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<I> <h> LITERATURE REVIEW </h>
<h> 2.0 Introduction. </h>
This chapter presents the literature review. It reviews the various studies on women and infant mortality in several countries and Tanzania in particular. In addition, it reveals the weaknesses of these studies and points out what has not been done. The chapter also shows the conceptual framework for the analysis of infant mortality in the study.
<-/Far-less> is known in Third World countries about the <-/behavioral> and social determinants of infant mortality than about the biological ones. While the latter have been extensively studied, relatively little work has been done on the former. During the recent years there has been a growing awareness that this imbalance in our understanding of infant mortality needs to be redressed .
The determinants of infant mortality are divided into two main groups, socio-economic and proximate factors. Socio-economic factors includes education, income, residence, occupation, marital status, health, religion which work through the proximate determinants that is maternal factors, environmental contamination, nutrient deficiency and injury.
<-_Women><+-Women’s> health as one of the most important socio-economic determinants of infant mortality has not been dealt with adequately. The few findings have not always been consistent. This might have been so because infant mortality is also influenced by other socio-cultural factors which differ from society to society. These factors include, nutrition, workload, antenatal and postnatal services, education, prevalence and common diseases and environmental conditions.
Women need adequate nourishment throughout their lives not only when they are pregnant. Undernourishment during childhood can lead to stunted growth and this will affect child birth. Undernourishment and deficiencies of certain nutrients during woman's reproductive years are suspected of increasing her risk of infection or haemorrhage during pregnancy or delivery. In Less Developed countries it has been found that twenty to <-/forty five> percent of women aged 15‑44 do not consume enough calories each day. Children of undernourished women are likely to be born with low weight. Thus they have high risks to death .
Literature on nutrition in developing countries, and Tanzania in particular, prove that women nutritional status and that of their children is poor. Buvinic and Leslie (1981) asserted that the poor nutritional status of many women in Latin America and the Caribbean contributed significantly to lowered resistance to diseases and lowered economic productivity. Anaemia among pregnant, lactating and even non‑pregnant women has long been recognised as a problem than it is to men. This is due to low nutrient intake among women. Inadequate nutrition is also a major cause of infant births of low weight which accounts in part for the extremely high mortality rates in Latin America and the Caribbean. High infant mortality rates are striking among women under the age of 20 years, the uneducated, those with five or more children and single mothers .
Another study was done in Tanzania by UNICEF (1985). The study aimed at finding out the causes of child death. The factors dealt with were nutrient intake and diseases. On nutrient intake, the survey showed that in most rural households in Tanzania the diet consisted of mainly one staple food (cereals) supplemented with beans or peas, green leafy vegetables and occasionally meat. They concluded that there was a deficit in the total food energy intake.
In a research by Yambi (1988) on nutritional status and the risk of death for the children of six to thirty months in Iringa region, it was noted that disease prevalence was a result of low nutrition. It was concluded 
that risk of death among children increased as nutritional status declined. Kokkonen's (1985) study in Iringa region aimed at finding out the effects of Finnish aid to the health sector and its effect on women health. The study was centred on incidence of diseases, workload and the nutritional status of women and children. On nutrition it was noted that maize was the main staple food for the villagers coupled with beans, vegetables like cassava leaves, cowpeas, cabbage and spinach.
The argument that women average energy intake (1700 calories) is low compared to average energy output (3500 calories) has been discussed by Lukmanji and Sepiten (1987). In their study they discovered reasons for such state of affair to be low feeding frequency (2 times a day), inadequate food ratios, lack of appropriate cooking facilities and equipment and low energy density foods.
This <-_result><+_results> in low weight gain, low milk output leading to poor feeding of infants and early malnutrition. The risk of an undernourished mother to produce an infant of low birth weight less than three kilograms is very high.
These underweight children have  high risk to  death.
The study on the relationship between eating patterns and the related health characteristics of their children in Morogoro region was done by Kahabuka in 1989. In that study it was observed that people ate a lot of plant foods and little of animal foods. Thus less of essential nutrients and so children had low weight and growth generally.
Lomayani (1973) carried a study of Groups of Ujamaa villages in Dodoma district. She dealt with traditional ways of child rearing and upbringing and the impact of Ujamaa villages on the young child in terms of water, environmental sanitation and personal hygiene, care and attention for expecting and nursing mothers, care and attention of babies and young children, shortage of clothing and the handicapped children in the sampled villages. It was found that the expecting and lactating mothers eat the same diet as the rest of the family, which in most cases, is of low nutrition. Children born to undernourished mothers are weak, undernourished and easily infected by diseases.
All these studies have shown that, generally, women and children get low nutrition. However these studies did not specifically correlate the effect of the nutrient intake on women and infant health. Some scholars have emphasised on the nutrition of infants and children only without regard to women who are the determinants of nutrition in a household . Lukmanji's and Sepiten's study (1987) was done at macro level the same is true with Buvinic's and Leslie's (1981) and UNICEF's (1985) studies.

<h> 2.2 Workload </h>
It is a well known fact that in many developing countries particularly in Africa, women have a heavy workload. Women are not only in charge of all domestic duties but also are engaged in the agricultural activities. A United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) study in 1974 estimated that women consisted between 60 to 70 percent of the labour force in African agriculture. The heavy work output is accompanied by fatigue, low food intake, inadequate rest, high infection rates especially malaria which is often associated with anaemia .
Studies on maternal performance have shown that women's workload during pregnancy, especially during the last months of pregnancy, is the major determinant of prenatal and early neonatal deaths. In three districts of Morogoro region it has been shown that women spend 14 to 16 hours a day on average on domestic work, agriculture, child care and for the rest of the family maintenance. In most cases the heavy work‑output is often accompanied by low food intake, inadequate rest and high infection rates. .
Donovan (1987), in her paper presented in the 6th Annual Scientific Conference on Maternal and Child Health, Family Planning Monitoring and Evaluation, argues that the women's heavy workload, especially during the last months of pregnancy, is a major  determinant of early neonatal deaths. In another study in Iringa region, Kokkonen (1985) observed that women worked throughout the day from early morning to late evening.
It has keen estimated that women in Tanzania are  responsible for about 70 percent of food crop production; and they supply about 80 percent of the working hours (Meena 1989). Harvenick (1988) in Meena (1989) observed that while men's labour input in rural production is only 19 percent of the total, women's labour input is 70 percent
and the remaining is contributed by children.
Heavy workload causes loss of energy, leading to body weakness especially where the food supply is poor. Also it has an indirect effect on children as it leads to malnutrition due to inadequate time for child care and feeding by nursing mothers. Rutahakana and Kisanga study (1987), proved that nutritional status of children in low income areas in Arusha improved with increased time on child care . It has also been pointed out by UNICEF (1990) that areas of the country with high levels of food crop production like Rukwa are also areas with high levels of child malnutrition. These are areas where the time of child caretakers, their mothers, may be most constrained. Insufficient time precludes their feeding young children frequently.
These studies on workload did not show daily activities done by women . The researchers have also failed to reveal the direct cause of infant deaths which is the poor condition of the mother. It seems that all the scholars assume a direct relationship between workload and infant deaths which is not the case (. Therefore, the relationship between workload, women health and infant mortality has not been dealt with adequately.
<h> 2.3 Antenatal and Postpartum Care </h>
Antenatal care, that is care during pregnancy is recommended to start from the sixteenth week of pregnancy while postnatal/postpartum care begins before discharge to six weeks after delivery. This reduces the risk of complications for mothers and profoundly influences the babies chance of survival during the first month of life. The care involves thorough and regular physical examination, attention to psychological considerations and hygiene teaching .
There are few studies on antenatal and postpartum care which have been carried in other parts of the world, and in Tanzania. Writings in the 'Population Reports' (1988), show that the undereducated and rural women are likely to receive less prenatal care than their urban counterparts. These women often do not get prenatal care because it costs too much in terms of time and money. That is, they take a long time to walk to the nearest MCH clinic and is expensive in terms of transport and services. It is said that women are more likely to use prenatal services when they are within 3 kilometres from their homes than if it is far. It is further argued that, generally women with traditional life styles and those who deliver their first babies at home are not likely to use prenatal services and that many women see no need for prenatal care unless they have complications.
Wood (1973), writing on mother and child health, centred her study on delivery services, child health clinics, antenatal clinics, postnatal services and child spacing. She noted that the demand for antenatal services has been increasing in the last twenty years. But out of 75 percent of women who attended antenatal care only 35 percent returned for delivery. So more than 50 percent of the women did not turn up for delivery. Wood also noted that postnatal care for mothers is virtually non existent except for those who have had complications during delivery. These patients might be asked to return for <-/checkups>. Postnatal care for mothers is missing because the facilities for examining women, a coach and privacy are not available. 
Another study which was carried out in Iringa district by Malangalila (1979) aimed at relating perinatal mortality to the age of the mother, parity and education level of the mother, marital status, place of delivery and number of visits to antenatal clinics. On antenatal care it was noted that there was a significant fall in perinatal mortality in relation to the number of visits to antenatal clinics. For those with five or six visits the perinatal mortality rates were remarkably low. Thus decrease in perinatal mortality was associated with an increase in the number of visits to antenatal clinics.
A survey done by Kimambo (1982) in Bagamoyo district on utilization of maternal and child health services showed that antenatal attendance was high but the percentage of women delivering under trained supervision (in hospital) was low. It was also noted that postnatal attendance was high but this was for children and not mothers. 
The researchers above have not shown how antenatal and postnatal care relate to <_-women><+-women’s> health and infant mortality . </I>
W2A012T
<I> <h> WHAT ARE SOCIAL SCIENCES ALL ABOUT? </h>
To come to grips with the problem as to what Social Sciences are all about, let us, first all, begin with the title itself. The keyword in the title is Science qualified by the adjective Social. The illuminating question here is; what is science? The answer to this question will make it clear as to whether the disciplines grouped under the title Social Sciences deserve to be called Science or not.
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, Science is a branch of knowledge conducted on objective principles involving the systematized observation of and experiment with phenomena, esp. concerned with the material and functions of the physical universe. We are in the realm of natural or physical science, physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and botany.
Science is, therefore, knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. The pursuit of such knowledge is currently also called Science. The dictionary concludes by saying; Science is an exact discipline.
According to the Canadian Encyclopedia , science is the rational study of nature. Science is, therefore, rational. It uses reason. A rationalist may be defined as someone who believes in deductive logic. He accepts as true certain statements and then reasons from the general to the particular. As for example, all men are mortal, Mr. X, is a man, therefore he is also mortal. Deductive logic is a frequent source of hypotheses and a scientist tests the internal consistency of his theories by setting them up in deductive logic. 
Science is empirical; it is based on experience, and not on speculation, or introspection. It does not accept self - evident axioms as a start in reasoning. The source of scientific knowledge is the actual experience.
Science is not subjective i.e based on the feelings of someone, no, it is based on empirical evidence. Its findings are public property; they are at the disposal of every one.
Science is systematic. It proceeds by observing the <AmE/>behavior of some phenomena, then experiment follows to test the observed facts, and the theories formed on the basis of these facts. Hence science is experimental. It specifies its conditions of observation.
The classical design for a scientific experiment identifies three types of variables: the dependent, the independent, and the constant. Science is quantitative, it counts and measures what it studies. Science is self - corrective - it requires no other authority than itself to correct it. The goal of science is prediction and control. Science aims to understand and explain natural phenomena. 
The assumptions of science are, (1) Determinism, or natural causation. Events are determined by certain factors, they do not just happen. Science does not accept chance as an explanation of an occurrence; (2) Finite causation means that the causes of an event are limited in number, they are not infinite, but finite; (3) The law of parsimony, the assertion that no more causes, or forces should be assumed than are necessary to account for the facts. The Romans used to say; <quote_><quote/>
Let us now consider the word Social. To begin with, the word social is derived from the Latin <Latin/>socius, meaning companion, a person with whom one has some close relationship. Social, therefore, refers to people living in communities, and their interactions, thus, we have social organisations, social problems, social class, social stratification, etc. In short, the term social refers to any human <AmE/>behavior which is influenced by past, or present experiences of the <AmE/>behavior of other people.
Social is sometimes used to imply an awareness of the feelings and attitudes of others; as for example, we say so-and-so is very social, sociable, that is he cares for other people's point of view, and <-/welbeing>, a political leader should be social to his people. He should cultivate their social welfare.
The term social is often given a moral connotation, implying action directed toward the welfare of others, e.g. Social Security, Social Work, Social Welfare, Again the word Social is used to denote a special study of people in a special perspective, e.g. Social Psychology, Social Anthropology, Social Gerontology, etc.
Social is sometimes confused with cultural. We have seen that Social refers to interaction between a group of people, while cultural stresses the normative and cognitive patterns for action, rather than interaction itself. This point will become clear when the two words, society (social) and culture (cultural) will be discussed below, <Latin_>loco suo<Latin/>. (things should not be multiplied without a need); (4) Necessity of approximation, that is near to the actual.
Homo Sapiens has always been curious about his nature, the factors which influence his decisions and <AmE/>behavior. Likewise, he has constantly sought to understand the physical world around him, and the causes of events. 
In course of time, man conceived a theory of human <AmE/>behavior which guided all his social, political, economic and religious activities. Underlying all human actions,  homo sapiens discovered that there was a system of beliefs, opinions and attitudes concerning what his nature was, what he could do, what he ought to do, and what he could not do.
This system of beliefs etc. is a function of one's cultural heritage and it reflects the social and economic background, education, and social life as a whole This system has a great impact on human <AmE/>behavior. It influences both how we act and how we relate to others, the expectations we have of them, how we socialize our children and how we order our entire public and private life. This point will be explained fully when discussing culture under anthropology below. 
Social Sciences are all about human <AmE/>behavior and the factors which account for it. Human conduct can be explained from many points of view. Philosophers, theologians, poets and artists have all contributed to the understanding of human <AmE/>behavior.
Inspired by the success of the physical science which had made such strides in explaining the physical world, the social scientists adopted the methods of natural science and applied them to the study of human <AmE/>behavior. This move, however, is recent. Below is a brief account of man's attempts at explanation of his conduct. 
Belief in magic as an explanation of social events dominated the entire humanity until the advent of the age of reason and science about the 19th century. The Greek Philosophers and the ancient <-/Egyptions> are an exception for they speculated and concluded that the position of the stars at the time of one's birth determined the course of his, or her life. This was the beginning of astrology (Art of studying the stars in the belief that they <-/influnce> human affairs).
Since that time astrology has become a booming business. The notion of fate developed from astrology. Fate is by nature pessimistic; man can do little to avoid what fate has in store for him. The Swahili say.  "<ea_>Ajali haina Kinga<ea/>”, <-/litterally>, accident is unavoidable, it is predetermined, man is powerless, he can't change the course of events. 
Fate is an essential part of astrology. All in all, astrology was better than animism and speculation because it recognised a regularity to human <AmE/>behavior from natural causes, i.e. the movement of the stars.
Critically appraised, astrology is socially fallacious. How the movement of the stars influence human <AmE/>behavior is only stated but no proof is given. So astrology, despite the fact that it was an improvement over animism and mythology, as a theory of <AmE/>behavior, it is scientifically untenable.
The Greek philosophers explained human <AmE/>behavior by analyzing man as a dichotomy of body and soul (mind and will) body (drives). Drives are blind, they belong to the body, while mind is a thinking capacity, able to weigh <-/prons> and cons, and come to a right decision to act or not to act. In this vein, Socrates said, only ignorant people can
commit crimes, philosophers do not misbehave, because, they know. As a legacy from him, we all tend to believe that educated people cannot misbehave. It was a scandal one time, when a doctor was convicted of adultery with his female patient in one hospital. People were alarmed to hear of it. How can an educated man do that, people remarked?
Until the 19th century the study of man and society was largely deductive in approach and given to system building. These systems were <AmE/>modeled on ideas from theology or from the emerging physical sciences and generally had a powerful normative and 
prescriptive content. The few individuals involved in these speculative enterprises had no clear cut professional identity.
As the 19th century progressed emphasis switched to the gathering of data which would, when properly analyzed, provide useful information. Thus was born the positivistic approach to the social sciences.
The number of people engaged in the study of society grew considerably and disciplinary lines emerged. German universities, from which American universities borrowed heavily, had a strong impact on these developments. Departments specializing in history, sociology, political science, etc. emerged towards the end of the 19th century.
A measure of the increasing specialization in the social sciences was reflected in the professional organizations, the American Historical Association 1884; the American Economics Association 1885; the American Psychological Association 1892; the American Sociological Association 1895; the American Anthropological Association 1902; and the American Political Association 1903. These bodies all created journals designed to disseminate professional findings and provide their members with a forum for the exchange of ideas, both in the form of correspondence and of articles reporting their data analyses and final reports of their research projects.
Social scientists borrowed a new understanding of the research process from the physical sciences as said above, theory construction, hypothesizing, research design, gathering and analysing empirical data, and advancing tentative conclusions became key elements. This fact encouraged the belief that human <AmE/>behavior could be studied using a scientific mode of inquiry. Statistical methodology became an important tool in the study of social sciences.
The aftermath of the second world war (1939 - 1945) brought decolonizing, the emergence of the Third World, Social unrest in America and elsewhere, the expansion of Marxist Ideology (Communism, <-/Secialism>, <ea/>Ujamaa) and the discovery of atom <-/bom>, a terrible destructive power. All these events showed clearly that the evolution of man's scientific and technological knowledge had outpaced his ability to organize and manage his social affairs. If solutions were to be found to human problems, they were to be found in the social realm and not purely in technology. Social problems, such as, poverty, discrimination, criminality, poor housing, broken homes, inadequate medical care, domestic violence, sexual abuse, political dictatorship etc. were seen as problems in need of redress.
These trends seemed to peak and converge in the early 1960 as the Kennedy Johnson administration courted the social sciences openly. Kennedy's Science <-/Advisiory> Committee produced a report in 1962 entitled, Strengthening the <AmE/>Behavioral Sciences . 
The expansion of social sciences in recent years has been remarkable from many points of view. The growth in the number of social sciences publications of all kinds are, of course, a part of the general explosion of sciences that characterizes our age. A consequence of this explosion is the growth in public <-/awarenese>, acceptance, and use of the social sciences by government agencies, business and industry, schools, colleges, and universities, philanthropic foundations, religious bodies, and voluntary associations of many kinds all provide abundant evidence of this growth.
There is hardly a social, economic or political problem that social scientists have not tackled and suggested solution. Problems such as marital conflicts, clashes of interests in industrial relations, students unrest, etc. are analysed using the social science research method, in short the social sciences have become an indispensable source of guidance for administrators and professionals of all kinds in Europe and America. It should be so also in Africa.
Expansion of social sciences curriculum in universities all over the world, has created a great demand upon the availability of qualified tutors and researchers. Another problem is that terminology and research procedures are far from standardized both within and between the various disciplines. Specialization, normally a mark of scientific maturity has often been achieved by ignoring related avenue of approach to the same problems. 
</I>

W2A013T
<I> <h>THE DAR ES SALAAM DECLARATION ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ACADEMICS </h>
<h> Preamble </h>
We, are living in momentous times, ridden with crises but full of hope.
The stringent conditions of the international Shylocks have begun to put a squeeze on education in a dramatic fashion. Tanzania, like the rest of the African continent, finds itself entangled in a web of socio-economic crises. As budgetary allocations for education become <-/miniscule>, education is threatening to become the preserve of a minority of the wealthy and influential in our society.
The state has become increasingly authoritarian. Authoritarianism is being further reinforced as the crisis-ridden government fails to offer palpable solutions. Witness the increasingly greater, deeper and more frequent encroachments on academic freedom and freedom to pursue truth and knowledge, particularly at the universities and other institutions of higher education.
These are times of crises. But they are also times of hope. As People's free and independent existence is in question, they are beginning to question the existence of unfree and right-less polities. We, as academics, intellectuals and purveyors of knowledge, have a human obligation and a social responsibility towards our People's Struggle for Rights, Freedom, Social Emancipation and Human Emancipation. Our participation in the struggle of our people is inseparably linked with the struggle for the autonomy of institutions of higher education and the freedom to pursue knowledge without let, hindrance and interference from persons in authority.
In 1984, for the first time since independence, the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania was amended to include a Bill of Rights. The Constitution provides for the right to education and the right to opinion and expression which include academic freedom.
Tanzania subscribes to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights; has ratified the International Covenants (1966) and the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education and is a Party to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. These Instruments unambiguously declare for the right of education and freedom of opinion, expression and dissemination of information.
But rights are not simply given; they are won. And even when won, they cannot endure unless protected, nurtured and continuously defended against encroachment and curtailment.
NOW THEREFORE, WE, the delegates of the Staff Associations of Institutions of Higher Education in Tanzania, meeting in Dar es Salaam, this 19th day of April, 1990 do Solemnly Adopt and Proclaim this Declaration.
<h> BASIC PRINCIPLES </h>
<h> Chapter One </h>
<h> Education for Human Emancipation </h>
1. Every human being has the right to wholesome education. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality.
2. Access to education shall be equal and equitable.
3. Education shall prepare a person to strive for and participate fully in the emancipation of the human being and society from oppression, domination and subjugation.
4. Education shall enable a person to overcome prejudices related to gender, race, nation, ethnicity, religion, class, culture and such like. Education shall inculcate in every person respect for all humane culture developed by humankind.
5. Education shall develop critical faculties, inculcate the spirit of scientific enquiry and encourage the pursuit of knowledge and the search for the whole truth in the interest of social transformation and human liberation.
6. Education shall be secular. Religious instruction shall be separate from secular education and imparted to those wanting to partake of it voluntarily.
3
7. Education shall make every person conscious of ecology and the need to protect the environment.
<h> Chapter Two </h>
<h> Obligations of the State </h>
8. The State should guarantee to every resident equal, equitable and wholesome education without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic condition, physical or mental disability, birth or other status.
9. The State should make available an adequate proportion of the national income to ensure in practice the full realization of the right to education. The State shall bind itself constitutionally to provide a nationally agreed minimum proportion of the national income for education.
10. The State should take affirmative action where necessary to redress historical and contemporary inequalities in access to education based on national, racial, social or gender differences or arising from physical disabilities.
<h> Chapter Three </h>
<h> Rights and Obligations of Communities </h>
11. In the exercise of the right to self-determination, nationalities, communities and like <-/collectivities> shall have the right to provide education. Such education shall be in conformity with the Basic Principles and other provisions of this Declaration.
12. It will be part of the obligation of a non-governmental organisation involved in the provision of education to contribute towards affirmative actions in conformity with the spirit of article 10.
13. It will be part of the obligation of a community or a nationality to struggle against prejudices, attitudes and beliefs which in any form or manner prevent or discourage its members from partaking of education on an equal basis.
<h> ACADEMIC FREEDOM </h>
<h> Chapter One </h>
<h> Rights and Freedoms </h>
14. All members of the academic community have the right to fulfil their functions of teaching, researching, writing, learning, exchanging and disseminating information and providing services without fear of interference or repression from the State or any other public authority.
15. Civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights of members of the academic community recognised by the United Nations Covenants on Human Rights shall be respected. In particular, all members of the academic community shall enjoy freedom of thought, enquiry, conscience, expression, assembly and association as well as the right to liberty, security and integrity of the person.
16. All members of the academic community shall enjoy freedom of movement within the country and freedom to travel outside and re-enter the country without let, hindrance or harassment. This freedom may be restricted only on grounds of public health, morality or in circumstances of clear, present and imminent danger to the nation and its independence and which restrictions are justifiable in a democratic society.
17. Access to the academic community shall be equal for all members of society without hindrance. On the basis of ability every resident has the right, without <-/discriminiation> of any kind, to become part of the academic community as a student, researcher, teacher, worker or administrator without prejudice to any necessary affirmative action in that behalf .
18. Teaching and researching members of staff and students, directly and through their democratically elected representatives, shall have the right to initiate, participate in and determine academic programmes of their institutions in accordance with the highest standards of education and the Basic Principles.
19. All members of the academic community with research functions have the right to carry out research work without interference, subject to the universal principles and methods of scientific enquiry. In particular, researchers shall not be denied information or permission to do, or hindered in any way from doing, research on any ground except for reasons of public health and morality, or, in circumstances of clear, present and imminent danger to the nation and its independence and which restrictions are justifiable in a democratic society.
20. All members of the academic community with teaching functions have the right to teach without any interference, subject to the generally accepted principles, standards and methods of teaching.
21.. A member of the academic community shall have the right to demand and receive explanation from any organ, official or administrator of the institution on its/her/his performance affecting her/him or the academic community at large.
22. Save where it is contrary to morality or principles of democracy, all members of the academic community shall enjoy the freedom to maintain contact with their counterparts in any part of the world as well as the freedom to pursue the development of their educational capacities.
23. All students shall enjoy freedom of study, including the right to choose the field of study from available courses and the right to receive official recognition of the knowledge and experience acquired. Institutions of higher education shall aim to satisfy the professional and educational needs and aspirations of the students.
24. All institutions of higher education shall guarantee the participation of students in their governing bodies. They shall respect the right of students, individually or collectively, to express and disseminate opinions on any national or international question.
25. It is the right of students on reasonable grounds to challenge or differ from their instructors in academic matters without fear of reprisal or victimisation or being subjected to any other form of direct or indirect prejudice.
<h> Chapter Two </h>
<h> Autonomous Academic Organisations </h>
26. All members of the academic community shall have the freedom of association, including the right to form and join independent and autonomous trade unions. The right of association includes the right of peaceful assembly and formation of groups, clubs, associations and such other bodies to further the academic and professional interests of the members of the academic community.
27. All members of the academic community shall have the right to write, print and publish their own newspapers or any other form of media including wall literature, posters and pamphlets.
The exercise of this right shall have due regard to the obligation of the members of the academic community not to interfere with the right of others to privacy and in any manner or form unreasonably arouse religious, ethnic, national or gender hatred.

<h> Chapter Three </h>
<h> Security of Tenure </h>
28. All members of the academic community shall be entitled to a fair and reasonable remuneration commensurate with their social and academic responsibilities so that they may discharge their roles with human dignity, integrity and independence.
29. Teaching and researching members of the academic community, once confirmed in employment, shall have security of tenure. No teaching member or researcher shall be dismissed or removed from employment except for reasons of gross misconduct, proven incompetence or negligence incompatible with the academic profession. Disciplinary proceedings for dismissal or removal on grounds stated in this article shall be in accordance with laid down procedures providing for a fair hearing before a democratically elected body of the academic community.
30. No teaching or researching member of the academic community shall be transferred to another post or position within or outside the institution without her/his prior consent.
31. A member of the academic community has the right to know any report, adverse or otherwise, on her/his performance made or received by relevant officials or organs of the institution in the course of the execution of their duties.
<h> Chapter Four </h>
<h> Obligations of the State and Administration </h>
32. The State and any other public authority shall respect the rights and freedoms of the academic community enshrined in this Declaration. The State is obliged to take prompt and appropriate measures in respect of any infringement by State officials of the rights and freedoms of the academic community brought to its attention.
33. Subject to article 40, the State shall not deploy any military, paramilitary, security or intelligence, or any other like forces within the premises and grounds of the institutions of higher education.
34. The State is obliged to ensure that no official or organ under its control produces or puts into circulation <-/disinformation> or rumours calculated to intimidate, bring into disrepute or in any way interfere with the legitimate pursuits of the academic community.
35. The State and the administration are obliged to ensure that the terms and conditions of service of the academic community are not, directly or indirectly, changed adversely or eroded such that the exercise of the rights and freedoms of the academic community is effectively undermined.
36. The State or the administration shall not impose direct or indirect conditions, procedures or any other form of restrictions which in effect nullify or curtail the rights and freedoms enshrined in this Declaration.
37. The administration is under an obligation not to divulge any information regarding members of the academic community which may be used to their detriment in any criminal, or other, investigation or proceedings of the like nature.
<h> Autonomy of Institutions of higher Education </h>
38. Institutions of higher education shall be independent of the State or any other public authority in conducting their affairs and setting up their academic, teaching, research and other related programmes. </I>

W2A014T
<I> <h> Conclusions and Policy Implications </h>
The foregoing review, based on the data and research literature on the various levels and subsectors of education in the subregion in the course of the last two decades, leads to a few conclusions - general and specific.
<h> General </h>
In general, the overall performance in the subregion as a whole has not been very satisfactory, with a preponderance of low performance ratings as compared to positive or average ratings. In particular, performance has been less satisfactory in four of the six areas examined, namely in primary education, science education, vocational-technical training and medium of instruction. It has been generally satisfactory in higher education and average in secondary education.
These qualitative ratings of 'satisfactory' (or higher performance), 'average' and 'less satisfactory' (or lower performance) relate strictly to the extent to which practice has kept pace or consistency with policy objectives and/or the extent to which policy shifts over time have kept pace or consistency with the development aspirations as expressed in various popular or else representative fora of expertise. The ratings thus relate more to qualitative improvements and less to mere quantitative statistics, as in the case of expansionary enrolments without corresponding qualitative changes or backups.
Table 8.1, standing on the strength of the above mentioned qualitative definition, summarizes the overall evaluation as emerges from the review of the six areas representing the levels and subsectors under study.
Performance by individual countries with respect to the totality of the areas surveyed varies, as demonstrated in Table 8.2, with Botswana seeming to have done the best of all the sample countries overall, with higher performance ratings in four of the six areas, an average rating in one area and a lower performance rating in one area. Botswana is followed by Lesotho (with 3v, 1vx, 2x), Swaziland (with 3v, 3x) and Kenya (with 2v, 2vx, 2x), while the other four countries, namely Zambia (1v, 2vx, 3x), Tanzania (1v, 2vx, 3x), Uganda (1v, 3x, 2?) and Malawi (1v, 1vx, 4x), have tended to gravitate towards lower performance.
 [...]
If the qualitative judgements were to be given numeric values, both the analyses of the separate levels and subsectors for the whole subregional sample and the analyses of individual <-/cuntries> by their six areas of review would yield a generally similar rating pattern, with a statistically indicative (though in no way politically judgemental) ranking order. Table 8.3 attempts such a numeric translation of the qualitative statements, with higher performance (or satisfactory) awarded 10, average 5 and lower performance (or less satisfactory) awarded 1.
Of the subregion's six areas of review, higher education scores the highest total of numeric points (80), with a corresponding highest average numeric score (10). Higher education is followed in performance by secondary education (7.14, some points above average), primary education (4.88, just below average), vocational-technical training (3.75, well below average), science education (2.14, far below average) and language medium of instruction (1.5, very far below average).
With respect to performance by individual members of the sample grouping, according to Table 8.3, Botswana comes out with the highest average score (7.67, well above average), followed by Lesotho (6.17, some way above average). Swaziland and Kenya are just above average, with 5.50 and 5.33, respectively. The other four countries, Tanzania (3.83), Zambia (3.83), Uganda (3.25) and Malawi (3.17), all have their scores well below average. The general interpretation is that while these latter four countries have lagged behind the others in overall educational development, they have, at least hypothetically, performed below average.
The simple statistical aid used to arrive at some more detailed synthesis, and at some ranking order, does at the same time point to a cautionary note. It is apparent that even the first and the second countries on the ranking scale fall short of the best possible level of performance in the totality of the different areas of education examined. Their positions in the ranking scheme cannot, therefore, be cause for complacency and reduced national effort. Notwithstanding the caution sounded, however, the relatively widely differentiated numeric scores and ranking of these and other countries under study may help further in the discussion of interlinkage of factors and processes in the wider national economy.
Curiously, but perhaps not altogether just coincidentally, the general order of the ratings and ranking (as indicated in Table 8.3) appears to have roughly parallel resemblance with the general order of ratings elsewhere in some vital sectors of the economy. A specific example is the rate of production (ref Table 1.1), which is itself considered a proxy for productivity at least insofar as a heightened production of goods and services may be a measure of workers' knowledge, skill and performance. While, for all the countries of the sample grouping except Lesotho, the rate of production (GDP) has declined over the past two decades, it has unequivocally been the highest in Botswana. On average, for the whole twenty year period of 1965-84, Botswana has been followed in the rate of production by Kenya and Swaziland, while, for the latter decade of 1973-83/84 it is followed by Lesotho, Kenya and Swaziland.
The same "top-ranging" countries happen to have a distinctively higher level of income (cf. GNP per capita for Botswana - US$840, Swaziland - $790, Lesotho - $530, Kenya - $316, as contrasted from that of Malawi - $180, Uganda - $230, Tanzania - $250 and Zambia - $300) and a higher average annual per capita income growth over the whole two-decade period (cf. Botswana: 8.8%, Lesotho: 5.9%, Swaziland: 4.0% and Kenya: 1.9%, as contrasted, for instance, from Uganda's -2.9%, Zambia's -1.7% and Tanzania's -0.3%).
Again, three of the four "top-ranging" countries happen to record the highest known proportion of their state expenditure on education (Kenya: 20%, Botswana: 18% and Lesotho: 17%), as contrasted from Tanzania's extreme case of a mere 7%, or about 13 per cent in Uganda and in Malawi.
It does seem that even if allowance were made for several intervening factors or variables or the rate of production, such as the amount of initial resources and capital base, ecology, health care or international trade relations, still the final product is to some extent a reflection of the efficiency of a country's education system, the intensity and manner of its human resource development and deployment strategies and the internal and external efficiency of its skill training programmes, including vocational-technical training and science education. These education-related factors are, in the short or long run, bound to influence the rate of economic-material production, which, in turn, would have a direct influence not only on the rate of individual and national productivity but also on the tempo of income generation as well as on the level of income itself. As things are at the moment, only three countries (Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland) seem to have a consistently high score on all the three levels of formal education; only two countries (Botswana and Kenya) have a high score on vocational-technical training; and only two countries (Botswana and Zambia) reach an <-/averatge> score in science education.
The rest of this chapter summarizes the conclusions and the policy implications with respect to each of the six areas of the review.
<h> Primary Education </h>
Development in primary education in eastern and southern Africa has been reflected in an <-/undisputably> quantitative expansion in pupil enrolment rates. Expansion in any other terms backup educational equipment, textbooks, supplementary reading material for pupils, and teacher supply - has been minimal in spite of some innovative but largely defective stop-gap measures. In some cases the expansion has in fact been negative if only in proportion to the explosive enrolment rates in the wake of the universal primary education (UPE) drive characterizing the whole decade of the 1970s/80s.
The whole post-independence period under review is thus seen to have been a period of expansion much more in quantitative terms and much less in qualitative terms. Problems of quality are discerned in the internal inefficiency reported in almost all countries under review: <-/inoptimally> high pupil-teacher ratios, hasty and inadequate teacher training programmes resulting in poor teacher classroom performance, and crowded curricula made worse by dire shortages of teaching-learning materials.
At the end of the primary education cycle, according to most of the reviewed literature, most children show a conspicuous level of underachievement bordering, in some cases, on wholesale illiteracy. Yet, their hopes and aspirations (just as their own parents') are further frustrated by the little chance they have of either advancing to secondary level education, or proceeding to some post-primary vocational training, or simply being absorbed into the social economy as gainfully employed individuals in the community. These, too, are sad issues related to the external efficiency of an education system.
Of the eight countries of the study sample, Malawi and Tanzania seem to have experienced problems of primary education the most, followed by Zambia and Kenya.
Implications for future policy towards primary education are fairly clear.
<h> 1. Quality versus Quantity </h>
It is essential now for governments to de-emphasize and decelerate quantitative expansion as seen in inflationary pupil enrolment and, instead, to stress and pursue the quality side of primary education. Availability and efficient distribution of school equipment, textbooks, teaching-learning aids and supplementary readers should now be the objective; for, indeed, these have much more to say for a person's fuller learning than mere attendance in a classroom that had no chalk, books, aids or even desks for the day's lesson.
While the country's primary school system should remain open to receive beginners, it should at the same time remain an open option for the parent to apply for the admission of the child. Parents have a propensity to send children to school - even to pay for their education - when they have trust in the school. Public trust and confidence in the schools will depend on how equipped they are to impart permanent <-_learnings><+_learning> in the children.
<h> 2. Streamlining and Rationalizing the Primary School Curriculum </h>
There should be a reversal of the current tendency to overload the curriculum with so many subjects which, in the end, reduce the time period devoted or devotable to any specific subject while also reducing the interconnectedness of the subject matter and the transferability of basic concepts. This point argues for a core curriculum, based on a careful determination and selection of "central" subjects and subject areas that are accepted as basic or <-/foundational> for the learning and perceptive scope consonant with the age levels circumscribed by the limited primary education cycle.
<h> 3. Reforming and Strengthening the Teacher Training Programme </h>
Teacher training programmes directed at producing primary school teachers deserve serious attention to matters ranging from selection of candidates, to academic abilities in the subjects for which they are to be trained to teach, to duration of training.
With particular regard to candidates, selection of "failed" primary or secondary school leavers for the teaching profession as has been the case in some countries, has undermined and would continue to undermine not only the efficiency but also the status and respectability of the teaching profession itself. And, in any case, training a primary school leaver for teaching a primary school child is itself of questionable merit, allowable only in special and extenuating circumstances. Similarly, the stop-gap measure - elsewhere defended as an innovative shortcut of "distance teacher training" has revealed not only inherent organizational and professional weaknesses but also larger unintended costs of retraining and reorientation.
<h> 4. Increased Public Financing of Primary Education </h>
The government ought to step up the current level of financing of primary education in order to meet the required material and pedagogical standards of basic education. This view is in recognition of the logic that primary education is a foundation level beyond which - at least for the foreseeable future in many countries in the subregion and in the region as a whole - a still greater proportion of the population will not have a formal opportunity for advanced learning. It is imperative therefore that the education offered at this basic level must receive all the physical, material, intellectual and professional supports possible for a permanent functionality of the future citizens.
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<I> <h> Reflections on Ten Years of University Teaching and Learning Improvement (UTLIP) at the University of Dar es Salaam <h> 

<h> Introduction </h>
The main functions. of University anywhere are to: conduct research; facilitate learning (eg. through teaching); and provide services (eg. consultancy services).
This paper is concerned with facilitation of learning function. However, it should be understood that each function impinges on the others. Traditionally, universities the world over, have tended to marginalise the teaching function, and the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) is no exception. Instructors are hired on the basis of their potential or actual research and publication competencies but not on their teaching competencies. Promotion and other rewards are also given on the same basis. It is normally assumed that an instructor hired on this basis can teach. Thus continued neglect of teaching in higher education over the year could gradually result in the deterioration in its quality.
In the United States in the late 1960's and early 1970's, the quality of instruction in a number of higher education institutions had become a source of concern for both students and faculty alike but particularly for the former. A student, for example, who is paying course fees out of his/her own pocket is very concerned if the amount of learning achieved at the end of the course is not worth the money paid. This concern triggered off a movement on Improving University Teaching (IUT) a movement with which the University of Maryland in the United States has been closely associated. It turned out that the concern about the quality of instruction in higher education institutions in the United States was also felt by higher education institutions in both developed and developing countries.
The University of Dar es Salaam joined the IUT band-wagon in the late 1970's when the Senate decided to establish the University Teaching and Learning Improvement Programme (UTLIP). This followed various initiatives dating as far back as 1974, the most notable being the Omari-Kimambo initiative of 1976. The author of this paper was the first Director or Chief Coordinator of UTLIP; this paper is an attempt to reflect on ten years of UTLIP's experience at the University of Dar es Salaam from that <-/vantagepoint>. This reflection will focus on the main issues and development trends. The outcome of this reflective analysis will form the basis for proposals on UTLIP's future directions towards the year 2000.

<h> The Introduction of the IUT Programme </h>
The Omari-Kimambo initiative was outlined in their paper entitled "Towards Improving University Teaching". In this paper, the authors argued out a case for introducing the IUT programme at University of Dar es Salaam. Both explicit and implicit in the paper was that the IUT, as a movement sweeping across nations the world over, was essentially an effort towards excellence in <-_high><+_higher> education in the marginated function of teaching. The Omari-Kimambo initiative was undoubtedly a very controversial issue with half the Faculty opposing it, about a quarter unsure or uncommitted and the fourth quarter in support of it. Debates on the issue went on for two years at all levels - Senate level, Faculty level and Department level with both Faculty and students participating.
Understandably, the students were by and large in favour of IUT but the Faculty was divided. The traditional '<-/die hards>' in the Faculties argued that "teaching is done at school level; at university level we lecture". However, upon subsequent reflection on the issue, they softened up a little saying that if an IUT programme is introduced it should be for junior academics as they are the ones who do not have much university teaching experience.
On the other hand, it was argued that constant search for excellency is the hall-mark of an academic institution anywhere; the proposals under consideration were thus in line with this academic tradition. Pendaeli (1980:1), commenting on this issue in the same vein states that one thing which is widely accepted in academic and other circles is that: <quote_>
 <quote/>Analysis of the initial reactions and arguments for and against the issue which ensued and went on for two years suggests that: (1) there are reflections here and there of old and discredited educational concepts in some of the arguments given; (2) the reward mechanism is not much in favour of excellency in teaching; (3) some Faculties are making serious assumptions about their ability to teach; and 4) Faculties hold different concepts of teaching; a few confuse teaching with lecturing.
The first observation has to do with reflections of <-/out dated> educational ideas in the arguments given. Once upon a time, teachers posed and were treated as if they were surveyors of knowledge, skills and attitudes; attention was focused on the teacher and teaching. Educators have long moved away from this concept of teacher and teaching following developments in education psychology and related fields. Attention is now instead focused on learning and the learner whereby, the purpose of teaching is to bring about learning. The teacher plays several roles aimed at facilitating learning.
The second observation is concerned with assumptions made by some academics about their expertise and `specialism'. For example, the assumption that possession of a good postgraduate degree confers upon the possessor the qualities of a good lecturer, is not always true. There are cases of strong lecturers in terms of research and publications who are poor in lecturing. A lecturer may be very knowledgeable in his/her area of specialization but weak in communicating this knowledge to others, either orally, in writing, or both. An instructor with such a communication problem should be prepared to learn how to communicate effectively in teaching-learning situation with other people including students.
The third observation deals with the variety of concepts of teaching possessed by different Faculty members. Some see teaching as a kind of "dispensing" activity while others see it as a behaviour change or behaviour modification process. A third group sees teaching as a communication process; that is, communication as being at the heart of all teaching. The concept of teaching an instructor possesses affects his/her method or style of presentation of subject matter, the manner in which objectives of lectures are written, choice of items (questions) for assessing achievement, and, his/her argument on the place and status of teaching in higher education. When people engage in a discussion on teaching without realising that the term does not mean exactly the same thing to all the parties, they can end up in unnecessary arguments because of a breakdown in communication. This problem could account, in part, for the debate on the IUT issue which dragged on for two years.
A fourth and last observation on this issue is that the existing reward mechanism marginalises teaching. Until only recently, research and publication at the University of Dar es Salaam has been virtually the only criterion for the promotion of academic staff; this is a common practice in universities the world over. Few people who understand the nature of the role played by universities in extending frontiers of knowledge would deny that universities should emphasize research and publication. However, a total marginalisation of teaching is also associated in some way with student <-_unrests><+_unrest> which have become rampant in university campuses. It is conceivable that during these hard times when resources are limited, students are not having their intellectual needs fully met and are therefore frustrated and reacting. In the circumstances, it wouldn't be sensible to marginalise teaching to any extent.
The debate on this first issue was closed during the 62nd meeting of the University Senate when it was decided that the University Teaching and Learning Improvement Committee (UTLIC) should be established under the chairmanship of a Chief Coordinator/Director. The Chief Coordinator is also the Chief Executive. One of the twelve clauses in the Senate resolution has a <-/far reaching> consequence; it states that "teaching competence should be made a necessary, though not sufficient requirement for appointment, tenure and promotion. For details of the resolution see Appendix I. See also Appendix II for terms of reference of UTLIC.
<h> UTLIP's Status and Position in the University Structure </h>
The responsibility of improving university teaching has been vested in the Senate UTLIC. The UTLIC has drawn up a programme of activities for discharging its duties and responsibilities. At Faculty and Department levels, there are Faculty and Department teaching and learning improvement committees and programmes. These teaching and learning improvement committees at different levels are automatically on the agendas of Senate, Faculty Board and Department meetings. This arrangement is an acknowledgement that UTLIC & UTLIP are not appendages but integral components of the University academic-cum-administrative structure. UTLIP is not a unit out there which one can conveniently leave out. The fact that the <-/chair persons> must submit reports of activities of their committees in scheduled meetings of Faculty Boards and the Senate entails the committees to be active. The <-/intergration> of UTLIP into the University structure has given it status and accounts in part for its success. UTLIP's status is further enhanced by making its Director or Chief Coordinator an appointee of the Vice-Chancellor. Moreover, the appointee ought to be a "solid" educator, and an acknowledged instructor, normally with an academic status of a full professor or an associate professor. Administratively, UTLIP's Chief Coordinator has the same status as a Faculty Dean. In summary, UTLIP enjoys the support and blessings of the highest authorities in the university as an organic part of its academic-cum-organisational structure.
<h> The Scope, Content and Conduct of UTLIP Programmes </h>
The UTLIP programme covers the following main areas: (1) Teaching methodology courses; (2) orientation seminars for new expatriate staff; (3) conference of Deans, Directors and Heads of Departments (biannually); (4) roundtable seminars for senior academic staff; and (5) computer sensitization courses.
These different elements were introduced and included in the programme at different times following identification of felt needs. This explains why at the moment, UTLIP is more of an in-service training programme rather than an academic programme. The main purpose of any training programme in industry, business, management etc, is to improve job performance of personnel. A training programme is invariably need-based, for, it must be made relevant. The main concern in UTLIP programmes is also job performance; the teaching-learning job. UTLIC identifies deficiences or needs of academic staff and uses these as a basis for designing a suitable programme.
UTLIP started off in late 1978 with a rather academic orientation much to the disappointment of participants. It was assumed that, as a programme of academics, UTLIP should have a purely academic/theoretical orientation. However, over the years, participants in the teaching methodology courses particularly, have repeatedly criticised these courses for being "too theoretical", "too academic" and "too educational". Their interest is to learn teaching skills and techniques which will enable them to function better as instructors. Experience has shown that most participants in UTLIP teaching methodology courses have limited background in education and quite often they are not particularly keen about the theory behind the practice of education. This explains why teaching methodology courses have lost much of their original academic and theoretical character and instead have become more and more practical in their orientation in response to practical needs of participants. Educational theories in the teaching methodology courses have thus been kept to the minimum.
Three main observations can be made about the scope, content and conduct of UTLIP programmes to-date.
The areas covered by the UTLIP programme focus on the instructor and instruction. In other words, UTLIP's current activities focus on one of three major areas of concern in university teaching; the teacher and teaching. The other two areas, namely, the learner and learning, and teaching-learning materials have been marginalised. However, in the early years, UTLIP had a need-based sub-programme on communication skills which was provided under the auspices of the Communication Skills Unit (CSU) within UTLIP. This subprogramme was specifically designed to assist the incoming students as well as other students with communication problems in their respective major fields of study-- Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, Law, Social Science, Natural Science, etc. CSU subsequently became rather large and separated from the rest of UTLIP.
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<I> <h> Instructional Strategies (Teaching Methodology) Courses in East African Universities: A Reappraisal </h>
<h> Introduction </h>
One aspect of higher education which has received little attention in Africa since independence is undergraduate and postgraduate teacher education. University Faculties of education which usually coordinate the process have faced several problems, including conflicts between the academic content requirements in teacher education on the one hand, and the professional components on the other. Some University authorities, especially in the Faculties have been perpetuating academic rationalist arguments to the effect that if a student knows the subject content of science, social science or language they need not dwell at length on teaching/learning process and classroom techniques. These views have weakened the resolve of Faculties of education to impart principles of education sufficient to produce professionals in the arena of teaching. Most research and teaching on educational principles and practices leading to better classroom results have therefore been left to western  Universities. Research findings from such contexts are often inappropriate for the transportation prevailing situation in African institutions. Graduate teacher trainees have also been socialised to ignore education courses which are so crucial in the process of professional development of a teacher. It is not uncommon to hear undergraduate students claim that they are under pressure of time to study and complete assignments, work on Teaching Methods is relatively unimportant compared with the major content areas.
A meeting of the Department of Curriculum and Teaching at the University of Dar es Salaam, discussed the above issues and the problems of organisation, allocated time and course content of Teaching Methods courses. The meeting concluded that the whole issue of undergraduate teacher education needed a review, and if possible a situational study whose findings would be used to recommend future teaching strategies in undergraduate programmes. This paper addresses some of these issues and recommends lines of action for the future. The issues addressed are central to any course of professional studies in teaching. Though the report does not carry any empirical study results, an attempt is made to put together a package of ideas which can be used while the study is being designed to evaluate them.
<h> The Problem </h>
Past work has addressed the poverty of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) Distant Teacher Preparation Programme (ISHUMI, 1984) and Adult Education Programme. Teaching methodology (or effective teaching strategy) is, in many respects, the climax of all Teacher Education Programmes. One cannot boast of running a serious Teacher Education Programme, whether certificate, diploma or degree level if students are not given enough opportunity to learn how to teach effectively in their respective subject areas and at the various levels they are expected to go and teach. To be able to provide such an opportunity, an education department needs to have competent teaching staff, a minimum amount of teaching/learning resources, including laboratory facilities, and competent personnel, relevant reading materials, and enough time for students to learn and engage in professional activities. Such activities include microteaching exercises, lesson design, lesson observation and critique, and <-/otherprofessional> practices. The way the Faculty of Education at the University of Dar es Salaam operates indicates that such a package is far from being achieved, and moreover, trends and well established practices seem to point to complacency and lack of serious concern about classroom practice. Teacher performance in many schools in Tanzania is often described as substandard . Research indicates that the Faculty has not done well enough in the Teacher Education Programme.
<h> Forms of Undergraduate Teacher Education Programme </h>
Since the Second World War, two routes of graduate teacher preparation have evolved in most education systems. One, B.A. Ed./B.Ed. route, involves students taking courses in major teaching areas simultaneously with education courses. Education courses are distributed throughout the 3 or 4 year training period and thus academic and professional abilities are developed simultaneously. The main difference among schools of education seems to be on the relative weight and organisation of liberal arts portions of education courses i.e. foundation and administration courses on the one hand, and professional portions i.e. instructional strategies, or methods and field experience on the other. Many North American schools of education have recently tended to focus more on pedagogical aspects concentrated on behavioural psychology in their liberal arts portion. British  Institutions tend to give a more eclectic liberal arts programme, that concentrates on both psychology and other principles of education, but attempt to link these aspects with teaching strategies and school experience. Most schools of education in Africa are still struggling with the system left by the former colonial governments. In East Africa, for example, the three year B.A/B.Sc. with education programmes established by the UNESCO Project after independence have persisted <-/todate>. It is only recently that reflections on their improvement have begun. On top of the agenda was the increase in time allocation to the programme, though it is not clear how the extra year will be utilized, what priorities exist, and the options to be adopted.
The second style, which is sometimes called the PGCE route, is less common in Africa at the moment. It is more common in western systems particularly certain British and even North American Universities. Students enrol in the education programme after completing their academic degree programmes, hence the title <-/post graduate> certificate of education (PGCE). From the organisational point of view, this route gives more room for holistic approaches to graduate teacher preparation by enabling one whole year to be devoted to education courses. Again, liberal arts and professional portions (i.e. teaching strategies) are covered and ample time is often available for field experience and provision of feedback to students during field practice .Organisation of programmes, however, depends on the working environment of each school. Many people think that the PGCE route provides more time for Faculty members in education to organise their programme, while others think the B.Ed. route is better at promoting intellectual and professional growth simultaneously. The important thing is that any programme works best if those running the same are comfortable with it and school systems feel they are getting good quality teachers out of it, capable of working within the existing school structure. Whatever goes on in Faculties and schools of education influences teacher preparation programmes at all other teachers' colleges in the country. Thus, if the Faculty of Education adopts a `crush programme' approach, for example, all other teachers' colleges will tend to emulate the model.
There is a growing feeling even in Developed Countries that the course content that prospective and practising teachers have an opportunity to learn is highly unstable and individualistic across teachers' colleges. However, most good programmes address three common strands: general education;  subject matter content, and pedagogy (teaching methods) . In the pedagogy programme, tension between liberal arts portions i.e. foundations, and psychology and professional portions e.g. methods, is real in many  Institutions whether American, British or African. Since the 1970s, researchers have been wondering about the place of each of these components in the `total mix' of Teacher Education Programmes. Horowitz (1974) argues that for any Teacher Education Programme to be effective it ought to include among other things a field experience component. With this component, effective student-teachers will learn to integrate the various components of the training in a school environment while working within a pool of experienced professionals . Recent attempts to introduce the <AmE/>behaviorist philosophy in teaching methodology courses in North America have moved many schools of education but also raised several questions.
Among the crucial questions raised is the impact of the <AmE/>behaviorist focus of teacher training on professional development. It has been argued that most of what happens in the process of preparing a teacher, doctor, lawyer and so forth can't be called `training' in the mere sense of behaviour modification. It is also largely a change in one's view of the world and one's attitudes about people. Thus, the mere knowledge of the skills/`tricks' of managing a class doesn't make one an effective teacher.
The need for more time on a training programme is a real one. In a recent review of empirical studies in this area, Fuller & Heyneman <-_tabulates><+_tabulate> the following as factors and percentages of studies showing positive effects on learning in Third World school systems.
The University of Dar es Salaam's complaints about lack of time and use of part-time lecturers in methods courses were raised in a recent paper . It was recommended that more time was necessary for methods courses to be able to achieve the ideal objectives for the process of producing a competent teacher. Further evidence of the poverty of methods courses is available from Teaching Practice (Field Experience) Reports submitted each year by student-teachers after their 2nd Year TP. Unfortunately, none of these reports has been published. The truth remains, therefore, that we are <-/data rich> but <-/research poor> in relative terms. Many such reports reveal problems of student-teachers working alongside older teachers whose social construction of teaching, so called <ea/>hali <ea/>halisi, emphasises lecturing and expository teaching strategies. Others lament that student teachers are often not well prepared to teach by active methods of learner involvement due to the limited time allocated to methods courses, or sometimes the lack of seriousness accorded to these courses in relation to content mastery. Thus, these reports raise many questions on the undergraduate Teacher Education Programme being offered. Of immediate importance however, is the need to examine the planning and teaching of instructional strategy courses and possibly increase the time allocated to such professional studies courses.
<h> Teaching Practice Reports </h>
The annual Reports of the Teaching Practice Organiser also indicate that student-teachers face several problems in classroom presentation, ranging from inability to arouse student interest, failure to explain things properly, lack of effective questioning strategies, and inability to organise student activities be they group discussions, debates, or laboratory investigations. These are observed even among second year students who have done Teaching Methods Courses. Traditional teaching methods are common, for example student-teachers simply talking to the students or to the blackboard and writing notes on the board often with mistakes. While these reports have addressed most of the problems student-teachers are facing, no work has seriously discussed possible solutions to the Methods Courses. Time has come when such a discussion is absolutely necessary.
Table 2: indicates the present courses and the Departments of Tutors. The status of methods courses at present indicates that most of these courses are being taught by tutors outside the Department of Curriculum and Teaching, and that most of the methods tutors have little or no background in curriculum theory. Although many may have some teaching experience, most of them were in classrooms more than 10 years ago and may not have studied classroom dynamics or effective teaching strategies. Some courses, run by tutors with both a recent school experience, a good background in curriculum issues and interest in classroom dynamics, will have more depth and possibly tougher assignments than the others. Some students then complain that some methods lecturers are overworking them.
Textbooks for each course are varied and many tutors appear to be operating without any standard reading texts. While time allocation for all courses is 1 hour, actual engaged time is often reduced due to movements and other delays. Some tutors, after discussing with their students, add another hour to make it 2. This practice makes some courses cover more content and pedagogy than others. It also gives more opportunity for the microteaching exercise in these groups.
<h> Secondary, Teacher Education and Adult Education Differences </h>
Some tutors do not differentiate between secondary education on the one hand and teacher education or adult education students on the other. Some even combine the two. This is inappropriate because: first, the student-teachers are being prepared to work with different categories of learners whose needs are psychologically very different. You cannot, for example, use the strategies of teaching secondary adolescents in a primary school, or an elders functional literacy class and hope to achieve good results. Thus you cannot combine the secondary and teacher education group, or, worse still, with the adult education group.</I>

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<I> <h> TRAINING OF TRAINERS COURSES AT THE IDM: AN INSIGHT INTO THEIR LIMITATIONS. </h>

<h> INTRODUCTION </h>
When one mentions the term "education" or "training", probably the first mental image we form is that of a classroom or a seminar room or a lecture <AmE/>theater. Inside these buildings are pupils, students or participants and an "authority" in a particular subject-matter standing in front of these learners behind a podium. This authority usually called many names e.g teacher, tutor, lecturer, professor e.t.c, believes and the learners believe him as a "know-all". Even if the students are adults of a comparable age and ability with the teacher, he/she would generally be seen to have some skills, knowledge or experience the others do not have.
Contemporary educational and training techniques require students to be masters of their own learning. In other words they are supposed to take responsibility of their own learning through discussion, role-play, simulation e.t.c. It is this learner-<AmE/>centered approach which has supposedly transformed the role of a lecturer (in a classical sense) to one of a facilitator. The lecturer's primary role is one of creating learning environments which are stimulating, relevant, and effective to a learning process.
If an  Institution is to produce knowledge that is relevant to the needs, experience, and aspirations of its clients, it has to direct its curriculum to the practical real-life problem solving situation of the environment. In such a situation it has to continually evaluate its programmes, its objectives, its tools, and methods.
It is the methods which this paper addresses itself to. The paper argues that although IDM has tried to recruit academic staff whose qualifications are beyond questions, it has yet to make training of trainers course (TOT) at the Institute a serious activity.
<h> 2. TOT's AT IDM </h>
Training of trainers courses (TOTs) have strictly speaking meant to expose newly recruited members of academic staff, particularly the tutorial assistants, and those members who are not tutorial assistants, but who had no opportunity in the past to attend TOTs with a view to streamline them into realities of modern training.
In such courses, participants are introduced to general learning theories, different training techniques such as lecturing, discussions, simulation, brainstorming, case study, role play e.t.c. Such courses normally take a week. This period is too short. It would be unrealistic to expect the skills acquired in the one week TOT, to be applied by the trainees when their turn comes to train students or participants. Since the time is too short to comprehensively cover all training techniques, the methods used in these courses are mainly "telling" than "doing".
Many trainers and psychologists do agree that learning by doing is a very important factor in the training-learning situation. Subscribing to this view, Ishumi quotes renowned psychologists and philosophers. He says, Dewey a renowned psychologist among others, emphasized the aspect of "doing" in the education of children. Ishumi continues, Dewey was not the first to spell out this view. There were others before him. People like Marcus Fabius Quintilian in the first century, John Amos Comenius in the seventeenth century, and Jean Jacques Rousseau in the  Eighteenth century. All of them have "in one way or another, directly or indirectly shared this view in the process of education"
The old  chinese proverb sums up the notion of learning by doing. It goes thus: "I see, I forget, I hear, I forget, I do, I remember". It therefore follows that if a trainee is simply told about such and such training techniques he/she may not remember them. But if he/she is given an opportunity to try them out in the same TOT, experientially, it is highly likely, in our opinion, that he/she will actually remember and use them when training his/her students or participants in any course.
<h> 3. EFFECTS OF A SHORT TOT OR NO TOT AT ALL </h>
Since lecturers are not normally trained to train, TOT is meant to fill this gap albeit extemporaneously. In the absence of this course or a not carefully planned course, the Institute may be failing in its number one mission i.e training. Take a case of someone joining the academic staff who has never been in class to "teach". Take another case of someone who has just completed his degree or diploma and employed as a Tutorial Assistant. Both persons are, as a matter of practice at IDM, thrown into classes to train andragogically rather than pedagogically in both long and short courses. The assumption which both will carry into a class is that of an omniscient lecturer in a particular subject matter to be transmitted to the students.
As a result of such belief, they are therefore infallible in their areas of specialization. To blame them for this orientation is unfair to them, for we did not train them in andragogical methods. Knowles defines the term pedagogy as "the art and science of teaching children". He further contends that the <-_learners><+_learner’s> experience does not count much in the teaching-learning process. The experience which matters is that of the teacher, textbook writer and other experts. Therefore children expect answers to all their questions from the teacher
Again, on (p.43) he defines andragogy as, "the art and science of helping adults learn". He probes further that when people grow and develop they gather and store a considerable experience which becomes a perpetual rich resource for learning. He further argues that people tend to value the learning they acquire from experience than  they receive passively. Accordingly, he says, the basic techniques in the training of adults are experiential techniques i.e discussion, case study, problem-solving, simulation exercises, role play, just to mention a few.
All the mentioned training methods (the list is by no means exhaustive) are all talked about in these TOTs. Our contention is that the mere explanation of these methods, without the actual involvement of the trainees in these techniques, has not guaranteed their application in the performance of the trainees when training students in a long course or participants in a short course.
It is not enough, if we may venture an opinion, for example to tell the trainees that case study method requires the participants to read a particular case and discuss the problems involved and the possible ramifications of a variety of decisions from which they are supposedly able to generalize for future use. We maintain that without the trainees engaging themselves in the analysis of cases, in their own training or without performing role plays by themselves and thereby learning how these techniques and others are prepared and actually use them, the likelihood to revert to old pedagogic methods is very high.
However, opposing voices might argue that TOTs at the IDM are conducted in this way largely because of lack of modern training <-_equipments><+_equipment> such as video recorders and television sets. We would like to believe that these modern training <-_equipments><+_equipment> are vital if available. These machines which visualize the trainees themselves in action allow them to see their strengths and weaknesses while conducting micro-training.
Other voices might respond that certainly there are other alternative ways which could be devised and work well in place of video recorders and televisions. An example could be to introduce micro-training sessions. In these sessions a trainee could train his/her colleagues, at the same time his/her colleagues together with the trainer jotting down strengths and weaknesses of their colleagues training style. At the end of the session, the group discusses its observation and probably reach a consensus. We venture to say that this is not the practice at the IDM's TOTs. Not at least in those TOTs we have had an opportunity to attend. Nevertheless, we tend to agree that under the current one week TOT, it is probably justifiable for the too little too hurriedly given in these TOTs.
At the IDM just like in any other institution of higher learning ,its curricula is geared towards making students pass their examinations. We tend to agree (albeit with some reservations) that the heavy workload for both students and lecturers, militates against applying andragogical methods in long courses.
Most and probably all achievement examinations which possess a pass-mark, function as qualifying examinations for progression or promotion to a further stage of education or training. This being so, it seems entirely reasonable to set a "standard of mastery" of the previous phase of training which is necessary before the student can move on to the next phase. Only those students who had mastered such "minimum essentials" would then be promoted to the next grade or be awarded a certificate, diploma or a degree. Under the circumstances pedagogical methods rather than  Andragogical ones seem to be acceptable, but we strongly feel that the two can be combined, more so in seminars.
It is in the "teaching" of short courses which do not terminate with examinations, where pure andragogical methods ought to dominate. No doubt the professors and senior lecturers do train in these courses experientially. This is mainly because of their rich experience and of course the TOTs they had attended elsewhere. Our worry is on the junior trainers. These trainers who most likely attended or did not even attend the hasty one week TOT are sometimes called upon to train participants in short courses without the knowledge of experiential techniques. It runs contrary to the intuitions of many trainers and teachers who operate on the basis that "skill getting" precedes "skill using".
It is therefore difficult to reach any other conclusion other than that, these junior trainers are certainly being thrown in at the deep end. We should remember that these are the professors and senior lecturers of tomorrow and thus there is a need to prepare them adequately.
We therefore hold that, it is through the actual "seeing and doing" where these new junior trainers can be able to learn the need to encourage and facilitate participation of students, without the need of dominating or demonstrating their intellectual superiority in a training situation. It is this superiority which make trainers wrongly believe that students or participants cannot teach them. Ndunguru reminds us that <quote_> <quote/>
It is our considered opinion that a training-learning process is a cooperative <AmE/>endeavor in which both the trainer and the trainees are jointly delving into the realm of new knowledge and skills, and both come out as changed men and women. Nonetheless, this is not meant to belittle the <_-trainers><+_trainer’s> role in the training process. Knowles neatly puts it thus: <quote_>
... this is not to suggest that teachers have less responsibility in the learning - teaching transaction, but only that their responsibility lies less in giving ready-made answers to predetermined questions and more in being ingenious in finding better ways to help students discover the important questions and the answers for themselves. (our emphasis) <quote/>
<h> 4. WHAT IS THEN TO BE DONE TOWARDS A NEW TOT? </h>
We will try to suggest how the TOT at IDM should be improved. Firstly we have pointed out that the time for which these courses are conducted is very short. It should be extended to run for at least three weeks. During these three intensive and comprehensive weeks, TOT should really be a microcosm of any short courses conducted at IDM. The trainees should not only read or hear about role play, rather they should practice role playing in their TOTs. They should not only read or hear about case study, instead they should in real terms analyze cases in their TOTs. They should not only read or hear about in-basket simulation, brainstorming e.t.c., but they should also <-_practice><+_practise> all of these training methods. This is what we have argued in favour of, that it is a sound educational and psychological principle that learning is best demonstrated through performance.
Secondly, IDM should try to have a specific time for employing Tutorial Assistants and others above Tutorial Assistants. If employed as a group it will be easy to conduct TOT for them before they are thrown into training sessions. We are recommending this, for only one reason already pointed out in this paper which is the fact that lecturers are not normally trained to train, these three weeks of TOT before they start "teaching" will give them a new orientation in what is expected of them. This is the practice elsewhere, for example, at the University of Dar es  salaam.
Thirdly, to ensure maximum concentration and seriousness in the TOT courses, they should be run outside IDM. . </I>

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<I> <h> Teaching and Learning in Schooling Context: A Clarification of their Relationship </h>
<h> Introduction </h>
<quote_> <quote/>This quotation illustrates the fact that there is a great difference between teachers and students in the way they perceive teaching and learning in a schooling context. Studies on teaching and learning and their interrelationships have tended to adopt the teacher's viewpoint and have overlooked what they are like from the student's point of view. This paper seeks to summarise analytic work of the last one decade on the concept of teaching and its relationship to learning and argues that an adequate understanding of their interrelationship can best be achieved by taking seriously the student viewpoint on both learning and teaching.
The paper has three parts. The first one presents the analysis of teaching on the basis of the work of Green (1971), Soltis and Kerr (1974) as well as Stride (1973). The second one analyses the concept of learning from both the teacher and student perspectives. The third part discusses the relation between the two and draws implications for the improvement of educational practice on the basis of the conception of learning in the context of "studenting" seen as a parallel to teaching.
<h> The Concept of Teaching </h>
In the last decade and a half, a lot of analytic work has been done to throw light on the concept of teaching and the way it relates to learning. The analysts include [names] to mention but a few.
Only a few of the studies have looked at teaching as a relationship; a profession that society holds in high esteem. The society entrusts the teacher with a socializing function in relation to the younger generation, thus defining the relative power he/she has. Others have looked at teaching as an activity but invariably without showing that it is merely the actualization of the professional relationship. This should explain why a change of teaching modes or approaches cannot necessarily alter that relationship whereby it is the teacher's expectations and not their own which students or pupils must seek to fulfil or meet. It is noteworthy that those who have attempted to elucidate on the concept of teaching have focused more on the activity aspect than on the relation aspect.
Two types of analyses of teaching as an activity have emerged. The first type has looked at teaching as an activity continuum or range. According to Green, teaching should be understood "not as a single activity, but as a whole family of activities within which some members appear to be of more significance than others" . In other words, teaching comprises many activities but only some of them should be considered "teaching proper" while the rest are labelled "teaching improper". The former are at the very <AmE/>center of the continuum while the latter are peripheral. On one part of the continuum, the activities aim at achieving the learning of behaviour content (knowledge-how), while on the other the activities aim at learning that is propositional in nature (knowledge-that). In the first case the activities range from training through conditioning to "coercion", while in the second case they range from instruction through preaching and indoctrination to sheer brainwashing. At the <AmE/>center of the continuum, the activities that make up teaching proper are instruction and training precisely because they appeal to the intelligence or conviction or reasoning power of the learner. 
The activities that constitute teaching improper are part of the concept of teaching all the same; they have their place in teaching provided one has a developmental conception of education. For example, to very young children, parents simply prescribe behaviours or manners without bothering to explain the rationale behind them. But as the child grows, the parents begin to provide rationales for their prescriptions. Similarly, conditioning has proven very useful in the training of severely handicapped children.
This view of teaching as a continuum of qualitatively different activities within a genus or family, is rendered much more complete by the analysis of a single teaching activity that may occur at any one point on the continuum. This has been attempted by, among others, Soltis and Kerr(1974). In their study, they saw the teaching activity as involving purposeful 'Acts' of setting general goals (G) and sub-goals (g), the attainment of which is a function of choosing strategies (t) and tactics (i) appropriate to the learning situation (S). Thus teaching activity is summarised in a formula of Acts related to goal-setting and the choosing of strategies and tactics as shown below: 
Again as an improvement on the analysis of the single teaching activity, there have been analysts who have looked at the acts of teaching as falling in a three-phased process of planning, implementation (encounter) and evaluation . In a diagram, the process phases would look like:
As can be noted from Fig. II, evaluation is involved in the first two phases as a separate and terminal phase of teaching. Borrowing from Jackson (1966), Stride (1973) has alternatively labelled the phases as pre-active, interactive, and post-active. In the same spirit, teaching is sometimes defined as "the process of making and implementing decisions before, during and after instruction, to increase the probability of learning". 
The analysis of teaching, as purposive acts particularly in the encounter or interactive phase, has uncovered the concept of teaching as a social relationship referred to above. Scholars such as Paulo Freire (1972) have been quite critical of the standard relationships that govern conventional formal teaching-learning situations. They have advocated for more democratic or egalitarian relationships by adopting more "dialogical" methods of teaching. However, one should not be misled by these critiques into overestimating the power of the new teaching acts to change the socially sanctioned relationships in educational settings. Clearly, it is the power structure in society and the locus of power over formal education that finally counts.
Green has elucidated the concept of teaching as a family of activities that can be placed on a continuum according to whether they aim at <AmE/>behavioral (know-how) or propositional (know-that) learning on the one hand, and according to the degree to which they appeal to the learner's intelligence or not, on the other. Soltis and Kerr have elucidated the concept of teaching activity as a set of related purposeful acts involving the setting of goals and sub-goals as well as the choice of strategies and tactics appropriate to the learning situation. Stride and others place the various teaching acts within a process made up of the planning phase, the encounter (interactive) phase and the evaluation phase. The encounter or interactive phase has received a lot of analytic attention, revealing in the process the power of teaching as a relationship socially prescribed. But in all this, teaching is idealized as a service to the learner, thus giving the impression that it is the learner who calls the tune of the educational music. Trow (1963-31) has summed up this view saying, "the teacher is not one who imparts knowledge and skill to another, but one who helps another gain his own knowledge and skill".
<h> The Concept of Learning  </h>
In a sense, learning is a reactive/adaptive change that an organism undergoes - a change in the way it relates to or makes sense of its environment. This may be a result of purely casual experience that may be conscious or unconscious. It sounds a rather passive view of learning that is anachronistic. But psychologists have dealt with broad 'osmosis-type', non-deliberate and reactive learning as instrumental learning.
While such non-deliberate learning certainly does happen in a schooling context, it has not featured prominently in educational discourse except in the context of "the hidden curriculum" . Otherwise educators have tended to focus on and highlight what may be called 'intentional learning'; the learning that happens as a result of deliberate concerted effort by the organism itself as a 'change-initiator'. This has sometimes been referred to as operant learning. This form of learning sounds much more palatable and fashionably modern today when teaching has come to be conceived as a facilitation service to the active learner.
Admittedly, the term 'to learn' is variously used. There are times when it is used to mean to be taught something as in the sentence 'What do you learn at school?'. It is also used to mean to study, practice, exercise, memorize, enquire, search into something as in 'I am learning English on my own' . The third sense of the term is to gain knowledge, information, skill, mastery, comprehension or understanding of something . This is the achievement sense of the term. Thus one can use it with the auxiliary 'have' as in 'I have learned driving' . One cannot say 'I am learning English' in this sense if not in the other two senses presented above.
From this analysis, one sense of 'to learn' refers to achievement and not to a process. The other two senses refer to a process conceptualized in two ways, namely, learning as a process of adaptation, accommodation or reactive change; and learning as a process of change-initiation from within. The question at this point is: How does learning in these senses relate to teaching as a relationship; as a family of activity-types spread out on a continuum expressing a social relationship, and as a set of purposeful acts adding up to a process aiming at the facilitation of learning of another as presented above?
<h> Relationship between Teaching and Learning </h>
When one examines the relationship between teaching and learning as processes, both aim at the achievement sense of learning although in different ways. In its intentional sense as a change-initiation process motivated from within the organism, learning aims at the organism's own or self-defined learning attainment. But in the adaptive or reactive sense, the learning process aims at other-defined as opposed to self-defined learning attainment.
On the other hand, if one takes teaching in global terms, it too aims at learning attainment. But, unlike in the case of the learning process, teaching aims at the learning of the student and not of the teacher himself or herself, or at least not exclusively. When we talk of the relationship of teaching to learning, we must bear in mind the two senses of learning just presented. Where learning is a process of self-initiation, the teacher does not necessarily come in. If and when he/she does come in, it is merely as a resource person at the call of the learner; he or she does not come in to define for the learner the learning attainment, and the learner is at liberty to accept or reject the teacher's assistance. From the learner's viewpoint, the teaching is indeed a 'learning facilitation service' and no more, and learning is 'free learning'. However, in institutional formal education settings, the teacher is expected by the society not merely to facilitate learning, as it is fashionable to describe his role today, but to set learning expectations for the learners, while the learners are not expected to set their own agenda but to accommodate themselves to the expected learning attainments.
It is arguable that the view of teaching as a free facilitation service to the free active learning process of the learner is at best idealistic. In fact, it is an abstraction in the conventional formal educational settings. In the world of actuality, it is the teacher who calls the learning tune to which the learners must dance if they are to survive as students or pupils. While indeed teachers may try to adapt themselves to the learners, it is the latter who must adjust to the teacher. After all, the teacher deals with a variety of learners and it is not easy for him or her to adjust to each and every learner and so follow Cornett's advice: "the more the teacher knows about the child's learning style, the more likely it is that the mediation will be effective", (1983:10). The reverse is closer to the truth, and students and pupils know this realism very well. This is in line with the power that society has conferred on teachers for setting learning agenda for learners. . 
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<I> <h> Financing Education in Tanzania: Strategies During the Economic Recovery Programme Period </h>
<h> Introduction </h>
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the major issues involved in financing education in Tanzania and relate the issues to selected school finance principles. Alternative ways of addressing the issues are given ensuring that they are fair and equitable across the individuals, school units, district (town) councils or education sectors. It is proposed that any financing strategy should provide the school units with the maximum possible revenue to meet the needs of the students. Through a needs assessment of the current situation, the paper attempts to pave the way for the financial role of the communities, individuals, local government, central Government and donor agencies' support.
The proposed methods of financing education ought to stimulate private initiative, through some degree of decentralization in which education financing and administration are not co-terminus, but otherwise, give the central Government and external donors the opportunity to assist the community in discharging its educational financial responsibilities. However, not all school units, individuals, schooling levels, regions (or districts) are the same. School units and districts, for example, have differing costs, and differing needs for their students. Individuals have differing financial capacity or needs. They also get differing private benefits from education. The social benefits accruing from different levels of education are also different. 
<h> The Issues </h>
Every child in Tanzania, regardless of where he or she lives, should have access to a complete basic primary education that meets his or her needs and society's needs. Recent studies indicate that the quality of primary education is very low, especially in the rural areas. There is also a difference in education quality across the regions and districts. Teachers in town schools are highly qualified compared to those in rural schools. Yet selected student background (e.g. social economic status), and school characteristics (such as good teachers and quality of surroundings) influence standard seven achievement. 
The costs of providing complete basic primary education and the local fiscal capacity to mobilize the financial resources vary widely across the local authorities and town councils. The provision of primary and adult education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Local Government and Cooperative Development (MLGCD). The central Government subsizes the local governments through a <-/lumpsum> subvention amounting to the estimated shortfall of local revenue in relation to the targeted level of education services. The local governments usually allocate funds to various sectors by pooling the local revenue with the central Government . However, the type of "poll tax" levied by local governments raises significant inequities across the different groups of residences. Transfers from central Government are not based on equalization formulae. Flat grants do not encourage local creativity or reward local initiative as the system of governance remains centralised in decision making and few important decisions on education are made locally. 
If the local governments, town councils and village governments are to attain local autonomy and control, they will have to depend more on local revenues and, therefore, should be given more local taxing power than presently available. Equalization through taxes is usually a divisive issue ; but one cannot have local control, participation and local representation without taxation and accountability. The conflicts and constraints surrounding tax policy imply the need for important tax reforms or improvements in the application of the present tax systems .
Secondary education is unnecessarily expensive, it is: boarding, biased, urbane, one-shift system, uses European-type buildings, and with no realistic space norms. To reduce the costs of secondary schools in Tanzania, Malekela and Galabawa (1986a) gave four strategies: (1) better utilization of present resources (2) the use of day schools rather than boarding schools, (3) the use of cheaper buildings, and (4) mobilization of the people to put up rural and district schools. Comparative data of a typical government secondary school, and a good quality private Highland Secondary School in Iringa indicated that one can have 29 day schools of Highland Secondary type at the price of one "high quality" government boarding school .
The allocation of financial resources for education has been influenced by the policies pursued in the context of social and political objectives rather than in terms of efficiency indicators and effectiveness allocation formulae. Generally, financial distribution formulae have not been adopted and used effectively. Innovations are still required for purposive formulae which could: equalize expenditures per unit, equalize education output, increase attendance rates, induce curriculum changes, and reduce wastage. Schools which attain high levels of efficiency are not rewarded accordingly. 
Less resources have been allocated to revitalization. Consequently, the quality of education at all levels has been going down in the light of decreasing quality inputs. The infrastructure that was put up for education has been deteriorating over time: torn textbooks, no maintenance of equipment and physical plant. Generally, there is an imbalance between salary and non-salary recurrent expenditures. And within the salary expenditures, there is an imbalance in favour of non-teaching salary expenditures. 
Expansion of education services over time has not been selective and in favour of socially profitable investment. The fiscal crisis that Tanzania is facing now calls for selective expansion of education services. For example, more resources will have to go to basic-primary education (than tertiary education), new approaches to providing secondary and higher education at modest levels, and programmes that do not generate more recurrent expenditures. These programmes include expansion of access for part time fee paying students. 
Non-Government Organization (NGO) activity is essential. However, the degree of NGO operational freedom depends on the extent of government regulation and usually strong NGO activity tends, in turn, to attract foreign funds. This principle allows the establishment of privately owned and privately financed institutions, especially at higher and secondary education level, provided they operate under state set standards. 
<h> Some Principles of a School Finance Plan for Tanzania </h>
In the context of the on going structural adjustment and economic revival programmes , and in the realities of fiscal capacity constraints, both the central Government and donor support in the field of educational finance have to grapple with the principles of access, quality, funding, equity, requisition, and flexibility. They also have to address the role of central Government vis-a-vis decentralization, and efficiency and effectiveness (or the mandate of education managers) in financing.
<h> Access Financing </h>
Every student has the right of access to a standard and quality primary education. And depending on student ability as indicated by the National Examination and on the regional quota, a student must have the opportunity to acquire secondary and higher education.
Compensatory education, coupled with disproportional allocation of resources and inputs in favour of less privileged regions, would have more far-reaching effects than reliance on quotas. There is no evidence to show that the system has helped backward regions to catch up at higher levels .
The scope of adding evening and vacation courses to increase students access to secondary and university levels has not been exploited. Some recommendations on maximum capacity utilization as given by the Ministry of Education, 5th IDA Project Report (1981) have not been implemented. These include: the use of rotation system, the double shift system, better utilization of teachers and physical facilities. An improvement in these areas can increase access to education.
Different countries have several ways of equalizing education access. For example, equalization can be achieved through central regulations and financing. On the other hand, regulations can be moderate and most of the financing can be generated at the local level. However, as pointed out by Schiefelbein (1983), many social aspects have to be considered when proposing new ways of promoting access to education. Changes in the present arrangements would probably negatively affect groups which now benefit from the system.
<h> Quality Financing </h>
Recent studies indicate that the quality of schooling at all levels is low. This is true for primary education , and also true at the secondary level, .
The solution to the above quality problem needs to be both internally and externally consistent. Internally, more resources need to be diverted to teaching and learning variables. Externally, the funding units ought to concentrate on teacher training and textbook publishing. Studies by Heyneman and Jamison (1980), and Heyneman and Loxley (1983) indicated that teacher quality and textbook availability are major determinants of school quality in low income countries (LICs).
<h> Equity Financing </h>
School units must have access to sufficient resources to provide quality education that meets the national needs. Since local resources and costs vary, some schools and individuals require more central Government funding than others to meet their education obligation. For example; by June 1988, the cost of cement in Dar es Salaam was Tshs. 350/= per bag. The same bag was selling at Tshs. 750/= (open market) in Bukoba, Kagera Region. Hence, it costs more to put up one classroom in Bukoba than in Dar es Salaam. Accordingly, it does not make sense to dish out equal amounts of flat-grants and other subventions to Regions because of per-capita income differences across the Regions.
<h> Right to Requisition and Financing </h>
Regulations on the right to requisition can hinder efforts towards educational resources mobilization and allocation. School boards need to have access to some locally raised revenue-tax or non-tax if they are to function with local autonomy and local accountability.
At higher education levels, revenue raised through local efforts e.g. consultancy, productive activities, grants, etc, should be retained and used to bridge the gaps in the relevant departments. Also, at the primary school level, the school units and boards should have options to use some resources on local tasks such as repairs and maintenance of plants. The units and boards must however, be accountable to their localities or financiers: villagers for primary schools, Regions for secondary schools, Faculty and Council for Universities.
All schools are subject to Government regulations. The Government claims regulations exist to protect communities from exploitation, and also to allow maintenance of some uniformity in the system. The legal requirements are sometimes extensive, and they include regulations on building design, curriculum, class size, qualifications of teachers, school fees, and school boards of governors. Such laws, in fact, cannot be thoroughly enforced. The preparedness of the Government to relax control in order to encourage communities to make greater inputs is essential.
The Government is very ambivalent about the existence of school fees. It had gained popular acclaim through policies to abolish fees; but now it is <-/embarassed> because fees have crept back into the system. It is argued that fees are <-/inegalitarian> and discriminatory. But at the higher levels, it is the high socioeconomic status pupils who gain entrance. These are the people who can afford to pay and need to pay.
<h> Flexibility in Financing </h>
The principle of flexibility relates to two areas. At the central level, the Government should continue to provide leadership and direction but must be flexible in the allocation of grants to Regions in response to regional needs and society trends by, for example, providing specific purpose grants. The second area pertains to flexibility in the use of vote funds by the units. Presently, it is not possible for the warrant of fund holders (accounting officer) to economize on some items and then transfer funds to other items of expenditure depending on local needs and circumstances. For example, all school purchases have to be done from Government allowed suppliers or through tenderers selected by the Regional Tender Boards. This procedure does not allow the warrant holders to buy from cheaper sources.
<h> Efficiency and Effectiveness in Financing </h>
Two efficiency areas are relevant here; efficiency in allocation and efficiency in financial management. I have argued elsewhere that resource allocation trends favour higher or university education at the expense of lower levels. A recent study indicated that, in fact, investments in primary education have greater payoffs than investment in secondary or university schooling. Therefore, a move to reinvest more in primary education, which is terminal but otherwise more socially profitable, will also advance the peasant farmer as most peasant farmers in Tanzania are primary school graduates. A change in the distribution of educational resources towards primary schools will benefit low socio-economic groups who are usually the majority at this level.
</I>
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<I> <h> Sources of Errors in Second Language Acquisition: The Case of English Speakers Learning Swahili </h>
<h> Introduction </h>
The source of errors in second language learning has of late been a controversial topic. Contradictory reasons as to why errors occur are usually given, ranging from native language-hence Ll transfer I - to strategies employed by the learner .These conclusions are theoretically based on two versions of contrastive analysis-strong and weak. Proponents of the strong version claim that one can compare two languages to determine similarities and differences in structure-similarities being easier to learn while differences are not (Predictionalists). On the other hand, proponents of weak version use the concept as a tool to account for errors which actually occur without prediction (Non predictionalists). Our approach is mainly based on a weak version hypothesis of contrastive analysis.
The conclusions made in previous studies have been obtained using the data of languages other than Bantu-to which Swahili belongs. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to analyse performance data obtained from English speakers learning Swahili - a Bantu language. We are interested in pointing out the kinds of errors made and their possible sources. Our specific aim is to test Jain's hypothesis that errors are traceable to both L1 and other-than-L1 source. By using the Swahili data, we want to prove or disprove this hypothesis.
A preliminary comment is in order at this stage: the qualitative aspect of the study. The study makes no claim to completeness, since it is not intended as a statistical count, but merely a tentative probe which might suggest some points for further investigation. 
<h> Method and Data Analysis </h>
Two groups of English speaking learners of Swahili were used: six students of intermediate level referred to as group 1, and four students of advanced level, referred to as group 2. They were given numbers 1-10 so that their identity is just known to the author only.
Students' class work of free compositions throughout the term was analyzed. Because of limited time and the scope of the paper, only two kinds of errors were looked at: grammatical agreement and word order. 2. Grammatical errors are defined as grammatical markers departing from the Swahili norm, which a native Swahili speaker would not accept as grammatical. Similarly, word order errors are a sequence of words in a sentence departing from the Swahili norm which too, a native Swahili speaker would consider unacceptable in standard Swahili.
It is proper here too, to mention briefly the characteristics of Kiswahili grammatical agreement. In Swahili, there exist various sets of nouns classified under different classes. Such classes are normally, though not invariably, distinguished by <-/evert> markers. Similar markers usually occur with other parts of speech as adjectives, verbs, pronominals etc., and the choice of a marker for each part of speech corresponds to, or is determined by the set to which the noun indicated belongs, that is, the noun gender and/or class, as shown in the following sentences:
A total of thirty compositions - three from  each student were analyzed. Each composition consisted of approximately half a page (handwritten). In total, the compositions consisted of about 270 sentences of approximately 2,700 words. Using the data, a goal was set to answer the following questions: (1) What is the error?; (2) What is the possible source of the error?; (3)Is there any relationship between group 1 and Group 2 in the errors they make?. If so, what conclusions can we make?; (4) Apart from English, what other languages have students studied?; Does that have anything to do with learning the second language?.
By answering these questions, we hope to determine a probable cause of errors. This might help to evaluate our hypothesis.
<h> Results of Data Analysis and Interpretations </h>
The following section shows the results obtained from the study and their interpretations. The first sub-section deals with the results of grammatical agreement errors, and the second and third sub-sections deal with the number of errors made by each group, and the subjects' knowledge of other foreign languages respectively. Sub-section four shows errors in word order and their possible sources. In the final sub-section, we present the observations made from the data.
Grammatical agreement errors were analyzed as to what kind of errors they were, as shown in Table 1:
In Table 1, the results indicate that the most common errors are the use of inappropriate markers. Out of the total of 46 errors, 32 (70%) are errors that constitute the use of inappropriate markers. Furthermore, of these errors, the errors in possessive markers seem to be rampant, followed by inappropriate use of the subject prefix. There are two possible explanations for this: (1) that agreement markers are most frequently used in Swahili and hence the most likely area for students to make errors. (2) in view of their frequency, the learner uses a variety of methods to learn them. These methods may include, among others, generalization, simplification, inappropriate mastery of the rules, avoidance, etc. The following few examples support the point above. (a) Possibly Generalization: (b) Possibly avoidance: 
The results in Table 1 further indicate that errors made by advanced students, i.e. 28 (61%) were qualitatively higher than those made by intermediate students. This might seem contradictory on surface level in that the advanced students are expected to make less errors than intermediate students. But in practice, the advanced students wrote more lengthy compositions than the intermediate students. In addition, with more exposure to the language, they feel more secure to "venture out" on their own. This adventurism included the use of other language aspects not yet within the reach of intermediate students. The results appear to be consistent with Taylor's theory, which considers second language acquisition to be an actively creative process depending on a student's ability to assimilate and subsume new information into already existing cognitive structure. Thus far, the data seem to support our hypothesis. Some of the errors are traceable to language transfer/interference, whereas others are not easily accounted for.
Table 2 indicates that the highest number of errors was 14 (32%) made by student No. 7 of group 2, and the lowest was 1 made by students 2 and 4, both from group 2. The data further indicate that errors which are common to intermediate students are also common among advanced students.
These results seem to suggest that the source of errors is at least a similar pattern of results. The results show a difference among individuals and between the groups.
In Table 3, (z) represents studying a foreign language for a year or more, (x) represents studying a foreign language for less than a year and (-) represents no exposure to any foreign language. Table 3 shows that seven subjects have been exposed to foreign languages. Out of those seven, three had at least one year or more at the college level doing more than one foreign language. The other three subjects have never studied any foreign language apart from Swahili, which they are studying now.
Compared to Table 2, three interpretations can be made: First there is no correlation between the subject's knowledge or non-knowledge of other foreign language and the one they are studying now. This means, therefore, that other foreign languages are not sources of errors they make in Swahili. Nevertheless, this point has to be viewed with caution. The results of Table 2 and 3 are in no way a guarantee that the subjects are not influenced by the strategies they used in learning other foreign languages. They may be applying the same or similar strategies in learning the new foreign language. These strategies may not strictly be a source of errors, but might lead the subjects to make errors. To test this hypothesis, a separate experiment is in order.
Secondly, since some subjects have studied other foreign languages and not made the same kinds of errors, the knowledge of the other foreign languages has nothing to do with making these errors. Such a conclusion has its limitation too. A possible alternative explanation is that Swahili and other Bantu languages have a peculiar characteristic of grammatical agreements. Because this aspect of the language is totally different from the languages known to the subjects, in learning this new language, they have nothing to refer to.
Thirdly, we assume that errors in agreement in Swahili might probably be due to interference within the language, that is, between various functions of agreement system.
In the following section we show errors in word order and hypothesize what their possible sources are as indicated in Table 4.
The results in Table 4 indicate that errors in word order are more common in Group 1 than they are in Group 2. Out of a total of 26 errors only 10 (38%) were made by Group 2, whereas Group 1 made 16 (62%) errors. The results further indicate that errors made by Group 1 are traceable to what we have termed "other" (not transfer-oriented) (23%).
From the results in Table 4, one conclusion can be made: in this aspect of the Swahili language (word order), transfer from Ll is probably the main source of errors. This is logical; for a learner relies on what he already knows when confronted with a new language situation. In this case, it is also logical that an intermediate language learner knows less, although this might differ between individuals, of the target language than a more advanced learner. The intermediate learner will, therefore, need to rely more heavily on Ll or other L2s. As he learns more about the target language, the errors will decrease, as is the case with Group 2.
The results in Table 4 support our hypothesis. The same conclusions were reached by other scholars like Taylor , who summarized his work by arguing that acquisition is a creative process which involves the learner as a creative participant; then, the learner will make errors which indicate that he is dealing with the target language directly and without an extensive reliance on his native language. It is shown above that errors are not based on transfer from L1 alone but also from other-than Ll.
Further evidence for this conclusion is presented in Table 5. This is an elaboration of Table 4, with examples drawn from the compositions.
The data in Table 5 indicate that the sources of errors in word order in Swahili are not only traceable to subjects' Ll (English) but also to other-than Ll, referred to here as Interlanguage.
A similar conclusion was reached by Duskova' who examined writing samples from 50 postgraduate Czech students writing in English. She found that "interference from the mother tongue was plainly obvious in errors in word order and sentence construction, i.e. on the syntactic level".
In conclusion, however, Duskova' admitted that "a large number of errors could not be traced back to interference from the mother tongue, but rather were intralingual in nature".
<h> Observations </h>
The differences of errors made in agreement as well as in word order between Group 1 and Group 2 provide interesting observations.
Errors which are most common for the intermediate and advanced subjects tend to indicate that increased proficiency in Swahili does not, in a strict sense, qualitatively affect the 'kinds' of errors which a learner makes. While the advanced subjects made fewer errors in word order and many in agreement, their most frequent errors were usually the errors which the intermediate subjects made most frequently. This case is similar for most of us who are non-native speakers of English; we are still making a lot of errors in the use of articles regardless of our proficiency in English.
Tied to the argument above is the role of the individual. It is possible to hypothesize that individuals differ slightly in their strategies of language learning, specifically, in the case of agreement in Swahili. This was revealed in the data by the fact that the individuals' errors were not qualitatively uniform. This generalization has to be tempered by the recognition that the subjects' background differs. Had we enough time and subjects, we could have controlled the subjects in such a way that they would all have been of the same background.

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