "language does not exist apart from culture". Sapir and his student Whorf therefore came up with the so-called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
Leonard Bloomfield reinforced Saussure's ideas on the scientific study of linguistics. He noted that the <quote_><quote/>.
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Discourse is language in use or language in function. In communicative discourse there should be a target audience or recipient. The recipient or receiver may be immediate, intended, particular or general.
(a) For a speaker to achieve communicative purpose, certain things have to be taken into consideration. A speaker has the advantage of voice quality at his disposal. He/she can apply rhythm, tone/pitch, or stress, to achieve communication. This use of prosodic features will communicate what type of message and from how the speaker conveys it, the hearer can conclude the message. A speaker may be fast in rhythm to show that there is need for immediate action. For example: If a speaker says:
"Call the doctor quickly." The way it is said may imply the action is be urgent. 
A speaker may use stress in an utterance to show the point of emphasis. For example if a speaker might say: 
"Lucy, come here." If the stress is on the last utterance then that is the point of emphasis.
A speaker may also use other paralinguistic features, like gestures, body movements, facial expressions and postures to communicate a message.
If a speaker for example says:
"please do your work quietly", and he/she leans forward to the hearer and nearer the latter's ears, the message may be interpreted differently from when the same message is given by the speaker standing upright and pointing a finger at the hearer. The first postures and body movement by show the speaker is polite and may be doesn't want to embarrass the hearer, whereas the second may mean the speaker wants to embarrass the listener and even attract other people's attention. So use of paralinguistic features would also communicate a message.
A speaker may also use extralinguistic features like silence to communicate a message. Silence by the speaker may mean he/she is not going to repeat what he has just said.
For communicative purpose a speaker has to choose his/her words well so that whatever the utterance a message is communicative. This will include the choice of lexical items, and even the form. From words the hearer also gets a message. For example if the speaker addresses a group of females as: "You women," they will take offence as compared to "Ladies..." which would be appreciated.
A speaker has to consider the context of the discourse before an utterance. This is necessary for communication because language occurs in a context and is context sensitive. For example if a speaker says:
"Let us dance." in the middle of the streets, he/she may not communicate.
(b) A writer will also achieve the communicative purpose if he/she takes certain things into consideration. A writer's choice of lexical items and syntactic structures will help him/her communicate. It is in the words that the writer will convey his message. He/she will use markers called letters to communicate. A write can also use paralinguistic features to achieve the communicative purpose. He/she can use a type of paper, bold letters, lower case, upper case, underline certain words, use italics and other linguistic attributes like punctuation. Words written in bold would imply emphasis, and would draw the reader's attention. This would also apply to underlined words and those in italics. 
Use of upper case would also draw attention of the reader. The size of the paper used by a writer also matters. For example, a small size poster may not draw attention of the readers but a big one would.
The communicative purpose of a writer may depend on the context and the intended readers. A writer may choose to use simple straightforward language or complex language depending on the audience or readers.
Coherence is discourse is what makes a text flow. It is what gives meaning to the discourse. If the discourse is a meaningful unit then it is coherent. The background knowledge of the discourse also makes the discourse coherent. Coherence will be achieved if there is knowledge about what could have come before the discourse or even after. With this background, one may get meaning out of the text, and if there is meaning then the discourse is coherent.
Sequencing in discourse also brings coherence. There is need to know what has come before the next utterance. This would be in a dialogue. For example an utterance like "who is fish" may not make sense in isolation, but if the sequence of the dialogue is given, for instance in a hotel situation, it would communicate. Sequencing in a novel, for instance, is important for coherence. It is through the chapters and papers that the sequencing is done. This sequencing gives meaning. The totality of a discourse also brings coherence. Discourse is a complete text. A text is a complete meaningful unit. So the completeness of the text makes discourse coherent. This completeness can be achieved in one word like 'STOP' on a road sign or in a series of volumes. If the word 'STOP' gives meaning at the road, then it is coherent. 
The context in which the discourse occurs also gives it coherence. Language is context sensitive. Certain words or utterances used out of context will give a different meaning or no meaning at all. An example of this would be the 'STOP' sign. If it is just written on the blackboard, it may convey a totally different meaning or no meaning. 
There are categories of cohesive devices that create unity in a piece of text. Examples of these are: 
(i) Conjunctions
(ii) Choice of lexical items 
(iii) Substitution 
(iv) Co-reference.
i) Conjunctions are a cohesive device in the sense that they connect ideas in a discourse construction. They help the hearer or reader see the connection between what has been said and what is about to be said. This connection of ideas brings coherence. Conjunctions used in a discourse construction may be co-ordinating or sub-ordinating. The conjunctions may be additive, causal, temporal or adversitive.
Additive conjunctions would add ideas to what has already been said. Examples of these are and, in addition to e.t.c). Causal conjunctions would should cause or reason in a discourse. Examples of these are, because, as a result e.t.c).
Temporal conjunctions show time. For example, then, after that, finally e.t.c. Adversitive conjunctions show contrast, for example but however e.t.c). All the conjunctions depending on how they are used will give a text coherence.
(ii) Choice of lexical items is also a cohesive device in the sense that the words chosen or used in a given text will help the reader or hearer interpret meaning. For example, the verbs in a text will be certain tenses. Tenses give the time in the discourse. It can be future, past or present tense. In discourse these is a tendency to use certain words with a common meaning for example, for gender, there will be the use of certain lexical items like she, her, princess, actress, e.t.c.
(iii) Substitution is another cohesive device. It is the replacement of a word(s) by another without changing the meaning of the utterance or the sentence. Substitution helps avoid repetition especially in written discourse where grammatical roles are observed. For example, a speaker/writer instead of saying: "I have my birthday. My sister has her birthday" may say: I have my birthday and my sister has hers too."
The lexical item hers has been used to substitute 'her birthday'. 
The reader/writer will still get meaning from the construction.
(iv) Co-reference is also a cohesive device. Certain words are used to refer to certain things in any discourse construction. Halliday & Hassan group the co-references into two major categories-
(1) Exophora
(2) Endophora
Exophora are those referent words that are used to refer to things directly without necessarily mentioning what the thing is. For example: an utterance like when one is pointing at the moon. "Look at that." 'That' refers to the moon in this utterance. 
Endophora has two sub-categories: 	
(i) the anaphoric
(ii) the cataphoric.
The anaphoric referent refers to the pronominals used to refer back to something. For example: 
"The moon is up. It is shining bright."
The 'it' refers back to the moon. 
The cataphoric would be giving a forward reference. For example: 
"It is shining bright, the moon."
'It' refers to the word 'moon' which comes later in the utterance.
All these co-reference words give cohesion to a text. 
There are characteristics of a topic framework. The main ones are 
(1) Participants
(2) Topic
(3) Message/form/content
(4) Event
(5) Code
(6) Channel
(7) Setting
(8) Purpose.
(1) In a conversational discourse there has to be participants, the speaker and the hearer. There is need to know the relationship between the participants with regard to their age, the sex, their status in that context, e.t.c. The participants determinate what kind of the conversational discourse they are in. The participants who are of a peer group would have a different discourse from participants who have a big age difference.
(2) The topic of the conversational discourse is also present in the sense that there is need to know what the participants in the discourse are talking about. This is a main characteristic in this kind of framework. Topic refers to what they are saying. In a conversational discourse, there may be more than one topic. The speakers may keep changing from one topic to another depending on the circumstances. 
(3) The message/form or content refers to the type of conversation. For instance is it an interview, is it a talk between two friends, is it a dialogue between a superior and a junior, e.t.c.
(4) The event of the conversation discourse is also important. There is need to know during which event the conversation is taking place. Is it during a football match, is it in a classroom situation when teaching is going on e.t.c. The event is important because it also influences the conversation. The talk is bound to be based on the event at the time. The event could be local or global. 
(5) The code would refer to the way in which the message is relayed between the participants. They may use a dialect, standard language, native language e.t.c.
(6) The channel through which the conversation takes place would be speech. 
(7) The setting is also a major characteristic. This would be with regard to place, and time. Where the participants are and at what time the conversation is taking place. 
(8) The purpose would refer to why the conversation is taking place. What is the purpose of the conversation. Is there anything the participants want to achieve and what is it.
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1) Discourse analysis examines how stretches of language, considered in the full textual social, psychological context become meaningful and verified for their users. Discourse therefore is generally defined as language in use or language in communication. As such certain assumption are made in Discourse analysis.
(i) Language always occurs in a context. Language must take place in a given context. For example, social, cultural, cognitive, political and economic context language is used in a surrounding it is used in a given appropriate world view in respect to the user of the language. Language does not take place in a <-/vaccum> , it must have some background in which it takes place. For example A <-/circumscision> song occurs in a cultural context. The song is sung only when young men are to be <-/circumscised> according to the African culture.
(ii) Language is context sensitive; language takes place in particular, specific and relevant context. Language is context sensitive because it takes place and it's used in <-/connectionally> accepted circumstances. For example the language in a church setting cannot be applied in a beer drinking session in a public bar. The assumption will be that the language in church has to be and remain in the context of the church. 
(iii) Language is always communicative. This means that when language is used it aims conveying some message. As such in discourse, a text can be a meaningful unit that has a complete message. It can be a word a cry, or a whole text book. A discourse item communicates a message either to a hearer or a reader. For example Ngugi wa Thiongo's A Grain of Wheat communicates something it carries some message in it's context. Ngugi in this case has used language to communicate, guilt conscience, betrayal, personal and public responsibility in his Novel. 
(iv) Language is designed for Communication. That means that language is manipulated, modified and applied to suit the purposes of conveying a message. Certain factors of style are employed to make language suitable for communication. For example in spoken texts, their is the use of paralinguistic features texture, like, facial expression, prosodic features, to suit the purpose of communication. Language in this context is made richer or more complex for interpretation, this interpretation can result from, contextual features, or linguistic features of a text. Language design can either be written or spoken depending on the purpose of communication. Consider the word stop! on the side of the road. To a car-driver it is designed to convey the message that there is no proceeding. It's designed by the exclamation mark to mean imperatively that the car must stop for a certain reason.
2 (a) In Discourse we have the spoken type of discourse and the written type of discourse. There is a relationship between the spoken type of discourse and the written. The two use contextual features for communication. Both the written and the spoken use paralinguistic features for communication. The spoken discourse employs prosodic features like <*/>stummening, pitch, and intonation where as the written employs paralinguistic features like typography, handwriting. The spoken and written discourse use language as a means of communication; as a medium of communication. And obviously both written and spoken discourse are purposely designed for communication purposes, they are a means of delivering messages.
Let us consider the contrast between the written and spoken discourse, in the written discourse there is no pressure in production, the writer takes his time to construct, chose and decide on the kind of sentence to appear on his paper. He can erase where necessary. While in the spoken discourse the speaker is under pressure to produce utterances, for an <-/interlocuter> who is ready to listen, the speaker is forced to be very careful and is highly concentrated on the language he uses.
The spoken discourse is usually not pressured, lest on tape recording, the written discourse undergoes, printing and therefore is stored for a long time .
The written discourse is produced in the privacy of the writer, while the spoken discourse is produced before and <-/interlocuter>.
In the spoken discourse the speaker gets immediate feedback, while in the written the writer gets feedback after along time and a difference in space and process.
In the written discourse their is the use of <-/metalingual> features like, joining of clauses, use of temporal markers, like meanwhile, during, in the meantime, Their is also keen use of premodification, conscious employment and structures like subject/predicate, Topic, Comment. These are not common in the spoken discourse, where a speaker makes subordinate sentences, incomplete sentences and <-/gapefillers> like -em, well -ahh, etc.
(b)
(a) Discourse forms structures: This implies that discourse is arranged with certain syntactic structure, combined with propositional content to establish linearity. The discourse fragment given: Councillor charged with arson (The voice march 12th, 1984): The title is given with paragraphs. The paragraphing is employed in such a way that each paragraph distinctly has some space from the <-/preceeding> paragraph. The structured is also formed by an introduction body and conclusion. 
In the first line, we know that it's the title; and probably the councillor was in a court of law, and the article is reported in the mass media.
Then, A city councillor ... was here today This begins with A capital letter; and end with a full stop. The line Beginning Kwanza Mango, is a thematic beginning, to make the point of departure and also to lay a foundation for the proceeding words explaining more about the man. The structure therefore has a topic and a comment or theme and the rheme.
In the last sentence, we see given information and New information:
:- If found guilty the councillor faces dismissal from councillor shop. The underlined is the new information.
Generally Discourse in this fragment has also formed structure, by employing cohesive devices. The cohesiveness is seen by the chronological or the <-/sequency> of events to form a 'whole' structure.
(b) Discourse convey meanings.
In this case, discourses implies, infers, some meaning by uses of certain lexical items. A <-/noticable> use of the deictic form - Here, implies that it is the city in which, that councillor was charged, and the Newspaper has its headquarters in that particular city.
The other meaning that is conveyed is that Kwanza Mango was not responsible for the arson case, but it's because he had a grudge with the city mayor. The implicature (commentional) shows it was somebody else, and that it was an attempted arson, because the man was caught before the offence was committed. The other conveyed meaning is that Kwanza Mango will receive a fair trial.
(c) Discourse accomplishes actions:
This is the pragmatic property, where language is practically reflected in use. Discourse therefore accomplishes this property by the practicability of its language. 
From the fragment we know that a man was put before a court of law, by the use of the action verb - charged. The use of the past tense - was arrested also accomplishes the action performed on the man. the verb actions of, hiding, told, dismissal, all imply that an activity has taken place or will take place against someone, or between two people.
3 (a) In discourse we have to consider contextual features that would assist in the analysis of discourse fragments. I will mention them in passing, participants, their characteristics place, time, setting, The purpose under what activities in the discourse taking place; channel what means of context are used is it written or spoken, code, is it English, Kiswahili, or a dialectical form context, use of Deictic forms, textual features and linguistic features, [...] message conveyed. Let me now consider the following discourse fragments.
(i) Let us pray: This is appropriate in a religious gathering context, the place would be a church, or in a house before meals when family members pray before meals. If the place is church, the possible participants are a congregation and a priest leading the mass. Its on Sunday during service; The purpose is that this is a community and they are sharing the word of God. The lexical item thus[??] implies that this is a community united religiously and almost residing from the same locality. The participants are now silent and prepared for a silent prayer or a led prayer.
(ii) The 6 o'clock train...
The participants are a Railway station announcer; The announcer is making an announcement to <-/commiters> who have booked tickets to use the 6 o'clock train. We are told that the six o'clock train is standing on platform two. The time is evening or morning, so we are told that the place is a railway station by the lexical item - platform two. The purpose is to make aware the <-/commiters>of their coaches and numbers. The <-/commiters> should be aware that the train has just arrived - by the use of - Now and the <-/commiters> should immediately go ahead to check their coach numbers.
(iii) Attention! No Smoking!
This could be a writing in a <ea/>matatu or a sensitive public place like a hotel, office, The participants are the owners of the <ea/>matatu and those people who could be smokers or tempted to smoke and generally people who are using the <ea/>matatu. The time is, whenever a person uses the <ea/>matatu, or its always the order, at no one time should anyone smoke from that particular place. The purpose, its a warning to avoid danger or for health reasons. That is shown by the textual features of the exclamative marks (!)
(iv) Want to sell your car 'on hold' until it is sold? It's so simple.
The participants are businessmen. A business - car dealer and the owner of the car. The characteristics of the participants are that the car owner is ignorant of the process that is followed, the car dealer is familiar. It's during office time in a company premise. The purpose is that the car is being sold in terms of on hold until a suitable buyer is found. 
(v) The participants are auctioneers, advertising in a newspaper, or on a Notice board to members of the public that property would sold to those interested. The time would be on 28th April 1986, the place would be at the premises of the auctioneers; 'in front of our premises'. The purpose is to make every member of the public aware, so that those who are interested can buy the assorted goods.
(b) The topic of a discourse fragment may be identify by: One, the beginning identification of the lexical features that are prominently used in the discourse fragment. For example if its a topic on gender the use of the pronoun, he or her will be pronounced. The channel of communication, this would consider The way the message has been conveyed written or spoken. Co-text; Consideration of the events that take place, an analyst would look at events going on other than the overall events. Another way would be paragraphing and arrangement of ideas in the discourse fragment. Look at the physical context and the background in which the discourse fragment occurs. Who is the participant, where is it taking place.
(ii) A fragment of a conversational discourse can be analysed with the following characteristics in mind
- (a) Who are the participants, this also tells us the place, time and the setting where the conversation takes place
- (b) Purpose, What is the purpose of the conversational discourse, are the participants in a church on Sunday, watching a football match?
- (c) Channel - What is the context used to convey the message, is it spoken or written.
- (d) Code - Which language is used. English or Kiswahili, is it a dialect or the standard language
- (e) Context, the lexical and linguistic features used in the conversation, Is there use of Deictic forms, Here, there etc.
- (f) Event - Which event is taking place in the conversation
- (g) What is the message being conveyed or implied in the conversation taking place?
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 
Que. 3a) Discourse is made <-/coherant> by the unity that we get in any fragment, that is the flow of words that give it its texture. 
Choice of words that are joined to make a complete sentence that is meaningful, the sentences that make paragraphs.
Discourse can also be <-/coherant> even without use of any words for example "you naughty ... it will make meaning despite the silence and that shows silence can <-/creat> coherence.
Organisation of the discourse also can make it <-/coherant> when events are organised in such a way as to be meaningful.
Use of some grammatical words that <-/creat> <-/coherant> in a piece of discourse for example words like meanwhile, therefore this tries to show unity to the discourse. 
Correct lexical elements that is choosing the right words in a piece of discourse.
One has also to think of the syntactic organisation or rule in any kind of message if it has to be meaningful and <-/coherant>.
b. In a discourse construction, there are cohesive devices that <-/creat> unity in a piece of text
One of these is the use of conjunctions. The use of conjunctions like, yet, but, these are grammatical words which when used to join sentences bring unity in this sentences. For example sentences like "Mary went to the market "John went to school, use of conjunction "and" makes the two one "Mary went to the market and John to school."
<-/Elipsis> also can be used to <-/creat> unity in a text of discourse construction.
<-/Elipsis> is method of eliminating some words in a sentences to prevent repetition in them, for example in sentences given above that is "Mary went to the market and John went to school"
In <-/elipsis> we eliminate the second "went" that Mary went to the market and John to school instead of Mary went to the market and John went to school.
<-/Elipsis> are also common in question tags also to avoid repetition for example "The class made noise, didn't they? instead of "The class made noise, didn't they make noise? So we omit the "make noise" on the tag.
Substitution is another device that is used in order to <-/creat> unity in a discourse construction. This is substituting a pronoun for a Noun Phrase, so instead of writing a Noun Phrase especially if it had been mentioned earlier, we substitute with a pronoun for example
"Jane was a first year student last year and this year She is a second year." instead of saying 
Jane was a first year student last year and this year Jane is a second year.
So the second noun Phrase is replaced by the pronoun "she". 
The fourth device used to <-/creat> unity in a discourse construction is use of correct lexical items this is use of words that show relationship for example if it is something connected with school institution the words like Headmaster, teacher, students, chalk are all in the same line and no word that is out of that group. Different devices can appear in a sentence at the same time. 
Qu.2 a He will use correct grammatical sentences in his writing unlike in spoken record whereby we sometimes come across sentences that are not grammatical.
Written record of a discourse will contain complete sentences to bring out the full message to the readers so that they can understand the message in a piece of discourse and when we get texts that contain complete sentences and no shortening of words for example "They'll go home next week instead of They will go home next week then we realize that this is an adequate representation of a text as a written record of discourse. 
Written record of discourse will contain correct grammatical sentences whereby all rules of grammar are kept for example in starting of any new message there is use of capital letter, to start a new paragraph the writer indents at least an inch from the margin. 
We usually do not come across a lot of common vocabulary but there are new vocabularies that we come across.
There is use of connecting markers that are common in any written record of discourse construction for example meanwhile, therefore.
Hesitation markers are not very common and there is correct punctuation.
We don't notice any kind of interruption, the sentences are given in complete words and messages follow in a cohesive manner.
b) A written transcription of spoken discourse is an inadequate representation of a verbal record of a communication act because 
In written transcription the writer is not able to show exactly the reactions of the speaker when he was speaking and so this does not fully give the exact behaviour of the spoken discourse since the written discourse transcription lacks the audience and so the message written may not carry as much weight as it would have been if the speaker was there for example in the hospital when the doctor diagnoses the sickness of a particular patience and the message is transfered, the real behaviour and reaction of the sick person is not known to the reader of the message.
Some features that help one to <-/interprete> a particular discourse are lost in the action of writing it for example the paralinguistic features that accompany the spoken discourse. Things like coughs, smiles, sneers are lost in the process of writing.
As it is being written, the readers may not be able to question the message or if it needs clarification. 
Many times the message is misquoted and instead of giving the correct message, usually the wrong message is written and that is why even in our Society we hear many Politicians saying that they were misquoted. 
As the message is being written things like gestures are lost which were clear in the spoken discourse.
The written transcription does not get the feedback straight away since he lacks audience and he is writing at the privacy of his room  and can write according to his understanding and not necessarily what had been said.
It looses relationship, because when it was being spoken there was actual interaction of speaker and listener but this misses when it comes to writing the same message.
When being spoken, it has particular audience and context but when it is being written the audience that it has was intended is lost and now it can be read by anybody whether it makes meaning or not.
Compulsory question
Que. 1) A speaker must have an actual or intended audience in order to communicate, He cannot communicate to nobody. 
The speaker has to organize the message he wants to communicate
He has to choose his words correctly to avoid misunderstanding.
When he starts to communicate his use of prosodic features is important in the sense that he has to have voice variation, some words will be pronounced softly, others loudly and the rhythm and intonation should help in achieving his communicative purpose. 
He should show the high points in his messages by variation of voice. 
In speech the speaker tries to draw attention of the listener by use of words like "Do you know? Have you heard? By the way?" and in this then the speaker is able to communicate his message with success.
When the speaker also questions and asks for the views of the listener this shows that that the communication will be effective since there will be response.
The context of the communication is very important for example if one wants to communicate something connected to church like saying "Let us pray" if it is said in a bar, it might not achieve the communicative purpose because it is in the wrong context. 
The type of register used by different people is a method that would show effect to those being communicated to for example one meets the Rector and says Hey in this case one should use formal language and so different people use different types of registers in their communication.
The reaction of the listeners to the speaker  Their expressions (facial) will show the speaker whether he is communicating or not. 
b) A writer will use different types of writing for example Roman writing, Chinese in the writing of the particular people he is writing to so that he will be able to communicate.
He will show the importance of some messages by using type face, bold face, his use of capital letters (higher case) and small letters (lower case) and in all this he is drawing readers interest to see the most important messages he wants to communicate for example the writings that we see on News Papers Headlines use of bold clear letters to draw the leaders attention and interest to buy the papers and know what is happening.
When the writer sends questionnaires to the readers, he wants to hear and see the views of his readers and this can help him know that he has communicated or not. 
Context too is necessary for example if one wants to communicate something that is in written form, the place where this message will be pinned will determine whether it will be communicative or not for example a notice stating a college meeting that CVEA for all students and this is pinned in the forest may not be communicative there. 
When the speakers show response in the message that has been given in writing for example in an examination the instructions are written down so when the students follow these instructions, it shows that the message has been communicated and purpose achieved.
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1.1 Importance of Educational Psychology to teachers. - It enables teachers to know the stages of development of the pupils so that he knows how or the method of teaching different levels.
- It enables the teacher to know some of the misbehaviours he expects from students of which level so when this arises he is in a position to handle it.
- It enables the teacher to know some of the activity he should in-cooperate in the teaching strategy so as not to bore and frustrate the students
- It enables them to know what is expected of them as teachers so that they do their work effectively.
- It enables them to know how to create attitudes, mood and values of the students so that they understand what he is teaching and also teach them how to motivate and reinforce the students for effectiveness.
1.2 Application 
- By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to draw the map of Kenya and insert all the main towns.
Organising
- By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to tell the <-/intensions> of the main characters in the comprehension in discussion
Sound Production
- By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to differentiate the pronunciation of 'chips' and 'ships'
1.3 Identification 
It's defence mechanism whereby someone wants to associate himself with someone who is high ranked, beautiful, courageous, hero. For instance someone would want to associate himself with the President like they are related or a man to associate himself with 'Miss Kenya'
Projection
If another defence mechanism whereby someone tries to hide his behaviour with another's. For instance if someone has copied an exam, he may start saying that some people were copying the exam or if a teacher knows he is ineffective in his teaching, he may start saying that some teachers do not know how to teach.
1.4. Screening test 
It's one of the methods of testing <-/exceptionary> children. Here one tries to get <-/exceptionary> children from a large group of children. The <-/exceptionary> children are therefore taken to a separate school may be where they will be taught independently.
Diagnostic testing
Here one wants to confirm whether a child is exceptional and the seventy of the impairment. The child may be left in the same group but given special attention or can be taken to a special school.
2.1. Four safety needs & educational strategy for each. 
- Security from outsiders
The school must be well fenced so that the outsiders cannot come to the school illegally or unknown. There should also be doors locks to the dormitories
- Money
The students should not be allowed to carry with them large amounts of money to the school. School fees should be send through the banks in cheques. In the school, they should also be allowed to keep their money safely like with the bursar so that its' not stolen by other students.
- Personal Security
The school should have rules and regulations as per the behaviour of students towards others so that newcomers are not bullied by old students. Such cases should be dealt with categorically by prefects and authority
- Health Services
There should be adequate health services in the school. There need to be a dispensary or health clinic in the school so that the students don't suffer from minor illnesses and have nowhere to go.
2.2. Inter-variations 
It is a word that refers to the differences <-/occuring> between learners in a class. These can be physical, social, religious, racial to mention but a few.
For instance if class may consist of learners of various tribes with various cultural differences like Kikuyus, Kambas, Luos the teacher should not favour any of these groups. He should be bias on culture but try to show them that they are all alike and no culture is inferior to another Intra-variations.
This refers to interests of a particular learner. The likes and dislikes within an individual. For instance A student may be very much interested in mathematics but dislike literature.
In such a case, if the teacher is teaching literature try to make the lesson very interesting and <-/incase> of giving an assignment encourage the learner to finish his work for literature so as to do some work in Mathematics.
5.1.
Reinforcement is a method of controlling behaviour in the classroom. It should be done very effectively. There is negative and positive reinforcement. A teacher should try as much as he can to avoid negative reinforcement because it encourages the learner to shy off next time and he will rarely answer questions in class or ask questions. For instance when Mary is asked a question and then she answers wrongly or may be gives an irrelevant answer, the teacher can tell her that she has tried but not to tell her that she has been daydreaming. She is likely to answer another question if she is given the first response then when given the second one. Reinforcement should be done immediately after the response but not postponed to a later time. This is usually more effective because the learner will tend to correct himself right-away. In a co-education, both boys and girls should be reinforced alike so that some people may not think there is favoritism.
Punishment on the other hand is another method of controlling behaviour. It is not the best so should not be used frequently. It should only be used when its inevitable. It tends to suppress or fix behaviour instead of stopping it. It may also have negative repercussions like the  learner developing hatred to the teacher. If it is to be used, it should be very mild and only to the extreme characters. This can be by withdrawing some privileges previously granted, or some punishments like letting the student part with some of his pocket money or be left behind as others go home for holidays should be avoided. Punishment should be used only as the last option.
Reinforcement is more preferable to punishment.
5.2. Minimise the frustration of learners. 
- the teacher should set questions for the learners from whatever they have learned. If the work is above their level of understanding it should be postponed to a later time.
- If the work is difficult he can also encourage them to do in groups so as to discuss and get better answers.
- He should avail to the learners textbooks to refer to or get for them hand-outs so that they read during their free time and understand if there is shortage of textbooks or reference books.
Improve classroom climate.
- The learners should be encouraged to discuss some problems but not leave someone to decide or think on his own. This makes them live in a free atmosphere in the classroom hence are ready to participate.
- The teacher must ensure that there is adequate lighting in the classroom
- He must ensure that there is enough air circulation so that the room is not stuffy. This is by making sure that the room is clean and the windows can easily be opened to let air in.
Deal with the unexpected.
The unexpected can be lightning, thunderstorms, a snake in the class and so many others.
This only needs the use of common sense. <-/Incase> of lightning or thunderstorms, since some students are afraid of them, <-/incase> he had given some homework he must give them some more time.
- <-/Incase> of a snake, the teacher should let the learners move out first but not force them to stay in the classroom.
- However this will depend on the situation. For worse situations he can call other teachers to assist.
6.1 Four reason for assessing exceptional children. 
- It enables the teacher to set a programme for instruction that will be suitable to them.
- It enables the researchers to know the prevalence of <-/exceptionary> child and may be look for ways of minimising this.
- It enables the teacher to know to handle such children so that they don't have low self-concept.
- It enables the curriculum setters may be to increase individual education programmes so that these people feel that they fit in the society. This also enables them to know the demand of special schools so that they get ways of building them.
6.2. Four advantages of labelling exceptional children 
-> It enables the teachers to prepare a teaching method may be which will favour them for instance if they are visual impaired he can be spelling most of the words.
-> It enables the government to know the number of the cases hence look for ways of handling them.
-> It enables them to be considered <-/incase> of funds to be given to them and be helped in their education.
-> It enables them to be taken to their own special schools where they can be taken care of nicely as a group or they are taken to meet other people with the same problem so that they know they are not the only ones who are disadvantaged.
Four limitations of labelling exceptional children. 
- It makes them have a low concept of themselves since majority of the people are not like that.
- To them the labelling may have been poorly done so that they are taken to the wrong group.
- It makes them feel very <-/disadvateged> and hence be very much worried of what will happen to them in future
- They may think they are isolated in away, that's why they've been labelled exceptional and may be they wouldn't like the other people to know that they have some impairments.