W1A011T
Bilingualism is an ability of individual of using more than one language correctly. In this situation individual could use more than one language interchangeably and appropriately. This means one could use language according to the context.
In bilingualism there are four things which should be <-_beared><+_borne> in mind and this is degree of understanding and mastering languages. That is to what extent individuals know both language. <-/Forexample> one who is bilingualist in both English and Kiswahili how far / to what extent he knows both language and he masters them in the normal conversation. 
Another thing is <-_intervation>, that is how one could use language <-/with out> any problem. What is the freedom and <-/oportunity> one has when he use both language.
Interference. How one could <-/interfer> both language. That is how he could change from one language to another with great confidence.
Function what are the functions in which language may used.
A part from those <-/mentained> characters which may help individuals to be <-/oportunists> in using bilingual, the degree of being bilingualist differ from one individual to another <-/forinstance>: There are some people who have ability on both <-/writting>, listening reading and speaking, where some able to speak and to listen or to read and write respectively.
However those people are considered to be bilingualists.
In short bilingualism is an individual capacity of using more than one language.

Diglossia is the situation where two distinct languages are used in the same society with different underlined functions.
It is occurs where there is two different languages and each one has its own function and characteristics.
In diglossic society two languages which are <-/labled> as 'high' and 'low' <-/verieties> have different position and characteristics.
<-/Forinstance>: H variety seemed to be <-/prestigeous> language, it is learned at school used in official matter has access in mass media, it is used as media of instruction. It is standardized and well written in both grammar and literary works. While L variety is acquired, has less access in mass media it is not written and standardized also has lack of <-/prestegeous>.
In Tanzania case <-/forinstance> there is Kiswahili, English and vernaculars. In our discussion Kiswahili and vernaculars are taken as an example.
Vernaculars seemed to take lower status in the sense that vernaculars are only used in the community/ethnic communication where as Kiswahili is used in <-/interethenic> communication, as learnt language, language of officials and Government issues.
According to Ferguson high variety has the following characteristics. It is prestige, it is learnt, standardized, literary language lexicon and morphology the lower has seemed to borrow words from high status variety.
All in all we can say that bilingualism is individual bases while diglossia is societal bases. In the sense that bilingualism is the ability of individual while diglossia is the situation of the society.
Also diglossia is connected with political mater because one language seemed to be favoured compare to another.
Not only that but also to be <-/diaglosic> means to be bilingualist in almost cases
That is no <-/diaglossia> without bilingualism in the society but the <-/vise> versa can be.
Moreover in bilingualism no language could assumed as better for individual himself.

Language is the system of communication in society. Language has <-/alot> of components such dialect, variations and <-/ideolect>. It is large based and wider used that is language is used in the speech community. <-/Forexample> in Tanzania there are Bantu languages, Kiswahili language and vernaculars and English. So we can say that Kiswahili is a language in the sense that Kiswahili is wider used within Kiswahili there is Kiunguja, Kitumbatu, Kikae, Kipemba and Kimtang'ata and other <-/dilect>. that small language.
Language also it seemed to be <-/prestegeous> before <-/dilect> that is to say it is used in the government it is learned and have <-/alot> of facilities.
Language also it seemed to be well standardized, and coding as well as know in and out of the speech community.
Apart from that language may used in the communication in international wise.
Dialect is a variety of language used in small area in the speech community.
<-/Dilect> is used in the small area compared to language. <-/Forexample> English there are North England and South England dialects.
It is a part and parcel of language in the sense that it is the one which make language. that is dialect and <-/dilect> make language.
<-/Dilect> has lack of <-/prestigeous> because it is used only in the area which is stay and not one side. and therefore it is bounded within particular <-/boundry>.
In most cases dialect does not written. If it occurs it could for the matter of standardized and for making him as a language.
Even though there is standard <-/dilactect> from which the communications between people and <-/Goverment> are occur that is to say standard <-/dilect> is the one which make standard language.
Official language is the type of language which used for official matters such as: in the office, <-/parliment> and applications. <-/Forinstance> in Tanzania Kiswahili is official language. Because it is used as language of <-/parliment>, medium of instructions, as language of applications in the Governmental matters as well as market place, hospitals and other activities.
National language is the language which used National wise.
For instance in Tanzania Kiswahili is a National language in the sense that Kiswahili is considered as language of Nation, as symbol of identity, used as political weapon and ideology instrument as well as it is used for all intranational communication that is from one community to another or from one ethnic to another.
Code switching is the situation where more than one distinct languages used in the same conversation. That is speaker may use more than one language in the same conversation.
This combination of languages could be in the vocabulary or phrases, also it could be in the same sentence or within phrase or sentence patterns. There are various factors which cause code switching but the interest of the question is to show how/what social motives toward code switching. And in answering the question English and Kiswahili code - switching could be used as well as university is used as a context.
Code-switching is used as some sort of <-/prestigeous> that is to say the one who use codeswitching wants to show off how he is elite by knowing English and Kiswahili. This is due to the brainwashing which shows English language is prestige before Kiswahili.
Those educated people around the university use English when talking in Kiswahili for the <-/seak> of being recognised as university student only <*/>examp
<ea_>Nimekuja mara kumi lakimi situ sikukura bali bia<ea/> no body in your room.
Another social motivation is to show social distance This is to say code switch usually used to show the distance or <-/unitement>, powerful or solidarity between the speaker and hearer. Forisntance those who have the <-/intement> relation may switch from one code to another compared to those who are distance in the relation. <-/Forexample>.
I A: Mr Magaga how things?
B: Fine fine fine very fine how's yours.
IIA: <ea/>Hujambo
B: <ea/>Sijambo
The first two sentences show how Mr Magaga is close related to the speaker that is why he use Kiswahili phrase in his answer even though he use English.
Not only that but also code-switching is used when speaker wants to be well understood with his hearer. <-/Forinstance> when lecturer wants to be clear to the point or to put emphasis he uses Kiswahili so as to show what the point is meant or what the important of that point. So code-switching is used to show the important and the <-/clearity> of the point given. This is also occur in the students conversation.
Apart from that code-switching is used to show the proximity of the speakers. That is how they are nearly closed each other <-/forinstance> in university there are some people who came from the same area or neighbour from their homeland. They use code switching so as to show how far or how close they relate.
<-/Forexample> when the chagga or Haya meet they use their vernaculars to show their relation.
<-/There fore> code switching is used to show <-/approximity> between the users of language.
W1A012T
Code switching is the situation where by two languages or varieties are used when the discourse is on progress. Code switching can be in conversation, lecture, writing etc. It can be on two levels intra-sential where the code switching is within the word. eg. 'atanicinform ahifika'. and it can be in the boundaries of the clause (inter-sentencial). forexample;
Nitafiha Kesho but I will be late. There are three types of code switching. These include situational, metaphorical and converstional. The three types can be looked at three approaches social psychological, linguistic and interaction in communication.
Code switching occurs when there is some sort of motivation. One of these motivations include social motivation. The following are the social motivations and examples of situations to show the motivation and how they occur.
People tend to code switch inorde to increase or decrease the relationship as shown below.
A: Shikamivo (goodmorning)
B: maralialsa (I am fine thanks you)
A: Nimefiha Kuomba Kama Kuna nagasi ya Kusoma (I come to look for a chance to go to school)
B: Wewe ni hani (who are you)
A: I nyi nyi mono oko Romani (Kichaga)
(I am the daughter of Roman)
From this conversation it can be said that A decided to code switch from Kiswahili to Kichagga inorder to reduce the distance with hope that he can be helped.
Another social motivation which motivate people to code switch is to exclude others from the discourse on progress. This can be because they want to say something against him or they are speaking something which is a secret and they don't want it to be heard by others. This can happen in any situation where several people are having conversation.
Forexample;
A: Hali ya maisha Tanzania iriazidi Kuna ugumu [life is becoming tough in Tanzania]
B: By the way it has been caused by those in higher positions.
A: Amlsiya necha (Chagu) (be careful) you will be in trouble.
In this conversation A decided to codeswitch inorder to warn his friend. This might be perhaps there was a person in the group who he feared, that he could pass the message to the security officers.
Furthermore, the nature of the topic can cause people to codeswitch. This is manifested in situations like in the hospital where the doctors codeswitch inorder to make clarifications to the nurses or patients. forexample,
A: The patient is suffering from lack of immunity in his body.
B: Una maana Grani doctor (what do you mean)
A: Hana white blood cells za Kuloshei
B: white blood cell nu mini
A: Nyembechembe nyeupe zinazohaa Katika damn ya umandame
Here the doctor has decided to code switch inorder to make clarification to the nurse who seemed not to understand the terminologies which were used by the doctor.
Lack of proficiency in a eg also motivate people to codeswitch.
Forexample, In the parliament when the members are discussing issues some of them code-switch. in the process of trying to clarify the point he/she giving inorder to be understood. Forexample,
A: tuala zima la liberalization in gumu.
In this situation the speaker has decided to code switch because, perharphs he does not know the terminology of 'liberalization in Kiswahili. Also this kind of code switching appears in the classroom situation where teachers try to code-switch to the language which is more understood by the students so that he can be understood. 
Other people do code switch for show off. That is they want to show others that they are educated. In the case of Tanzania this happens in public buses where English is used to show that a person is educated forexample:
A: hujanipa chenchi yanpu
B: Usihofu nitahupa
A: Be careful, I am nearing my destination.
B: Usitutishe na Kirinfereza
A: Nilikunyima Kwenda shule.
Other social motivations include including, showing level of intimacy etc.
It can be concluded that code-switch does not occur from abstraction it occurs because of certain motivations. These include social, linguistic and interaction in communication.
Bilingualism is the situation where by an individual knows more than one language. It is termed individual because a society can be monolingual but you find some of its people who know more than one language or a society can be multilingual but you can find some people who know only one language.
The problem which encounters people is to what degree can we say that an individual is a bilingual. There are in some instances where an individual can be able to listen and read (receptive) and in some instances where an individual can speak and write (productive) should all these be regarded as bilingualist or semi bilingualist?
It has been agreed upon that there is no semi bilingualism, thus if an individual can understand more than one language whether fully, in receptive form or productive form he/she a bilingualist.
<h> Diglossia </h>
This is the situation where by two or more languages or varieties exist side by side each has a definite role to play. These existing languages, one is termed high (H) and the second is termed low (L). The high (H) variety is expected to be used in all official matters, to have a wide literature and to be acquired in the classroom. The low variety (L) is expected to be acquired at home, to be used in informal situations, to have less literature. A good example of diglossia Society is that of Arabia where there is colloqual Arabic which is used in informal matters and classical variety which is use in all official matters.
Thus diglossia is societal. It is determined by the society while Bilingualism is individual and it can be determined by the individual.
Language / dialect.
language and dialect can be distinguished depending on the area they cover, according to the view given by people concerning prestigeous, and the nature of how people define these two concepts.
language differ from dialect because it is used in wide area and by many people. It is reached by selecting one of the dialects which are existing within a speech community to be used by people in the official matters and all matters concerning that speech community. In this case the dialect chosen becomes a language as it will be used by many people and it will be regarded as prestigeous.
Dialect if formed from the language due to the variation in users. Thus it will tend to be used by small group of people, so in small areas and with less prestige.
Official language/national language
Official language is that language which has been agreed by the planners to be used in official matters such as in administration, schools and court.
The nature of this kind of language is that it can be known by few who are involved in these official matters. Forexample, in Tanzania English is an official language, but it has been proved that it can only be used by only 5 % of the people in Tanzania.
National language is the language which is meant to be known by all people in the nation. It is mainly used in situations where majority are involved. These situations include public meetings, mass campaigs etc. all of which aim at passing information to the majority. Forexample in Tanzania Kiswahili is the national language and it is known by the majority of Tanzanians.
In some circumstances the official can be a national language like the case of Tanzania where English and Kiswahili are used as official languages in some areas.
In Kenya Kiswahili (the national language is probably used by less people than English (the official language)
Many attempts have been made by different scholars to classify the languages of Africa. One of these scholars is Greenberg who made the attempt in 1963. He classified the African languages as follows. Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Congo, Kordofania and Khohisan groups.
In the attempt of classifying these languages Greenberg used several methods. These include resemblance method, mass comparison and linguistic evidence to validate what he had classified.
To start with, Greenberg used mass comparison which was aided by the resemblance method. That is he collected the items which were similar in form and meaning from different languages. He encompassed as many languages as possible (mass comparison). Then those items from different languages which were similar in form and meaning were groped together. Then he used the technique of linguistic evidence to judge which language to be grouped together. In this techniques he looked the morphology of the word and draw judgement.
The methods and the techniques which were used by Greenberg enabled him to use enough items (words) maps which helped him to encompass many languages. To avoid the problem of borrowing he used many languages with assumption that by using many languages he could minimize the problem of borrowing or loaning.
On the other hand it can be argued that the methods which were used by Greenberg have caused some improper grouping of the languages of Africa which demanded him to make modification.
Greenberg's use of resemblance method caused some inconveniences to him, because the resemblance method is concerned with similiarity in words. He forgot that some words can look similar because of chance forexample the word "Egg" in English and the word "Eggi" in Uganda they all mean the same thing. But we can't say that these two langugaes are the same. Also some words look similiar because of analogy. Forexample the word "Ndege" (aeroplane) in Kiswahili and the word "Ndege" in Nyarithvanda. We cannot say that these languages are related. Furthermore, there are words like "mama" for mother and "baba" for father which are commonly found in many languages eg: in Kiswahili 'mama' for mother and German the same word "mama" for mother. These are quite different languages.
Thus we can say that the use of resemblance method although it was accompanied by mass comparison with the aim of including more languages yet proved some unqualities. 
On top of that, by using the linguistic evidence as the criteria, it shows to some extent the element of subjectivity. Forexample, in African languages there is a tendency shorten some words in order to make the simplification of sounds in language thus by looking the morphology one cannot determine the relationship between languages.
To conclude we can say that Greenberg has tried much to classy the African languages and the methods which he used helped him to include many languages from Africa Thus what has to be done is to try to modify the methods which he used so as to come up with more advanced method which can show the real picture of the relationship between languages of Africa. 
W1A013T
Code-switching is a situation whereby two languages are used within a conversation.. Code-switching can be between languages or dialects. There are different types of code-switching. There is code-switching which is using two language between two sentences. For example Mini nitafika. Make sure you'll be around. This shows code-switching between Kiswahili and English.
There is intrasentetial code-switching which is using two languages within a sentence. For example 'Mitamumuite nyumbani.'
There is a claim that code-switching takes place among people who are conversant in the two languages for the language rules are followed.
There are several reasons or social motivations for code-switching.
Some people code-switch just for prestige. They code-switch from Low to High languages to show that either they are from high class or are educated. For example when people are talking in a group, it can happen that one of them might switch to high language for example from Kiswahili to English to show that he is educated.
Another situation is where-by one or a group want to exclude others from their conversation then they might code-switch to another language so as to exclude those who can not speak that particular language. For example if there are three people in a group and two people speak Kipare while the other one cannot then the two people might switch to Kipare so to exclude the others from their secret information.
Code-switching can happen when there is inclusion or interference of other members in the group and you need to include or exclude them in the conversation. For example one was talking Kiswahili to his friend then an intruder comes then he might switch on to another language so as to exclude him or switch to language which the intruder can understand.
The change of topic can also cause code-switching. This is because the topic may be clear or having terminologies which are best expressed in another language. For example if one is talking about science it won't be easy to use Kisukuma or Kimeru. To be more clear he switches on to English.
Code-switching is used when one wants to express certain emotions. For example if one is angry he might code-switch from Kiswahili to English for others thinks that when one abuse in English then there is euphimism than in Kiswahili. There can also be a case where one can switch either to his/her mother-tongue so as to be more expressive. For example when a boss has been annoyed by one of the workers below him. Mostly it happens that English is used more than Kiswahili. This also gives him superiority compared to the other worker.
Code-switching is used to bring people together or to create distance. For example there can be two people from the same ethnic group. It can happen that one of them might decide to code-switch to their ethnic language so as to create a sense of closeness. One might do it when asking for a favour. One can also code-switch so as to create distance. For example if one was using a vernacular with a friend or in a group, he might code-switch to another language, say Kiswahili or English so as to create the distance. For example one can enter into someones office and speak their mother-tongue for example Kichagganvanting to be closer to the person in the office. The person in the office might note this and not wanting to be close, will code-switch to other more business like language like English.
Sometimes people code-switch so as to fill up gaps. For example one might not find a better word to express a certain thing and therefore code-switch to language which expresses better. This can happen when the person is not competent in the language he is using.
Code-switching can be planned or unplanned. This is known as marked and unmarked. Code-switching is common in the society and not easy to avoid in a society with more than one language.
Bilingualism is a situation whereby an individual is able to speak and understand two languages. There is complete bilingualism where-by a person is competent in both languages. This means one can speak and write and understand the two languages competely. There is a case whereby one can be semi-bilingual. This is a situation whereby one is more competent in one language but not in the other. May be he can understand the other language but cannot write. An example of bilingualism can be where one has his ethnic language for example Kichagga and another language like Kiswahili or English.
Diglossia is a situation whereby two languages exist side by side in a society but their is divition or specialization of function. This is a case where-by each language has its special domains of use. This results to High and Low languages. For example in Tanzania there is the Vernacular and Kiswahili. The Vernaculars are Low while Kiswahili is High. Kiswahili is used in official matters and administration. It is also a language of parliament. These are its domains. The vernaculars are used informally between informal conversations or at home.
Diglossia deals with society as a whole while bilingualism deals with an individual. 
Bilingualism does not have specialization one can be bilingual by having two languages like Kichagga and Kipare or English and French.
Diglossia is a result of conflict in languages and not complementary while Bilingualism is complementary.
Language and dialect differ. A language is big in size. A dialect is found within a language. For example Kiswhahili in one language with varies dilects like Kimuita, Kiunguja and Kialamu.
Language has a prestige unlike a dialect. Dialects are just taken as mere classification of groups diveging from a language.
A dilect is used to show distinctions which occurs or are found in one language to various reasons like geographical factors or educational facters. 
A dilect deals with mutual intelligibility. Dialects are mutually intelligible. For example in case of Kiswahili, one speaking Kimuita will be understood by one speaking Kiunguja. Though this has been a problem with others. For example dilects of Kichagga are not mutually intelligible. Someone from Machame can not understand Kivunjo.
Languages are not mutually intelligible. We can have Kiswahili as a language. English as a language, Kihehe and German. Official Language is a language chosen among languages spoken in a Nation to be used for more official and administrative matters. In most cases it is a language of prestige, of the elite and holds a High position compared to others in the society. Tanzania has two official languages. There is Kiswahili and English. This are languages used in offices, higher institutions and government affairs. In Kenya there is English as official language and so is Uganda. Most official languages in African countries are languages inherited from their colonial masters. For example in Zaire they have French and so is Rwanda and Burundi. Official language can therefore used for international matters.
Official language can be languege chosen from the indegenous languages or a language from outside. For example English is from outside of Tanzania while Kiswahili is a indigenous language.
A National language is a language chosen among languages spoken in the country to be a national language, it serves National functions eg a language for communication in the society. It is language chosen to be used by everybody and to create neutrality. In most cases a National language is chosen among languages with many speakers. For example Igho in Higena and Kiswahili in Tanzania.
A National language is not necessarily the official language. For example in Kenya, Kiswahili is the National language but not the official language. 
A National language can also be a language from outside the Nation. For example in Malawi, there is English and in Zambia also English is the National language. It is the language inherited from the colonial masters.
National language is mostly used to creat stability in a country and avoid ethnic conflicts. For example Kiswahili in Tanzania.
In some cases the official language belongs to the few elite and not available to others as compared to English in Tanzania or in Kenya. English is used by those who have gone to school. 
There are several scholars, who claimed that Kiswahili is more Arabic and that it originated from Arabic. There is also a notion that Kiswahili is a pidgin. It is a mixture of Bantu languages and Arabic. Others says that Kiswahili originated from the off-springs of Arabic and the local Bantu speakers of the coast. It is said that the Arab traders intermarried with the local women and therefore the children learnt a little Arabic and Bantu and the mixture turned to Kiswahili.
There is also a claim that when the Arabs came to trade with the Bantu, they had to search for a language to communicate and as a result due to mixing Arabic & Kiswahili Kiswahili was formed.
Another linguist called Malwin Guthine came up with a better linguistic explanation. He did his research on Kiswahili and found that Kiswahili is 44 % resembling the Proto-Bantu and therefore concluded that Kiswahili is pure Bantu.
Kiswahili has most of the characteristics found in Bantu languages.
The word class formation resembles that of other Bantu languages For example in Kiswahili on can say: Myanya imeiva in Kichagga which is also a Bantu they say.
Myanya iwiri. The words of have my in initial position and i in the verb
There is the subject verb agreement. For example.
mtoto - watoto (child - children)
	mit - miti (tree - trees
	kitoto - vitoto
This shows even how pluralism and singularism can be shown in Kiswahili as other languages. For example in Kichagga there is
	mana - wana (child - children
	kitima - shitima (chair - chairs
	kitara - shitara (bed - beds
This was a characteristic of Bantu language which included Kiswahili.
Kiswahili like any other Bantu language it does not have gender reference. When one is talking, there is no place or identification to show that the thing they are talking is refered as male of female
There is agglutinative in Kiswahili as in other Bantu languages. Words can be segmented eg mtoto anakuja.
It can be segmented as m-toto a-na-kuj-a. This also is a case in most Bantu languages as proved by Guthrie. For example in Kikuyo one can say.
	Oka haha - (meaning come here)
This can be segmented to O-ka ha-ha.
The phonological arrangement of Kiswahili also resembles that of Bantu. For example Kiswahili is arranged as CVCV or VVCV.
C=Consonant. V=Vowel. For example.
cv cv vv cv
mama, aina. This arrangement resembles other Bantu languages. For example in Kichagga one can say cv cv cvvcv
	Mama naicha (meaning mother is coming. This has the same arrangents as Kiswahili. In Kikuyu there is cv cv vcvcv
	Meke Orenda ? meaning what do you want. There is cvcv vcvcv. Therefore the phonological arrangement is similar.
Guthrie proved this by comparing Kiswahili with a number of Bantu languages.
The fact that Kiswahili has many Arabic words is a result of borrowing. This is because of the influence of Arabic on the language. This can be because they existed together and also introduction of other domains like Islamic religion along 
W1A014T
The term code-switching refers to the situation where a single speaker uses a mixture of two varieties of language or two languages as discourse proceeds. Code-switching may occur within a sentence or at the sentence boundary. So there are intra-sentencial and inter-sentencial code-switching respectively. An example of intra-sentencial code-switching is "Nitam-inform kuwa watoto wake wanamisbehave" and an example of inter-sententencial code-switching is "Rais anatembelea mkoa wa Tabora. Actually he is campaigning for CCM." Basically this tendency of juxtaposing the two varieties or two langugae does not occur randomly. There are some motivations that make the speaker to code-switch. These include showing off, lack of proficiency, need for clarity, inclusivity or exclusivity, to increase or decrease social distance, nature of a group and nature of topic.
With regard to show-off, there are instances when a speaker wants to show his or her audience that he or she is a learned person, he or she knows various language and he or she knows a lot of terminologies as such he or she may tend to code-switch from one language to another. A very good example is secondary school students in Tanzania who usually code-switch from Swahili to English as they talk to their young brothers and sisters who are still in primary school and can not speak English.
Also there are instances when a speaker is not that fluent in a given language. As such when he finds it difficult to proceed with discourse in the language he or she has been using, he or she tends to code-switch to another language. A very good example is some Tanzanian youths who are semi-elite. These usually code-switch from English to Swahili in their everyday conversations.
The need for clarity is another social motivation for code-switching. This usually happens when the speaker feels that by code-switching he or she will be able to make his or her point clear to his or her audience and therefore be very understood. An example of such instance can be found in Tanzanian classroom situation particularly at the secondary school level where teachers code-switch to clarify the subject matter to their students.
Code-switching is also the means to exclude or include some members of the group in a given special event. For example in a group of 10 participants who do not have equal acces to equal number of languages few of them may code-switch to a language not known to other members of the group in order to exclude them and vice-versa. An example may be drawn from a group of say 10 Tanzanians who share one language, Kiswahili, in Common but only four of them know English. In this case whenever those four participants feel that their fellows should be excluded from a certain point they will tend to code-switch to English and whenever they feel that their fellows should be included in the conversation they will speak Kiswahili.
Moreover code-switching is used Quite often to increase or decrease social distances. This is quite so when when the speaker thinks that by code-switching he will make his or her audience feel that they are quite close or quite distant from each other. A good example can be drawn from various working places where junior workmen tend to communicate to their superior in non-official language if the two share one vernacular so as to make them feel that they are brothers or sisters. A contrast point occurs when the boss stick on official language to make the junior workmen feel that what unites them is business not brotherhood and by doing so he increases social distance.
The nature of the topic may compell the speaker to code-switch from one language to another in efforts to find the good terminology or expression that would suit in the discussion. For instance in workshops and seminars organized by Tanzanian engineers and scientists there is a tendency to code-switch from Swahili to English because there are instances when some scientific and technological term are difficult to find in Kiswahili.
This also goes together with the nature of the group. That if the speaker knows that his or her group would be quite Comfortable with the use of two varieties or language he or she may be seen code-switching now and then.
In Tanzanian context this usually occur when the audience Comprises learned people such as doctors, engineers, teachers, beuracratics and lawyers. In their interaction be it a workshop, seminar, meeting or conversation they will tend to code-switch from Swahili to English.
Finally, as it has been discussed code-switching is a purposeful tendency especially after one has evaluated the advantages or disadvantages one is going to get in course of codeswitching. However, there are times when the speaker code-switch unconsciously because of his being competent in the two languages.
 (i) Bilingualism refers to the situation where a person is capable of using more than one variety or language at his or her own will. For example one who is able to use English and Kiswahili
Diglossia on the other hand refers to a relatively stable language situaion whereby two or more varieties or languages exist side by side each assigned definite functions in the community. For instance in Baghdad or Teheran usually people use their local version of Arabic in informal sitting like at home, conversations and shoping. This local version is considered as low (L). But when it comes to official business, education, mass media and Sermon in Mosque they use the Standard variety of Arabic which is considered High (H). the most important thing is that the distribution of the two varieties or language should be complementary and not competing in nature.
The difference between bilingualism and Diglossia is that bilingualism is an affair of an individual speaker whereas diglossia is the affair of the society or community in general.
 (ii) Language means a system of forms carrying meaning and used for communication in a given Communiy
Dialect on the other hand is a distinct form of language which differs from other forms of the same language in terms of some linguistic features such as pronunciation, vocabulary and sometimes grammar.
The difference between the two can be considered in two aspects namely size and prestige. With regard to size it is maintained that a language is larger than a dialect. That is to say the language Contains more items than a variety. It may be seen as containing the sum total of all terms of all ist dialects. And with regard to prestige the language usually enjoys higher status or is more prestigeous that the dialect. For example in Great Britain and other parts of the world the Standard English which is Considered to be the language is more prestigeous than other dialect of English such as Yorkshire, Wellish and Irish. It is the language that is used in government, Education and Mass Media.
(iii) Official language is a language that has been adopted to be used in all government, Courts of Law and other domains related to official business. In one Country there may be more than one official language. For example in Tanzania both Kiswahili and English are official languages. In Egypt both English and Arabic are official languages
National language refers to the language that has been declared to be the major language of a nation. The national language can be as well used as official language but not vice versa. In some cases the national language is the natural language of the nation but the one which is widely spoken like Kiswahili in Tanzania and Kenya. In other cases it can be a foreign language like English in Uganda and Zambia. Generally the national language apart from facilitating Communication it is aimed at consolidating national Unity whereas official language is oriented towards official Communication. As such the national language is always one in each nation whereas official languages may be more than one. 
W1A015T
What are the social motivations for code-switching?
It would be better to give, first, a definition of codeswitching and then discuss the social motivations for it. Codeswitching is the use of two or more languages in one speech act or in a single communicative event.
In order this use of more than one language to be effective, there are social motivations which, among others, are: the switching for identification; switching for excluding other people; switching for increasing the closeness; switching for decreasing the gap of closeness and switching for showing one's status in Society.
In many societies which are multilingual or bilingual, codeswitching is done sometimes as matters of identification. If, for instance, a Mhaya meets another Mhaya in Tanga after learning his tribe from is Kiswahili accent, the first one may want to identify himself to the second. Therefore, the first will stop speaking Kiswahili and then begin Kihaya.
For instance Rwebangira meets Mulokozi in Tanga; Rwebangará says: "Naomba unionyeshe njiy ya kwenda Usagara Secondary School". And Mulokozi after listening to Rwebangará, notes Kihaya accent in Rwebangira's Kiswahili, Mulokozi would ask: "Where do you come from", "I come from Kagera". Mulokozi may say: "Oh, oli muntu w'omka?" Rwebangira may say "Inya weitu, naiwe". And then their conversion clude continue. This example is hypothetical, however, the truth is this case is all in Rwebangira or Mulokozi should have noticed something in each other so that codeswitching for identification to take place.
Because different live in same and similar Communities; two persons showing linguistic capabilities in more than one language, and they are in a group of many people who do not share these capabilities, and they have something confidential they may exchange some ideas by codeswitching so that certain ideas or concepts which should not be known can be spoken in a different language.
Sometimes, people may switch so that they can decrease the social gap between them. For instance a lecturer of the university of Dar esSalaam talking to his/her clerk in office, may be tempted to codeswitching in English and Kiswahili so that his/her clerk to understand. However, this situation can be defined as codeswitching for the sake of being understood, but whereby this happens as a result lowering one's status It should be regarded as for decreasing the gap.
One may also codeswitch so that the can show off himself or show his status. A Secondary School form two Student may codeswitching in travelling in the bus or train in order to show the travellers that he is educated. He codeswitches From Kiswahili to English to show that he has a certain status. Here, the best example is that of a degree holder travelling in the bus, and the bus conductor takes it for granted or unknowingly that every person is uneducated; for instance, if this passanger were travelling in the villages areas: If there occurs misunderstanding between the bus conductor and that passanger who is a degree holder, this fellow may decide to speak both in Kiswahili and English to show that he is not equal to the bus conductor.
However, there are other social motivations for codeswitching, which are intertwined with other motivations. in an Institution like the University of Dar es Salaam (which is a Social group) of its kind, the students would be motivated to codeswitch as the result of the need to be clear in their discussions. One one hand, their incompetence in English and their knowledge of Kiswahili may motivate them to codeswitch between Kiswahili and English.
So, it is clear that, there are several Social motivations for codeswitching, those discussed above: the need to exclude other people; to show one's status; one's attitude towards a certain language; the need to decrease or increase the gap between the speakers. Because language is used as we socially view the world, the change of the world or situation will also lead us to change our language. If one meets the world of the learned people and uses their language, when he meets the world the unlearnt people he will try to change and associate with it. 
There are at least three possible approaches in dealing with ethnic community languages (vernaculars) in Tanzania: To comment on each of the three approaches pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Before I begin to comment on each approach, I would like to comment: that the linguistic situation and need in Tanzania is different from other, let's say, East African or African Countries. The strongest point I can give here is that the use of Kiswahili language which is a national langue is not explicitly rejected by many ehtnic groups. With this kind of acceptability of Kiswahili by many ethnic groups, I will examine each approach.
(i) develop all the ethnic community languages and use them as media of instruction and official communication at local level. The advantages of doing that, all people in these ethnic communities will understanding best all social, economic and political programs which they are presented in their ethnic languages, where as these languages are well developed to communicate the required concepts and knowledge.
the local officials might discuss with their people and make decisions without losing the meaning of some information given in Kiswahili. For instance some people, old ones, do not understand all the information given at village meetings in Kiswahili, instead they have to ask others to interpret for them.
Thirdly, the local community can preserve its culture and language instead of language shift towards Kiswahili.
But, on the other hand, there some disadvantages in effecting this approach. These disadvantages are economic and political. In countries like, Tanzania, Kiswahili, has helped to some extent, the national Unity and tranquility; it also facilitated communication. Secondly, the developing of every ethnic language would require a lot of money, which the country does not have. Because, there are more than 120 ethnic languages in Tanzania, to develop all these to be the media of instruction at local level would be costly. It is better to continue having Kiswahili for all media of instruction and official communication at local level for quick national unity and economic progress.
(ii) develop only a few "major" ethnic community languages and use them as media of instruction and official communication at local level. This approach has these advantages: a certain area where major dialects are spoken can be developed and used, eg. Kisukume for regions like Murunza, Shinyanga, and Tabora; Kihaya in Kagera, for Wahaya, Wanyambo, and Wahangaza, these people are near each other and they can facilitate their communication very simply and bring them together. But there some disavantages in this approach: these few "major" ethnic community languages which instigate tribal hatred and confrontation. For instance, the Nyawezi would think Kinamrozi dialect should be the only media of instruction in the three regions mentioned, or the Sukuma would claim be be a major tribe and this will lead to superiority because of majority Falaey.
Yet other disadvantages are as I mentioned in approach (i). No financial resources for planning developing the languages to serve the purpose; then regionalism, instead of nationalism, will be high in the country; national unity can be endangered.
(iii) Ignora all ethnic community languages in favour of Kiswahili and English.
This approach, has some disadvantages, if viewed from a linguistic point of view. That every language is equal to another language. Therefore there should not any deliberate move to kill other languages in favour of Kiswahili and English. People should be allowed to use their vernacular languages at home and for their personal communications and interractions. 
Equally there very fundamental advantages to following this approach in Tanzania. Political reasons, this country needs accelerated development and unity. Kiswahili has already done its role in unifying Tanzanians. In Tanzania, a Mchangga from Moshi become the District Commissioner or Regional Commissioner; in Kagera where Kihaya is spoken; he does so because he uses Kiswahili and a Muhaya does so in Arusha because of the use of Kiswahili.
Educationally, we have very few secondary and universities in Tanzania, due to this situation the use of Kiswahili and English has helped these who would have learnt in ethnical languages to come together and learn in Kiswahili and English.
Politically, these reasons for knowledge of widely spread languages in business internally and externally can not be overemphasized. the Use of Kiswahili in Tanzania facilitates for the communication process in terms of movement and commercial activities. As regards English, technological and scientific needs require us at this material time to to continue using English so that we can acquire knowledge and expand business and communication with the international community. If in Britain; Kiswahili in BBC and USA, voice of America, Kiswahili is used why can not we use English.
(b) From my arguments, above I would advice the government to adapt approach number (iii). The reasons are: from the economic situation facing this country lot of money is need to develop the ethnic languages to the intentions mentioned. The economic situation both internal and external needs a certain language, therefore, in order for Tanzanians to communicate in Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Ruanda and Burundi, Kiswahili is very important. English for overseas fundementally important.
From a political point of view, with multiparty in Tanzania where forces of religion, tribalism, religionalism (majimboism), "Tangariyaikaism" are on the surface, the talk about "major" ethnic community languages to be developed for communication can not be anticipated a danger in ist own light.
Lastly for the rapid expansion of scientif and technological advance in the international arena; the knowledge of Kiswahili and English are very important for both the international language, technology is obtained through mainly three ways: through joint venture: sending people to study abroad; and creative capacity by the people concerned in their country. For joint venture and studies abroad need the knowledge of internal languages, there is no way one can ignore them. Even, creative capacity by the people concerned can not be done properly by ignoring outside technological and scientific inventions and discoveries, taking other people's technology and applying it so one's countries experience is very important. So Kiswahili and English should the main approach by the Tanzanian government. 
W1A016T
Code is a language or language variety, and then code-switching is using of two or more languages or varieties in the same speech event. As the name suggests, more <-/convinienlty> code-switching is switching from one variety to another in the same discourse. If someone is speaking English, for example he may use Kiswahili in the same discourse and come back to English. The following examples are given to illustrate this point:
Speakers A and B speak two languages at the same setting Switching from one to another. The code-switching may be at Inter-sentential or intrasentential level. 
There are claims by some linguists that code switching is done randomly. However, in my view; this contention is not true. There is always a reason that lead a speaker to code-switch. People do codeswitch to increase or decrease their distance to their addressee. These reasons are evidences that there are social motivation for code switching. The following are some of social motivation for code-switching.
Firstly, people do code switch to include or exclude others. In Tanzanian case, to include mean that, speakers switch from English to Swahili to show that they are Tanzanians and Africans. This is obvious done by the educated people who are afraid of being seen different
On the other hand speakers in Tanzania would code switch to show that they are educated. The following two examples illustrate these two situations respectively.
Secondly people do codeswitch for clarification. According to research conducted by Rubagumya, in two Dar es Salaam Secondary schools, this is used as a Strategy in Teaching. When a teacher finds that his pupils fail to understand something, he uses Kiswahili instead of English.
Another reason for code-switching in Tanzania is lack of proficiency in English. When speakers think or fail to express him/her/self in English The quickest solution he finds is to switch into Kiswahili. The following is an example of student-representative in the university council.
This speaker found it easier to express himself in and he then switches to Kiswahili
Another motivation for code switch is show-off. In Tanzanian situation there are people who switch from Swahili to English just for show off. They just want other people to know that they can speak English and hence they are educated. Example: In a <ea/>daladala recently in Dar es Salaam: 
Speaker A wants B to know that he (A) knows English and therefore should be considered superior and hence his request to drop at that bus stop should be accepted on that ground.
In Tanzanian Situation people also do code-switch in insulting others. This is very common in many societies; people like to insult others in a foreign language. This leads us to another related reason of motivation. When people feel that certain Swahili word is <-/euphimistic> they use English. It seems that the general tendency is to avoid using "bad" words or the so called <ea/>matusi: When we would expect a speaker to say for example '<ea/>nilitomba' he would say We slept together. It is very rare to hear such a word even in Privacy even where there are only two persons. In our group discussion one student says 'that word' and two female students moved away and the discussion was postponed. This shows that the speaker was expected <-/wether> to say it in English or to use "softer" word.
There are also times when people who are competent in two or more languages to code-switch unconsciously. This motivation seem to be a combination of others, some people have already develop a tendency of speaking two languages at the same time.
There are also times when people code switch because of change of topic or participant.
In a class for example when students (at the university) get into class they greet each other in <-/Swaihili> but when they start discussing academic matters they quickly switch into English. In the same line there are cases where people from the same ethnic group speak their mother tongue and when a third person comes in they switch into <-/Swaihili>. This has been <-/discribed> by Kadighe 1990 as situational code-switching.
The above discussion shows that code switching is generally a purposeful thing not randomly not accident.
bilingualism/diglossia: 
Bilingualism is a situation where an Individual can speak more than one language. It is this situation which makes one bilingual. The level of proficiency on both languages may be or may not be of the same level. Example. Ability to speak both Kiswahili and English or Kiswahili and Kiherhe. More than half of the world population is bilingual and in every country in the world there are more than one languages spoken by its people. China seem to retain its language and many Chinese Contrary to many other people speak only their language.
Bilingual therefore is at the individual level, his ability to use more than one language. The question of mastering all skills, however is not a condition for one to be bilingual. He may be very quick and speaking and writing but not in reading and listening. 
diglossia. 
Diglossia is a situation where two languages or varieties exist in a society and each language is assigned a different role. One of the languages is Considered High (H) and the other one is Considered (L) The H variety is used in Education Systems, government offices and for International affairs, while the L variety is learnt and used mainly at home. If we draw an example from Tanzania, we see that overlapping <-/diaglossic> situation exists. One involving English and Kiswahili, High and Low respectively. English is used in Tanzania in Education System, <-/Corts> of Law by judges in writing the cases while Kiswahili is used at homes in streets and at the market.
On the other hand, there is Kiswahili a high variety and vernacular as Low varieties. In this case Kiswahili is used in primary schools, in government communication and its departments while vernaculars are used at homes and between ethnic Communication. bilingualism and diglossia could be distinguished at two levels:
Firstly, bilingualism is an individual ability while diglossia is a societal. We say Hamisi is bilingual but Tanzania is a diglossic country
Secondly bilingual is not using the languages for different roles, while diglossic is more of specialization among the languages.
There fore bilingualism and diglossia denote using two or more languages but differently as explained above i.e. there no specialization in bilingual case but there is in diglossic situation.
Language/dialect. 
Language is an arbitrary system of Communication of vocal symbols used by human beings. Dialect is a variety of language <-*/>distinc by <-/pronounciation> vocabulary and grammar. In a sense both language and dialect are means of Communication.
However, the two terms can be distinguished using three <-/criterias>
Language is Considered to be spoken by a larger number of people than dialect in terms of areas and speakers. This is the criteria of Size: Example: English, spoken all over the world is a language while South African English spoken in South Africa is dialect. Likewise Kiswahili is a language while Kimangata is a dialect. However this criteria is not applicable at every situations because it is not surprising to see that a certain language has a fewer speaker than a certain dialect of another language.
The other Commonly used criteria is PRESTIGE: Language is Considered or seen to have a higher prestige that a dialect lacks
A person speaking English for example would be Considered more <-/presigious> than one speaking one of Nigeria English dialects.
The third criteria is mutual intelligibility When two speakers understand each other they <-/>they are said to speak the same language. When there is no mutual intelligibility they are said to speak two different dialects of the same language. This criteria is not universal. Sukuma speakers and Nyarmezi speakers or Nyarwanda and Hutu understand each other but they are said to speak different languages. On the other hand Machame and Vunjo speakers can not understand each other but they are said to speak the same language ie Chagga.
However application of these criteria seem not to satisfy the distinction between language and dialect but they give us clue on how language differ from dialect.
Official language and national language: 
Official language is a language that has been used by a certain nation to be used in official transaction business and Communication. This means that the government ministry and departments use the official language. This brings about uniform and ovoid confusion for if any government official decides to use a language he wishes there would be confusion in the Communication process. In Tanzania it was declared by the government that official language be Swahili. However, many government records are written in English. A judge in <-/cort>, for example would write descriptions in English but speak to the offender in Swahili
National language on the other hand is a <-/dilect> that has been chosen by a nation to be used not only in official matters but all in the county as whole. Normally, the <-/diact> chosen is the one known by the majority of the citizen. National language carries the national culture. Communication between government and its citizen is normally done in the national language.
During Arusha Declaration Kiswahili was made a national and official language in Tanzania and therefore official and national languages are <-/correferential> if they <-/concide>.
During the year 1970's many Tanzanians felt quite proud of Kiswahili and speaking of vernacular in public was seen as a bad thing. It was commonly heard people warning others "<ea_>Sema lugha ya Tarifa<ea/>" (Speak the national language.
So official language is more of government transactions, business and administration while national language involves the masses.
The first approach that of developing all ethnic community languages and uniting them as media of instruction and official communication at local level would have the following advantages. First, at national level it will be an enrichment and language would be considered a resource worth to maintaining. Secondly instruction may be highly rewarding as each learner learns his/her mother tongue. Thirdly ethnic cohesion will be enforced as well as cultural influence magnified. On the other hand these would be disadvantages as well. First it is very expensive for the nation to cater for the educational needs through the language of each ethnic group. For example Tanzania with 150 ethnic group communities. It is even more expensive to employ a staff knowledgeable to all the ethnic community languages. Secondly, this will <-/minize> Contact between one ethnic community and another and so reduce tolerance between them. Thirdly because of strong ethnic influence changes will not be accepted easily in terms of Cultural since each ethnic community will be willing keep them and inculcate in their children.
In the second approach whereby only a few major ethnic community languages will be developed and used as media of instruction and official communication at local level, would have the following merits. First, it is enrichment to the nation as many more languages are allowed to be maintained. Secondly it is less expensive to execute the programme when compared to the above approach although it can not be estimated just how many languages would be considered few which will depend upon the number and size of each ethnic community. Thirdly the approach will expand communication by providing extra channels to other ethnic groups which would be adding another language to their repertoire. However there are disadvantages as well. First, it is an expensive undertaking especially where you have many dominant or major ethnic language communities. Second it arises a sense of being dominated by major language ethnic communities particularly the less advantaged, that is the minority language ethnic groups. Thirdly usually where you have major recognized languages, there will always be a prestige accorded to these groups in which these language groups may have advantage over other groups which again may stir conflicts and regular clashes. Fourth, it is difficult to arrive to the decision as to which should constitute the major groups, bias will always prevail depending on who is in power or by reason of historical background, for example if a certain major ethnic Community opposed the liberation struggle during the war of liberation, also social factors may lead to difficulties. This bias would then lead to each ethnic group attempting to grab power to establish itself as a major language ethnic group.
The third approach where all the ethnic community languages are ignored and in its place Kiswahili and English replaced. This approach has the following disadvantages. First it gives the impression that ethnic languages are not a resource but a problem. However since language is culture and culture determines the behaviour of the speakers, by suppressing these languages it would mean denying them inherited cultural rights and subjecting them to alien ones. Secondly the approach would reduce royalty to traditional authorities because their culture will have no support from bodies of the government. <-/Fourthly> as a consequence you have a nation in which the people would finally lack the cultural orientation but in favour of alien ones. On the other hand the benefits of this approach would be as follows. First of all, the approach would solve the problems of conflicts between diverse ethnic language communities competing for power. Secondly each language ethnic community will be left out to die a natural death, since the languages Kiswahili and English will reward well those who will respond to them by offering opportunities. Thirdly, since these languages would not be falling one side, being neutral, in that they do not belong specifically to a particular group being neutral (in case of English) it may bring a sense of unity, a nationalism sentiment, each considering oneself as a part of the whole. <-/Fourthly> the approach would help external communication countrywide because of the shared knowledge of the language. <-/Fifthly> administratively, politically and economically it is easier to coordinate and mobilize the fractions of the government, different campaigns through the mass media and other areas which may help hasten the pace of development.
The approach which I would advise the government to adopt would be the third approach, that of ignoring all the ethnic community languages in favour of Kiswahili and English. The reasons are as follows. First by using this approach we would be out looking, that is looking with a broad perspective. The world today looks at countries or language ethnic communities, and even then there is still the need to have one language which would unite the whole people of the world. This need arises because of the increased cooperation between nations in terms of Cultural, social political and economic. This increased Cooperation requires closer communication especially where free communication can be achieved. Businessmen of one country to be able to discuss with businessmen of other countries and so forth. Similarly within the country ethnic walls are broken and people share experiences an other things freely without ethnic reservations. Although may not necessarily bring peace to prevail because of other factors, yet this approach will reduce the possibility of tribal clashes to grab power in order to promote their own languages. In terms of academics/school instruction the learners will be exposed to much more developed cultural world by reading literature from various parts of the world being aware of development in other countries and considering themselves as part of the Universe and not an isolated part in the corner of the world knowing only the limits of his/her ethnic community.
Code switching may be defined as the juxtaposition within the discourse of two different language systems or subsystems. Code switching is not done randomly but it is purposeful. Code switching is possible where first of all there exists varieties of language, also where linguistic competence in either languages is not complete, also where the participants share both systems. The social motivations for code switching are as follows:
One of the motives is to identify oneself. This happens when either one wants to identify himself as to belong to a particular group. This happens in situations such as the following.
(i) Would want to show that he is educated. Look at this example:
In this case possibly B senses that A is an educated person and therefore he would want to show him that he is also educated.
(ii) In the above illustration possibly A thinks that B does not know Kiswahili and therefore adds '<ea/>nebura' thinking that he would not understand unfortunately B does understand and he shows this in his utterance.
Such cases and many others do occur in order to identify himself as above or as of a particular nationality or tribe.
The second motivation is for exclusion or inclusion purposes. For example when two participants are in a discourse, an intruder may intervene, they wouldn't want him to understand and so code switch.
Someone intervenes:
Thirdly, sometimes it is used to increase or decrease the distance between the two participants. For example (decreasing distance)
Other motives include the need for secrecy or intimacy and sometimes it is only for show off that someone knows both languages.
Finally it must be remembered that incompetence in both varieties may also lead to code switching without necessarily involving any motive for the mentioned above. Let's say a tourist from German, not fluent in either Kiswahili or English would for example say:
In conclusion, we see that code switching is a usual occurrence where you have varieties of a language or bilingual community and people manipulate code switching to their advantage. 
W1A017T
In this case it is of most important to consider the material facts of the case on relation to provisions given in statute.
I also <-_owes><+_owe> the duty to examine this case; if at all can fall under the provisions of S. 203 of Tanzanian Penal Code.
On making this clear before court of Law the following alternative should be considered: -
"A person is deemed to have caused the death of another although his act is not the <-/emmediate> or sole cause of death if he inflict bodily injury on another person on consequence of which he undergoes surgical treatment which causes death".
Considering that <-/qoatation> is deemed to have caused the death of Y.
As we went on the statute qualifies such medical treatment that should be given with good faith and common knowledge.
In the case in hand the material facts suggest that the deceased although received medical treatment; It is not clearly shown that the medical treatment was not the proper one.
The case in hand also can be judged by looked upon S. 196 of Tanzanian Penal code where by the issue of Malice <-/afore thought> has been raised as to <-/proove> the intention of the accused to commit murder.
Furthermore there is a legal principle stands on the decision of the court when death occurs in cause of fight. It states when death occurs in cause of fight the accused will not be deemed to have <-/commited> murder. This is per Mohamed Nite v. R.
As the case of medical treatment is concerned the case of R v Jordan can best explain this case where by an accused stabbed the deceased in the abdomen where by he caused death after the improper treatment.
The judgement in this case stated that the treatment was the palpably wrong and had produced symptoms which were the direct and <-/immediat> cause of death.
I also <-/concurr> in this decision as to be taken a precedent in the case in hand considering use of concoction of herbs to the wound which caused the death of the deceased by gangrenous infection.
Therefore the X's conviction should be quashed.
It is true that criminal law punish whoever <-/committ> an offence; with the inclusion of two important elements. The first is guilt mind of the accuse person and the second the Actus reus.
<-/Morever> it is true that no wrong act will go unpunished.
Before going to explain more about the criminal liability of the accused person in question, the issues will be of vital important.
As the facts states, the first issue is whether the accused <-/cauth> the death with malice; the second issue is whether there was intention to cause death on throwing a child into the pool water and whether the offence is murder.
I better state my essay by pointing out how the law express the offence, under the Penal code s. 196 of Tanzania.
Any person who of malice aforethought causes the death of another person by an unlawful act or omission is guilt of murder.
The above section requires the element of <-/means> rea ie <-/guilt> mind of the person who did the unlawful killing. If a person with intention and been aware that the way he/she did his act will cause the death of another within the time of one year and a day he/she is a murderer.
From the facts it shows that the husband was provoked by his wife and in the misunderstanding caused injury to the boy of which he did not intend to cause <-/bodly> harm.
The issue here is whether after causing injure to his boy he intend to escape from liability by throwing a boy to the river.
It is true that he did intend to hide the act although mistakenly belief that the boy has died. In the case of R. v. CHURCH. The accused fight with a woman and after, he thought that the women has died, then through her into the river where the woman died later.
The accused on defending <-/himselfe> he said he believed that the deceased to be dead at the time of throwing her into the river. In the first court it was held that the accused believed that the deceased has died then was charged of manslaughter.
On appeal the court held that although the directions was defective on manslaughter the case was a suitable one for the application of proviso s. 4 (I) of criminal Appeal Act 190.
The section states that where the accused acts can be treated as part of the same transaction the fact that he <-/belived> his victim to be dead when he threw her into the rivers does not in law render him innocent of murder.
Therefore from the above judgement it seems clear that the accused did knew surely that the boy has died and in so believing threw him out to the river. Here he can not escape the liability under criminal law.
In the Penal code s. 200 it provide that Malice aforethought shall be deemed to be established ... by an intention by the act or omission to facilitate the flight or escape from custody of any person who has committed or attempted to commit a felony.
The accuse himself he was intending to escape from liability and he <-/knews> clearly that the act he did was a <-/wrongfull> act prohibited by law. He was an intent to <-/misled> the state and the court of law as in the case of R. v. MUTONO s/o Luigo
In this case the accused killed his wife by hanged her by the neck to a tree and so doing killed her. It was held that the offence of manslaughter according to Uganda Penal code is different however it was held that hanging was an unlawful act under s. 84 of the Uganda Penal code, done with intent of fabricating evidence and with intent to mislead a tribunal in judicial proceedings.
Therefore the accused was for sure intended to fabricate the evidence, that is why he <-/di> through the boy to the river so as to be known by the society that the boy died by falling in the river.
The legal problem that is provided, raises the issue whether a person killing another person due to his belief that that person was already dead as a result of his act or omission, is guilty of unlawful homicide.
There is evidence that the accused had aimed the kick at his wife but it accidentally landed on their three year old child making it <-/unconsius>. The accused with belief that the child is dead had thrown it in water. To constitute murder, malice aforethought has to accompany that unlawful act or omission which has caused the death, this is by virtue of section 196 of Tanzania Penal code. Section 200 of the same Act, provides what is deemed to establish malice aforethought. This includes an intention to cause death of a person, or to do grievous bodily harm to any person, whether such person is actually killed or not; also malice aforethought can be established by evidence showing knowledge that the act or omission will probably cause death or grievous harm to any person.
When we relate the case in hand to the above provision of the statute, it becomes clear that the accused did not intend to cause death of either his wife or the child; also it is apparent that the accused did not intend to <-/occassion> grievous harm to any of the two. The fact that the accused had wanted to hit his wife by a mere kick is enough to lead to conclusion that no malice aforethought is established.
The other problem here is that of the accused to throw the child in a pond believing it to be dead with intent to fake an accident. In this situation the accused can not be liable for murder, if by the time he committed the act which caused the death he had belief <-_the><+_that> the deceased was already dead. This was discussed in the case of R. v. Church, where the accused who had been tainted by a woman had fought with her knocking her <-/unconsious>. Having failed to revive her he <-/panicly> threw her into the river, where she died as a result of drowning. The trial judge in this case, directed the jury that they should not find the <-/accussed> guilty if they came to conclusion that the accused believed the deceased to be dead at the time of throwing her into the river. On appeal however such directions were regarded to be misdirections since the law does not excuse of murder a person who does the act believing the deceased is dead. In another case of R. v. Mutono s/o Luigo and Another, the accused had assaulted his wife, and believing she was dead he hanged her by the neck to a tree, which <-/occassioned> her death. By virtue of the Uganda penal code, the accused was guilty of manslaughter, and it was also held that the act of hanging was unlawful act, done with intent of fabricating the evidence.
<-/Refering> to these <-/authorieties> it appears that there is contradiction between caselaw and statutory law. The principle is that where such contradiction appears, statutory law should prevail. It is on this authority that, the accused is not guilty of murder due to lack of intention to do grievous harm or to cause death of any person as required by section 200 of the Tanzania Penal code. </I> 1193a
<I> From the given facts, there is established a prima facie case against the accused for <-/heving> caused death of his three year old child. The offence is established in the right of section 196 of the Penal Code reading:-
"Any person who of malice aforethought causes death of another person by an unlawful act or omission is guilty of murder"
However, it should be noted that, the offence established in the above provision is a prima facie one which is still subject to a thorough legal scrutiny. Section 200 of the penal code provides inter-alia:-
"Malice aforethought shell be deemed to be established by evidence proving one or more of the following circumstances:-
(a) an intention to cause the death of, or to do grievous harm to any person, whether such person is the person actually killed or not"
With regard to these provisions, it is obvious that the accused, had originally to cause the grievous harm to his wife. This is <-/infered> from the fact that he actually attacked his wife by a 'kick' which makes it difficult for me to suppose that he intended to kill his wife by aiming to her the "kick". Therefore, the accused, with malice aforethought, intended to cause grievous harm to his wife but without malice aforethought kicked his three year old child.
The death of the child was not a result of the accused's malice aforethought. It was a result of his actus reus. In the decided cases, it has been established that a person can be convicted of murder if he actually intended to kill another person(s) and did execute his intention. In Thebo Meli v. R, the accused having planned to kill the deceased and throw his body over a cliff to fabricate the truth, were convicted by the Privy Council after their unsuccessful pleading of lack malice aforethought since the deceased had not yet died when he was thrown over the cliff. <-/Pursuasive> as it is, this case establishes that the court is ready to consider the element of men rea at any stage.
Another useful case is that of R. v. Chismibo in which the accused had hit the deceased on the head with the blunt side of an axe, before he fell <-/uncounscious>. Having failed to restore his consciousness, the accused, believing that his victim is already dead, put the body into a hole. The trial court convicted the accused of attempted murder on the ground that the blow was not fatal and subsequent internment in the hole which caused death was not backed by malice to cause death. The appellate court withheld the conviction on the same ground.
In the hypothetical cease, my opinion collaborates with those of the learned colleagues in the ceases cited above. The accused having intended to cause grievous harm to his wife, did kill his child by throwing him into the pool. As he believed him to have died, the act of throwing the deceased into the pool was not accompanied by malice aforethought to kill but to "fabricate evidence and with intent to mislead a tribunal in a judicial proceeding" as per the learned Judge in R. v. Mutono s/o Luigo and another. The accused should be convicted of manslaughter.
An offence is the <-/forbiden> act by the state to the individual's citizen. The intention of the state is to preserve order and peace within the state, more over the state tends to provide punishment for those who are supposed to take care or not to act but have not <-/fullfilled> such a duty.
In order for somebody to commit a crime two things are very important to appear or must be present in order to establish the offence and the appropriate punishment. The first element or ingredient is that there must be an act or <-/ommission> and the mental <*/>blameworth which includes intentions, negligence and reckless <O/>.
In our hypothetical legal problem the major issues to be answered is whether the killing of the child was done intentionally that is with malice aforethought or not. It has been stipulated directly or expressly that the child was kicked accidentally and thrown into the pool of water intentionally by the accused causing his death.
From here we can deduce that the accused committed murder under section 196 of Tanzania penal code, "Any person who of malice aforethought causes the death of another person by an unlawful act or omission is guilty of murder.
From the facts given it may be noted that the accused did not form intention to kill or cause the death of the child therefore malice aforethought can not be established under section 200 of Tanzania penal code. The Father of child did not plan to kill the child hence malice aforethought can not be established. In the case of Thabo Meli VR the privy council advised that where several people plan to kill a victim and do in fact kill him the court will not interfere and divide the transaction into two parts in order to ascertain whether it was the act done with malice aforethought which in fact killed the deceased.
In order to constitute the crime of murder intent must be established, in the case of R v Chisuibo. It was held that the deceased did not die as a result of this assault, but appeared to be dead and was died later from immersion in the water it was held that the accused No 1 was guilty.
The second issue to be discussed by the court is whether both father and Mother can be convicted of causing the <-/dealth> of the child.
It was the father who caused the <-/deathing> the child by throwing it in the pool water. In the case of R v Shanty it was held that accused No 1 was guilty of attempted murder only.
Therefore in conclusion the father can not be convicted of murder under section 196 of penal code due to lack of malice aforethought as provided under section 200 of Tanzania penal code and the mother has not committed any offence.
The accused was charged with <-/muder> c/s 196 of Tanzania penal code. The accused who had been annoyed at food not being ready on time aimed a kick at his wife, but the kick 'accidentally' hit their three year old child and made it unconscious. Believing that the child had died the accused threw it into a pool of water in order to fake an accident. The child was in fact, alive and died of asphyxia resulting from immersion in the pool of what. The issue in the court was whether the charge of murder can stand while the accused had killed the child by throwing it in the pool without malice afore thought.
In dealing with this problem, a number of statute and the cases precedent were adopted. First of all the court had to ask itself when malice <-/aforethough> can be established, <-/purpoting> to act under section 200 of Tanzania penal code, malice aforethought can be established by evidence proving one or more of the following: one, intention to cause death of or to do <-/greviously> harm to any person. 
Whether such person is the person actually killed or not.
two, the accused must be having knowledge that the action or omission of grievous harm to some person whether such person is actually the person killed or not although such knowledge is <-/accomponed> by indifference whether death or <-/grievous> harm is caused or not or by a wish that it may not be caused.
three, an intent to commit a felony. and lastly, an intention by the act or <-/ommission> to facilitate the flight or escape from custody of any person who has committed or attempted to commit a felony.
In ascertaining whether the offence committed by the accused can be covered by section 200 of the T.P.C and the charge of murder can stand or reduced to manslaughter the court is to look at case precedent. In case of <name/> and Another, it was held that the offence of manslaughter in Uganda differs from the offence of homicide culpable homicide under section 299 of the <*/>indian penal code, in Uganda manslaughter is defined as unlawful act or <-/ommisson> causing the death of another person. irrespectively of an intention to cause death, it was further held that the hanging was unlawful act under s. 84 of Uganda penal code, done with intent of fabricating evidence and with intent to mislead tribunal in a judiciary proceeding. in this case the appellant had assailed his wife so as to render her unconscious and having failed to restore her to consciousness, he and the second appellant honestly and reasonably believing her to be dead hanged her by the neck to a tree and by so doing killed her.
In another case of <name/> (1954) the accused were charged with the murder of a man before the High Court of Basotu Land and were convicted. The had planned to kill the deceased in a hut and throw his body over the cliff to make it look accidental. The victim was taken to the hut where he was struck over the head with the intent to kill him and then he was thrown down the cliff. There was some evidence that the deceased was not dead when thrown down the cliff, but died as a result of exposure the accused <-/unsuccefully> appealed to the privy council on the ground that the blows inflicted with malice aforethought were not the cause of death and they lacked the malice afore thought when they threw the deceased down the cliff because they believed him to be dead.
The privy council advised that, where several people plan to kill a victim and do in fact kill him the court will not interfere and divide the transaction into two parts in order to ascertain whether it was the act done with malice aforethought which in fact killed the <-/deaced>.
W1A018T
Developing countries are those countries who economy don't sustain the home production and market. Their economies relies on the developed countries who economies sustain production and market.
The developing countries are found in Asia, Latin America and Africa while the developed countries are those found in North America and Europe.
The reasons for this gap between the developing countries and the developed ones is based on historical reasons and geographical ones. The historical one is that one of exploitative relationship creating dependency while, the geographical reasons are as natural hazards, climate and natural resources.
The developing countries have allocation of foreign exchange to oil imports due to a number of domestic reasons.
One of the most important source of energy is oil. The increase the rate of using oil have been caused by the changing nature from natural economy of <-/subsistance> to the modern nature of economy whereby the distribution of life sustaining goods and their <-/availabity> is increased such as food, shelter, protection and health.
Lack of other alternatives of energy resources such as coal and gas contributes to the high relying on the importation of oil as the only sources of energy.
The same <-/contries> are weak both politically and economically. They have few <-/dipomats> and experts for further technological developments in their respective countries.
Politically, these countries have recently attained their independence, that their policies are not mature <-/enogh> to cope with the world economic system so that they can harness their natural resources - properly. This is <-/accompaind> by fault policies.
Societies in these countries have been emerging from rural - village to urban population where sources of energy such as wood, vegetable matter and during oil are lacking, as a result there fore the high need of oil as source of energy for lighting and cooking.
The growing industries in these developing countries, which have no other alternatives of generating energy such as coal and gas have created an atmosphere of great demand on the importation of oil
The importation of oil always demands foreign exchange. The foreign exchange depends on the primary products of both agricultural and mineral products. The prices of these goods depends on the world market which fluctuate from day to day thus creating a burden to developing countries.
To avoid this danger of allocating foreign exchange to oil imports, a number of things can be done. Diversification of the economy can reduce the danger. Our economy since have been depending on agriculture and primary industries only, other economic activities have to be promoted there are tourism, fishing, lumbering and quarrying by using the less oil consuming <-/equipments>.
High prospect should be done upon the other sources of energy producing such as the Songo-Songo gas prospect, the coal mining in Kiwira and the development of biogas that will reduce the high demand of foreign exchange and will <-/ern> us foreign exchange.
The government should ensure that there reduction in the misallocation of resources worry as a result high importation of oil.
Therefore, because the high allocation of foreign exchange to oil imports is caused by internal factors of these developing countries. much emphasis should be put on how to overcome the problem through the promotion of Science and technology and Education in particular.

Developing countries including Tanzania are facing a very acute problem of oil increase and the problem was even more serious in the past two decades. The reasons for the increase of this price contribute to the high allocation of foreign exchange to oil imports by most of the developing countries. However, there are some internal factors that lead to this aspect.
The first internal or domestic factor that contribute to the high allocation of foreign exchange to oil in Tanzania for instance is Industrialization. Most of our industries are designed in such a way that they use oil fuel. Though some use electricity the same electricity needs oil to be produced. These industries are allocated almost in all towns in our country. Examples of these industries are Textiles, Soap industries, Food processing industries, <*/>binning machines and other consumer goods industries.
The development of urban centres partly due to industrialisation, Trade and increased population growth rate is the second factor. People in Urban areas do prefer modern life style different from that which is practised in rural areas. In these urban centres Kerosene and other oil products are used for both domestic activities and for commercial purposes for instance some do live on selling Kerosene and they earn money from that way. In towns also transport and transportation is a necessity especially the use of motors. With motors oil is very much required.
As it has been introduced before, the third factor is transportation. With the recent development Tanzania is heading Transportation is important in both social and economic development. With transport goods obtained far away can reach the people, people can <-/interract> and trade is facilitated. Goods from source of raw materials to industrial sites can also be transported easily.
With all those factors Tanzania is using much of its resources in importing oil. However, some measures can be taken to minimize the cost. One, to reduce all unnecessary use of Government and public vehicles which consume a lot of oil. Second, to encourage the use of gas and biogas through the use of simple technology as that which is done by CARMATECH, and finally, to encourage the use of solar energy by the same simple science and Technology.
To conclude therefore, one can find that the development of both - economic and social sectors need high consumption of oil. We have to look for alternative for the prices of oil are detrimental to our economy too.
This essay is going to discuss in detail internal factors in developing countries, in this case Tanzania serving as a case study, and then how they affect allocations of foreign exchange in oil imports and in the final analysis discuss some solution to alleviate the situation.
Tanzania is one of developing countries These are countries with common characteristics for example they have a history of being under colonial <-/dominations>, not only that but they have dependency economy, They also lack modern technology and the like.
Main oils imports, are imported are Petroleum, Kerosene, Diesel, Tar and the like. Developing countries started to face problems on their way toward economic development
The first, problem encountered was due to the rapid change in way of life, where most of societies changed from society depending on production for use economy to the one which requires essential things like <-/transportations> of goods and people as well to other areas,
The next, problems <-/arosing> by the whole process of urbanization; A process in which families changed from their previous forms of producing their own very limited energy to requirements for simple heating and lighting purposes to urban areas., Areas in which they had little access to wood, and other vegetable matters like animal dung for energy purposes. Instead a great reliance of Kerosene and electricity for heating, lighting and cooking Then, Their mode of living changed from semi-subsistence rural to fully town's ways of living:
Lastly, The emergence of industries created a wider demand for fuel and power simply because industries are energy-intensive especially in iron, steel or cement productions. as a way of taking an advantage of the availability of local resources as a way to cut down the cost of their imports of these products or both.
Because of problems encountered which leads to a high allocations foreign exchange to oils imports the following suggestions will help to alleviate the situation.
The first suggestion lies on the ideas of using mass media to educate people on the crisis facing their countries' economies in order to stop an idea that they can only earn a living in Town. On other hand the government must make sure that it provides incentives that encourage people to stays in rural setting these includes important social services like water, Health Centres, roads, hence planning an economy in such a way that the rural setting benefit from the natural cake or income.
The next important suggestions is the use of local resources in generating energy. The government must help her people initiatives to start. Bio-gas project as a way of getting energy for cooking, heating and the like. This is possible because of prevalent numbers of livestock and low cost of running the project.
Another local resource which can serve to change the situation is the use coal The step in which Tanzania government has already undertook in <ea/>mgololo paper industries
Another local resources is the use of solar energy technology which can also alleviate high allocations foreign currency to oil <-/importations>.
In a final analysis leaders of developing countries must develop an inward economic outlook and not outward economic outlook whereby
They must encourages the Use of local resources mainly allocating foreign currency to economical viable project rather than by concentrating on importing goods from other countries which can be produced here. Take an example of Urafiki Industry because of <-/importations> of cheaply sold '<ea/>Kitenge' <ea/>Urafiki textile <-/loose >a market, hence failure to run the industries due to the lack of money to input oil on which it heavily rely at.
Therefore, Because of change in the whole modes of production, creation of urban centres and the emergence of industries: The needs for energy has been high beyond compare Therefore, Solution must be sought out to alleviate the situation and these are: - one, encourages people to stay in rural areas especially by providing a conducive environment., Secondly, Starts to depend on local materials for energy supply like Coals, Bio-gas technology, Hydro-electric power stations as well as encourage the use of Solar energy. All these measures will help to reduce The big allocations of foreign exchanges on oil at the same time encourage the use of more energy to fight underdevelopment.
The developing countries such as Africa, Asia and Latin America are depending in developed world for their development. They are depending in oil and power Importation.
There are factors which cause this developing countries to depend on this developed countries. Most of the developing countries have <-/achived> her <-/independency> recently, so they are lacking political and Economic power. This cause them to face some problems in European market.
The per capital Income of developing countries is low. The position of consuming oil and coal are also low for instance if compared U.S.A which annual. uses 20,000 lb while <-/Napal> consumes less than 20 lb annual.
The export of primary commodity is another problem for developing countries in the world oil consumption. This is due to low foreign exchange they get from this products. Also the local oil and energy production not satisfies the growing Industry. This can lead to the Industries to fail to produce at its maximum capacity. Urbanization also is another problem which causes the <-/ineficint> of oil. This is due to the fact that before rural urban migration, people in the rural areas had <-/acces> to other sources of energy like cow dung, fire wood while in town they only relay in <-/Kerosine> and little electricity available for cooking and lighting. The rapid increase of Industries lead to the high demand of fuel and power compared to the factories which were used to produce before <-/indipendence>. The relationship between <-/suply> and demand between the developed and developing countries is not equal. developing countries are producing what they <-_dont><+_don't> consume, which are mostly raw materials like sisal, cotton, coffee, minerals and consume what did not produce like industrial finished goods. This lead to high imports than export, which causes lack of enough foreign exchange which cause their energy purchase overseas to be high.
Internally Tanzania can do several things or take some several steps to reduce this high out lay. First of all she had to make sure that the system of production is changed. Instead of producing much cash crops also to produce food crops. The system of production which have been inherited from colonialism period should be changed. Second the exploitation of available natural resources should be utilized so that, the foreign exchange will sustain the requirements of the country.
Social facilities in rural areas should be improved. This can help the rural urban migration to grow at a low rate. The government should also make sure that the high growing population, which is an productive is controlled. This can help the government to be in a position of controlling her foreign exchange in providing social services like education, transport, health services e.t.c.
Also introduction of Industries which will help in producing machines for establishing department one Industries Department one Industries are heavy Industries while department two Industries are Industries which are mainly for processing raw materials and small factories. This will help in reducing and balancing between Import and export of goods. Under employment is another factor which makes developing countries to continue relay on developed countries. People are not working according to their ability. Also unemployment. For instance the agriculturalist so long as depending on rain in case of rain failure, they find them selves unemployed. Improvement of science and <-/tecnology> also can help in high production.
So apart from the fact that under developing countries Tanzania particularly have been subjected to External factors which cause, the countries to relay on them <-/totaly> but also are some factors which facilitate that continuation like low level technology, high population, unemployment, underemployment, poverty and unexploited available natural resources. The cost of import goods should be minimized by considering the above mentioned factors 
Developing countries are those countries which are in the third world and are those which their economic sector is dependent on developed countries like America Britain, Japan and the like.
The most of developed countries are found in Africa - subsaharan and latin America as well as Asia continent.
The developing world are interested in developing their economy in all sectors like <-/endustries> and agricultural sector and other domestic manufacturing <-/endustries> as well as enterprises. But the problem of these developing world is lack of technology which limit their exploitation of their both labour power and natural resources available thus necessitate them to become <-/dependents> on the developed countries which are <-/endustrially> and agriculturally advanced. However most of the developing countries like Tanzania has face difficulties on her economic development mainly due to much emphasis on agriculture sector than in <-/endustries> like department one <-/endustries> and at the same time due to lack of capital and technology fail to harness her natural resources to the maximum <-/Moreever> what is locally produced from agriculture sector is not used in her own <-/endustries> rather exported outside the countries in order to fetch foreign currency which in turn are used in mainly importation of vital and necessary goods and services like importation of oil like petroleum and other crude oil like <-/diseal> which are most needed for <-/endusties> and transport facilities as well as in <O/> generating other energy or source of energy eg driven <-/diseal> or petroleum motors.
Tanzania like other developing countries has allocated most of her foreign currency to oil <-/emports> for some reasons:-
firstly for transport facilities in which enable people to transfer both goods and services from areas of production to areas of consumption.
secondly, foreign exchanged is mostly used to import oil for driving other machines like motors which are necessary for producing power like electricity in lamps like <ea/>mtera and the like
In some rural areas in Tanzania oil is very important like for domestic purpose eg cooking lighting and for other <-/dail> activities in households.
In order to avoid such problems of more importation of oil Tz should put more effort on use of other sources like fire wood Charcoal and <-/Biogass> technology which is very recently. 
W1A019T
Tanzania like any other developing country is faced by problem of high allocation of her <-/megre> foreign resources for oil imports. This situation is catapulted by several factors both external and internal. The external factors have roots from colonial era while some of domestic factors have their shore of effects; created by domestic energy policy.
This essay, will be concerned with the issue of the internal factors which help to contribute to this high allocation of foreign exchange on oil imports. The discussion will start with the actual domestic factors that contribute to this high allocation, then suggestions to curb the situation and lastly conclusions.
There are various domestic factors or issues. The first one is that Tanzania depends heavily on importing oil since she does not have her own oilfields. There fore she has to import oil so as to suffice the demand of energy source for industries, transportation plants, Agricultural sectors etc.
The second, although Tanzania has her own coal mines at Kimira in Mbeya region it seems she has not put the energy to full use so that some of the foreign exchange is offset to other development ventures. The coal could be used to produce electricity.
Another important factor is the underutilization of Gas deposits at Songo (Kilwa); this have resulted to the country embarking to massive to massive use of her foreign exchange to import oil as only energy source for above mentioned industrial transport and agriculture sectors.
Again, the country have failed to utilize the available water sources for hydro-electric plants to the full capacity. This situation could have given ample use of alternate source of energy.
Failure of the state to introduce electric transport system is another factor such as electric trains contributes also to high allocation of foreign exchange for importation of oil; which have been playing as role in the transport sectors especially motor transport as well as trains.
Another important domestic factor which brings about the high allocation of foreign exchange in importing of oil is that the state have not been able to improve the agricultural sector; by this it is meant that the agricultural sector used mechanical agriculture or agro-mechanization, also pumping irrigation while it could have been possible to use draught animals in place tractors and gravity in place pumps. In other words the Government could have used extension officers <-/effeciently> for the purpose of training the farming community appropriate agricultural methods.
The suggestions to curb these factors are that like govt. should have to change its policy on energy development. Tanzania must embark more into domesticated solutions for acquiring energy for her development rather than external measures.
Full utilization of Kimira and others coal deposits for production of electricity should be enhanced and expanded; in this way some of the foreign exchange will be saved.
Again production of electricity from Gas deposit at Songosongo in Kilwa could also be one of the important means of reducing the outlay. The electricity and gas will reduce the imported products of the same kind. The electricity will offset the diesel demand for generating it.
The full utilization of Kiwira coal deposits, Gas deposits and hydro-electric sources could help provide electricity hence the possibility of electrification of railway transport system; a good example is TAZARA whereby they <-/nowdays> operate DIESEL-ELECTRIC ENGINE.
Another measure to reduce oil imports is use appropriate agricultural techniques eg draught animals and gravity irrigation. Fuel should be left to only those plants which can not use other sources of energy.
Conclusively it could be argued that no initiatives have been emphasized to use other sources of energy which are locally available for development purposes. Thus it is high time the Government changes her Energy development policies so as to eradicate these domestic factors which force her to allocate high foreign exchange for oil imports ie by using these other internal sources of energy. The Government can reduce the outlay and use the resources for other activities like social services and construction of transportation systems.
The main purpose of this essay is to show what domestic factors in a developing country like Tanzania, contribute to the high allocation of foreign exchange to oil imports and to suggest what Tanzania can do internally to reduce this high outlay. Among other things the essay will provide a short historical background of Tanzania and some of the possible suggestions
Tanzania is one of the East African countries namely Kenya and Uganda. It received her independence in 1961 after been colonized for about one hundred years by British and Germans.
Firstly after achieving her independence the country found itself in a very deep hole of poverty. Among other things which hinder its development was the import of oil which was very important to run various activities in the country. As a result the country finds herself underdeveloped.
Secondly underdevelopment here means is a particular relationship of exploitation. Namely the exploitation of one country by another. All of the countries named as underdeveloped or developing in this world are exploited by others. And the developing country with which the world is now preoccupied is a product of capitalist, imperialists and colonialist exploitation.
Therefore, in order to solve this problem, currently Tanzania, decided to use its domestic materials in order to overcome the oil import problems. Firstly Tanzania export some primary commodities such as gold, <-/diomond>, coffee, cotton, sisal and even tobacco, to the industrialized countries. At the same time its people pursue their own subsistence or largely subsistence ways of life. All these effort is only to get oil because it is very important source of energy especially in factories and <-/transportations>.
Another problem to the high allocation of foreign exchange of oil import is that Tanzania lacks political and economic power. For example, currently the country is independent but the main problem is their limited number of experience diplomats and technical experts which have to deal with respectively secondly, Economically, their markets are not necessarily attractive to competing suppliers, especially when compared with the markets of Europe.
Therefore due to that reasons above one could find that the proposition of international oil industry which is in the hands of the developing country like Tanzania declining.
However, the price of oil is rising up drastically as a results those sectors which the country depends shows slow rate of growth. For example due to the rise of oil, <-/nowdays> the price of <-/Kerosine> is high also, <-_fairs><+_fares> of <-/busses> went high, and some of the industry stopped working. The outcome for this problem is that the question of unemployment increased. Also salaries are reduced as well as <-/devalution> of money takes place.
There is also a great demand of energy power which needs oil in order to run different machines. This leads to a rapidly increasing rate of energy consumption. People in urban areas for example needs sources of energy through oil to run their activities smoothly such as heating and lightning purposes as well as Kerosene and cooking. 
All these are domestic factors which leads high allocations of foreign exchange to oil imports. The only thing which Tanzania can do to reduce this high outlay, is to establish more their sources of energies. For example, instead of having two station of hydro-electrical power such as Miltera and Nyumba ya Mungu, as well as Kidatu, the country should renew its plan to establish others sources at <*/>Ruvu river. HEP is very important because it will reduce the minimum exports of <-/primarly> goods to the industrialized countries.
Secondly, the country should encourage peasants to discover other means for using in their daily activities which do not consume oil. For example cooking utensils and even agricultural <-_equipments><+_equipment> such as plough instead of tractor.
Thirdly, education for self-reliance will assist pupils to learn various things which in one way or another cannot require the use of oil. For example, the introduction of SIDO must be emphasises so that those who could receive this education will apply it to make different articles which does not necessarily need oil.
Tanzania as other developing countries is importing fuel for running motor cars, lighting purposes and for thermal power generation. Though the oil fields reserve we have underground; Tanzania has failed to exploit them because of lack of capital and technology.
Imported technologists and technicians demand a lot of money hence we can't pay them. This tendency has made our nation continuing to import oil from OPEC countries.
A continue growing population in the rural and urban area has automatically increase demand for oil. Population is growing faster than the ability to provide for social amenities. While the economy is not growing <-/proportinately> to population increase.
Moreover, due to population increase people in the rural areas have degraded the environment by cutting down trees for fuel, thatching and building houses. This activity has increased demand for more fuel.
On the other hand environmental degradation has <-/lead> to <-/desertication>. Where bushes are cleared away people use cattle dung as a source of fuel. Cattle dung is going to be perished due to the removal of canopy (green cover) on the soil, then people will turn to use <-/kerosine> for cooking hence more foreign currency to import fuel.
Economic dependence was set tactically by imperialist for the developing countries. During colonial era, primary industries were not built in the periphery countries. Instead; colonialist built simple processing industries such as sisal <-/decorticators>, and ginneries to reduce the <-/bulkness> of overseas exported raw materials. These processing created economic dependence in periphery countries because such kind of industries can't produce machine that produces other machines include metal industry, heavy <-/engening> industry etc. Such industries are located in the metropolitan countries. In so doing we depend on importing industrial products like cars, machines, office equipment like computers etc. We export raw materials which are of low price and import industrial products which are of high product. This is what makes us to suffer from unfavourable balance of payment. We import more than we can export hence economic dependence.
However the growing <-/nomber> of imported cars in this countries has increased the demand of oil import.
Growing number of  import <-/substution> industry in the country has forced up demand of oil to run the machines. 
Drought is another problem in country like Tanzania. Drought has caused water levels of rivers and lakes to vary hence low ability to generate hydro electric power for home and for industrial purposes.
Not only domestic factors has led to the allocation of foreign currency to import oil but also external factors like price fluctuation of agricultural crops. When there is price fluctuation  means that: we sell a lot of goods with little pay and we import using large bulk of money.
Moreover: devaluation of our local currency leads to budgetary <-/contraints> in our country. A country allows more foreigners to import more from us than we can import form them. This situation affect the life of the people in energy consuming in the country. Prices of oil <-/shoute> up hence few people will have access to it.
What should it be done to prevent much allocation of our foreign currency in importing oil?
A country should support <-/afferestation> <-/scheemes> so that people can't get fire wood instead of depending on oil. Country should educate the mass about the consequences of degrading the environment. Education should be given to mothers who are most famous in rural areas. People should be taught about the consequences of drought which hunger famine, <-/malnurishment>, migration <-/dealth>.
Government should look other sources of fuel like biogas, geogas, coal, solar energy so as to supplement oil import.
Government should make sure that cars are not run during week end for leisure.
Government should diversify the economy by having Multi economies rather than depending on agriculture.
Therefore if the mass will be educated and government provide what is lack in rural area to prevent rural urban immigration the budgetary allocation of foreign exchange on importing oil may decrease.
W1A020T
Science is the attempt to make experience conscious in a reason, in a theoretical valid and systematic way.
Science has given way to development of human society economically, socially and politically.
Economically, science has led to industrial revolution and improvement of technology such as use of robot machines and computers, expansion of agricultural production which cause increase in food, and transport improvement, such as use of <-/airplanes>, railways and elevators and extension of communication system like use of fax, telex, telegraph and satellites.
Socially, science has improved and lengthen life expectation of society; because of increase in food production and use of medicines and social planning such as family planning.
Politically, science has lead to improve in democracy.
Although science has brought all these good results to the development of human society but science has done more harmful to humanity than good.
Science has lead to exploitation of poor society. Introduction of new technology such as computers and robot, has cause employment opportunities to decrease, the need for raw materials of industries cause destruction and decrease in food production, minerals were mined largely, introduction of outrageous schemes and expenditure in military purchases.
Socially, science lead to malnutrition, overpopulation due to use of medicines, and improvement of health care, and biological farming in which diseases like cancer, mental illness and brain stress increases, and air pollution, environment pollution.
Politically science has brought <-/westernazation> to poor society, this cause destruction of traditional system of ruling like chiefdom.
Science brings <-/inquity> on the society. Imperialism and neocolonialism among human society.
Science brought oppression of one race to another because of military domination, fascism and <-/rasism>. People were forced out of their occupation areas to give room for modern investment. Example in Tanzania, people were forced out of their land for agricultural expansion.
Development society should reduce expenditure on military research, stop using chemicals which will pollute environment, increase investments in poor countries in order to create employment, bring respect and stop exploiting, and oppressing poor countries in order to reduce harmful effects of science.
As an introduction, in this essay the concept of science will be defined, then meaning of the statement "science has brought more harm than good to humanity" will be given with the practical effect of it and finally a summary conclusion of opinion will be drawn.
Science is the attempt to make experience <-/consious> in reason in a theoretically valid, systematic way. It is also can be defined as the instrument of truth and improvement in the world development.
According to the statement of the question it seems that or it have been found that instead of giving development science has lead to the harmful to human being especially in less developed countries; and hence it became an instrument of global power, exploitation and oppression.
There are five major evidences to support the statement, those are:
First, the science have been found to lead to the technology of armaments and strong poison which led harm to life of <-/humman> beings.
Secondly science led to the industrial revolution; this causes the <-/deseases> due to heavy smokes from those industries like cancer, heart attack and others and also types of environmental pollution from industrial waste product example is pollution of Lake Victoria in Tanzania due to the presence of industries on the shores.
Thirdly it leads to capitalism which resulted colonialism and neo-colonialism in the name of modernity. This lead to most African countries to be undermined and controlled as a result remained underdeveloped.
The Fourth factor is that, due to the science of <-/teqnology>, scientist have to do research using people as specimens together with trees and other demographic areas. This leads harm to people due to the drugs testing among poor population ; and also <-/destruct> the demographic units, <-/mis use> of land <-/especiall> in 3rd world countries.
Fifth is continuation of being underdeveloped for African countries. Since our raw material are being taken by industrial organizations to first world Cs; Our resources are used in building long houses for tourism industries while poor people remain with no houses and traditional fisherman are forced out and remain with no <-/employements> and <-/sulplus> food is being exported for buying modern things from <-/out sider> while children are malnourished.
From the factors explained earlier it can be concluded that science will continue to be harmful to human being, economically , socially unless the following measure are taken.
i - Science has to regain humanity and being the truth
ii - scientific innovation and construction must be for majority and no wealthy minority
iii - It must be constructive in development of the whole world and not destructive in only 3rd world countries. 
Science is defined as an attempt to make experience conscious in reasoning, in theoretically valid, systematic way for conscious example philosophy, arts and Poetry.
Science as an expectation of our natural and social environment is used in social planning and creation of new quasi-human responses.
There are many advantages of using sciences, one of them is science is used in agricultural activities by using modern methods in agriculture so as to improve (to have good results) in agriculture ie by applying technology. This technology create economy of <-/abudancy>.
Furthermore science increase Transport mobility ie construction of roads ie Roads have been made railways, cars trains these are all due to application of science and technology. It also increases life expectancy since medicine are been made, without science no medicine even the traditional medicine, what is applied here is only science.
Another advantage of using science is in institutional expansion, financial expenditure academic and general social <-/distinations>. By applying science any individual can have self <-/enployement> provided he/she has skills and knowledge eg shoe maker. So this <-/fulfills> its meaning with science and only through science becomes worthy. 
Apart from advantages of science there are also disadvantages caused due to application of science. It destroys social and natural environment limits agricultural production, suffocates human in <-/unihabitable> cities. It threatens over population.
Science also makes man to go on strike ie mass violence. Since science has been applied in making tools weapons eg guns. It brings about mass <-/distruction> ie <-_weapon><+_weapons> in third world countries so that they can exercise power over other <-/advasaries>.
<-/Invironment> pollution are also due to <-_this><+_these> sciences, diseases such as cancer criminality science also weakens mass freedom and dignity alienated him from society and <-/goverment>. Justify science with material rather than moral progress Lack of technology caused unsc. backwardness.
Science also lost the awareness for need of moral distinguish, it fails to bring moral perfection and contributed to bring deterioration of mankind; <-/Indugence> in destructive activities.
To conclude this I can suggest the ways how to decrease these effects that more science to eliminate <-/diseaseas> has to be applied. Skills and knowledge has to be increased also so as people have to know more about science. Science must not be wrongly used as instrument of power and control.