W2A011T
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction.
This chapter presents the literature review. It reviews the various studies on women and infant mortality in several countries and Tanzania in particular. In addition, it reveals the weaknesses of these studies and points out what has not been done. The chapter also shows the conceptual framework for the analysis of infant mortality in the study.
<-/Far-less> is known in Third World countries about the <-/behavioral> and social determinants of infant mortality than about the biological ones. While the latter have been extensively studied, relatively little work has been done on the former. During the recent years there has been a growing awareness that this imbalance in our understanding of infant mortality needs to be redressed.
The determinants of infant mortality are divided into two main groups, socio-economic and proximate factors. Socio-economic factors includes education, income, residence, occupation, marital status, health, religion which work through the proximate determinants that is maternal factors, environmental contamination, nutrient deficiency and injury.
<-_Women><+-Women's> health as one of the most important socio-economic determinants of infant mortality has not been dealt with adequately. The few findings have not always been consistent. This might have been so because infant mortality is also influenced by other socio-cultural factors which differ from society to society. These factors include, nutrition, workload, antenatal and postnatal services, education, prevalence and common diseases and environmental conditions.
Women need adequate nourishment throughout their lives not only when they are pregnant. Undernourishment during childhood can lead to stunted growth and this will affect child birth. Undernourishment and deficiencies of certain nutrients during woman's reproductive years are suspected of increasing her risk of infection or haemorrhage during pregnancy or delivery. In Less Developed countries it has been found that twenty to <-/forty five> percent of women aged 15-44 do not consume enough calories each day. Children of undernourished women are likely to be born with low weight. Thus they have high risks to death.
Literature on nutrition in developing countries, and Tanzania in particular, prove that women nutritional status and that of their children is poor. Buvinic and Leslie (1981) asserted that the poor nutritional status of many women in Latin America and the Caribbean contributed significantly to lowered resistance to diseases and lowered economic productivity. Anaemia among pregnant, lactating and even non-pregnant women has long been recognised as a problem than it is to men. This is due to low nutrient intake among women. Inadequate nutrition is also a major cause of infant births of low weight which accounts in part for the extremely high mortality rates in Latin America and the Caribbean. High infant mortality rates are striking among women under the age of 20 years, the uneducated, those with five or more children and single mothers.
Another study was done in Tanzania by UNICEF (1985). The study aimed at finding out the causes of child death. The factors dealt with were nutrient intake and diseases. On nutrient intake, the survey showed that in most rural households in Tanzania the diet consisted of mainly one staple food (cereals) supplemented with beans or peas, green leafy vegetables and occasionally meat. They concluded that there was a deficit in the total food energy intake.
In a research by Yambi (1988) on nutritional status and the risk of death for the children of six to thirty months in Iringa region, it was noted that disease prevalence was a result of low nutrition. It was concluded 
that risk of death among children increased as nutritional status declined. Kokkonen's (1985) study in Iringa region aimed at finding out the effects of Finnish aid to the health sector and its effect on women health. The study was centred on incidence of diseases, workload and the nutritional status of women and children. On nutrition it was noted that maize was the main staple food for the villagers coupled with beans, vegetables like cassava leaves, cowpeas, cabbage and spinach.
The argument that women average energy intake (1700 calories) is low compared to average energy output (3500 calories) has been discussed by Lukmanji and Sepiten (1987). In their study they discovered reasons for such state of affair to be low feeding frequency (2 times a day), inadequate food ratios, lack of appropriate cooking facilities and equipment and low energy density foods.
This <-_result><+_results> in low weight gain, low milk output leading to poor feeding of infants and early malnutrition. The risk of an undernourished mother to produce an infant of low birth weight less than three kilograms is very high.
These underweight children have high risk to death.
The study on the relationship between eating patterns and the related health characteristics of their children in Morogoro region was done by Kahabuka in 1989. In that study it was observed that people ate a lot of plant foods and little of animal foods. Thus less of essential nutrients and so children had low weight and growth generally.
Lomayani (1973) carried a study of Groups of Ujamaa villages in Dodoma district. She dealt with traditional ways of child rearing and upbringing and the impact of Ujamaa villages on the young child in terms of water, environmental sanitation and personal hygiene, care and attention for expecting and nursing mothers, care and attention of babies and young children, shortage of clothing and the handicapped children in the sampled villages. It was found that the expecting and lactating mothers eat the same diet as the rest of the family, which in most cases, is of low nutrition. Children born to undernourished mothers are weak, undernourished and easily infected by diseases.
All these studies have shown that, generally, women and children get low nutrition. However these studies did not specifically correlate the effect of the nutrient intake on women and infant health. Some scholars have emphasised on the nutrition of infants and children only without regard to women who are the determinants of nutrition in a household. Lukmanji's and Sepiten's study (1987) was done at macro level the same is true with Buvinic's and Leslie's (1981) and UNICEF's (1985) studies.

2.2 Workload
It is a well known fact that in many developing countries particularly in Africa, women have a heavy workload. Women are not only in charge of all domestic duties but also are engaged in the agricultural activities. A United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) study in 1974 estimated that women consisted between 60 to 70 percent of the labour force in African agriculture. The heavy work output is accompanied by fatigue, low food intake, inadequate rest, high infection rates especially malaria which is often associated with anaemia.
Studies on maternal performance have shown that women's workload during pregnancy, especially during the last months of pregnancy, is the major determinant of prenatal and early neonatal deaths. In three districts of Morogoro region it has been shown that women spend 14 to 16 hours a day on average on domestic work, agriculture, child care and for the rest of the family maintenance. In most cases the heavy work-output is often accompanied by low food intake, inadequate rest and high infection rates.
Donovan (1987), in her paper presented in the 6th Annual Scientific Conference on Maternal and Child Health, Family Planning Monitoring and Evaluation, argues that the women's heavy workload, especially during the last months of pregnancy, is a major  determinant of early neonatal deaths. In another study in Iringa region, Kokkonen (1985) observed that women worked throughout the day from early morning to late evening.
It has keen estimated that women in Tanzania are  responsible for about 70 percent of food crop production; and they supply about 80 percent of the working hours (Meena 1989). Harvenick (1988) in Meena (1989) observed that while men's labour input in rural production is only 19 percent of the total, women's labour input is 70 percent
and the remaining is contributed by children.
Heavy workload causes loss of energy, leading to body weakness especially where the food supply is poor. Also it has an indirect effect on children as it leads to malnutrition due to inadequate time for child care and feeding by nursing mothers. Rutahakana and Kisanga study (1987), proved that nutritional status of children in low income areas in Arusha improved with increased time on child care. It has also been pointed out by UNICEF (1990) that areas of the country with high levels of food crop production like Rukwa are also areas with high levels of child malnutrition. These are areas where the time of child caretakers, their mothers, may be most constrained. Insufficient time precludes their feeding young children frequently.
These studies on workload did not show daily activities done by women. The researchers have also failed to reveal the direct cause of infant deaths which is the poor condition of the mother. It seems that all the scholars assume a direct relationship between workload and infant deaths which is not the case. Therefore, the relationship between workload, women health and infant mortality has not been dealt with adequately.

2.3 Antenatal and Postpartum Care
Antenatal care, that is care during pregnancy is recommended to start from the sixteenth week of pregnancy while postnatal/postpartum care begins before discharge to six weeks after delivery. This reduces the risk of complications for mothers and profoundly influences the babies chance of survival during the first month of life. The care involves thorough and regular physical examination, attention to psychological considerations and hygiene teaching.
There are few studies on antenatal and postpartum care which have been carried in other parts of the world, and in Tanzania. Writings in the 'Population Reports' (1988), show that the undereducated and rural women are likely to receive less prenatal care than their urban counterparts. These women often do not get prenatal care because it costs too much in terms of time and money. That is, they take a long time to walk to the nearest MCH clinic and is expensive in terms of transport and services. It is said that women are more likely to use prenatal services when they are within 3 kilometres from their homes than if it is far. It is further argued that, generally women with traditional life styles and those who deliver their first babies at home are not likely to use prenatal services and that many women see no need for prenatal care unless they have complications.
Wood (1973), writing on mother and child health, centred her study on delivery services, child health clinics, antenatal clinics, postnatal services and child spacing. She noted that the demand for antenatal services has been increasing in the last twenty years. But out of 75 percent of women who attended antenatal care only 35 percent returned for delivery. So more than 50 percent of the women did not turn up for delivery. Wood also noted that postnatal care for mothers is virtually non existent except for those who have had complications during delivery. These patients might be asked to return for <-/checkups>. Postnatal care for mothers is missing because the facilities for examining women, a coach and privacy are not available. 
Another study which was carried out in Iringa district by Malangalila (1979) aimed at relating perinatal mortality to the age of the mother, parity and education level of the mother, marital status, place of delivery and number of visits to antenatal clinics. On antenatal care it was noted that there was a significant fall in perinatal mortality in relation to the number of visits to antenatal clinics. For those with five or six visits the perinatal mortality rates were remarkably low. Thus decrease in perinatal mortality was associated with an increase in the number of visits to antenatal clinics.
A survey done by Kimambo (1982) in Bagamoyo district on utilization of maternal and child health services showed that antenatal attendance was high but the percentage of women delivering under trained supervision (in hospital) was low. It was also noted that postnatal attendance was high but this was for children and not mothers. 
The researchers above have not shown how antenatal and postnatal care relate to <_-women><+-women's> health and infant mortality. 
W2A012T
WHAT ARE SOCIAL SCIENCES ALL ABOUT?
To come to grips with the problem as to what Social Sciences are all about, let us, first all, begin with the title itself. The keyword in the title is Science qualified by the adjective Social. The illuminating question here is; what is science? The answer to this question will make it clear as to whether the disciplines grouped under the title Social Sciences deserve to be called Science or not.
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, Science is a branch of knowledge conducted on objective principles involving the systematized observation of and experiment with phenomena, esp. concerned with the material and functions of the physical universe. We are in the realm of natural or physical science,  physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and botany.
Science is, therefore, knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. The pursuit of such knowledge is currently also called Science. The dictionary concludes by saying; Science is an exact discipline.
According to the Canadian Encyclopedia, science is the rational study of nature. Science is, therefore, rational. It uses reason. A rationalist may be defined as someone who believes in deductive logic. He accepts as true certain statements and then reasons from the general to the particular. As for example, all men are mortal, Mr. X, is a man, therefore he is also mortal. Deductive logic is a frequent source of hypotheses and a scientist tests the internal consistency of his theories by setting them up in deductive logic. 
Science is empirical; it is based on experience, and not on speculation, or introspection. It does not accept self - evident axioms as a start in reasoning. The source of scientific knowledge is the actual experience.
Science is not subjective i.e based on the feelings of someone, no, it is based on empirical evidence. Its findings are public property; they are at the disposal of every one.
Science is systematic. It proceeds by observing the <AmE/>behavior of some phenomena, then experiment follows to test the observed facts, and the theories formed on the basis of these facts. Hence science is experimental. It specifies its conditions of observation.
The classical design for a scientific experiment identifies three types of variables: the dependent, the independent, and the constant. Science is quantitative, it counts and measures what it studies. Science is self - corrective - it requires no other authority than itself to correct it. The goal of science is prediction and control. Science aims to understand and explain natural phenomena. 
The assumptions of science are, (1) Determinism, or natural causation. Events are determined by certain factors, they do not just  happen. Science does not accept chance as an explanation of an occurrence; (2) Finite causation means that the causes of an event are limited in number, they are not infinite, but finite; (3) The law of parsimony, the assertion that no more causes, or forces should be assumed than are necessary to account for the facts. The Romans used to say; 
Let us now consider the word Social. To begin with, the word social is derived from the Latin <Latin/>socius, meaning companion, a person with whom one has some close relationship. Social, therefore, refers to people living in communities, and their interactions, thus, we have social organisations, social problems, social class, social stratification, etc. In short, the term social refers to any human <AmE/>behavior which is influenced by past, or present experiences of the <AmE/>behavior of other people.
Social is sometimes used to imply an awareness of the feelings and attitudes of others; as for example, we say so-and-so is very social, sociable, that is he cares for other people's point of view, and <-/welbeing>, a political leader should be social to his people. He should cultivate their social welfare.
The term social is often given a moral connotation, implying action directed toward the welfare of others, e.g. Social Security, Social Work, Social Welfare, Again the word Social is used to denote a special study of people in a special perspective, e.g. Social 
Psychology, Social Anthropology, Social Gerontology, etc.
Social is sometimes confused with cultural. We have seen that Social refers to interaction between a group of people, while cultural stresses the normative and cognitive patterns for action, rather than interaction itself. This point will become clear when the two words, society (social) and culture (cultural) will be discussed below, <Latin_>loco suo<Latin/>. (things should not be multiplied without a need); (4) Necessity of approximation, that is near to the actual.
Homo Sapiens has always been curious about his nature, the factors which influence his decisions and <AmE/>behavior. Likewise, he has constantly sought to understand the physical world around him, and the causes of events. 
In course of time, man conceived a theory of human <AmE/>behavior which guided all his social, political, economic and religious activities. Underlying all human actions, homo sapiens discovered that there was a system of beliefs, opinions and attitudes concerning what his nature was, what he could do, what he ought to do, and what he could not do.
This system of beliefs etc. is a function of one's cultural heritage and it reflects the social and economic background, education, and social life as a whole This system has a great impact on human <AmE/>behavior. It influences both how we act and how we relate to others, the expectations we have of them, how we socialize our children and how we order our entire public and private life. This point will be explained fully when discussing culture under anthropology below. 
Social Sciences are all about human <AmE/>behavior and the factors which account for it. Human conduct can be explained from many points of  view. Philosophers, theologians, poets and artists have all contributed to the understanding of human <AmE/>behavior.
Inspired by the success of the physical science which had made such strides in explaining the physical world, the social scientists adopted the methods of natural science and applied them to the study of human <AmE/>behavior. This move, however, is recent. Below is a brief account of man's attempts at explanation of his conduct. 
Belief in magic as an explanation of social events dominated the entire humanity until the advent of the age of reason and science about the 19th century. The Greek Philosophers and the ancient <-/Egyptions> are an exception for they speculated and concluded that the position of the stars at the time of one's birth determined the course of his, or her life. This was the beginning of astrology (Art of studying the stars in the belief that they <-/influnce> human affairs).
Since that time astrology has become a booming business. The notion of fate developed from astrology. Fate is by nature pessimistic; man can do little to avoid what fate has in store for him. The Swahili say. "<ea_>Ajali haina Kinga<ea/>", <-/litterally>, accident is unavoidable, it is predetermined, man is powerless, he can't change the course of events. 
Fate is an essential part of astrology. All in all, astrology was better than animism and speculation because it recognised a regularity to human <AmE/>behavior from natural causes, i.e. the movement of the stars.
Critically appraised, astrology is socially fallacious. How the movement of the stars influence human <AmE/>behavior is only stated but no proof is given. So astrology, despite the fact that it was an improvement over animism and mythology, as a theory of <AmE/>behavior, it is scientifically untenable.
The Greek philosophers explained human <AmE/>behavior by analyzing man as a dichotomy of body and soul (mind and will) body (drives). Drives are blind, they belong to the body, while mind is a thinking capacity, able to weigh <-/prons> and cons, and come to a right decision to act or not to act. In this vein, Socrates said, only ignorant people can
commit crimes, philosophers do not misbehave, because, they know. As a legacy from him, we all tend to believe that educated people cannot misbehave. It was a scandal one time, when a doctor was convicted of adultery with his female patient in one hospital. People were alarmed to hear of it. How can an educated man do that, people remarked?
Until the 19th century the study of man and society was largely deductive in approach and given to system building. These systems were <AmE/>modeled on ideas from theology or from the emerging physical sciences and generally had a powerful normative and 
prescriptive content. The few individuals involved in these speculative enterprises had no clear cut professional identity.
As the 19th century progressed emphasis switched to the gathering of data which would, when properly analyzed, provide useful information. Thus was born the positivistic approach to the social sciences.
The number of people engaged in the study of society grew considerably and  disciplinary lines emerged. German universities, from which American universities borrowed heavily, had a strong impact on these developments. Departments specializing in history, sociology, political science, etc. emerged towards the end of the 19th century.
A measure of the increasing specialization in the social sciences was reflected in the professional organizations, the American Historical Association 1884; the American Economics Association 1885; the American Psychological Association 1892; the American Sociological Association 1895; the American Anthropological Association 1902; and the American Political Association 1903. These bodies all created journals designed to disseminate professional findings and provide their members with a forum for the exchange of ideas, both in the form of correspondence and of articles reporting their data analyses and final reports of their research projects.
Social scientists borrowed a new understanding of the research process from the physical sciences as said above, theory construction, hypothesizing, research design, gathering and analysing empirical data, and advancing tentative conclusions became key elements. This fact encouraged the belief that human <AmE/>behavior could be studied using a scientific mode of inquiry. Statistical methodology became an important tool in the study of social sciences.
The aftermath of the second world war (1939 - 1945) brought decolonizing, the emergence of the Third World, Social unrest in America and elsewhere, the expansion of Marxist Ideology (Communism, <-/Secialism>, <ea/>Ujamaa) and the discovery of atom <-/bom>, a terrible destructive power. All these events showed clearly that the evolution of man's scientific and technological knowledge had outpaced his ability to organize and manage his social affairs. If solutions were to be found to human problems, they were to be found in the social realm and not purely in technology. Social problems, such as, poverty, discrimination, criminality, poor housing, broken homes, inadequate medical care, domestic violence, sexual abuse, political dictatorship etc. were seen as problems in need of redress.
These trends seemed to peak and converge in the early 1960 as the Kennedy Johnson administration courted the social sciences openly. Kennedy's Science <-/Advisiory> Committee produced a report in 1962 entitled, Strengthening the <AmE/>Behavioral Sciences. 
The expansion of social sciences in recent years has been remarkable from many points of view. The growth in the number of social sciences publications of all kinds are, of course, a part of the general explosion of sciences that characterizes our age. A consequence of this explosion is the growth in public <-/awarenese>, acceptance, and use of the social sciences by government agencies, business and industry, schools, colleges, and universities, philanthropic foundations, religious bodies, and voluntary associations of many kinds all provide abundant evidence of this growth.
There is hardly a social, economic or political problem that  social scientists have not tackled and suggested solution. Problems such as marital conflicts, clashes of interests in industrial relations, students unrest, etc. are analysed using the social science research method, in short the social sciences have become an indispensable source of guidance for administrators and professionals of all kinds in Europe and America. It should be so also in Africa.
Expansion of social sciences curriculum in universities all over the world, has created a great demand upon the availability of qualified tutors and researchers. Another problem is that terminology and research procedures are far from standardized both within and between the various disciplines. Specialization, normally a mark of scientific maturity has often been achieved by ignoring related avenue of approach to the same problems. 

W2A013T
THE DAR ES SALAAM DECLARATION ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ACADEMICS
Preamble 
We, are living in momentous times, ridden with crises but full of hope.
The stringent conditions of the international Shylocks have begun to put a squeeze on education in a dramatic fashion. Tanzania, like the rest of the African continent, finds itself entangled in a web of socio-economic crises. As budgetary allocations for education become <-/miniscule>, education is threatening to become the preserve of a minority of the wealthy and influential in our society.
The state has become increasingly authoritarian. Authoritarianism is being further reinforced as the crisis-ridden government fails to offer palpable solutions. Witness the increasingly greater, deeper and more frequent encroachments on academic freedom and freedom to pursue truth and knowledge, particularly at the universities and other institutions of higher education.
These are times of crises. But they are also times of hope. As People's free and independent existence is in question, they are beginning to question the existence of unfree and right-less polities. We, as academics, intellectuals and purveyors of knowledge, have a human obligation and a social responsibility towards our People's Struggle for Rights, Freedom, Social Emancipation and Human Emancipation. Our participation in the struggle of our people is inseparably linked with the struggle for the autonomy of institutions of higher education and the freedom to pursue knowledge without let, hindrance and interference from persons in authority.
In 1984, for the first time since independence, the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania was amended to include a Bill of Rights. The Constitution provides for the right to education and the right to opinion and expression which include academic freedom.
Tanzania subscribes to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights; has ratified the International Covenants (1966) and the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education and is a Party to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. These Instruments unambiguously declare for the right of education and freedom of opinion, expression and dissemination of information.
But rights are not simply given; they are won. And even when won, they cannot endure unless protected, nurtured and continuously defended against encroachment and curtailment.
NOW THEREFORE, WE, the delegates of the Staff Associations of Institutions of Higher Education in Tanzania, meeting in Dar es Salaam, this 19th day of April, 1990 do Solemnly Adopt and Proclaim this Declaration.
BASIC PRINCIPLES  
Chapter One 
Education for Human Emancipation 
1. Every human being has the right to wholesome education. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality.
2. Access to education shall be equal and equitable.
3. Education shall prepare a person to strive for and participate fully in the emancipation of the human being and society from oppression, domination and subjugation.
4. Education shall enable a person to overcome prejudices related to gender, race, nation, ethnicity, religion, class, culture and such like. Education shall inculcate in every person respect for all humane culture developed by humankind.
5. Education shall develop critical faculties, inculcate the spirit of scientific enquiry and encourage the pursuit of knowledge and the search for the whole truth in the interest of social transformation and human liberation.
6. Education shall be secular. Religious instruction shall be separate from secular education and imparted to those wanting to partake of it voluntarily.
3
7. Education shall make every person conscious of ecology and the need to protect the environment.
Chapter Two 
Obligations of the State 
8. The State should guarantee to every resident equal, equitable and wholesome education without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic condition, physical or mental disability, birth or other status.
9. The State should make available an adequate proportion of the national income to ensure in practice the full realization of the right to education. The State shall bind itself constitutionally to provide a nationally agreed minimum proportion of the national income for education.
10. The State should take affirmative action where necessary to redress historical and contemporary inequalities in access to education based on national, racial, social or gender differences or arising from physical disabilities.
Chapter Three 
Rights and Obligations of Communities 
11. In the exercise of the right to self-determination, nationalities, communities and like <-/collectivities> shall have the right to provide education. Such education shall be in conformity with the Basic Principles and other provisions of this Declaration.
12. It will be part of the obligation of a non-governmental organisation involved in the provision of education to contribute towards affirmative actions in conformity with the spirit of article 10.
13. It will be part of the obligation of a community or a nationality to struggle against prejudices, attitudes and beliefs which in any form or manner prevent or discourage its members from partaking of education on an equal basis.
ACADEMIC FREEDOM 
Chapter One 
Rights and Freedoms 
14. All members of the academic community have the right to fulfil their functions of teaching, researching, writing, learning, exchanging and disseminating information and providing services without fear of interference or repression from the State or any other public authority.
15. Civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights of members of the academic community recognised by the United Nations Covenants on Human Rights shall be respected. In particular, all members of the academic community shall enjoy freedom of thought, enquiry, conscience, expression, assembly and association as well as the right to liberty, security and integrity of the person.
16. All members of the academic community shall enjoy freedom of movement within the country and freedom to travel outside and re-enter the country without let, hindrance or harassment. This freedom may be restricted only on grounds of public health, morality or in circumstances of clear, present and imminent danger to the nation and its independence and which restrictions are justifiable in a democratic society.
17. Access to the academic community shall be equal for all members of society without hindrance. On the basis of ability every resident has the right, without <-/discriminiation> of any kind, to become part of the academic community as a student, researcher, teacher, worker or administrator without prejudice to any necessary affirmative action in that behalf.
18. Teaching and researching members of staff and students, directly and through their democratically elected representatives, shall have the right to initiate, participate in and determine academic programmes of their institutions in accordance with the highest standards of education and the Basic Principles.
19. All members of the academic community with research functions have the right to carry out research work without interference, subject to the universal principles and methods of scientific enquiry. In particular, researchers shall not be denied information or permission to do, or hindered in any way from doing, research on any ground except for reasons of public health and morality, or, in circumstances of clear, present and imminent danger to the nation and its independence and which restrictions are justifiable in a democratic society.
20. All members of the academic community with teaching functions have the right to teach without any interference, subject to the generally accepted principles, standards and methods of teaching.
21.. A member of the academic community shall have the right to demand and receive explanation from any organ, official or administrator of the institution on its/her/his performance affecting her/him or the academic community at large.
22. Save where it is contrary to morality or principles of democracy, all members of the academic community shall enjoy the freedom to maintain contact with their counterparts in any part of the world as well as the freedom to pursue the development of their educational capacities.
23. All students shall enjoy freedom of study, including the right to choose the field of study from available courses and the right to receive official recognition of the knowledge and experience acquired. Institutions of higher education shall aim to satisfy the professional and educational needs and aspirations of the students.
24. All institutions of higher education shall guarantee the participation of students in their governing bodies. They shall respect the right of students, individually or collectively, to express and disseminate opinions on any national or international question.
25. It is the right of students on reasonable grounds to challenge or differ from their instructors in academic matters without fear of reprisal or victimisation or being subjected to any other form of direct or indirect prejudice.
Chapter Two 
Autonomous Academic Organisations 
26. All members of the academic community shall have the freedom of association, including the right to form and join independent and autonomous trade unions. The right of association includes the right of peaceful assembly and formation of groups, clubs, associations and such other bodies to further the academic and professional interests of the members of the academic community.
27. All members of the academic community shall have the right to write, print and publish their own newspapers or any other form of media including wall literature, posters and pamphlets.
The exercise of this right shall have due regard to the obligation of the members of the academic community not to interfere with the right of others to privacy and in any manner or form unreasonably arouse religious, ethnic, national or gender hatred.

Chapter Three 
Security of Tenure 
28. All members of the academic community shall be entitled to a fair and reasonable remuneration commensurate with their social and academic responsibilities so that they may discharge their roles with human dignity, integrity and independence.
29. Teaching and researching members of the academic community, once confirmed in employment, shall have security of tenure. No teaching member or researcher shall be dismissed or removed from employment except for reasons of gross misconduct, proven incompetence or negligence incompatible with the academic profession. Disciplinary proceedings for dismissal or removal on grounds stated in this article shall be in accordance with laid down procedures providing for a fair hearing before a democratically elected body of the academic community.
30. No teaching or researching member of the academic community shall be transferred to another post or position within or outside the institution without her/his prior consent.
31. A member of the academic community has the right to know any report, adverse or otherwise, on her/his performance made or received by relevant officials or organs of the institution in the course of the execution of their duties.
Chapter Four 
Obligations of the State and Administration 
32. The State and any other public authority shall respect the rights and freedoms of the academic community enshrined in this Declaration. The State is obliged to take prompt and appropriate measures in respect of any infringement by State officials of the rights and freedoms of the academic community brought to its attention.
33. Subject to article 40, the State shall not deploy any military, paramilitary, security or intelligence, or any other like forces within the premises and grounds of the institutions of higher education.
34. The State is obliged to ensure that no official or organ under its control produces or puts into circulation <-/disinformation> or rumours calculated to intimidate, bring into disrepute or in any way interfere with the legitimate pursuits of the academic community.
35. The State and the administration are obliged to ensure that the terms and conditions of service of the academic community are not, directly or indirectly, changed adversely or eroded such that the exercise of the rights and freedoms of the academic community is effectively undermined.
36. The State or the administration shall not impose direct or indirect conditions, procedures or any other form of restrictions which in effect nullify or curtail the rights and freedoms enshrined in this Declaration.
37. The administration is under an obligation not to divulge any information regarding members of the academic community which may be used to their detriment in any criminal, or other, investigation or proceedings of the like nature.
Autonomy of Institutions of higher Education
38. Institutions of higher education shall be independent of the State or any other public authority in conducting their affairs and setting up their academic, teaching, research and other related programmes.


W2A014T
Conclusions and Policy Implications
The foregoing review, based on the data and research literature on the various levels and subsectors of education in the subregion in the course of the last two decades, leads to a few conclusions - general and specific.
General
In general, the overall performance in the subregion as a whole has not been very satisfactory, with a preponderance of low performance ratings as compared to positive or average ratings. In particular, performance has been less satisfactory in four of the six areas examined, namely in primary education, science education, vocational-technical training and medium of instruction. It has been generally satisfactory in higher education and average in secondary education.
These qualitative ratings of 'satisfactory' (or higher performance), 'average' and 'less satisfactory' (or lower performance) relate strictly to the extent to which practice has kept pace or consistency with policy objectives and/or the extent to which policy shifts over time have kept pace or consistency with the development aspirations as expressed in various popular or else representative fora of expertise. The ratings thus relate more to qualitative improvements and less to mere quantitative statistics, as in the case of expansionary enrolments without corresponding qualitative changes or backups.
Table 8.1, standing on the strength of the above mentioned qualitative definition, summarizes the overall evaluation as emerges from the review of the six areas representing the levels and subsectors under study.
Performance by individual countries with respect to the totality of the areas surveyed varies, as demonstrated in Table 8.2, with Botswana seeming to have done the best of all the sample countries overall, with higher performance ratings in four of the six areas, an average rating in one area and a lower performance rating in one area. Botswana is followed by Lesotho (with 3v, 1vx, 2x), Swaziland (with 3v, 3x) and Kenya (with 2v, 2vx, 2x), while the other four countries, namely Zambia (1v, 2vx, 3x), Tanzania (1v, 2vx, 3x), Uganda (1v, 3x, 2?) and Malawi (1v, 1vx, 4x), have tended to gravitate towards lower performance.
If the qualitative judgements were to be given numeric values, both the analyses of the separate levels and subsectors for the whole subregional sample and the analyses of individual <-/cuntries> by their six areas of review would yield a generally similar rating pattern, with a statistically indicative (though in no way politically judgemental) ranking order. Table 8.3 attempts such a numeric translation of the qualitative statements, with higher performance (or satisfactory) awarded 10, average 5 and lower performance (or less satisfactory) awarded 1.
Of the subregion's six areas of review, higher education scores the highest total of numeric points (80), with a corresponding highest average numeric score (10). Higher education is followed in performance by secondary education (7.14, some points above average), primary education (4.88, just below average), vocational-technical training (3.75, well below average), science education (2.14, far below average) and language medium of instruction (1.5, very far below average).
With respect to performance by individual members of the sample grouping, according to Table 8.3, Botswana comes out with the highest average score (7.67, well above average), followed by Lesotho (6.17, some way above average). Swaziland and Kenya are just above average, with 5.50 and 5.33, respectively. The other four countries, Tanzania (3.83), Zambia (3.83), Uganda (3.25) and Malawi (3.17), all have their scores well below average. The general interpretation is that while these latter four countries have lagged behind the others in overall educational development, they have, at least hypothetically, performed below average.
The simple statistical aid used to arrive at some more detailed synthesis, and at some ranking order, does at the same time point to a cautionary note. It is apparent that even the first and the second countries on the ranking scale fall short of the best possible level of performance in the totality of the different areas of education examined. Their positions in the ranking scheme cannot, therefore, be cause for complacency and reduced national effort. Notwithstanding the caution sounded, however, the relatively widely differentiated numeric scores and ranking of these and other countries under study may help further in the discussion of interlinkage of factors and processes in the wider national economy.
Curiously, but perhaps not altogether just coincidentally, the general order of the ratings and ranking (as indicated in Table 8.3) appears to have roughly parallel resemblance with the general order of ratings elsewhere in some vital sectors of the economy. A specific example is the rate of production (ref Table 1.1), which is itself considered a proxy for productivity at least insofar as a heightened production of goods and services may be a measure of workers' knowledge, skill and performance. While, for all the countries of the sample grouping except Lesotho, the rate of production (GDP) has declined over the past two decades, it has unequivocally been the highest in Botswana. On average, for the whole twenty year period of 1965-84, Botswana has been followed in the rate of production by Kenya and Swaziland, while, for the latter decade of 1973-83/84 it is followed by Lesotho, Kenya and Swaziland.
The same "top-ranging" countries happen to have a distinctively higher level of income (cf. GNP per capita for Botswana - US$840, Swaziland - $790, Lesotho - $530, Kenya - $316, as contrasted from that of Malawi - $180, Uganda - $230, Tanzania - $250 and Zambia - $300) and a higher average annual per capita income growth over the whole two-decade period (cf. Botswana: 8.8%, Lesotho: 5.9%, Swaziland: 4.0% and Kenya: 1.9%, as contrasted, for instance, from Uganda's -2.9%, Zambia's -1.7% and Tanzania's -0.3%).
Again, three of the four "top-ranging" countries happen to record the highest known proportion of their state expenditure on education (Kenya: 20%, Botswana: 18% and Lesotho: 17%), as contrasted from Tanzania's extreme case of a mere 7%, or about 13 per cent in Uganda and in Malawi.
It does seem that even if allowance were made for several intervening factors or variables or the rate of production, such as the amount of initial resources and capital base, ecology, health care or international trade relations, still the final product is to some extent a reflection of the efficiency of a country's education system, the intensity and manner of its human resource development and deployment strategies and the internal and external efficiency of its skill training programmes, including vocational-technical training and science education. These education-related factors are, in the short or long run, bound to influence the rate of economic-material production, which, in turn, would have a direct influence not only on the rate of individual and national productivity but also on the tempo of income generation as well as on the level of income itself. As things are at the moment, only three countries (Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland) seem to have a consistently high score on all the three levels of formal education; only two countries (Botswana and Kenya) have a high score on vocational-technical training; and only two countries (Botswana and Zambia) reach an <-/averatge> score in science education.
The rest of this chapter summarizes the conclusions and the policy implications with respect to each of the six areas of the review.
Primary Education
Development in primary education in eastern and southern Africa has been reflected in an <-/undisputably> quantitative expansion in pupil enrolment rates. Expansion in any other terms backup educational equipment, textbooks, supplementary reading material for pupils, and teacher supply - has been minimal in spite of some innovative but largely defective stop-gap measures. In some cases the expansion has in fact been negative if only in proportion to the explosive enrolment rates in the wake of the universal primary education (UPE) drive characterizing the whole decade of the 1970s/80s.
The whole post-independence period under review is thus seen to have been a period of expansion much more in quantitative terms and much less in qualitative terms. Problems of quality are discerned in the internal inefficiency reported in almost all countries under review: <-/inoptimally> high pupil-teacher ratios, hasty and inadequate teacher training programmes resulting in poor teacher classroom performance, and crowded curricula made worse by dire shortages of teaching-learning materials.
At the end of the primary education cycle, according to most of the reviewed literature, most children show a conspicuous level of underachievement bordering, in some cases, on wholesale illiteracy. Yet, their hopes and aspirations (just as their own parents') are further frustrated by the little chance they have of either advancing to secondary level education, or proceeding to some post-primary vocational training, or simply being absorbed into the social economy as gainfully employed individuals in the community. These, too, are sad issues related to the external efficiency of an education system.
Of the eight countries of the study sample, Malawi and Tanzania seem to have experienced problems of primary education the most, followed by Zambia and Kenya.
Implications for future policy towards primary education are fairly clear.

1. Quality versus Quantity
It is essential now for governments to de-emphasize and decelerate quantitative expansion as seen in inflationary pupil enrolment and, instead, to stress and pursue the quality side of primary education. Availability and efficient distribution of school equipment, textbooks, teaching-learning aids and supplementary readers should now be the objective; for, indeed, these have much more to say for a person's fuller learning than mere attendance in a classroom that had no chalk, books, aids or even desks for the day's lesson.
While the country's primary school system should remain open to receive beginners, it should at the same time remain an open option for the parent to apply for the admission of the child. Parents have a propensity to send children to school - even to pay for their education - when they have trust in the school. Public trust and confidence in the schools will depend on how equipped they are to impart permanent <-_learnings<+_learning> in the children.
2. Streamlining and Rationalizing the Primary School Curriculum
There should be a reversal of the current tendency to overload the curriculum with so many subjects which, in the end, reduce the time period devoted or devotable to any specific subject while also reducing the interconnectedness of the subject matter and the transferability of basic concepts. This point argues for a core curriculum, based on a careful determination and selection of "central" subjects and subject areas that are accepted as basic or <-/foundational> for the learning and perceptive scope consonant with the age levels circumscribed by the limited primary education cycle.
3. Reforming and Strengthening the Teacher Training Programme 
Teacher training programmes directed at producing primary school teachers deserve serious attention to matters ranging from selection of candidates, to academic abilities in the subjects for which they are to be trained to teach, to duration of training.
With particular regard to candidates, selection of "failed" primary or secondary school leavers for the teaching profession as has been the case in some countries, has undermined and would continue to undermine not only the efficiency but also the status and respectability of the teaching profession itself. And, in any case, training a primary school leaver for teaching a primary school child is itself of questionable merit, allowable only in special and extenuating circumstances. Similarly, the stop-gap measure - elsewhere defended as an innovative shortcut of "distance teacher training" has revealed not only inherent organizational and professional weaknesses but also larger unintended costs of retraining and reorientation.
4. Increased Public Financing of Primary Education
The government ought to step up the current level of financing of primary education in order to meet the required material and pedagogical standards of basic education. This view is in recognition of the logic that primary education is a foundation level beyond which - at least for the foreseeable future in many countries in the subregion and in the region as a whole - a still greater proportion of the population will not have a formal opportunity for advanced learning. It is imperative therefore that the education offered at this basic level must receive all the physical, material, intellectual and professional supports possible for a permanent functionality of the future citizens.

W2A015T
Reflections on Ten Years of University Teaching and Learning Improvement (UTLIP) at the University of Dar es Salaam
Introduction 
The main functions. of University anywhere are to: conduct research; facilitate learning (eg. through teaching); and provide services (eg. consultancy services).
This paper is concerned with facilitation of learning function. However, it should be understood that each function impinges on the others. Traditionally, universities the world over, have tended to marginalise the teaching function, and the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) is no exception. Instructors are hired on the basis of their potential or actual research and publication competencies but not on their teaching competencies. Promotion and other rewards are also given on the same basis. It is normally assumed that an instructor hired on this basis can teach. Thus continued neglect of teaching in higher education over the year could gradually result in the deterioration in its quality.
In the United States in the late 1960's and early 1970's, the quality of instruction in a number of higher education institutions had become a source of concern for both students and faculty alike but particularly for the former. A student, for example, who is paying course fees out of his/her own pocket is very concerned if the amount of learning achieved at the end of the course is not worth the money paid. This concern triggered off a movement on Improving University Teaching (IUT) a movement with which the University of Maryland in the United States has been closely associated. It turned out that the concern about the quality of instruction in higher education institutions in the United States was also felt by higher education institutions in both developed and developing countries.
The University of Dar es Salaam joined the IUT band-wagon in the late 1970's when the Senate decided to establish the University Teaching and Learning Improvement Programme (UTLIP). This followed various initiatives dating as far back as 1974, the most notable being the Omari-Kimambo initiative of 1976. The author of this paper was the first Director or Chief Coordinator of UTLIP; this paper is an attempt to reflect on ten years of UTLIP's experience at the University of Dar es Salaam from that <-/vantagepoint>. This reflection will focus on the main issues and development trends. The outcome of this reflective analysis will form the basis for proposals on UTLIP's future directions towards the year 2000.

The Introduction of the IUT Programme
The Omari-Kimambo initiative was outlined in their paper entitled "Towards Improving University Teaching". In this paper, the authors argued out a case for introducing the IUT programme at University of Dar es Salaam. Both explicit and implicit in the paper was that the IUT, as a movement sweeping across nations the world over, was essentially an effort towards excellence in <-_high><+_higher> education in the marginated function of teaching. The Omari-Kimambo initiative was undoubtedly a very controversial issue with half the Faculty opposing it, about a quarter unsure or uncommitted and the fourth quarter in support of it. Debates on the issue went on for two years at all levels - Senate level, Faculty level and Department level with both Faculty and students participating.
Understandably, the students were by and large in favour of IUT but the Faculty was divided. The traditional `<-/die hards>' in the Faculties argued that "teaching is done at school level; at university level we lecture". However, upon subsequent reflection on the issue, they softened up a little saying that if an IUT programme is introduced it should be for junior academics as they are the ones who do not have much university teaching experience.
On the other hand, it was argued that constant search for excellency is the hall-mark of an academic institution anywhere; the proposals under consideration were thus in line with this academic tradition. Pendaeli (1980:1), commenting on this issue in the same vein states that one thing which is widely accepted in academic and other circles is that: 
Analysis of the initial reactions and arguments for and against the issue which ensued and went on for two years suggests that: (1) there are reflections here and there of old and discredited educational concepts in some of the arguments given; (2) the reward mechanism is not much in favour of excellency in teaching; (3) some Faculties are making serious assumptions about their ability to teach; and 4) Faculties hold different concepts of teaching; a few confuse teaching with lecturing.
The first observation has to do with reflections of <-/out dated> educational ideas in the arguments given. Once upon a time, teachers posed and were treated as if they were surveyors of knowledge, skills and attitudes; attention was focused on the teacher and teaching. Educators have long moved away from this concept of teacher and teaching following developments in education psychology and related fields. Attention is now instead focused on learning and the learner whereby, the purpose of teaching is to bring about learning. The teacher plays several roles aimed at facilitating learning.
The second observation is concerned with assumptions made by some academics about their expertise and `specialism'. For example, the assumption that possession of a good postgraduate degree confers upon the possessor the qualities of a good lecturer, is not always true. There are cases of strong lecturers in terms of research and publications who are poor in lecturing. A lecturer may be very knowledgeable in his/her area of specialization but weak in communicating this knowledge to others, either orally, in writing, or both. An instructor with such a communication problem should be prepared to learn how to communicate effectively in teaching-learning situation with other people including students.
The third observation deals with the variety of concepts of teaching possessed by different Faculty members. Some see teaching as a kind of "dispensing" activity while others see it as a behaviour change or behaviour modification process. A third group sees teaching as a communication process; that is, communication as being at the heart of all teaching. The concept of teaching an instructor possesses affects his/her method or style of presentation of subject matter, the manner in which objectives of lectures are written, choice of items (questions) for assessing achievement, and, his/her argument on the place and status of teaching in higher education. When people engage in a discussion on teaching without realising that the term does not mean exactly the same thing to all the parties, they can end up in unnecessary arguments because of a breakdown in communication. This problem could account, in part, for the debate on the IUT issue which dragged on for two years.
A fourth and last observation on this issue is that the existing reward mechanism marginalises teaching. Until only recently, research and publication at the University of Dar es Salaam has been virtually the only criterion for the promotion of academic staff; this is a common practice in universities the world over. Few people who understand the nature of the role played by universities in extending frontiers of knowledge would deny that universities should emphasize research and publication. However, a total marginalisation of teaching is also associated in some way with student <-_unrests><+_unrest> which have become rampant in university campuses. It is conceivable that during these hard times when resources are limited, students are not having their intellectual needs fully met and are therefore frustrated and reacting. In the circumstances, it wouldn't be sensible to marginalise teaching to any extent.
The debate on this first issue was closed during the 62nd meeting of the University Senate when it was decided that the University Teaching and Learning Improvement Committee (UTLIC) should be established under the chairmanship of a Chief Coordinator/Director. The Chief Coordinator is also the Chief Executive. One of the twelve clauses in the Senate resolution has a <-/far reaching> consequence; it states that "teaching competence should be made a necessary, though not sufficient requirement for appointment, tenure and promotion. For details of the resolution see Appendix I. See also Appendix II for terms of reference of UTLIC.

UTLIP's Status and Position in the University Structure
The responsibility of improving university teaching has been vested in the Senate UTLIC. The UTLIC has drawn up a programme of activities for discharging its duties and responsibilities. At Faculty and Department levels, there are Faculty and Department teaching and learning improvement committees and programmes. These teaching and learning improvement committees at different levels are automatically on the agendas of Senate, Faculty Board and Department meetings. This arrangement is an acknowledgement that UTLIC & UTLIP are not appendages but integral components of the University academic-cum-administrative structure. UTLIP is not a unit out there which one can conveniently leave out. The fact that the <-/chair persons> must submit reports of activities of their committees in scheduled meetings of Faculty Boards and the Senate entails the committees to be active. The <-/intergration> of UTLIP into the University structure has given it status and accounts in part for its success. UTLIP's status is further enhanced by making its Director or Chief Coordinator an appointee of the Vice-Chancellor. Moreover, the appointee ought to be a "solid" educator, and an acknowledged instructor, normally with an academic status of a full professor or an associate professor. Administratively, UTLIP's Chief Coordinator has the same status as a Faculty Dean. In summary, UTLIP enjoys the support and blessings of the highest authorities in the university as an organic part of its academic-cum-organisational structure.

The Scope, Content and Conduct of UTLIP Programmes 
The UTLIP programme covers the following main areas: (1) Teaching methodology courses; (2) orientation seminars for new expatriate staff; (3) conference of Deans, Directors and Heads of Departments (biannually); (4) roundtable seminars for senior academic staff; and (5) computer sensitization courses.
These different elements were introduced and included in the programme at different times following identification of felt needs. This explains why at the moment, UTLIP is more of an in-service training programme rather than an academic programme. The main purpose of any training programme in industry, business, management etc, is to improve job performance of personnel. A training programme is invariably need-based, for, it must be made relevant. The main concern in UTLIP programmes is also job performance; the teaching-learning job. UTLIC identifies deficiences or needs of academic staff and uses these as a basis for designing a suitable programme.
UTLIP started off in late 1978 with a rather academic orientation much to the disappointment of participants. It was assumed that, as a programme of academics, UTLIP should have a purely academic/theoretical orientation. However, over the years, participants in the teaching methodology courses particularly, have repeatedly criticised these courses for being "too theoretical", "too academic" and "too educational". Their interest is to learn teaching skills and techniques which will enable them to function better as instructors. Experience has shown that most participants in UTLIP teaching methodology courses have limited background in education and quite often they are not particularly keen about the theory behind the practice of education. This explains why teaching methodology courses have lost much of their original academic and theoretical character and instead have become more and more practical in their orientation in response to practical needs of participants. Educational theories in the teaching methodology courses have thus been kept to the minimum.
Three main observations can be made about the scope, content and conduct of UTLIP programmes to-date.
The areas covered by the UTLIP programme focus on the instructor and instruction. In other words, UTLIP's current activities focus on one of three major areas of concern in university teaching; the teacher and teaching. The other two areas, namely, the learner and learning, and teaching-learning materials have been marginalised. However, in the early years, UTLIP had a need-based sub-programme on communication skills which was provided under the auspices of the Communication Skills Unit (CSU) within UTLIP. This subprogramme was specifically designed to assist the incoming students as well as other students with communication problems in their respective major fields of study-- Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, Law, Social Science, Natural Science, etc. CSU subsequently became rather large and separated from the rest of UTLIP.

W2A016T
Instructional Strategies (Teaching Methodology) Courses in East African Universities: A Reappraisal
Introduction
One aspect of higher education which has received little attention in Africa since independence is undergraduate and postgraduate teacher education.