        **[txt. j01**]
0010J01 **<*3Geomorphology of India*0**>
0020J01 $^The eastern and the western periphery of the Ranchi plateau are parallel
0030J01 to this grain (\0NS) and the (?) Tertiary uplift of the Ranchi
0040J01 plateau may perhaps be inter-related with the sinking of the Bengal
0050J01 basin in the Cretaceous-Eocene period. ^The basement ridges
0060J01 of the Bengal basin, it may be noted, have *3northerly*0 trends
0070J01 comparable with the \0N-S trend of the sub-surface Monghyr-Saharsa
0080J01 and the Fyzabad ridge of the Ganga valley, beneath the Ganga alluvium
0090J01 (Sastri *(0et al.*) 1971, \0Fig. 8). ^In Manbhum the structural
0100J01 trends of ridges and the strike of folitation are broadly \0E-W,
0110J01 parallel to the Gondwana trend. ^It is suggested these ridge
0120J01 trend variations may perhaps be interpreted in terms of the \0Fig.
0130J01 10: they may be explained as due to an interference of the meridional
0140J01 and latitudinal controlling forces. $*<*3The planar topographies:*0*>
0150J01 $^In this connection some comments are made on the frequent
0160J01 occurrences of planar topographies, such as the 'pat' regions
0170J01 just referred to, the Ranchi plateau and the peneplains to the east
0180J01 of the plateau in Manbhum and Purulia. ^The series of water-falls
0190J01 and the peneplained topography on the scarp separating the two landscapes,
0200J01 the Ranchi and the Purulia, have been the most evident expressions
0210J01 of a relative uplift and perhaps also the breaking across of Subarnarekha
0220J01 and its tributaries through the Dalma Range. ^The raised
0230J01 part of the dismembered peneplain would be expected to_ be subjected
0240J01 to renewed erosion and be dissected in the new fluvial cycle.
0250J01 ^Two-storied valleys, slip-off and under-cut slopes, misfit
0260J01 rivers and such other features would prove the rejuvenation; these
0270J01 details are yet to_ be described. $^The extra-ordinary elevation
0280J01 of the Netarhat plateau, as pointed out above, may be due to a local
0290J01 extrusion of the Deccan Trap lavas that_ added to the height.
0300J01 ^The large number of water-falls on the plateau itself may be due to differential
0310J01 erosion of the basalt traps and the under-lying steep-dipping
0320J01 Precambrian gneisses and schists: the strong \0N-S trend even on
0330J01 the plateau as noted in the hair-pin bend of the Sankh, cannot be due
0340J01 primarily to the traps and must be ascribed to the fold trend of the
0350J01 schists. ^This structural control on the course of the Sankh River
0360J01 in particular, the large number of water-falls on the Netarhat plateau
0370J01 and the high average relief of the plateau of 100-129 \0m compared to
0380J01 a relief of only 60 \0m on the Ranchi Plateau, suggest a new fluvial
0390J01 activity (\0Fig. 14). $^The above picture is presented as a
0400J01 problem that_ requires to_ be checked up at many points for confirmation
0410J01 or rejection. ^The *3three-storied*0 structure
0420J01 in this region (\0fig. 8) leading around Netarhat to a 'roof' of
0430J01 topography in the border region of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh must
0440J01 have provided a steep slope.
0450J01 ^This combined with the high annual rainfall, which is in fact the highest
0460J01 in this part of India, both as regards the annual precipitation as
0470J01 well as that_ for July and January months; this has resulted in the
0480J01 formation of numerous large rivers all around to the north, south, east
0490J01 and south-east. ^The age of the evolution of this system of drainage
0500J01 was presumably dependent on (**=1) the Indian land-mass having
0510J01 reached the present latitudinal position and having acquired the present
0520J01 monsoonic climatic conditions; this was probably by the early tertiary
0530J01 (Radhakrishnamurthy *(0et al.*) 1967), and (**=2) the attainment of
0540J01 the present 'roof' position: this may be due presumably to a differential
0550J01 uplift, as discussed above. ^This area about a 100 x 100 \0sq. \0km
0560J01 portion of the 35-40 \0km thick crust might have been moved up by a vertical
0570J01 mantle disturbance, a magniatic or a thermal impact or to rotational
0580J01 uplift. ^The physiographic evolution of the 'roof' must have been
0590J01 helped by the geological structure already described and the corresponding
0600J01 lithological variations; details of these are, however, yet to_
0610J01 be found out. ^It seems probable (see above) that the strong \0N-S
0620J01 trend on the plateau is due to presence of steeply dipping schists of
0630J01 alternating soft and resistant lithologies, and the sharp westerly descent
0640J01 of the Sankh river to the west due to the windward slope to the west.
0650J01 ^Northerly trends have been equally preferred by the \0N.
0660J01 Koel, the Auranga \0etc. and the main south-flowing course of the
0670J01 Sankh. ^Major streams rising on the 'roof' do not flow to the
0680J01 east. ^The Subarnarekha and the \0S. Koel rivers rise on the
0690J01 Ranchi plateau; the \0S. Koel turns south at the Ranchi-Netarhat
0700J01 scarp the former flowing \0SE. $^Planar surfaces of significant
0710J01 extent may arise in several different ways \0e.g. (**=1) as a
0720J01 peneplain out of one fluvial cycle, (**=2) as extensive terraces around
0730J01 a river valley, (**=3) through erosion at different levels of a horizontally
0740J01 bedded geological formation as the Deccan Traps, (**=4)
0750J01 through differential erosion of a sub-horizontal formation as the limestone-sandstone
0760J01 lithology of the Vindhyans and (**=5) as a pediplain.
0770J01 $^A peneplain is a planar surface in equilibrium with the drainage on
0780J01 it: unless this equilibrium is established it is hazardous to_ stamp
0790J01 a country as a *3peneplain*0. ^Terraces are natural products of a
0800J01 stream in the early stages of its evolution with strong degrading power.
0810J01 ^They may be due to a rejuvenated stream activity, rejuvenated through
0820J01 uplift in the head-water region of the stream. ^Strong abnormal
0830J01 discordance with the geologic structures may imply terraces formed
0840J01 through uplift. ^The structures become guides to the river courses only
0850J01 when the long profile has come to_ acquire a comparatively gentle slope.
0860J01 $^The geology of a place varies primarily with the geological age;this
0870J01 controls to a large measure the lithology, the fold trend, the
0880J01 fold form, the trend of foliation, and the dips from point to point.
0890J01 ^A planar surface of erosion may level across different lithologies
0900J01 also (Biswas 1974). ^An illustration is provided on a small scale by
0910J01 the sandstone-shale-limestone association of the Kolhan series of rocks
0920J01 around Jagannathpur in Singhbhum. ^A succession of rolling wavy
0930J01 topography on the sandstones and the shales, an irregular rough topography
0940J01 on harder shales and lastly a low table-land of shale (calcareous)--
0950J01 limestone alternations can be directly correlated with a succession
0960J01 of (**=1) a *3dome-in-dome*0 structure in the sandstone and the shales,
0970J01 (**=2) *3homoclinal dips*0 in shales and (**=3) *3a terrce structure*0 (horizontal
0980J01 dips alterating with low dips) of the \0calc. shale-limestone
0990J01 country (fig.16). ^The rocks are of age about 1500 \0m.y. $^A
1000J01 tectonic control in producing two planar surfaces of two different levels
1010J01 is found in \0NW Karnataka (Mysore). ^The river Sharavati jumps
1020J01 down to the coastal plains forming the Jog water-falls (over 1600 \0ft)
1030J01 from a gneissic peneplain (?) to a lower laterite-capped surface.
1040J01 ^The primary lithology of the lower plain before the lateritisation
1050J01 is unknown although the top surface has been regarded (Radhakrishna,
1060J01 1964) as a Cretaceous peneplain and the lower as recently emerged from
1070J01 the sea. ^The age of the peneplain is acceptable as post-faulting
1080J01 and that_ of the faulting (downthrow to the west) as prelaterisation.
1090J01 ^The difference in level is conjecturable as due to a faulting: the west
1100J01 coast of India is proved to_ be under tension (Lee and Raleigh,
1110J01 1969). **[figure**] $^An example of interpretation of three successive planar
1120J01 surfaces in the Keonjhar region is of considerable interest (Rao
1130J01 and Vaidyanthan, 1974). ^Starting with an old surface in remnants
1140J01 three cycles of erosion have been invoked to_ explain development of the
1150J01 surfaces at 3000-2750 \0ft 2200-1950 \0ft. and 1750-1400 \0ft.
1151J01 ^The geological age
1160J01 of the rocks of the region as a whole is the same, namely, 2000-1600
1170J01 \0m.y. or the end of the Early Proterozoic. ^No geochronometric
1180J01 age data of the three planes being available the dating of the three erosion
1190J01 cycles could only be conjectured on the basis of indirect evidences.
1200J01 ^But the geologic and the climatic unity of the total area makes
1210J01 it rather difficult to_ accept different ages of evolution of the three
1220J01 planes. ^Further, it may be noted that the regional dips in the Bengal
1230J01 Basin, which lies to the \0ENE of the area and the dips quoted
1240J01 as evidence in support of the postulated ages, are to the \0SE, the
1250J01 palaeoslope of the basement in the said Bengal basin is also to the
1260J01 \0SE (Sen Gupta, 1966), the closeness of the "trap-wash" and the
1270J01 "granite-wash" described from the Keonjhar region to those recorded
1280J01 in the Bengal basin by Sen Gupta should point to the Rajmahal Hills
1290J01 and the surrounding gneisses as the source and on the Keonjhar region,
1300J01 the fault zones recorded on the basement ridges of the Bengal basin
1310J01 are strong contrasts with the absence of faults in the Keonjhar region
1320J01 as stated by Rao and Vaidyanadhan, and the trend of the present drainage
1330J01 in Keonjhar is to the \0SE and not towards the Bengal basin.
1340J01 ^It seems hence that the postulated ages of the three planar surfaces
1350J01 require more convincing evidences. ^Variation in geologic structure
1360J01 namely the fold details and in lithology, namely shaly, sandy,
1370J01 \0Fe-rich, \0Mn-rich or others is competent perhaps to_ account for
1380J01 the differences in level of the three surfaces. ^In this context the
1390J01 occurrence of two planar surfaces in the Kolhan basin already referred
1400J01 to provides an illustration. $^An interesting occurrence of three planar
1410J01 surfaces, each made up of laterite (dark brown with ferruginous to concretius
1420J01 yellow-brown ochreous porous mass having 43-45% \0Fe occur in
1430J01 Cuba at height levels of 600-500 \0m, 500-100 \0m and 100-60 \0m covering
1440J01 respectively 120, 130 and 200 \0km \0sq. areas. ^They have
1450J01 been proved to_ be due to weathering of a single peneplain within
1460J01 the same Upper Tertiary to Recent time made up of a single rock type
1470J01 namely, serpentinous peridotite (Linchent and Shirokova 1964).
1480J01 ^The upper level laterite grew insitu; the lower two grew also partly
1490J01 insitu but were aided partly by the addition of transported laterite derived
1500J01 from the top level. ^The growth process in each level followed
1510J01 identical chemical changes; each level of laterite has its own chemical,
1520J01 physical and mineralogical individuality. $^A well documented morphotectonic
1530J01 analysis of planar surfaces has been very instructive. ^It
1540J01 brings out the correlation between concordance in height of table-top hills
1550J01 at successive heights agreeing with surfaces of unconformities visible
1560J01 on outcrop. ^Such features as duricrusts overlain by sedimentary
1570J01 strata of younger age (as coral limestones overyling lateritised
1580J01 beds in Taiwan) are definite proofs of cycles of sedimentation (so
1590J01 of subsidence) followed by uplift and weathering and erosion. ^The
1600J01 following surfaces have been traced: $(a) ^Relicts of \0U. Cretaceous
1610J01 erosion surface, (1200-1500 \0ft) correlated with Cretaceous-
1620J01 Deccan Trap unconformity. $(b) ^Early Tertiary land surface-- extensive
1630J01 *3lateritised pediplain,*0 agrees with Palaeocene laterites on
1640J01 the peninsular India; $(c) ^Mid-tertiary surface-- affected by later
1650J01 erosional features. $(d) ^Late Tertiary surface-- areas of low relief.
1660J01 $(e) ^Wide pediplain covering a large part of Kutch landscape-- early
1670J01 Quaternary surface. $(f) ^Late Quaternary surface. $(g) ^Gulleys
1680J01 cut into Recent depositional plains, imply the latest uplift.
1690J01 $^The oldest planes occur surrounded progressively by the younger ones
1700J01 (Biswas, 1974); it has been demonstrated that these different surfaces
1710J01 "can be traced into wider areas not only of the peninsular India,
1720J01 but of all the southern continents" as claimed by King; he claims that
1730J01 "all the southern continents have experienced similar types of tectonic
1740J01 displacements occurring at closely synchronous epochs" (1962). ^The
1750J01 differential uplifts thus proved are believed to_ have taken place simultaneously
1760J01 with regional uplift of the Runn and other areas of Kutch
1770J01 from their negative reliefs into positive land-masses. $^This brings
1780J01 us to the question of the mechanics of these *3proved uplifts.*0
1790J01 ^The correspondence between India*'s evolution of landscape with that_
1800J01 of other southern continents, particularly in \0u. Cretaceous and later
1810J01 geologic times implies an world-wide mechanism (India was in *3northern
1820J01 latitudes*0 and not southern during this period); the local uplifts
1830J01 imply incidental subsidiary effect. ^It seems that *3rotational uplift,*0
1840J01 as advocated by Ma (1964) is the only competent mechanism to_
1850J01 explain the above facts. ^A recent study in India (Guha and Gosavi,
1860J01 1974) reports \0E-W tension on the coastal regions and compressional
1870J01 stress active on the continental part of India; it is *3conjectured*0
1880J01 that these are due to geothermal instability in the mantle.*#**[no.
        of words = 02016**]

        **[txt. j02**]
0010J02 **<FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY**> $^The initial act of absorption
0020J02 may promote a molecule to higher energy states *Mn, *Mn \0etc.,
0030J02 or to higher vibrational levels of the *Mn state in a time
0040J02 period *Me obeying Franck Condon principle. ^The electronic
0050J02 energy of *Mn, *Mn states or excess vibrational energy of *Mn
0060J02 state is quickly lost to the surroundings by a mechanism known
0070J02 as *3internal conversion (\0IC). ^The rate constant of internal
0080J02 conversion is *Me the same as vibrational frequencies. ^Once
0090J02 in the zero vibrational level of the first excited singlet
0100J02 state, the molecule may return to the ground state, in the absence
0110J02 of a photochemical reaction, by radiative *3flourescence emission
0120J02 *Me nonradiative *3internal conversion, *Me or partly radiative
0130J02 and partly nonradiative pathways as represented in the Jablonski
0140J02 diagram. ^Internal conversions from *Me have smaller rate
0150J02 constants *Mf or less as compared to the same processes in higher
0160J02 energy states because of large energy gap between the two. *3^*Intersystem
0170J02 crossing (\0ISC) involves nonradiative transition
0180J02 from singlet to triplet state, *Me generating *:3**:A which can then
0190J02 decay by radiative *3phosphorescence emission, *Me or by nonradiative
0200J02 reverse intersystem crossing, *Me processes. ^Rate
0210J02 constant for intersystem crossing should also be *Me but due to
0220J02 spin restriction factor, it varies from *Mff to *Mf.
0230J02 ^Both the above radiationless processes can effectively compete
0240J02 with fluorescence emission which can have a rate constant as high
0250J02 as *Mf. ^Again due to spin restrictions, phosphorescence
0260J02 emission from the triplet state to the singlet state is
0270J02 a slower process. ^Hence it appears as delayed emission when
0280J02 the exciting light is shut off. $^In the *Mn state,
0290J02 under special experimental conditions (high intensity flash excitation)
0300J02 the molecule may be promoted to upper triplet state *Mf
0310J02 by absorption of suitable radiation, *3triplet-triplet absorption
0320J02 *Me. ^Radiationless return to *Me rather than radiative
0330J02 return is predicted. ^Higher triplets can also be populated
0340J02 by intersystem crossing (\0ISC) from higher singlet states
0350J02 if rate constants are competitive for internal conversion and
0360J02 intersystem crosssing in the upper states. ^Thus, although direct
0370J02 absorption from ground singlet to triplet is forbidden by
0380J02 selection rules, it can be populated indirectly. $^Bimolecular
0390J02 reactions such as quenching, either by molecules of the
0400J02 same kind, *3self quenching, or by added substances, *3impurity
0410J02 quenching, inhibit emission because frequency of bimolecular
0420J02 collisions in gases as well as in solution, *Me can compete
0430J02 with fluorescence emission. ^Solvent quenching may involve other
0440J02 physical parameters as well, such as solute-solvent interactions.
0450J02 ^Since the solvent acts as the medium in which the solute
0460J02 molecules are bathed, solvent quenching may be classified under
0470J02 unimolecular processes and a clear distinction between it and
0480J02 internal conversion *Me is difficult. $^A very important
0490J02 bimolectular deactivation process is the *3electronic energy
0500J02 tranfer (\0ET). ^In this process, a molecule initially excited
0510J02 by absorption of radiation, transfers its excitation energy by
0520J02 nonradiative mechanism to another molecule which is transparent
0530J02 to this particular wavelength. ^The second molecule, thus
0540J02 excited can undergo various photophysical and photochemical processes
0550J02 according to its own characteristics. $^Under certain
0560J02 conditions, a few other processes may be initiated, such as **[table**]
0570J02 $^The processes *=3 and *=4 termed as *3E-type and *3P-type
0580J02 delayed emissions have emission spectra identical with that_
0590J02 of the normal fluorescence but with longer radiative lifetime.
0600J02 ^The long life is due to the involvement of the triplet state as
0610J02 an intermediate. ^Hence the short-lived direct fluorescence
0620J02 emission from the *Mn state is referred to as *3prompt fluorence.
0630J02 ^*E-type delayed fluorescence was called *Ya phosphorescence
0640J02 by Lewis in his early works. $^These photophysical
0650J02 processes often decide the photochemical behaviour of a
0660J02 molecule and reduce the quantum yield of a photochemical reaction
0670J02 to much less than unity. ^A molecule in the singlet state
0680J02 is a different chemical species from that_ in the triplet state
0690J02 and may initiate different chemistry. ^Therefore, for a complete
0700J02 understanding of a photochemical reaction, a clear knowledge of
0710J02 various photophysical processes, that_ is, how the absorbed quantum
0720J02 is partitioned into different pathways is essential. ^This account
0730J02 keeping of the absorbed quanta, so to_ say, may help modify a
0740J02 given chemical reaction if it is so desired. ^We shall discuss each
0750J02 of these processes one by one.
0760J02 $**<*35.2 RADIATIONLESS TRANSITIONS-- INERNAL CONVERSION AND INTERSYSTEM
0770J02 CROSSING**> $^A polyatomic molecule in condensed system
0780J02 when excited to a higher vibrational level of the first excited state,
0790J02 loses its excess vibrational energy to the surroundings in
0800J02 a time period *Me the time for a molecular vibration. ^This radiationless
0810J02 cascade of energy is known as *3internal conversion.
0820J02 ^Even if the excitation is to an energy state higher than
0830J02 *Mn, the molecule tumbles down quickly to the zero vibrational level
0831J02 of the first excited state *Mn, losing all its excess electronic and vibrational
0840J02 energy within *Mn. ^Due to large energy gaps, transition from
0850J02 *Mn to *Mn is not always probable by radiationless mechanism. ^Under
0860J02 these circumstances the molecule has two alternatives: (**=1) to_
0870J02 return to the ground state by fluorescence emission, or (**=2) to_
0880J02 cross over to the lowest triplet state nonradiatively. ^This
0890J02 nonradiative transfer from singlet excited to triplet state is
0900J02 known as *3intersystem crossing. ^In these radiationless processes,
0910J02 the environment acts as a heat sink for dissipation of extra
0920J02 energy as thermal energy. ^In a polyatomic molecule with
0930J02 \03N-6 modes of vibrations such loss in energy is observed even
0940J02 in the vapour phase at very low pressures where collision frequencies
0950J02 are likely to_ be less than the rates for radiationless
0960J02 conversion. ^It follows that nonradiative conversion is an *3intrinsic
0970J02 property of polyatomic molecules. $^Thus, there
0980J02 are two major types of radiationless or nonradiative transitions:
0990J02 (**=1) internal conversion, and (**=2) intersystem crossing. ^The
1000J02 *3internal conversion is so called because the nonradiative
1010J02 loss of energy occurs between electronic energy manifold of the
1020J02 same spin type: singlet-singlet or triplet-triplet, *Me or *Me.
1030J02 ^The *3intersystem crossing involves nonradiative energy loss
1040J02 between energy states of two different spin manifolds *Me or
1050J02 *Me. $^From kinetic considerations each can be further subdivided
1070J02 according to observed values of rate constants: *Mn, the rate
1080J02 constant for internal conversion and *Mn the rate constant for
1090J02 intersystem crossing. $*<*35.2.1 Theory of Radiationless
1100J02 Transitions*> $^Radiationless transition between two
1110J02 electronic states may be represented as occurring at the point of
1120J02 intersection of potential energy surfaces. ^The phenomenon is
1130J02 similar to the one encountered in predissociation sepctra of diatomic
1140J02 molecles. ^In an \0N-atomic molecule with \03N-6
1150J02 modes of vibration there will be \03N-6 polydimensional hypersurfaces
1160J02 describing the potential energy functions for each mode.
1170J02 ^There will be many points of crossing, or points of near-crossing
1180J02 amongst them. ^A crossing point is the point of equal
1190J02 energy for both the curves. ^The transfer occurs irreversibly
1200J02 at this *3isoenergetic point to the high vibrational
1210J02 level of the lower energy state and the excess vibrational energy
1220J02 rapidly cascades down the vibrational manifold. ^Thus, the radiationless
1230J02 conversion of energy involves *3two steps: (**=1) the vertical
1240J02 transfer of energy at the isoenergetic point from the zero-point
1250J02 level of higher electronic energy state to the high vibrational
1260J02 level of the lower electronic state, and (**=2) the rapid loss
1270J02 of excess vibrational energy after transfer. ^The first step
1280J02 is the rate determining step and is of main interest. ^The second
1290J02 is merely *3vibrational relaxation. $^Various theories have
1300J02 been proposed for *3horizontal transfer at the isoenergetic
1310J02 point. ^*Gouterman considered a condensed system and tried to_explain
1320J02 it in the same way as the radiative mechanism. ^In the
1330J02 radiative transfer, the two energy states are coupled by the photon
1340J02 or the radiation field. ^In the nonradiative transfer, the
1350J02 the coupling is brought about by the
1360J02 phonon field of the crystalline matrix. ^But this theory is
1370J02 inconsistent with the observation that internal conversion occurs
1380J02 also in individual polyatomic molecules such as benzene.
1390J02 ^In such cases the medium does not actively participate except as
1400J02 a heat sink. ^This was taken into consideration in theories proposed
1410J02 by Robinson and Frosch, and Siebrand and has been further
1420J02 imporoved by Bixon and Jortner for isolated molecules, but the
1430J02 subject is still imperfectly understood. $^In the theory of
1440J02 radiative transition, *3the dipole moment operator *Ym couples the
1450J02 two electronic energy states and the Franck-Condon overlap
1460J02 integral determines the *3vertical transfer probability *Mn between
1470J02 the vibronic wave functions of the two states. ^In the theory of
1480J02 nonradiative transition, the two states are coupled by an operator
1490J02 called the *3nuclear kinetic energy operator *Mn and the
1500J02 Franck-Condon overlap integral determines the probability of *3horizontal
1510J02 transfer between the potential functions of the two
1520J02 electronic states. ^The operator *Mn is effective on Born-Oppenheimer
1530J02 states only in which nuclear and electronic motions
1540J02 can be separated. ^Hence, if *Mn are wave functions of two
1550J02 combining states, the initial and the final, then under the perturbation
1560J02 *Mf the probability of energy transfer between these
1570J02 two states is: $^Probability **[formula**] where *Mn, *Mn
1580J02 and *Mn are the configuration spaces for electronic, vibrational
1590J02 and spin motions respectively. ^The perturbation acts on
1600J02 the electronic wave function only, which is the first term in the
1610J02 above expression. ^The last term is the spin integral. ^It is unity
1620J02 when the spin functions of the two states are the same. ^Otherwise it
1630J02 is zero but may have nonzero value under spin-orbit coupling interactions.
1640J02 ^The middle term defines the overlap criterion for vibrational
1650J02 wave functions of the two combining states and is the familiar
1660J02 *3Franck-Condon integral. ^A large overlap integral indicates
1670J02 a high transfer efficiency. ^A qualitative understanding of
1680J02 the concept can be obtained from the potential energy surfaces for
1690J02 a ground state *Mn and two upper electronic states *Mn and *Mnof
1700J02 a simple diatomic molecule (Figure 5.2). $^Energy difference
1710J02 between *Mn and *Mn is generally much larger than that_ between
1720J02 higher energy states *Mn, *Mn, *Mn, \0etc. ^Therefore zero-vibrational
1730J02 level of *Me state can overlap only with a high vibrational
1740J02 level of the ground energy state *Mn. ^In this diagram, *Mn
1750J02 and the Franck-Condon integral is **[foumula & figure**] $^The
1760J02 two curves are nearly parallel and they overlap near the equilibrium
1770J02 nuclear geometry where kinetic energy is large. ^On the other
1790J02 hand, the dispositions of \0PE sufraces of *Mn and *Mn states
1800J02 are such that the two curves intersect at a point *Me, *Me.
1810J02 ^At the point of intersection the lower curve is at the extreme position
1820J02 of vibrational oscillation where energy is all potential and
1830J02 the probability function is large. ^The overlap integral
1840J02 is **[formula**] $^Pictorially, the overlap integrals for the two
1850J02 cases can be represented as shown in the inset of Figure 5.2.
1860J02 ^Since only the overlap regions need be considered, by simple superposition
1870J02 principle, we find that *Mn has very poor overlap integral
1880J02 (Figure 5.2a) because the higher vibrational energy states
1890J02 of *Mn have low probability distribution function in the centre.
1900J02 ^Such a situation is likely to_ be obtained when the (o-o) energy
1910J02 gap between the two combining states is large. ^For *Me the
1920J02 two potential functions intersect (Figure 5.2b). ^The overlap
1930J02 is good mainly because the wave functions have large values at the
1940J02 extrema as expected from a classical description of harmonic oscillation.
1950J02 ^It follows that the larger the energy gap between *Mn
1960J02 and *Mn states, the smaller will be the overlap intergal and the
1970J02 smaller will be the transfer efficiency. ^Equation (5.20) thus
1980J02 predicts low probability of internal conversion between *Mn and *Mn
1990J02 states. $^Since the higher energy states are closer in
2000J02 energy, there is always a possibility of potential energy surfaces
2010J02 crossing at some point. ^Transfer occurs at the crossing points which
2020J02 are isoenergetic for the two combining states. ^The transfer
2030J02 is further facilitated by momentary freezing of the nuclear coordinates
2040J02 at the vibrational turning points. ^This is the rate
2050J02 determining step and must occur before the molecule starts oscillating,
2060J02 \0I.e. within *Me. ^The large Franck-Condon integral is not
2070J02 always the sole criterion for efficient cross-over from one energy
2080J02 state to the other. ^Symmetry restrictions and spin multiplicity
2090J02 rules impose their own inefficiency factors. $^The transfer
2100J02 is in general irreversible and is immediately followed by very
2110J02 fast vibrational relaxation phenomenon. ^The irreversibility
2120J02 of transfer is not due to any difference in the probabilities
2130J02 of forward *Me and the reverse *Me, nonradiative transfer
2140J02 but due to the difference in the densities of energy states in the
2150J02 initial and the final states.*#
        **[no. of words = 02010**]

        **[txt. j03**]
0010J03 **<*3What Starlight Tells Us About Stars**> $^The atom
0020J03 doesn*'4t remain in its excited state for long. ^It makes
0030J03 a transition to a lower energy level either spontaneously or
0040J03 upon being de-excited by some external disturbance. ^The
0050J03 energy difference is not lost, of course. ^It is emitted in
0060J03 the form of a photon whose frequency (colour) is proportional
0070J03 to its energy. ^Photons from the stars, therefore, can come in
0080J03 a whole range of frequencies, depending on the physical processes
0090J03 that_ produced them, or modified them, *8en route*9 to us.
0100J03 $^To the naked eye, one star looks much like another--
0110J03 some brighter than others. ^Colour differences, though
0120J03 noticeable, are almost imperceptible. ^But when the light from
0130J03 each star is passed through a prism (as Newton did with the Sun*'s
0140J03 light), its individuality becomes obvious. ^The light
0150J03 is dispersed into a band of various component frequencies known
0160J03 as the *3stellar spectrums. ^Further measurements on
0170J03 this spectrum tell us in what amounts the photons are received
0180J03 (the 'intensity') and in what colours. ^And each type of star
0190J03 has its own signature of photons. ^The instrument used for
0200J03 this is known as a spectrograph-- which is but a sophisticated
0210J03 descendant of Newton*'s primitive prism and screen.
0220J03 $*<*3More about spectra*> $^The spectrum of a typical
0230J03 star appears as a continuous band of colours, known as the
0240J03 *3continuous spectrum, on which are superimposed dark lines
0250J03 (see \0Fig. 6). ^The systems of dark lines were first studied by
0260J03 the German physicist Fraunhofer in 1814-15, and are known
0270J03 as the *3absorption spectrum of the star. ^Let us see how
0280J03 these two components of the spectrum occur. $^The
0290J03 continuous spectrum is produced when an ion 'de-ionises'. ^In
0300J03 the hot interior of the star, atoms are excited to such a degree
0310J03 that many lose one or more electrons to form ions. ^Now,
0320J03 when an excited atom de-excites, its electrons jump into configurations
0330J03 of lower energy and a photon is emitted. ^Similarly,
0340J03 the capture of a passing electron by an ion is also accompanied
0350J03 by the emission of a photon. $^These photons come in a whole
0360J03 range of frequencies which are so closely spaced that they cannot
0370J03 be resolved into lines by the spectrograph and hence appear
0380J03 as a continuous spectrum. $^As this stream of photons from the
0390J03 interior passes through the photosphere, certain photons are removed
0400J03 from the mainstream. ^These are just those that_ are absorbed
0410J03 by the atoms present in the photosphere. ^Their frequencies
0420J03 correspond precisely to the differences in the energy levels
0430J03 of these atoms. ^Of course, they are re-emitted when the atoms
0440J03 de-excite, but generally in a different direction (\0Fig. 4).
0450J03 ^The mainstream is thus depleted of photons of these frequencies.
0460J03 ^In a spectrograph this depletion shows up as relatively
0470J03 dark lines and superimposed on the brighter continuous spectrum.
0480J03 ^Hence the name 'absorption spectrum'. $^In the spectrum
0490J03 of some stars, galaxies, quasars and emission nebulae, there
0500J03 also appear a series of bright lines. ^These form the *3emission
0510J03 spectrum. ^These lines are a little more complicated
0520J03 to_ explain. ^In gaseous nebulae for example, it is believed that
0530J03 the lines are due to emissions from atoms which have been excited
0540J03 by the energy released in gravitational contraction. $^It
0550J03 has become known comparatively recently that stars emit in all regions
0560J03 of the electromagnetic spectrum. ^Much information about
0570J03 their structure can be had by studying the gamma rays, X-rays,
0580J03 ultraviolet and infrared radiation and radio waves coming from
0590J03 them. ^We will, however, not go into these topics and study
0600J03 only the message contained in the *3visual radiation from
0610J03 the stars. $^What would we like to_ know about stars? ^There
0620J03 is no limit to the greed of the curious: what are they made of
0630J03 (their composition)? ^How far are they from us (their distance)?
0640J03 ^How did they come to_ be (their origin and history)? ^What*'1s
0650J03 happening inside them? ^Are they moving? rotating? ^How big are
0660J03 they (size and mass)? ^Do they have planets? ^Is there a biochemistry
0670J03 taking place on the stars? Biology? any question that_
0680J03 we ask about the solar system and its planets is a valid scientific
0690J03 question about stars. $^Our present knowledge, however,
0700J03 is in a primitive stage, and we can only answer the first few
0710J03 of these queries, that_ too only tentatively, approximately.
0720J03 $*<3What are stars made of?*> $^We have seen that
0730J03 the atoms of a given element, when in gaseous form, produce a characteristic
0740J03 pattern of absorption and emission lines. ^The presence
0750J03 of lines characteristic of a certain element in the spectrum
0760J03 of a beam of light means that atoms of the element are
0770J03 present somewhere along the path taken by the light. ^The study
0780J03 of the absorption and emission spectra of a star can, therefore,
0790J03 lead to the identification of the elements present in
0800J03 its outer layer. $^The detailed nature of the spectrum also
0810J03 depends upon physical conditions like the temperature and pressure
0820J03 prevailing in the photosphere. ^For example, hydrogen,
0830J03 which is by far the most abundant element in all the stars,
0840J03 can produce absorption lines only in the atmosphere of the
0850J03 cooler stars, where it is present in the atomic state. ^In the
0860J03 atmospheres of very hot stars, however, it is completely ionised
0870J03 and can produce only a continuous spectrum. $^Atoms
0880J03 emit photons: more atoms will emit more photons. ^Therefore,
0890J03 by measuring the *3relative strength of absorption lines
0900J03 in the spectrum of a star, after making due allowance for the
0910J03 conditions prevailing in the photosphere, we can infer the
0920J03 relative *3abundances of the various chemical
0930J03 elements whose lines appear. $^It is found that in a typical
0940J03 star, hydrogen comprises between 50 to 80 per cent of its mass.
0950J03 ^Hydrogen and helium together constitute 96 to 99 per cent
0960J03 of the mass. (^The element helium was first discovered in the
0970J03 Sun, even before it was known on the Earth, by the presence of
0980J03 absorption lines in the solar spectrum which did not match
0990J03 those due to any known element on Earth.) ^Among the 4
1000J03 per cent or less of heavy elements, neon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
1010J03 magnesium, argon, silicon, sulphur, iron and chlorine
1020J03 are amongst the most abundant in the photosphere. $^Does
1030J03 life exist around stars? ^Note that the existence of elements like
1040J03 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen in stars means that
1050J03 some of the basic components of organic chemistry are present there.
1060J03 ^Complex organic molecules have recently been identified
1070J03 in the interstellar dust. ^However, the probability of
1080J03 life existing outside the solar system is still an open question.
1090J03 to_ answer it, it would be necessary to_ establish that
1100J03 sufficient conditions for life are present elsewhere in the
1110J03 universe. ^Research here on earth is well along the way of
1120J03 identifying just what these 'sufficient conditions' are.
1130J03 ^It will probably be much more difficult to_ confirm that a full
1140J03 set of such conditions is present around some star. $*<*3How
1150J03 hot are the stars?*> $^All hot bodies emit a certain kind
1160J03 of radiation known as 'black body' radiation. ^Readers should
1170J03 not be misled by the name, since this radiation is the cause
1180J03 of the 'red-hot' colour of a heated metal rod, and the 'white-hot'
1190J03 colour of an electric bulb when it is turned on.
1200J03 ^Black body radiation is really a combination of frequencies (colours),
1210J03 with each frequency carrying a characteristic amount of
1220J03 energy. ^The distribution of energy over each frequency depends
1230J03 only on the overall temperature of the emitter. ^In
1240J03 fact, the temperature of the emitter can be measured
1250J03 by finding out what frequency carries the maximum energy. ^This
1260J03 'peak frequency' is just proportional to the temperature--
1270J03 a fact which was discovered by Wien. $^Now, it is known
1280J03 that light in the continuous spectrum of stars approximately
1290J03 resembles the radiation coming from a black body. ^The
1300J03 resemblance is not complete, however, for, different layers of
1310J03 the stars are at different temperatures whereas a black
1320J03 body is supposed to_ be at the same temperature throughout its
1330J03 valume. ^Moreover, as the stellar radiation passes through
1340J03 the outer layers of the star, different wavelengths are absorbed
1350J03 in different amounts and the spectrum is distorted. ^In spite
1360J03 of these limitations, it is usually a satisfactory approximation
1370J03 to_ assume that the radiation emitted by a typical
1380J03 star is equivalent to radiation from a black body with temperature
1390J03 equal to that_ of the star*'s photospheric layers.
1400J03 $^When starlight is analysed through a spectrograph, and
1410J03 the peak frequency is measured, the temperature of the star
1420J03 can immediately be obtained from Wien*'s law. ^For the Sun,
1430J03 the maximum emission occurs in the blue to blue-green region
1440J03 which corresponds to about 6000*@ \0K. ^This value is, of course,
1450J03 indicative of the temperature of the surface layers of the Sun.
1460J03 ^The temperature at the centre of the Sun, which has to_
1470J03 be established using other methods, is expected to_ be about
1480J03 13 million degrees Kelvin. $*<*3How do stars move?*>
1490J03 $^The reader is no doubt familiar with the change in the pitch of a
1500J03 car horn as it speeds past him. ^While it is approaching him,
1510J03 the horn blast sounds higher. ^As the car recedes, the sound is
1520J03 lower. ^A stationary car will present a pitch somewhere in between.
1530J03 $^This change in frequency due to the movement of the source is common
1540J03 to all wave phenomena and is known as the 'Doppler shift' (after
1550J03 Christian Doppler, 1803-1853). ^Since light is a wave phenomenon,
1560J03 Doppler shifting is also to_ be expected when the light source
1570J03 is moving. ^When the velocity \0V of the source relative to
1580J03 the observer is small compared to the speed \0C of light, the change
1590J03 in frequency compared is proportional to \0V/\0C. $^As
1600J03 in the case of sound, the frequency of light is decreased ('redshifted,
1601J03 that_ is, shifted towards the red end of the spectrum) when
1610J03 the source recedes. ^If the source is approaching, the light
1620J03 is 'blueshifted' (see \0Fig. 5). $^Once the elements present
1630J03 in a star have been identified by studying the relative positions
1640J03 of the lines in the steller spectrum, and the structure
1650J03 of these lines, the redshift (blueshift) can then be measured and
1660J03 the velocity relative to us (the obsever) of the star can be directly
1670J03 obtained. ^In this way, the radial velocities of
1680J03 many stars with respect to us have been obtained.
1690J03 ^The star Sirius, which is the brightest star in the night sky
1700J03 for example, is found to_ be moving towards us at
1710J03 the rate of 8 \0km/\0sec. ^The transverse motion of a star,
1720J03 that_ is, its motion perpendicular to the line of sight,
1730J03 cannot be obtained using the Doppler effect. ^A so-called
1740J03 "transverse Doppler effect" does exist but it is small
1750J03 unless \0*3V is an appreciable franction of *3\0C. ^For
1760J03 stars, this is not the case. $*<*3Do stars
1770J03 rotate?*> $^It was discovered by Galileo by observing
1780J03 the apparent motion of sun-spots, that the Sun rotates on
1790J03 its axis from west to east. ^The Sun goes round once every
1800J03 24 days and 16 hours at its equator. ^It is not possible
1810J03 to_ determine the rate of rotation of distant stars by
1820J03 observing some fiducial marks on them because they present
1830J03 point images even in the biggest telescopes. ^It is once
1840J03 again necessary to_ invoke the Doppler effect in order
1850J03 to_ detect any rotation. ^If a star is rotating, and
1860J03 the axis of rotation is not directed exactly towards us,
1870J03 one part of its surface will be moving away from us and
1880J03 the diametrically opposite part will be moving towards us.
1890J03 ^Because of the Dopper effect, the light coming from the
1900J03 former will be redshifted and that_ coming from the
1910J03 latter will be blueshifted. ^In a point-like image, it
1920J03 is not possible to_
1930J03 distinguish between light coming from different portions
1940J03 of the stellar surface, but the effect of rotation
1950J03 is to_ broaden every spectral line. ^The amount of
1960J03 line broadening can be measured and the rate of rotation
1970J03 of the star can be estimated. $*<*3How far to a star?*>.
1980J03 $^Much information about the properties of a star
1990J03 can be had by measuring the amount of light received from it on
2000J03 the Earth, and studying its variation with time. ^The
2010J03 apparent brightness of a star cannot, of course, tell
2020J03 us anything directly.*#
        **[no. of words = 02007**]

        **[txt. j04**]
0010J04 **<*3Change in chromosome concept**> $*<*3Introduction*>
0020J04 $^The chromosome in the prokaryotic system is usually referred
0030J04 to as the genophore (Ris, 1971) where the structure is merely
0040J04 a \0DNA molecule. ^The absence of a nuclear membrane,
0050J04 chromosomal histone and a mitotic mechanism for separation,
0060J04 the presence of a single replicon and the mode of genetic
0070J04 regulation, differentiate prokaryotes from eukaryotes,
0080J04 in addition to mitochondria, chloroplasts and other such cell
0090J04 organelles which are essential for cell differentiation in
0100J04 eukaryota. ^The mode through which the eukaryotic cells,
0110J04 with their chromosomes, have evolved, is much debated since
0120J04 fossil evidences of the intermediate steps are rare. ^Despite
0130J04 the lack of such evidences, the unquestionable relationship
0140J04 between these two major forms of life is indicated by
0150J04 the universal applicability of the genetic code. ^The present
0160J04 day prokaryotes have a long antecedent period of evolution--
0170J04 nearly three billions of years-- throghout which they
0180J04 have maintained the primitive cell type even after the
0190J04 evolution of eukaryotic system. $^The evolution of the
0200J04 complexity of chromosome mechanism in eukaryotes has been
0210J04 associated, as the evidences reveal, with the emergence of a
0220J04 dynamic property of the chromosomes exerting control on vital
0230J04 activities of all organelles responsible for body differentiation
0240J04 and metabolism. ^An integration of the activities
0250J04 for the functioning of the cells, *8vis-a-vis*9 the
0260J04 organ as a whole, has evidently been achieved. ^In order to_
0270J04 visualize the origin of such a dynamic chromosomal control,
0280J04 it would be preferable initially to_ deal with the genesis
0290J04 and nature of semi-autonomy of these important organelles, followed
0300J04 by the structural and behavioural complexity of the chromosomes.
0310J04 $*<*32. Dynamic control of cell organelles and
0320J04 their origin*> $^The presence of self-replicating \0DNA in the
0330J04 chloroplastids and mitochondria (Swift 1965a), the two essential
0331J04 organelles, is well established. ^The possibility of origin of this \0DNA
0340J04 from a single prokaryotic species (Klein and Cronquist
0350J04 1967; Stanier 1970; Raff and Mahler 1972; vide Taylor 1976)
0360J04 or from prokaryotic endosymbionts has been suggested (Sagan 1967;
0370J04 Margulis 1970, 1976). ^A similar endosymbiotic origin of
0380J04 microtubules, centriole and flagella has been visualized (vide
0390J04 Reinert and Ursprung 1971). ^Overwhelming evidences are
0400J04 available in favour of origin from prokaryotic symbionts (Mereschkowsky
0410J04 1905; Ris and Plaut 1962; Echlin 1966; Schnepf 1966;
0420J04 vide De Duve and Baudihin 1966; Edelman *(0et al*) 1967; Roodyn
0430J04 and Wilkie 1968; \0cf. Stubbe 1971; Wilkie 1973; Evstigneev
0440J04 1975; Buclow 1976, Hanson 1976) as indicated in the nature
0450J04 of the genetic material, reproduction, and some of the proteins
0460J04 and protein synthesizing systems (Kuntzel 1969; Schnepf
0470J04 and Brown 1971). ^The \0DNAs of both the organelles are double
0480J04 stranded, circular and their replicating systems are
0490J04 similar to those of bacteria or blue-green algae (Remsen *(0et
0500J04 al*) 1968; Schnepf and Brown 1971; Bennett and Radcliffe
0510J04 1975). ^Lately, it has been claimed (Lopez Perez and Turner
0520J04 1975), on the basis of sedimentation velocity expriments in
0530J04 *3Aspergillus nidulans, that a small amount of mitochondrial
0540J04 \0DNA is in the covalently closed circular form, the rest
0550J04 being open circular or linear. ^For chloroplastid \0DNA, in
0560J04 addition to the significant data of its cyanophycean origin,
0570J04 analogy has been drawn between the grana and stacking of photosynthetic
0580J04 lamellae of some bacteria like *3Ectothiorhodophora
0590J04 mobilis (Remsen 1968). ^The difference in structure of chloroplastid
0600J04 ribosomes from those of Enterobacteriaceae has
0610J04 been clearly indicated (Odintsova and Yurina 1975). ^Similarly
0620J04 it is observed between the \070s ribosomes and their subunits
0630J04 of prokaryotes, chloroplastids and mitochondria which
0640J04 are different from the \080s ribosomes of eukaryotic cytoplasm
0650J04 (Stutz and Noll 1976; Hoober and Blobel 1969; Schnepf and
0660J04 brown 1971). ^The former have nearly identical
0670J04 sedimentation rates. ^Excellent reviews of their similarity
0680J04 with the prokaryotes and evidences of their origin
0690J04 have been published (Margulis 1968, 1976; Reinert and
0700J04 Ursprung 1971). ^It is not unlikely that the genetic
0710J04 systems of mitochondria and chloroplastids have originated
0720J04 from free-living prokaryotes and a process of endosymbiosis might
0730J04 have been involved. ^During endosymbiosis, the
0740J04 larger amoeboid or flagellated forms of cells were possibly
0750J04 involved initially in parasitism, evolving towards this
0760J04 specialized relationship (Smith (Et al*) 1969; Clawes
0770J04 1971) and blue-green algae and anaerobic bacteria
0780J04 might have been injected into amoeboid protoplasts.
0790J04 ^This relationship permitted the cells to_ utilize solar energy
0800J04 and to_ carry on photosynthesis along with other mechanisms
0810J04 of nutrition. ^Though this mode of origin appears
0820J04 to_ be plausible, the organisms involved are not yet precisely
0830J04 known. $*<*32.1. Symbiotic origin and semi-autonomy*>
0840J04 $^There has been a considerable loss of autonomy
0850J04 in the evolution of these organelles in course of their origin
0860J04 from prokaryotic symbionts. ^The dynamic control of
0870J04 chromosomes affecting their independence has been demonstrated
0880J04 (Bogorad 1975), which has reduced them to a semi-autonomous state.
0890J04 ^Significant amount of the genetic information is
0900J04 supplied by the chromosome. ^The exact interaction between
0910J04 the nuclear and their own \0DNA products is however
0920J04 yet to_ be worked out. ^In this respect, mitochondria have
0930J04 a lesser autonomy than the chloroplastids (Wilkie 1973).
0940J04 ^Biochemically, a mitochondrion is deeply integrated in the cell
0950J04 structure (Carter 1975). ^Its own fabric, outer envelope
0960J04 as well as several enzymatically soluble active proteins are
0970J04 synthesized at extra mitochondrial sites under genetic
0980J04 control of chromosome (Baxter 1971). ^*Saccone and Quagliariello
0990J04 (1975) have reviewed the evidences of co-ordination
1000J04 between cytoplasm and mitochondria in protein synthesis. ^Mitochondrial
1010J04 genome can undergo recombination but the nucleus
1020J04 exerts a profound influence on transmission, as noted in
1030J04 *3Xenopus, *3Neurospora, yeast, human and even man-mouse
1040J04 hybrid systems (Wilkie 1973). ^Genetic autonomy of
1050J04 mitochondria is extremely restricted, and in the animal system
1060J04 it is roughly confined to a \0DNA molecule of 30 genes as
1070J04 calculated on the basis of their protein synthesizing capacity
1080J04 (Kislev and Eisenstadt 1972). ^Reciprocal transfer
1090J04 experiments in *3Paramecium aurelia have also indicated a
1100J04 minor control of mitochondrial genome (Beale and Knowles 1976).
1110J04 ^In *3Saccharomyces cerevisieae, \0ATPase respiratory
1120J04 enzymes and several phenotypic expressions have been shown
1130J04 to_ be under nuclear control (Trembath *(0et al*) 1975; Tzagoloff
1140J04 *(0et al*) 1975). $^On the other hand, plastids
1150J04 enjoy a considerable degree of freedom from nuclear control.
1160J04 ^The genetic information in the circular chloroplast \0DNA
1170J04 *3Euglena has a coding capacity of nearly 300 genes
1180J04 specifying polypeptides of average 20,000 \0mol. \0wt. (Wilkie
1190J04 1973). ^Plastid ribosomes are possibly coded by their
1200J04 own \0DNA, but the chromosomal genes affect significantly
1210J04 the biosynthetic pathways of chlorophyll and carotenoids.
1220J04 ^In *3Chlamydomonas, deficiencies of different photosynthetic
1230J04 enzymes are due to nuclear gene mutations and it
1240J04 is likely that \0m-RNA for pigment synthesis may migrate
1250J04 from nucleus to cytoplasm (Walles 1971). ^*Bogorad *(0et
1260J04 al*) (1975) have demonstrated a dual control of three genes for
1270J04 chloroplastids, two being located in the nucleus and one in the
1280J04 chloroplastid itself. ^Such a control is not unexpected
1290J04 in view of their synchronous behaviour, including their
1300J04 separation during cell and nuclear divisions. $*<*32.2.
1310J04 Prokaryotic origin*> $^*Mahler and Raff (1975) have suggested
1320J04 a nonsymbiotic plasmid origin of mitochondria.
1330J04 ^*Cavalier Smith (1975) has reviewed the concept of origin
1340J04 from a single prokaryotic species. ^He has suggested the
1350J04 evolution of the entire eukaryotic system, including the
1360J04 nuclei, from a single-celled facultative, phototropic, non-nitrogen
1370J04 fixing blue-green alga through the mechanism of endocytosis.
1380J04 ^The origin of mitochondria, chloroplastids and nuclei
1390J04 and even chromosomes has been assumed through cell
1400J04 compartmentation and fusion of \0DNA associated thylakoids
1401J04 wherever necessary. ^The very large size of some blue-green
1410J04 algae (Fogg *(0et al*) 1973) has been cited as an evidence
1420J04 of this possibility. ^In this theory, the origin of
1430J04 pole to pole spindle microtubules (Oakley and Dodge 1974; Picket-Heaps
1440J04 1969, 1974), the only universal component of the
1450J04 modern spindles, has been explained. Robertson*'s
1460J04 (1964) suggestion of the origin of the genetic components
1470J04 of plastids and mitochondria from a portion of the cell
1480J04 with satellite \0DNA is relevant in this regard. ^This
1490J04 theory of Cavalier-Smith (1975), despite its rationality
1500J04 in providing a suitable model for the origin of the nucleus,
1510J04 is yet to_ be substantiated from concrete evidences.
1520J04 $^In any case, whatever the exact mechanism
1530J04 through which chromosomes have evolved from prokaryotic
1540J04 system or systems, the overall chromosomal control conferring
1550J04 different degrees of semi-autonomy to cell organelles
1560J04 is unquestionable. ^It may even be posssible in
1570J04 the near future to_ obtain mitochondria and chloroplastids
1580J04 in culture, with vital informational genes being
1590J04 supplied by the chromosomes, and others by the organelles
1600J04 themselvess. $*<*32.3. Nuclear membrane in chromosomal control*>
1610J04 $^The origin of the nucleus having a nuclear membrane
1620J04 with clear demarcation between areas separating the master
1630J04 templates of chromosomal \0DNA from the cytoplasm,
1640J04 susceptible to direct stress and strain of intra and extracellular
1650J04 environment, was achieved in different stages. ^Such
1660J04 an inermediate form may possibly have a structure analogous
1670J04 to that_ of the 'central body' of Cyanophyceae where the differentiated
1680J04 central area with the genetic material is distinct
1690J04 from the area with protractile granules though
1700J04 without a typical nuclear membracne. ^The formation of nuclear
1710J04 envelope is then a short step in evolution. ^Several
1720J04 lower forms of eukaryota, though having a nuclear membrane,
1730J04 yet do not show typical mitosis as reflected
1740J04 in the absence of centrioles, equatorial plate and spindle
1750J04 and in the distribution of chromatin throughout the cell
1760J04 (\0e.g. certain fungi, \0cf. Heath 1974). ^They do not
1770J04 necessarily represent degeneracies but rather an offshoot
1780J04 from the main life where sexuality in the true sense
1790J04 did not develop (Dowben 1971). $^The nuclear membrane
1800J04 has an important role in the dynamic and integrating control
1810J04 of chromosomes on cell organelles and metabolism. ^It
1820J04 serves the function of delimitation and also is an active
1830J04 intermediary in the transfer of gene products, the gene-controlled
1840J04 reactions, in the perpetuation and formation of mitochondria,
1850J04 chloroplastids, endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles
1860J04 as seen in several organisms (Kaufman and Gay 1958; Bell
1870J04 and Muhlethaler 1964; Frank and Sheer 1974; vide Kasper 1974; Agutter
1880J04 *(0et al*) 1976). ^On the basis of investigations
1890J04 on the banding patterns of chromosomes, Chiarelli (1974)claimed
1891J04 that in eukaryotic system, chromosome filaments remain
1900J04 attached to the annuli of the nuclear envelope. ^The importance
1910J04 of the membrane in chromosome movement (Kubai
1920J04 1975) and in transport of metabolites in animal cells
1930J04 has also been elucidated (Berlin and Oliver 1975; vide
1940J04 Mason 1972). ^Further, a relationship has been claimed
1950J04 between chromosome breakage and association with nuclear
1960J04 membrane (Vig 1975). ^In comparison, the prokaryotic
1970J04 membrane system is less understood though the
1980J04 association of genophore with termination and initiation
1990J04 points of attachment on the cell membrane has been shown
2000J04 (vide Knempel 1970). $^<*32.4. Origin of chromosomal
2010J04 control*> $^The chromosomal control of cell organelles
2020J04 being established, the next step is to_ explore the mechanism
2030J04 through which such a dynamic control has evolved.
2040J04 ^Information as presented above shows that the organelles
2050J04 originated as independent units, but they had to_
2060J04 sacrifice a considerable degree of independence, including
2070J04 even their genetic units of control, to the host
2080J04 chromosome during the course of evolution. ^Evidences
2090J04 of such transfer of genetic material from precursors
2100J04 of mitochondria and plastids to the chromosome are difficult
2110J04 to_ obtain. ^But the possibility of such a tranfer
2120J04 can be visualized from the analogy of the established
2130J04 evidence of prokaryotic gene transfer to eukaryotic chromosome
2140J04 during malignant transformation. ^The incorporation
2150J04 of vital genome in the chromosomes of
2160J04 the mammalian transforming cell
2170J04 lines is well known (vide Blangy *(0et al*) 1974; Gross
2180J04 1974; vide Grundmann 1974; Zhdanov 1975). ^On the basis
2190J04 of these data, Sharma (1976) had suggested that, in the
2200J04 course of evolution from prokaryotic to eukaryotic system,
2210J04 certain parts of the genome of mitochondrial or plastid
2220J04 precursors were transferred to the chromosome. ^Such
2230J04 a transfer involved likely some of the vital controlling
2240J04 genes of the cell organelles. ^This shifting of the controlling
2250J04 genes to the chromosomes proved to_ be of advantage
2260J04 to the organism as it ensured harmony and synchrony
2270J04 of nuclear and extra nuclear systems. ^This advantage,
2280J04 leading to a congenial nucleocytoplasmic interaction,
2290J04 aided such an adaptive system to_ be favoured in nature
2300J04 and to_ be established with the progress of
2310J04 evolution. ^Occasional molecular hybridization between
2320J04 nuclear and mitochondrial \0DNA, as initially reported
2330J04 by DuBuy and Riley (1967), may be due to the
2340J04 presence of some similar molecules or \0DNA
2350J04 repeats, though unusual, originating in mitochondrial precursors
2360J04 prior to their partial transfer to chromosomes.
2370J04 $<*33. Structural differentiation of chromosome--
2380J04 its evolution*> $^The chromosome structure of eukaryotes,
2390J04 with its vast complexity, has evolved possibly
2400J04 through different steps from a simple genophore (Sharma
2410J04 1969).*#
        **[no. of words = 02021**]

        **[txt. j05**]
0010J05 **<*3ADAPTATIONS TO OSMOTIC STRESS IN THE MARINE TELEOST,
0020J05 PERIOPHTHALMUS DIPUS BLEEKER *=2. CHANGES IN GLYCOGEN AND FAT
0030J05 LEVELS OF TISSUES*0**> $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*> $^In
0040J05 most aquatic media salinity fluctuations are of considerable
0050J05 importance as they pose several osmotic problems
0060J05 to the inhabitants, which solve them in different ways.
0070J05 ^Fishes, especially the teleostei, provide an excellent experimental
0080J05 material for osmotic studies as their checquered
0090J05 phylogeny, involving a series of transmigrations between
0100J05 fresh and salt waters, have exposed them to varying
0110J05 osmotic situations, to which they could adapt themselves
0120J05 successfully (Parvatheswararao, 1970). ^Immediate response
0130J05 to sudden change in salinity may lead to over
0140J05 or undershoots in performance. ^They may involve changes
0150J05 in metabolic rate, activity, body volume, or osmoconcentrations
0160J05 of body fluids. ^Moreover, acclimation to
0170J05 different salinities not only affects the rate of metabolism
0180J05 but its efficiency (Kinne, 1962). $^Going through
0190J05 literature it seems that metabolic aspects (especially
0200J05 the energy cost) of osmo and ionoregulation have received
0210J05 a little attention (Bashmohideen & Parvatheswararao, 1972,
0220J05 Venkatachari, 1974). ^The only studies in this direction are
0230J05 those on *3Fundulus heteroclitus*0* (Pettengill & Copeland,
0240J05 1948); the starry flounder *3Platichthys stellatus*0 (Hickman,
0250J05 1959), the pearlspot, *3Etroplus maculatus*0 (Sarojinidevi
0260J05 1960; Parvatheswararao, 1965, 1967, 1970) and
0270J05 the cichlid fish, *3Tilapia mossambica*0* (Bashmohideen &
0280J05 Parvatheswararao, 1972; Venkatachari, 1974). ^These studies
0290J05 are in agreement about metabolic involvement in osmoregulation
0300J05 and suggest different purposes of utilization
0310J05 of metabolic energy, such as increased locomotor activity
0320J05 arising out of the animals tendency to_ escape from
0330J05 the transport in more saline media, and the increased
0340J05 demands for osmotic work in the stress media.
0350J05 $^With a view to_ understand the metabolic involvement in
0360J05 osmotic stress, the present investigation was undertaken,
0370J05 using the mudskipper, *3Periophthalmus dipus.*0 ^The present
0380J05 paper reports the variations in the tissue glycogen
0390J05 and fat levels on salinity adapatation.
0400J05 $*<*3MATERIALS AND METHODS*0*> $^Specimens of *3Periophthalmus
0410J05 dipus*0 were collected from the muddy shores of
0420J05 Sikka, about 28 \0km from Jamnagar of Saurashtra during
0430J05 ebb tides, and maintained in the laboratory aquaria containing
0440J05 sea water for a couple of days. ^They were
0450J05 fed with frog muscles and dried prawn powder on
0460J05 alternate days. ^After thus adapting to laboratory conditions,
0470J05 the fishes were separately acclimated to
0480J05 full sea water (\0SW), 90%, 70%, 50%, 30%, and 10% sea
0490J05 water and 100% fresh water (\0FW). ^The batch of fish
0500J05 maintained in full sea water under otherwise similar
0510J05 conditions served as control. ^The temperature was
0520J05 maintained between 27-28*@ \0C. ^The water in aquaria
0530J05 was constantly aerated and changed every 3 days with a fresh
0540J05 medium of approximate **[sic**] same salinity. ^Specimens
0550J05 12-16 \0cm in total length and weighing from 20-24
0560J05 \0g were used for experiments and analyses. ^After
0570J05 acclimating to the respective concentrations of sea
0580J05 water for 15 days, they were sacrificed for the tests.
0590J05 ^They were not fed one day prior to sacrifice.
0600J05 ^Tissues such as gill, heart, liver, kidney, red muscle
0610J05 and white muscle were isolated and analysed.
0620J05 $^The estimation of glycogen was carried out by the
0630J05 method of Seifter *(0et al.*) (1949) using anthron as a colour
0640J05 reagent, on spectronic-20 colorimeter. ^The fresh
0650J05 tissues, weighing about 0.5-1.0 \0g were used for fat
0660J05 extration. ^The fat extraction was carried out in Soxhlet
0670J05 apparatus, using petroleum ether-alcohol (3:1) solution
0680J05 for about 8 \0h. $*<*3RESULTS*0*> $(a) *3Glycogen:*0
0690J05 ^The results of the quantitative estimation of
0700J05 glycogen content of different tissues, on acclimation
0710J05 to different salinities, are given in Table 1. ^A
0720J05 scrutiny of the values reveals that white muscle shows
0730J05 an increasing trend in glycogen values when exposed to
0740J05 90%, 70% and 50% (\0SW), whereas in the same concentrations
0750J05 of sea water, the glycogen content decreases in
0760J05 the case of the red muscle. ^Further, the red muscle
0770J05 shows an increase in glycogen content on exposure
0780J05 to lower salinity (from 30% \0SW to \0FW. ^There was
0790J05 considerable variation in glycogen content of the gill
0800J05 and the liver. ^Both these tissues show an increase
0810J05 in glycogen content, on exposure to all the salinities
0820J05 tested, compared with the control. ^In case of
0830J05 gill, the glycogen content is very high in 30% and 10%
0840J05 \0SW, whereas in the liver it is very high on exposure to 50%, 30% and
0841J05 10% \0SW. ^The heart shows decrease in glycogen level
0850J05 in all the grades of \0SW. ^On the other hand,
0860J05 kidney shows decrease in its glycogen content in
0870J05 90% and 30% \0SW. ^But there is an increase in glycogen
0880J05 level of the kidney on exposure to 70%, 50%, 10%
0890J05 \0SW and \0FW. $(b) *3Fat:*0 ^The fat content of
0900J05 different tissues (Table 2) indicated higher fat level in the liver
0910J05 (524.102 \0mg/g), heart (102.192 \0mg/g), and white muscle (96.432 \0mg/g),
0920J05 than in the control. ^The level of fat shows an increase in most
0921J05 of the tissues on acclimatation
0930J05 to 90% \0SW except heart which shows decrease in its fat
0940J05 content. ^In 70% and 50% \0SW the white muscle, red muscle
0950J05 and heart indicate a decline in fat level whereas in
0960J05 the gill it increases. ^The liver and the kidney record
0970J05 an increase in this constituent in 70% \0SW but on exposure
0980J05 to 50% \0SW, a decline is discernible. ^In still lower
0990J05 salinities (from 30% \0SW to \0FW,) the fat content
1000J05 of the white muscle, red muscle (except in 30% \0SW), the heart and
1010J05 the kidney decreases whereas in the gill and liver its level increases.
1020J05 $*<*3DISCUSSION*0*> $^Salinity is an important
1030J05 ecological variable in the marine and esturine habitats.
1040J05 ^Our information is still incomplete regarding the nature
1050J05 of adaptations to osmotic stress in the case of the marine
1060J05 teleosts. ^A majority of the euryhaline fishes can
1061J05 tolerate salinity fluctuations upto a range of 10 to 15%,
1070J05 but only a few can withstand salinity changes ranging
1080J05 from fresh water to sea water (Parvatheswararao, 1970).
1090J05 ^In the present investigation, \0*3P. dipus,*0 revealed
1100J05 that it can withstand a very wide range of salinity ranging
1110J05 from sea water to fresh water. ^It survives more
1120J05 than six months in fresh water. $^The change in the
1130J05 salinity of the medium normally affects the total
1140J05 osmoconcentration and ionic composition of the body fluids
1150J05 and ultimately to composition of organs too.
1160J05 ^From overall observations on glycogen and fat contents of
1170J05 different tissues in \0*3P. dipus*0 on adaptation to various
1180J05 salinities, revealed that in 90% \0SW to 50% \0SW
1190J05 the red muscle showed depletion in its glycogen content
1200J05 whereas the glycogen increased in white muscle and
1210J05 liver. ^On the other hand, in low salinity media (from
1220J05 30% \0SW to \0FW) the glycogen content decreased in
1230J05 white and increased in red muscles. ^This indicates that
1240J05 red and white muscles alternately supplied glycogen
1250J05 for energy contribution towards osmotic adaptations.
1260J05 ^Significant level of energy contribution by muscle and
1270J05 liver fat was seen in 50% \0SW which is indicative of
1280J05 high osmotic gradient in that_ salinity media. ^Similarly
1290J05 significant energy contribution by muscle glycogen
1300J05 was observed in 100% \0FW. ^This shows that 50%
1310J05 \0SW and \0FW media apparently behaved as 'stress media'
1320J05 requiring more energy for osmotic work. $^It
1330J05 is interesting to_ note that gill showed increase in
1340J05 its glycogen and fat contents in mostly all the salinity
1350J05 media. ^The kidney showed depletion in its fat content
1360J05 on adaptation to 50% \0SW to absolute \0FW media.
1370J05 ^This indicates that kidney is deeply involved
1380J05 in osmoregulatory function in these salinity media. ^The
1390J05 response of the heart to salinty variations was interesting;
1400J05 the glycogen as well as fat decreased in all
1410J05 the concentrations of sea water and in fresh water. ^This
1420J05 suggests that functional aspects of the heart may
1430J05 be modified upon salinity acclimation and that respiratory
1440J05 and circultory adjustment may occur. $^It
1450J05 is seen from Tables 1 & 2 that there was low glycogen and fat
1460J05 or glycogen/ fat utilization by fish in 90% and 30% \0SW.
1470J05 ^This explains that these media functioned as
1480J05 'facilitating media' for \0*3P. dipus*0 towards adaptation to
1490J05 the next lower salinity media. ^Thus, acclimation to
1500J05 90% and 30% \0SW facilitated subsequent acclimation to lower
1510J05 salinities with less energy cost. $**<*3DIURNAL
1520J05 VARIATIONS IN PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FACTORS AND PHYTOPLANKTON
1530J05 PIGMENTS AT MALAD CREEK, BOMBAY*0**> $^*Malad creek
1540J05 (72*@ 46*'5-72*@ 50*'5 \0N and 19*@ 6*'5-19*@ 11*'5 \0E) is
1550J05 a shallow and sheltered water body with its opening lying between
1560J05 south-eastern extremity of the high Madh island and the
1570J05 Shoal ground extending south-westward from Versova island.
1580J05 ^*Versova is an important fishing village, situated at a distance
1590J05 of 24 \0km in the north of Bombay. ^The creek extends
1600J05 about 1.5 \0m from the open sea. ^The depth of creek from
1610J05 in **[sic**] entrance to north of Versova village varies from 1.8-11.5
1620J05 \0m, and receives sewage from its surrounding area.
1630J05 $^Several authors have studied the diurnal changes
1640J05 in the hydrobiological characteristics of various water
1650J05 bodies in the country. ^The notable contributions are of
1660J05 Verma (1964), Sumitra (1971), Bhargava (1973), Vijayalakshmi
1670J05 & Venugopalan (1973), Bhargava & Dwivedi (1974, 77) & Misra
1680J05 *(0et al.*) (1975, 1976), but reports on such studies in waters
1690J05 around Bombay are scanty. ^The present study
1700J05 is first of its kind and aimed to_ provide a
1710J05 base line data, prerequisite for the pollution monitoring
1720J05 programme intended to_ be carried out in the coastal waters
1730J05 of Versova. $^The present investigation was carried
1740J05 out during the month of May, 1975 at a fixed station, the
1750J05 deeper channel in the creek, over a complete tidal
1760J05 cycle. ^Sampling was done at three hourly intervals for
1770J05 physicochemical parameters. ^Surface and bottom water samples
1780J05 were collected for the analysis of \0pH, salinity,
1790J05 dissolved oxygen, phosphate and nitrate. ^But only surface
1800J05 water samples at six hourly intervals were taken for
1810J05 the chlorophyll pigment analysis. ^The bottom samples
1820J05 were procured with the help of Van Dorn bottle.
1830J05 ^Air temperature recorded by an ordinary centigrade thermometer,
1840J05 water temperature was recorded by reversing thermometer.
1850J05 \0^PH was measured with battery operated Systronics
1860J05 \0pH meter. ^Transparency was measured by secchi-disc.
1870J05 $^The salinity was determined after
1880J05 Mohr*'s mehtod and dissolved oxygen by modified Winkler*'s
1890J05 method (Strickland and Parsons, 1972). ^The phytoplankton
1900J05 pigments and nutrients were estimated as per methods outlined
1910J05 by Strickland & Parsons (1972), using \0VSU-2P
1920J05 Spectrophotometer. ^For phytoplankton pigment analysis
1930J05 500 \0ml of water sample was filtered through Whatman \0GF/C
1940J05 filters and few drops of 1% magnesium carbonate was added
1950J05 during filtration to_ prevent the change of chlorophyll into
1960J05 pheophytin. ^The paper was then dissolved in 10 \0ml of
1970J05 90% acetone and placed in dark for 24 \0h for better pigment extraction.
1980J05 ^After that_ the volume was made upto 12 \0ml by
1990J05 adding 2 \0ml 90% acetone and centrifuged for 20 \0min at 5000 \0rpm.
2000J05 ^The optical density was measured at 750, 665,
2010J05 645, 630, 510 and 480 \0m*Ym on \0VSU-2P spectrophotometer.
2020J05 ^Data are summarized in Table 1 and \0Figs. 1 to 11. $(a)
2030J05 *3Tidal Range*0: ^The water level varied between 9.5 and
2040J05 11.5 \0m during the tidal cycle (\0Fig.5). ^The tides were
2050J05 of semi-diurnal type. ^A linear relationship was observed between
2060J05 tide and salinity and an inverse relationship between
2061J05 tide and nitrate. ^This phenomenon can be explained
2070J05 by the fact that during the high tide sea water enters
2080J05 in the creek and increases the salinity and decreases
2090J05 the nitrate content and during low tide sewage water of
2100J05 surrounding area enters in the creek and decreases the salinity
2110J05 and increases the nitrate content of the water.
2120J05 $(b) *3Transparency*0: ^The Secchi disc readings ranged from
2130J05 41-60 \0cm being minimum at 1230 \0h just after the low tide
2140J05 and maximum at 0600 \0h just after the high tide (\0Fig.6).
2150J05 ^The high transparency values during high tide and low
2160J05 during low tide clearly indicates that sewage water which
2170J05 enters in the creek during low tide, was responsible for
2180J05 decrease in the transparency values, thus indicating the
2190J05 first phase of pollution. $(c) *3Temperature:*0 ^Maximum
2200J05 air temperature (36.5*@ \0C) was recorded at 1230 \0h and
2210J05 minimum (27.8*@ \0C) at 0600 \0h (\0Fig.4). ^The surface and
2220J05 bottom water temperature ranged from 31.2 to 33*@ \0C and 30.5 to
2230J05 32.9*@ \0C, respectively (\0Fig. 3). ^The difference between
2240J05 surface and bottom water temperature was always less than
2250J05 0.5*@ \0C. ^The water temperature showed a linear
2260J05 relationship with air temperature as reported earlier by Sumitra
2270J05 (1971) Bohra (1976) and Misra *(oet al.*) (1975, 76). $(d)
2280J05 \0*3pH:*0 ^The water was alkaline, and \0pH varied from
2290J05 7.4 to 8.7 at the surface and 6.8. to 8.7
2301J05 at the bottom (\0Fig.2).*#
        **[no. of words = 02020**]

        **[txt. j06**]
0010J06 **<*3A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL MUTAGENS
0020J06 IN BREAD WHEAT*0**> $*<*3Indtroduction*0*> $^It
0030J06 is well known that physical mutagens like X-rays are more
0040J06 effective in producing gene mutations through chromosomal alterations
0050J06 in the form of deletions. ^Some of the chemical mutagens,
0060J06 on the other hand, bring about well defined molecular
0070J06 alterations. ^The question has been asked whether chemicals
0080J06 of this type can be used effectively to_ produce mutations
0090J06 in higher organisms and whether the rates and types of mutations
0100J06 obtained with their use are similar to or different from those
0110J06 induced by inonising radiations. ^We have been studying the mutagenic
0120J06 effect of hydroxylamine and hydrazine in tomato (Jain *(0et
0130J06 al.*) 1966, 1968, 1969). ^The observations on tomato have
0140J06 clearly indicated that chemical mutagens like hydrazine show
0150J06 the property of mutagenic specificity and give extremely high mutation
0160J06 rates at a number of gene loci. ^These rates are much
0170J06 higher than those obtained with gamma rays. ^For at least
0180J06 some of the loci, hydrazine and hydroxylamine show non-overlapping
0190J06 mutations. ^Similar observations have been made in the
0200J06 case of *3Drosophila*0 (Jain and Shukla, 1972). ^The present
0210J06 study was extended to wheat to_ test the wider significance of
0220J06 the earlier results obtained in tomato and *3Drosophila.*0
0230J06 $*<*3Material and Methods*0*> $^Two varieties of wheat
0240J06 (*3Triticum aestivum*0) were treated with several mutagens including
0250J06 hydroxylamine (\0HA), hydrazine (\0HZ) ethylemethanesulfouate
0260J06 (\0EMS) and gamma rays. ^Various concentrations
0270J06 of doses of each mutagen were tried
0280J06 and only a single concentration or dose giving a comparable germination
0290J06 at 25*@ \0C was selected. ^The details of treatment
0300J06 are given in Table-1. $\0^*HA and \0EMS solutions were
0310J06 prepared by dissolving these mutagens in appropriate quantity of
0320J06 Sorensen*'s buffer and the final \0pH adjusted to 7.0 \0HZ
0330J06 was dissolved in a borate buffer and \0pH adjusted to 8.5.
0340J06 $^Samples of 1000 seeds were treated in each case.
0350J06 ^For each mutagenic treatment 1000 seeds served as control.
0360J06 ^The treatments were carried out at 25*@ \0C *Ms 1*@ \0C.
0370J06 ^In the case of gamma rays, dry seeds were irradiated with
0380J06 35 kilorads (\0*:60**:Co) with an intensity of 2400 \0r/minute
0390J06 ^After termination of chemical treatments, seeds were washed
0400J06 in running water and were sown immediately in the field along
0410J06 with the respective control. ^The treated seeds were sown
0420J06 very close to each other in order to_ discourage side tillering,
0430J06 as only the first 4-5 tillers are important from the
0440J06 point of recovery of maximum mutations as suggested by Gaul
0450J06 (1964). ^Individual \0M*;1**; plant progenies were sown in
0460J06 a single row of 2.7 meters spaced 30 centimetres apart and
0470J06 seeds were dibbled at 10 centimetres. ^In all the mutagenic
0480J06 treatment series (except gamma ray treatment of variety \0HD-1553,
0490J06 where only 100 plant progenies could be grown), as
0500J06 well as in the corresponding control series 200 plant progenises
0510J06 were grown. ^Each \0M*;1**; Plant progeny was screened
0520J06 for macro mutations. ^Chlorophyl mutations were scored according
0530J06 to the classification of Gustafsson (1940). ^The frequency
0540J06 of chlorophyll as well as visible mutations in each
0550J06 treatment was calculated on the basis of (1) per cent \0M*;1**;
0560J06 plant progenies segregating and (**=2) per cent M*;2**;
0570J06 mutated plants. $*<*3Results*0*> $*<*3Seed
0580J06 germination and plant Survival*0*> $^Observations
0590J06 on germination and plant survival, in \0M*;1**;, were recorded
0600J06 and are shown in Table-2. ^It is seen that
0610J06 all the mutagenic treatments bring about reduction in
0620J06 seed germination as compared to controls. ^Both varieties
0630J06 showed a similar response to different mutagens with regard
0640J06 to their effect on germination. ^While the
0650J06 three chemical mutagens gave a very similar frequency
0660J06 of plant survival, the gamma ray treatment leads to
0670J06 a greater loss of plants in the case of variety
0680J06 \0HD-1553. ^Thus it is obvious that while the four
0690J06 mutagens are comparable in terms of their effect on seed
0700J06 germination, as seen under laboratory conditions, the
0710J06 chemical mutagens are less drastic in their effect
0720J06 on plant growth and survival. $*<*3Macromutations:*0*>
0730J06 $^*Table 3 summarises the types and frequency of
0740J06 \0M*;2**; progenies segregating for different types of macromutations.
0750J06 ^The different series of controls showed
0760J06 no difference with regard to the frequency of the mutants
0770J06 and for this reason only one of the control series
0780J06 has been included in this Table. $*<*3(**1) Wide range*0*>
0790J06 $^An examination of the data presented in Table
0800J06 3 leads to some interesting observations. ^The two
0810J06 varieties have responded in a similar manner so far as mutation
0820J06 frequency and spectrum are concerned. ^For this reason,
0821J06 the observations on the two varieties have been pooled
0830J06 and are represented graphically in Figure 1. $^An important
0840J06 finding is that the different mutagens have induced
0850J06 a wide range of variability affecting plant height, chlorophyll
0860J06 characteristics and earhead types. ^The more interesting
0870J06 of the induced variation is in respect of size and
0880J06 shape of the earhead. ^This type of variation include
0890J06 lax spike, squarehead, compactoids, subcompactoids, tapering
0900J06 earhead and speltoids. ^This variation of ear
0910J06 form is well recognised in bread wheat and has been reported
0920J06 earlier by a number of authors (Mackey, 1962b;
0930J06 Swaminathan, 1963, and Konzak *(0et al.,*) 1965). $*<*3(**=2)
0940J06 Gamma rays \0vs chemical mutagens*0*> $^The second
0950J06 interesting finding is that the different mutagens
0960J06 differ greatly with regard to their effectiveness
0970J06 in inducing visible mutations described above. ^A
0980J06 graphic representation in \0Fig. 1 shows that almost without
0990J06 exception gamma irradiation has been more effective in inducing variability
1000J06 at all the gene loci. ^The highest frequencies of mutations
1010J06 for the various morphological characters have been obtained
1020J06 with this mutagen and the difference between frequencies and those
1030J06 given by the chemical mutagen is very large. ^Gamma rays
1040J06 gave, significantly higher overall mutation rate in respect of
1050J06 visible mutations compared to chemical mutagens. ^Although
1060J06 the overall mutation rate is highest with gamma rays, the spectrum
1070J06 of induced mutations is wider with \0EMS.. $*<*3(**=3)
1080J06 Different chemical mutagens*> $^A comparison
1090J06 of the three chemical mutagens is also quite instructive. ^In
1100J06 general, \0EMS has proved to_ be more effective than \0HA and \0HZ.
1110J06 ^Thus, for fifteen out of the nineteen loci or groups of
1120J06 loci determining the above characters, \0EMS has been more
1130J06 effective. \0^2ems has been found to_ be particularly effective
1140J06 in inducing mutations for the squarehead and speltoid genes.
1150J06 ^For other loci or groups of loci, \0EMS appears to_ be
1160J06 as effective as the two other chemical mutagens. ^Indeed, it is observed
1170J06 that some of the gene loci not affected at all by the other two
1180J06 chemical mutagens. **[sic**] ^For example, in respect of chlorophyll characters,
1190J06 minlear, subcompactoid, tapering earhead, Waxless, blunt leaf,
1200J06 reduced awn and brittle condition, variation has not been found
1210J06 to_ be induced by \0HZ or \0HA. ^It is further observed that
1220J06 \0HA fails to_ induce any sterility, subcompactoid and grass
1230J06 clump mutants, whereas hydrazine fails to_ give any lax spike,
1240J06 compactoid, sub-compactoid and speltoid earhead mutants. $^The
1250J06 analysis as a whole, thus, suggests that the four mutagens used
1260J06 in the course of present study are not equally effective. ^They
1270J06 show intergroup variation, as between physical and chemical mutagens
1280J06 and they also show intragroup variation as between \0EMS,
1290J06 on one hand and \0HA and \0HZ on the other.
1300J06 $*<*3Discussion*> $^One of the major objectives of the present
1310J06 study is to_ test the wider significance of the results
1320J06 obtained in tomato (Jain *(0et al.,*) 1966, 1968, 1969) in respect
1330J06 of relative effectiveness of chemical and physical mutagens.
1340J06 ^The observations on tomato have indicated that chemical mutagens
1350J06 like \0HZ show the property of mutagenic specificity and give
1360J06 extremely high mutation rates at some of the loci. ^In this context,
1370J06 the observations on bread wheat are of considerable interest.
1380J06 ^The most important observation which has been made in the case of
1390J06 bread wheat is that no mutagen is as effective as gamma rays in giving
1400J06 a high frequency of visible mutations at a large number of loci.
1410J06 ^This can be seen from Figure-1 where the high mutation rates
1420J06 associated with gamma rays can be clearly seen. ^It should, however,
1430J06 be emphasised that the mutation analysis in tomato has been more precise
1440J06 as the mutations could be traced to loci. ^No such genetic analysis
1450J06 has been possible in the case of wheat. ^Nevertheless, it seems
1460J06 clear that none of the genes whose mutations could be recorded in wheat
1470J06 are as sensitive to \0HZ and \0HA as some of the genes of
1480J06 tomato are. $^Another important finding is that the largest spectrum
1490J06 of induced mutations is given by \0EMS. ^To_ take one
1500J06 example, induced variability of the blunt leaf, reduced awn, brittle
1510J06 and maculata kind has been observed in the case of \0EMS treatment.
1520J06 ^None of the other mutagens induced variability of this kind. ^It
1530J06 should also be added that for certain kinds of mutants involving chlorophyl
1540J06 defects. \0e.g., *3chlorina and *3viridis, \0EMS has
1550J06 given the highest rates of mutations than gamma radiation. **[sic**]
1560J06 ^*Chopra and Swaminathan (1966) suggested that the gene controlling chlorophyll
1570J06 development may be located near the centromere and that the
1580J06 localised action of \0EMS on the centromere and proximal regions
1590J06 induces high fequency of chlorophyll mutations. ^The high chlorophyll
1600J06 frequency may also be due to the preferential action of
1610J06 ethyl group of \0EMS with \0DNA possibly the guanine component
1620J06 (Egrenberg, 1960b, Froese-Gertzen, 1962). $^Several
1630J06 viable mutations have been reported in bread wheat (Mackey, 1954a,
1640J06 Swaminathan, 1961, 1963 and Goud, 1968). ^Several of the mutations observed
1650J06 in the present study resemble those in the earlier reports.
1660J06 ^Similar to the earlier finding in wheat, earhead type mutants constitute
1670J06 the bulk of total mutations obtained. ^In terms of the total
1680J06 yield of visible mutations, taking into consideration all the different
1690J06 types of mutants, gamma rays were superior to \0EMS. ^The
1700J06 third in order of effectiveness is \0HA, \0HZ being the least
1710J06 effective. ^*Mackey (1962b, 1967 1968), Swaminathan *(0et al.,*)
1720J06 (1962), Liwerant and Pereira da Silva, (1975) found that alkylating
1730J06 compounds were inferior to ionising radiations in inducing visible
1740J06 mutations. ^*Khvostova *(0et al.,*) (1965) found ethyleaeimine more
1750J06 efficient than gamma rays and neutrons in 42 chromosome Triticum
1760J06 Agropyron hybrid. ^*D*'3 Amato *(0et al.,*) (1965) found ionising
1770J06 radiation quite efficient in inducing mutations in two *3durum
1780J06 varieties, with \0EMS superior in one case and inferior in another.
1790J06 ^The same experience has been reported by Gaul and Aastveit
1800J06 (1966) and Mamalyga and Shkvarniko (1976) for two *3aestivum wheat.
1810J06 $^Although \0HZ is generally less effective than \0HA some of
1820J06 the genes responded more readily to \0HZ than \0HA 1 treatment. ^For
1830J06 example the grass-clump type of mutants have been obtained only with \0EMS
1840J06 and \0HZ. ^In contrast to this, \0HA has been more
1850J06 effective for other loci such as the speltoid mutations, which are
1860J06 not produced by \0HZ. ^In this respect the wheat findings
1870J06 are not very much different from those of tomato. ^However, wheat results
1880J06 cannot be interpreted in terms of specific loci. $*<*3Summary*>
1890J06 $^Compared to physical mutagens, the chemical mutagens were found
1900J06 to_ be less drastic in their effect on plant growth and survival.
1910J06 ^The two bread wheat varieties responded in a similar manner with
1920J06 regard to mutation rate and spectrum. ^The four mutagens however,
1930J06 showed differential effectiveness. ^Gamma rays gave significantly
1940J06 high overall mutation rate in respect of visible mutations
1950J06 as compared to chemical mutagens. ^However, the spectrum of induced
1960J06 mutations was wider with \0EMS. ^Among chemical mutagen, \0HEMS
1970J06 has been found to_ be the most effective followed by \0HA, \0HZ
1980J06 being the least effective. ^These observations are of considerable
1990J06 interest for they have shown that a particular mutagen may be
2000J06 very effective in one plant but not so effective in another. ^To
2010J06 what extent this difference is a function of the level of ploidy
2020J06 remains to_ be seen. $**<*3Influence of Seed Size on the Growth
2030J06 and Yield of Triticale**> $*<INTRODUCTION*> $^The
2040J06 literature dealing with a large number of crops supports the fact that
2050J06 larger or heavier seeds give rise to more vigorous plants and
2060J06 better yields, particularly when equal number of seeds per unit area
2070J06 are planted (Bremner *(0et al.,*) 1963; Clark and Peck, 1968; Kaufmen
2080J06 and McFaddan, 1963; Kiesselbatch, 1924; Schmidt, 1923).
2090J06 ^But, with the increasing age of plants, the superiority of plants
2100J06 from larger seeds decrease and is gradually lost in the long duration
2110J06 crops and perennial plants (Kidd and West, 1918; Randhawa,
2120J06 1970).*#
        **[no. of words = 02002**]

        **[txt. j07**]
0010J07 **<*3Seed quality in Relation to Seed Size and Seed Coat Colour Variation
0020J07 in Black Gram (*8Vigna mungo*9 (\0L) Hepper)**>
0030J07 $*3Abstract: ^Seeds of black gram \0CV. \0Co 2 sized with \0BSS 6,
0040J07 7, 8 and 12 wiremesh sieves were further separated manually into two
0050J07 colour categories, the normal-coloured (black) seeds and the dirty brown,
0060J07 off-coloured seeds. ^These seeds were evaluated for seed quality
0070J07 employing standard germination test, field emergence test and a number
0080J07 of vigour tests, such as, germination energy, brick-grit test,
0090J07 rate of seed swelling, membrane permeability tests and seedling growth
0100J07 characteristics. ^The results revealed the poor quality of off-coloured
0110J07 seeds irrespective of seed size classes. ^The normal coloured
0120J07 seeds were superior in quality and exhibited vigour differences due
0130J07 to seed size. ^Larger seed retained by 6 and 7 wire-mesh sieves were better
0140J07 in quality than the smaller ones. ^The pathological test revealed
0150J07 100 per cent parasitisation of off-coloured seeds by Rhizoctonia
0160J07 solani. ^The study had clearly brought out the importance of grading
0170J07 black gram seeds and in that_ process the need for the removal of off-coloured
0180J07 seeds to_ obtain seeds of superior quality. $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*>
0190J07 $^Importance of seed size influencing field stand and
0200J07 uniform crop growth came to_ be understood well only under diverse situations
0210J07 of commercial seed production. ^Studies on this aspect were carried
0220J07 out by many workers to_ evaluate the relationship of seedling vigour
0230J07 to population density. ^The studies of Brenchley (1923), of Harper
0240J07 and Obeid (1967) and of Gelmond (1972) showed that size differences
0250J07 in seeds influence germination, seedling vigour, plant growth
0260J07 and yield characteristics. ^But the influence of seed size on one
0270J07 or several of these growth attributes and yield performance was never in
0280J07 conformity in different crops investigated. ^The effect of seed coat
0290J07 colour variation on germination and growth characteristics, however,
0300J07 had received very little attention. ^*Kozlowski (1972) reported
0310J07 less vigorous nature of off-coloured seeds in alfalfa, which developed
0320J07 due to physiological or pathological disorders. ^In order to_ obtain
0330J07 precise information on the aspect of seed size and seed coat colour affecting
0340J07 viability and vigour in blackgram, this present study was initiated.
0350J07 $*<*3MATERIALS AND METHODS*0*> $^Seeds of blackgram
0360J07 \0CV. \0Co2 were sized with \0BSS 6 x 6, 7 x 7, 8 x 8 and 12 x
0370J07 12 wiremesh sieves. ^The off-coloured seeds present in the four size
0380J07 grades were manually separated into two colour categories based on seed
0390J07 coat colour \0viz., **=1) normal black-coloured seeds (\0NCS)
0400J07 and **=2) off-coloured (dirty brown-coloured) seeds (\0OCS).
0410J07 ^Observations were recorded on percentage of seed recovery and percentage
0420J07 of occurrence of off-coloured seeds in each of the size fractions
0430J07 and on 1000-seed weight in different size grades and colour categories.
0440J07 ng ^The seeds from different sizes and colour categories were subjected
0450J07 to standard germination test (\0ISTA, 1976), field emergence
0460J07 and a number of vigour tests. ^The seed vigour tests such as germination
0470J07 energy (Maguire, 1962) as calculated by dividing the number of seeds
0480J07 germinated each day by the number of days to that_ count and adding
0490J07 these values for the first 8 days of the test period, brick grit test using
0500J07 2-3 \0mm particles of brick gravel, rate of seed swelling evaluated
0510J07 after 8 hours of water soaking (Anderson, 1970) and membrane permeability
0520J07 test (Matthews and Bradnock, 1968) as measured by the electrical
0530J07 conductivity (\0EC) in an Elico conductivity bridge, and sugar-content
0540J07 of leachates (Somogyi, 1952), as determined by soaking 100
0550J07 seeds in 100 \0ml of water for 8 hours were carried out. $^The
0560J07 seedling vigour of 18-day-old seedlings was studied using the growth parameters
0570J07 such as, number of leaves, leaf area of the first pair of leaves,
0580J07 root and shoot length and their ratio, dry matter production, root
0590J07 nodulation and branching intensity of the root system. $*<*3RESULTS
0600J07 AND DISCUSSIONS*0*> $^The results of percentage of seed
0610J07 recovery in different size grades, off-coloured seeds and 1000-seed weight
0620J07 are furnished in Table 1. ^The maximum recovery of 76.5 per
0630J07 cent was obtained from 7 x 7 wiremesh sieve followed by 13.5 per cent
0640J07 from 8 x 8 sieve. ^The largest and smallest seeds retained by 6
0650J07 x 6 and 12 x 12 wiremesh sieves constituted 6 and 4 per cent, respectively.
0660J07 ^The 1000-seed weight showed large differences in respect to
0670J07 seed size and colour categories. ^The percentage of off-coloured
0680J07 seeds showed an inverse proportion registering high percentage in the smaller
0690J07 grade and it decreased with increase in seed size. ^Increase
0700J07 in seed weight as influenced by its size was reported in oats (Rothman
0710J07 and Bowman, 1967) in sorghum (Hyoung *(0et al.,*) 1974 ) and
0720J07 in groundnut (Sivasubramaniam and Ramakrishnan, 1974). ^Drastic
0730J07 reduction in seed weight registered with off-coloured seeds of the
0740J07 same size would possibly explain for the altered physiological and pathological
0750J07 conditions. $^The germination and field emergence percentages
0760J07 obtained for ungraded seeds were much lower than those recorded
0770J07 for 6 x 6 retained normal-coloured seeds followed by 7 x 7 retained seeds
0780J07 (Table 2). ^The lower values of germination and field emergence
0790J07 was recorded, respectively by 8 x 8 and 12 x 12 retained normal colour
0800J07 seeds. ^Such wide variations in the germination and field emergence
0810J07 potentials observed due to seed size had amply revealed the need
0820J07 for grading the blackgram seeds to_ secure high and uniform germination
0830J07 and field stand. ^High percentage of abnormal seedlings produced
0840J07 by ungraded seeds was found considerably reduced in graded seeds.
0850J07 ^The superiority of larger seeds separated based on volume and weight,
0860J07 could be related to the 'initial capital' (Ashby, 1936) which
0870J07 exhibited an initial advantage over smaller ones (Hewston, 1964).
0880J07 ^The lower values obtained for smaller seeds could partly be due to the
0890J07 inclusion of the higher proportion of shrivelled and immature seeds
0900J07 resulting from incomplete seed development (Crocker and Barton, 1953)
0910J07 and in part to the lack of initial capital (Brenchley, 1923).
0920J07 ^The germination and field emergence potentials of off-coloured seeds were
0930J07 interesting. ^Irrespective of seed size, germination and field
0940J07 emergence potentials were reduced by 20 to 30 per cent. $^The vigour
0950J07 tests employed to_ judge the relative performance of the seeds of different
0960J07 sizes as well as of the colour categories showed positive results
0970J07 (Table 2). ^The germination energy, a function of seed vigour,
0980J07 showed differences due to seed sizes and seed coat colour categories.
0990J07 ^The decline was concomitant with the decrease in seed size both
1000J07 in normal and off-coloured seeds, and it was more pronounced in the
1010J07 last two grades. ^*Clark (1973) in peanut and Egli and Tekrony,
1020J07 (1973) in soybean, suggested that both germination and seedling emergence
1030J07 should be considered together for measuring seed vigour. ^Higher
1040J07 germination energy values obtained for 6 x 6 and 7 x 7 normal-coloured
1050J07 seeds had clearly brought out the superior quality of the seeds of
1060J07 these grades. ^The percentage of seedlings capable of emerging through
1070J07 a uniform layer of brickgrit showed corroborative results. ^The
1080J07 relatively high germination percentages recorded by 6 x 6 and 7 x 7 retained
1090J07 seeds in this test bring out the relative differences in the
1100J07 'physiological stamina' extent in seeds due to seed size (Isley, 1957;
1110J07 Lindenbein and Bulat, 1955). ^Relatively lower values obtained
1120J07 for off-coloured seeds had clearly revealed their 'weakness' and inability
1130J07 to_ withstand the physical stress condition. $^Seed vigour
1140J07 criterion assessed by the rate of seed swelling in seed size grades and
1150J07 colour categories projected an almost identical picture. ^The
1160J07 results were, however, more pronounced in off-coloured seeds rather than
1170J07 in normal-coloured ones. ^On an average, 47 per cent of the off-coloured
1180J07 seeds irrespective of size grades imbibed and swelled up during
1190J07 8 hours of soaking in water, while only 8 per cent of their normal-coloured
1200J07 counterparts could do so during that_ period of soaking.
1210J07 ^The seeds that_ swell at faster rate are reported to_ be less vigorous.
1220J07 ^Although the results 0f this test is quite in agreement with those of
1230J07 other vigour tests, the manifestations of subtle differences in seed vigour
1240J07 cannot be clearly brought out by this physical phenomenon.
1250J07 $^The physicochemical tests employed namely, electrical conductivity
1260J07 of the seed leachate and sugar exudation test showed positive results,
1270J07 registering relatively lower conductivity (34 and 42 \0*Ymmhos/\0cm
1280J07 and sugar (0.04 and 0.06 \0mg/100 seeds) values for the 6 x 6 and 7 x 7
1290J07 retained normal-coloured seeds. ^The values increased with decrease in
1300J07 seed size. ^The relatively higher values observed for electrical
1310J07 conductivity of the seed leachate (268 to 554 \0*Ymmhos/\0cm and sugar
1320J07 exuded (0.38 to 0.45 \0mg/100 seeds) indirectly indicate the severity
1330J07 of the damage the seed membrane system had suffered in the off-coloured
1340J07 seeds. ^The comparatively higher \0EC values recorded
1350J07 by the leachate of off-coloured seeds from top two grades could be attributed
1360J07 to their relatively large amounts of reserves stored in them,
1370J07 which had leached out into the seed steep water. ^The relatively
1380J07 low amount of sugar exuded from the seeds of size 12 x 12 had
1390J07 only revealed the ill-filled or poorly developed nature of these seeds.
1400J07 ^Increased electrical conductivity of the seed leachate was
1410J07 shown to_ be positively correlated with loss of viability and
1420J07 vigour (Matthews and Bradnock 1968; Perry, 1969 and Bradnock and
1430J07 Matthews, 1970). ^Similar relationship of sugar exudation with
1440J07 decline in viability and vigour was reported by Takayanagi and Murakani
1450J07 (1968) and Bradnock (1968). ^*Dharmalingam *(0et al.*) (1976)
1460J07 had also obtained strong negative correlation between electrical
1470J07 conductivity of the seed leachate and viability in blackgram, suggesting
1480J07 the use of this test for assessing viability and vigour potentials
1490J07 in seed lots of this crop. $^The seedling chracteristics
1500J07 also showed distinct differences due to sizes and seed-coat colour
1510J07 categories (Table 3). ^The number of leaves recorded were relatively
1520J07 more in plants from 6 x 6 retained seeds followed by those from 7 x 7
1530J07 retained seeds, irrespective of colour categories. ^The plants
1540J07 raised from smaller grades of both the colour categories had less
1550J07 number of leaves. ^The leaf-area of the first pair of leaves of
1560J07 plants from seeds of top two grades, irrespective of colour categories
1570J07 showed two- to three-fold increase. ^Distinctly lower
1580J07 leaf-area values registered in plants raised from small seeds
1590J07 had revealed its linear relationship to seed size, which was
1600J07 in conformity with findings of Black (1958) in sub-terranean clover,
1610J07 of Harper and Obeid (1967) in flax and of Senthilkumar (1976)
1620J07 in sorghum. ^The root length and shoot length of seedlings
1630J07 increased with increase in seed size and the increase wastwo-fold
1640J07 in those from seeds of two top grades. ^The relative
1650J07 increase in root length and/ or shoot length of seedlings
1660J07 during early stages of growth had been observed to_ be correlates of
1670J07 vigour (Woodstock and Feeley, 1965); Woodstock (1969) and Baskin (1969).
1680J07 ^The differences in shoot root ratio was less distinct for seeds of
1690J07 sizes other than 6 x 6 retained. ^The dry matter content of seedlings
1700J07 obtained from seeds of different sizes and colour categories
1710J07 had clearly established the superiority of normal-coloured
1720J07 larger seeds in the production of vigorous seedlings. ^The dry
1730J07 matter content depended upon the rapidity with which the seedlings
1740J07 were able to_ grow and reach the autotrophic stage. ^*McDaniel
1750J07 (1969) in barley, Gelmond (1972) in cotton, Singh *(0et al.*) (1972)
1760J07 in soybean and Senthilkumar (1976) in sorghum reported greater
1770J07 increase in dry weight due to seed size. $^The root nodulation
1780J07 and lateral root growth intensity in plants raised from
1790J07 the seeds of different sizes and colour categories revealed interesting
1800J07 resulsts (Table 4). ^Root nodules increased progressively with
1810J07 increase in seed size and it was six-fold in plants from 6 x 6
1820J07 retained normal-coloured seeds. ^The intensity of lateral root
1830J07 production, a phenomenon associated with seedlings vigour had revealed
1840J07 the seedling vigour differences extent among seeds of different
1850J07 sizes and colour categories. ^The percentage of seedlings without
1860J07 lateral roots ranged from 50 to 90 for seeds of smaller grades compared
1870J07 with 0 to 10 for those of larger grades. ^By and large,
1880J07 the off-coloured seeds and the smaller grades, besides their low germination
1890J07 and vigour potentials, had also resulted in the production
1900J07 of weak seedlings with very poor root system. ^Plants
1910J07 having extensive and efficient **[table**] root system usually
1920J07 withstand adverse weather conditions, particularly indryl and
1930J07 agriculture and these attributes are invariably associated with
1940J07 large and normal-coloured seeds in black gram.*#
1950J07 **[no. of words = 02014**]

        **[txt. j08**]
0010J08 **<*3Distribution of Phosphate in sediments of the Northern Half
0020J08 of the Western Continental Shelf of India*0**>
0030J08 $*3^DEPOSITS*0 of several types of minerals, including phosphorite,
0040J08 on the continental shelves of the world are characteristic of the environment
0050J08 in which they are found. ^The occurrence of phosphorite
0060J08 deposits has been reported off the coasts of several countries.
0070J08 ^These deposits have long been an object of great interest from the point
0080J08 of view of their economic exploitation and the opportunity they offer
0090J08 to_ establish the environment and mode of formation of fossil phosphorites.
0100J08 ^Although some of the phosphate deposits are undoubtedly detrital,
0110J08 most of them are considered to_ be hydrogenous in nature and have
0120J08 been related to pronounced upwelling observed in the areas where they are
0130J08 found. ^Since the western continental shelf of India is also
0140J08 subjected to seasonal upwelling a detailed study of the distribution pattern
0150J08 of phosphate has been taken up with a view to delineating areas of
0160J08 enrichment, if any, for detailed exploration. ^As a part of this
0170J08 programme, distribution pattern of phosphate has been studied in the
0180J08 sediments of the northern half of the western continental shelf of India
0190J08 and the results obtained are presented in this paper. ^Although
0200J08 there are a few earlier accounts on this subject it may be mentioned that
0210J08 they did not throw much light as they are based on the study of samples
0220J08 which are few and far between.
0230J08 $*<*3Matarials and Methods*0*>
0240J08 $^The study area from which the sea floor sediment samples were collected
0250J08 covers the northwestern continental shelf of India extending from Indus
0260J08 Canyon in the north to Ratnagiri in the south. ^In all about
0270J08 90 stations were occupied for sampling and they were distributed along 14
0280J08 sections normal to the coast. ^All samples were collected using
0290J08 a La-Fond-Dietz snapper. ^Along most of the sections, samples
0300J08 were collected between 20 and 100 \0m water depth on the coastal and
0310J08 seaward sides respectively while along a few sections sampling on the
0320J08 seaward side was extended up to 150 to 250 \0m depth. ^Dissolved oxygen
0330J08 and water column phosphate analyses were performed aboard the ship.
0340J08 ^Biological investigations such as primary productivity and zooplankton
0350J08 were also made wherever possible.
0360J08 $^Representative samples were obtained from the collections made at each
0370J08 station and a suitable amount of each sample was digested with hydrofluoric
0380J08 and perchloric acids following the method of Chester and Hughes
0390J08 for the determination of phosphate in the bulk samples. ^Further,
0400J08 in order to_ understand the extent to which the phosphate is associated
0410J08 with the acid soluble fractions of the sediments, they were leached with
0420J08 \03*3n*0 \0HCl and the phosphate concentrations in the bulk samples
0430J08 as well as in acid soluble leaches were determined colorimetrically following
0440J08 the method of Riley. ^In addition, a few of the limestones
0450J08 dredged from the outershelf region during
0460J08 the cruises of *(0*3RV*0*) *3Gaveshani*0 and oolites and shells separated
0470J08 from a few samples collected from the outershelf region were also
0480J08 utilized in the present study.
0490J08 $*<*3Results and Discussion*0*>
0500J08 $^In the region under study, the continental shelf is characterized by
0510J08 certain well defined features in regard to the distribution pattern of
0520J08 sediments and their chemistry. ^In general, texturally, fine-grained
0530J08 sediments of terrigenous origin occupy a greater part of the continental
0540J08 shelf between Indus Canyon and Gulf of Cambay while further southward
0550J08 their deposition is confined up to 60-65 \0m, beyond which, the
0560J08 shelf is characterized by the presence of coarse grained sediments (sands,
0570J08 silty or clayey sands, \0etc.). ^These coarse grained sediments
0580J08 are relict in nature and are marked by a high calcium carbonate
0590J08 content. ^The distribution patterns of calcium carbonate and the percentages
0600J08 of acid insolubles indicate that the outershelf region between
0610J08 Gulf of Cambay and Port Dabol is relatively free from accumulation
0620J08 of terrigenous material. ^Organic carbon ranges from about 0.25
0630J08 to 2.5% in these sediments. ^With a few exceptions, while >1%
0640J08 of organic carbon is usually associated with the fine grained sediments
0650J08 of the innershelf region, <1% is associated with the coarse grained
0660J08 sediments of the outershelf region.
0670J08 $^The distribution patterns of phosphate in the bulk samples as well
0680J08 as in the acid soluble fractions of the sediments are shown in \0Figs.
0690J08 1 and 2. ^A careful examination of these figures along with the texture
0700J08 and distribution patterns of the sediments and the analyses of the
0710J08 dredged limestones, oolites and shells have enabled the following inferences
0720J08 to_ be drawn in regard to the distribution patterns of phospate:
0730J08 $(1) ^In the unconsolidated sediments, on the bulk sample basis
0740J08 the phosphate content ranges from 0.17 to 1.2%.
0750J08 $(2) ^With the exception of the high values of 0.8 to 1% of phosphate associated
0760J08 with the finegrained sediments of the innershelf region between
0770J08 River Savitri and Port Dabol, lower ranges of phosphate (<0.2% and
0780J08 0.2 to 0.3%) are generally associated with the finegrained sediments of
0790J08 terrigenous origin in the rest of the shelf region.
0800J08 $(3) ^In the shelf region between Gulf of Cambay and Bombay, the phosphate
0810J08 content in the sediments exhibits an increasing trend away from
0820J08 the coast with higher ranges of phosphate (0.3 to 0.4%; 0.4 to 0.5% and
0830J08 >1%) associated with the relict carbonate sediments of the outershelf
0840J08 region.
0850J08 $(4) ^The black coloured oolites and shells and portions of the dredged
0860J08 limestones have phosphate content ranging from 0.8 to 1.2% while the grey
0870J08 coloured oolites and shells and limestones have only 0.1 to 0.2% of phosphate.
0890J08 $(5) ^The phosphate content in the acid soluble leaches of the unconsolidated
0900J08 sediments ranges from 0.12 to 0.99%. ^Distribution pattern of
0910J08 phosphate in this fraction is broadly similar to that_
0920J08 obtained in the bulk samples.
0930J08 ^Further, calculations made on the per cent contributions made by the
0940J08 acid soluble fraction to the concentrations in the bulk samples have revealed
0950J08 that they are far less in the finegrained sediments of the inner shelf
0960J08 region as compared to those in the relict sediments of the outershelf
0970J08 region which is indicative of the authigenic nature of phosphate associated
0980J08 with relict sediments to a great extent.
0990J08 $^Deposits of phosphatic nodules, pellets and phosphate rock are confined
1000J08 mainly to nearshore areas in depths of water not exceeding 1000 \0m.
1010J08 ^Modern phosphatic assemblages can occur in at least 2 kinds of association:
1020J08 (**=1) in areas of high organic productivity associated with reducing
1030J08 conditions during their formation and (**=2) in areas which do not
1040J08 have a high organic productivity and associated with oxidizing conditions
1050J08 in the environment.
1060J08 $^Although as indicated earlier, some of the phosphate deposits are undoubtedly
1070J08 detrital, others are hydrogenous and several theories have
1080J08 been put forward to_ explain the existence of the latter deposits. ^The
1090J08 2 most probable ones are: (**=1) that they are primary chemical precipitates
1100J08 and (**=2) that they are an incomplete replacement product formed
1110J08 from preexisting carbonate material. ^According to the chemical precipitation
1120J08 theory advanced by Kazakov and accepted subsequently by several
1130J08 others, phosphorus in the uppermost 100 \0m of ocean waters is
1140J08 taken up by phytoplankton and is returned to solution as orthophosphate
1150J08 ions on death of the organisms, when they sink down the water column.
1160J08 ^Since sea water is undersaturated with respect to apatite, any
1170J08 phosphorus which is brought down by the organisms does not precipitate
1180J08 from solution on hydrolysis of the organic matter and in areas of upwelling
1190J08 it is returned to the upper water layers. ^This upwelling of phosphate-rich
1200J08 deep water is accompanied by a decrease in the partial pressure
1210J08 of \0CO*;2**; and increase on \0*3p*0H in the surface layers where
1220J08 the phosphate promotes a high productivity. ^As a result, phosphate
1230J08 saturation can be reached in some shallow latitude areas where increased
1240J08 \0*3p*0H of the water can result in the precipitation of phosphate minerals.
1250J08 ^In addition to the upwelling of phosphate rich deeper water
1260J08 masses, Kramer has suggested that river run-off of continental water
1270J08 which has flowed over carbonate rocks and so has a high \0*3p*0H,
1280J08 may cause the precipitation of marine phosphates. ^The second theory
1290J08 that marine phosphates originate from the inorganic replacement of existing
1300J08 carbonate material is based on the fact that phosphate-rich solutions
1310J08 can convert calcite to carbonate-apatite within a sediment. ^This
1320J08 process occurs by the partial replacement of \0CO*:2**:*;3**; groups
1330J08 by \0PO*:3**:*;4**; groups and may take place at the sediment-water
1340J08 interface, or at depth within a sediment when phosphate is concentrated
1350J08 in interstitial waters. ^This replacement mode has been documented
1360J08 by Ames in laboratory experiments. $^*Pytkowitz
1370J08 and Kester have concluded that the presence of phosphorites
1380J08 in sediments is due to the geochemical or biochemical factors which controlled
1390J08 \0*3p*0H of the waters rather than to high concentration of inorganic
1400J08 phosphorus. ^According to Baturin and Shishkina the interstitial
1410J08 environment in the anoxic sediments may offer a much more favourable
1420J08 site for phosphatization. ^*Manheim *(0et al*). who worked
1430J08 on the marine phosphorite formation off Peru have concluded that 4 main
1440J08 requirements appear to_ control phosphorite enrichment: (**=1) there
1450J08 must be an exceptionally strong and persistent upwelling system capable
1460J08 of providing both a continuing and large supply of organic detritus,
1470J08 (**=2) an oxygen minimum zone impinging on the seafloor that_ permits maintenance
1480J08 of an organic-rich substrate and high concentration of dissolved
1490J08 phosphate in the interstitial water; phosphate rich water above the
1500J08 sediment-water interface is required to_ support surface productivity,
1510J08 (**=3) supply of detrital mineral matter must be low such that phosphorite
1520J08 is not diluted excessively and (**=4) there must be a limited supply
1530J08 of carbonate detritus. ^Rather than being supplied continuously,
1540J08 benthic foraminifera may proliferate intermittently due to variations in
1550J08 the upwelling and the intensity and death of oxygen minimum, so that
1560J08 the small carbonate tests would be phosphatized on resumption of normal
1570J08 organic accumulations and anoxic conditions.
1580J08 $^The presence of strong seasonal upwelling along the western continental
1590J08 shelf of India between Bombay and Quilon is well documented. ^These
1600J08 studies have revealed that there is a time lag in the occurrence of
1610J08 this phenomenon from south to north followed by a decrease in its intensity
1620J08 also from south to north. ^Although information on the upwelling
1630J08 process in the shelf region north of Bombay up to Indus region is not
1640J08 available, considering the various meteorological and oceanographic
1650J08 parameters, the presence of upwelling along this part of the shelf cannot
1660J08 be precluded. $^Distribution
1670J08 patterns of dissolved oxygen and inorganic phosphate (\0PO*;4**;-\0P)
1680J08 measured in the bottom waters at the time of the collection
1690J08 of the sediment samples (\0Dec. 73-May 74) are shown in \0Figs.
1700J08 3 and 4. ^Except for a small portion in the outershelf region between
1710J08 Gulf of Cambay and a little south of Bombay, the shelf region is covered
1720J08 by oxygenated waters only.
1721J08 \0^*PO*;4**;-\0P. distribution (\0Fig. 4) shows that the waters
1730J08 north of Gulf of Cambay are characterized by comparatively higher concentrations
1740J08 of \0PO*;4**;-\0P than the waters to the south of the Gulf
1750J08 of Cambay and concentrations exceeding 2 \0mg at/litre are encountered
1760J08 only in 2 regions, \0viz. off Gulf of Kutch and in the outershelf region
1770J08 of Gulf of Cambay and Bombay. ^In the continental slope region,
1780J08 there exists an oxygen minimum layer with increasing concentrations
1790J08 of \0PO*;4**;-\0P. ^Underlying this oxygen minimum layer
1800J08 are the grey and olive green muds rich in organic carbon. ^Computations
1810J08 made on the trivalent phosphate ion concentrations in the waters (in
1820J08 which form phosphate is incorporated in the sediments) along a few sections
1830J08 have revealed that (**=1) its concentration varies from 1.16 x 10*:-
1840J08 7**: to 6.67 x 10*:- 7**: \0g \0mols/litre, (**=2) its concentrations
1850J08 show a decreasing trend away from the coast along any given section
1860J08 and (**=3) relatively the concentrations associated with the waters north
1870J08 of Bombay are slightly higher than those associated with the waters
1880J08 south of Bombay. ^According to Naik, the shelf
1890J08 waters are by and large saturated with tricalcium phosphate and no precipitation
1900J08 in the water column may be due to the several inhibiting factors
1910J08 as mentioned by McConnel. ^Estimations of \0PO*;4**;-\0Pin
1920J08 the interstitial waters of the core samples collected along one section
1930J08 between Bombay Harbour and Bombay High Region have revealed that
1940J08 their concentrations range from 2.28 to 73.31 \0mg at/litre in the surficial
1950J08 sediments while in the bottom portions of the core samples they range
1960J08 from 4.56 to 59.84 \0mg at/litre.*#
        **[no. of words = 02011**]

        **[txt. j09**]
0010J09 **<*3Marine Fouling & Timber Deterioration in Sub-Oceanic Islands
0020J09 of Andamans*0**> $*3^THE*0 fauna and flora of Indian navigational waters
0030J09 and ports are inadequately investigated. ^Earlier reports pertain
0040J09 to biofouling in harbours at Bombay, Vishakhapatnam, Madras and
0050J09 Cochin. ^This laboratory has undertaken a marine biofouling sampling
0060J09 programme at 5 different sites in Port Blair waters (\0lat.,
0070J09 11*@ 41*'5 \0N, \0long., 92*@ 43*'5 \0E) by exposing test
0080J09 boards at various depths in nearshore and offshore waters for
0090J09 30 months. ^This report presents results of analysis of the test panels.
0100J09 $^The objectives of this study are (**=1) to_ identify major
0110J09 fouling and wood boring organisms in this harbour (wherever possible
0120J09 to species level), (**=2) to_ ascertain as to what extent
0130J09 these organisms cause damage to the waterfront structures and the
0140J09 installations including the seawater inlets for industrial cooling,
0150J09 and (**=3) to_ determine growth rates, seasonal variations,
0160J09 and the patterns of distribution of these organisms in coastal
0170J09 waters of Port Blair. ^It is hoped that the data obtained
0180J09 under this programme would add to the existing knowledge
0190J09 on the biofouling organisms and eventually become a part of '*3ATLAS
0200J09 OF BIO-FOULING*0' that_ needs to_ be prepared for the Indian
0210J09 harbours. $*<*3Materials and Methods*0*> $^Five exposure sites
0220J09 were selected in Port Blair harbour to_ obtain biological data.
0230J09 ^Brief description of each of these exposure sites is as follows:
0240J09 $Site *=1, Marine Workshop Jetty: An intertidal area with some oil
0250J09 pollution and turbidity. Site *=2, Marine Haddo Jetty: Inshore
0260J09 waters with gentle wave action and little fresh water influence during
0270J09 the rains. Site*=3, Long Ferry Jetty: Inshore waters with
0280J09 gentle wave action, turbidity and silt. Site *=4, Indian
0290J09 Oil Jetty: Open sea, subjected to considerable wave action.
0300J09 'Middle Ground' for the berthing of ships. Site *=5, Saw Mill, Chatham:
0310J09 Commercial jetty, inshore water, very close to timber seasoning
0320J09 ponds of the saw mills and other timber based industry. $^Mild-steel
0330J09 test frames holding timber, bakelite, perspex and cement-asbestos
0340J09 panels measuring 25 x 10 \0cm were immersed at each exposure
0350J09 site. ^The experimental panels were withdrawn/ examined/ replaced at
0360J09 the end of every 4 weeks. ^The samples of sea water were also simultaneously
0370J09 collected and brought to the laboratory for the chemical
0380J09 analyses. $*<*3Results*0*> $*3Hydrographical data*0-- ^The
0390J09 climate of Andamans may be described as normal for tropical islands
0400J09 of similar latitude. ^The rainfall occurs mostly during the south-west
0410J09 monsoon (June-August). ^The lowest water temperature recorded
0420J09 is 27*@ \0C. ^It increases steadily and attains 31.8*@ \0C. in May.
0430J09 ^For most part of the year, the temperature varies between 27.5*@
0440J09 and 30*@ \0C. ^*March to May and October are warmer months whereas
0450J09 November and December is comparatively a colder period.
0460J09 ^Salinity varies between 29 and 33.5*%. ^Temperature and salinity
0470J09 values are given in Table 1.
0480J09 $*3Marine fouling and its composition*0-- ^Nature and composition
0490J09 of fouling in Port Blair waters are as follows:
0500J09 $Polyzoans: ^Amongst the most common fouling organisms of Andaman waters
0510J09 are the polyzoans. ^Both erect and encrusting colonies are present
0520J09 on various underwater structures and on the test panels almost round
0530J09 the year. ^In shallow waters, the most common erect bryozoan
0540J09 is *3Bugula*0 \0sp. ^This grows into thick, bushy tufts,
0550J09 3-4 \0in. long and may give shelter to small crustacean and molluscan
0560J09 organisms. *3^*Bugula*0 \0sp. and other forms together with
0570J09 hydrozoans bring about choking of filters and of conduits of the water-front
0580J09 installations.
0590J09 $^Several polyzoan species have been recorded from Indian waters. ^*Karande
0600J09 has recorded more than 15 species from Bombay waters. ^*Menon,
0610J09 Menon and Nair have recorded 50 species from the environs
0620J09 of Cochin. ^Many species are also collected from Port Blair
0630J09 waters. ^These are *3Bugula*0 \0sp., *3Flustra*0 \0sp.,
0640J09 *3Acanthodesia*0 \0sp., *3Scrupocellaria*0 \0sp., *3Vesicularia*0
0650J09 \0sp., *3Electra*0 \0sp., *3Conopeum*0 \0sp.,
0660J09 *3Membraniporella*0 \0sp., *3Stomatopora*0 \0sp., *3Crisia*0
0670J09 \0sp., *3Bowerbankia*0 \0sp., and *3Amathia*0 \0sp.
0680J09 $^Many more species are yet to_ be identified. ^Most of these species
0690J09 are present almost throughout the year. ^Some of the bryozoans
0700J09 like *3Watersipora cuculate*0 have been reported to_ be copper resistant
0710J09 species. ^In Bombay waters *3Electra*0 \0spp. and *3Membrenipora*0
0720J09 \0sp. have been found to_ be early settlers on newly painted
0730J09 ship hulls. ^By virtue of their ability to_ grow on toxic coatings,
0740J09 these organisms provide favourable surfaces for the subsequent
0750J09 attachment and growth of barnacles, tubeworms and oysters.
0760J09 $Cirripedia (Barnacles): ^*Barnacles generally constitute a major fouling
0770J09 component in any marine harbour. ^Along the coasts of the mainland
0780J09 barnacles pose a major fouling problem. ^In Andaman waters also
0790J09 barnacle growth though equally rich is subjected to intense competition
0800J09 from such sedentary organisms as bryozoans, hydroids, ascidians
0810J09 and bivalves. ^Some of the barnacle species identified from Port Blair
0820J09 waters are *3Balanus tintinnabulam tintinnabulam, Balanus amaryllis,
0830J09 euamaryllis, Balanus \0a. amphitrite, Balanus kondakovi, Balanus
0840J09 variegatus,*0 *3tetraclita*0 \0sp., *3Chthamalus malayensis, Chthamalus
0850J09 withersi*0 and *3Lepadid*0 \0sp. ^Of these, \0*3B.*0 *3variegatus*0
0860J09 is the most dominant species. ^This together with *(0*3B. a.*0*) *3amphitrite*0
0870J09 settles and grows almost throughout the year. ^Settlement
0880J09 of spat has been particularly heavy during January to May.
0890J09 *(0*3^*B. a.*0*) *3euamaryllis*0 which is a dominant species
0900J09 in the mainland harbours is also common in Port Blair waters.
0910J09 ^It generally attains a size of 2.5 \0cm (basal \0diam.) and a height
0920J09 of 3.8 \0cm *(0*3B. a.*0*) *3amphitrite*0 together with chthanmalid and
0930J09 tetraclitid barnacles occurs in large numbers in nearshore waters
0940J09 by virtue of its ability to_ grow in enclosed areas. ^This is likely
0950J09 to_ cause choking problems of the conduits in coastal installations.
0960J09 $Serpulids (Tubeworms): ^Both calcareous and mud tube-dwelling
0970J09 serpulids like *3Hydroides norvegica, spirorbis*0 \0sp.,
0980J09 *3Pomatoceros*0 \0sp. and *3Sabellid*0 species are encounterd almost
0990J09 throughout the year. ^Of these the Sabellids are found generally
1000J09 in inshore waters, whereas the others are common in both inshore and
1010J09 offshore waters. ^These organisms show greater settlement and better
1020J09 growth at or near the surface of the water than at other levels.
1030J09 ^Some of the calcareous species appear to_ be quite tolerant to varying
1040J09 salinities, varying \0O*;2**; concentrations, temperature fluctuations,
1050J09 exposure to air and pollutants like oil and other industrial effluents.
1060J09 ^In Bombay waters for example, a species having tolerance to
1070J09 wide range of salinity (2 to 40*%) and to crude oil has been noted.
1080J09 *3^*Hydroides*0 \0sp. is highly tolerant to chlorine used as a biocide.
1090J09 ^The presence of these organisms in abundance would cause blockage
1100J09 of water-front installtions. $Bivalvia (Oysters and Clams):
1110J09 ^Several species of fast growing bivalves are observed in Andaman
1120J09 waters. ^In certain areas they outnumber all other sedentary
1130J09 forms and cause serious problems to the underwater installations in these
1140J09 areas. ^For instance, oysters, *3Pteria*0 and *3Spondylus*0
1150J09 all having heavy calcareous shells, form a substantial part of the material
1160J09 scrapped from a huge buoy immersed in these waters for 20 months.
1170J09 *3^*Ostrea*0 \0sp. is common in both inshore and offshore waters.
1180J09 ^Some of the oysters may attain large size in Port Blair waters.
1190J09 ^For instance, individuals having shell length of 18 and 15 \0cm wide
1200J09 are very frequently noted. ^Growth of these shelled organisms in clusters,
1210J09 particularly on the hulls of coastal ships, is likely to_ cause many
1220J09 operational difficulties. ^Occurrence of *3Mytilus edulis*0 in Port
1230J09 Blair waters is noted with much concern since these organisms besides
1240J09 being surface foulants, are also known to_ create choking problems.
1250J09 $Tunicates (Ascidians): ^The compound ascidians (*3Botryllus*0
1260J09 and *3Botrylloides*0) represent characteristic fouling elements
1270J09 of Andaman biofouling communities. ^In no other harbour (Bombay,
1280J09 Goa and Cochin) investigated by this laboratory such a varied
1290J09 and dense ascidian growth has been noticed. ^These organisms,
1300J09 like many others, occur almost throughout the year in great abundance,
1310J09 particularly in offshore waters. ^A species of solitary ascidian
1320J09 grows to 6 \0cm high and 1.8 \0cm \0diam. ^The settlement of these organisms
1330J09 on hulls of ships would create problems so far as critical speed
1340J09 maintenance of ship is concerned. ^This species exhibits gregarious
1350J09 tendency and, therefore, settles in thousands during the breeding
1360J09 period. $^Periodical examination of the test panels exposed
1370J09 at various sites in Port Blair has revealed that the settlement of the
1380J09 fouling organisms in these waters is apparently a continuous process,
1390J09 there being little variation in quality and quantity of bioassemblage.
1400J09 $*3Problem of marine wood-borers*0-- ^Destruction of wood
1410J09 in sea water, is caused mainly by 2 groups of organisms, molluscs and
1420J09 crustaceans. ^The moluscan borers consists chiefly of *3Teredo,
1430J09 Bankia*0 and *3Martesia*0. ^The crustacean borer is the isopod
1440J09 *3Limnoria*0.
1450J09 $^The important wood boring organisms encountered in Port Blair waters
1460J09 are *3Bankia bipalmulata, Bankia companulata, Teredo furcifera,
1470J09 Nototeredo*0 \0sp., *3Martesia fragilis, Martesia striata*0
1480J09 and *3Limnoria indica*0.
1490J09 $^Timber test panels were immersed at Chatham Island where presently berthing
1500J09 facilities for the commercial ships are available. ^Table 2 presents
1510J09 the incidence of *3Teredo, Martesia*0 and *3Limnoria*0 during
1520J09 various seasons of the year. ^All these 3 wood-borers occur in abundance
1530J09 in these waters almost throughout the year.
1540J09 $^Destruction of timber by teredid borers, \0viz. *3Teredo*0 *3Bankia*0
1550J09 is severe. *3^*Teredo*0 excavates tunnels of 4.2, 6.2 and 12.5
1560J09 \0cm in 45, 55 and 90 days respectively. ^During 90 days, *3Bankia*0
1570J09 drills a tunnel 16 to 18 \0cm in length (\0av. growth of 1.8
1580J09 \0mm per day). *3^Martesia*0 resembles teredids in its habit of boring
1590J09 into timber. ^In Port Blair waters this pholad is present throughout
1600J09 the year and inflicts considerable damage to timber structures.
1610J09 ^None of the 45 denser timbers exposed in Port Blair waters for assessing
1620J09 natural durability are completely free from *3Martesia*0 attack.
1630J09 $^For assessing the severity of *3Martesia*0 attack during different months,
1640J09 test boards holding several timber panels of 2.5 x 10 x 3.8 \0cm
1650J09 were immersed at Chatham jetty. ^Five
1660J09 panels were withdrawn every month and borers attacking them were
1670J09 individually counted. ^Maximum number of individuals counted from a
1680J09 single panel during various months are: \0Jan.-Feb., 1140; \0feb.-march,
1690J09 1000; April-May, 0940; May-June, 1050; July-\0Aug.,
1700J09 1200; \0Aug.-Sept., 0968; \0Oct.-Nov., 3132; \0Nov.-Dec., 0880;
1710J09 and \0Dec.-Jan., 1526.
1720J09 $^These field data bring out the severity of *3Martesia*0 activity in Port
1730J09 Blair waters. ^Growth rate studies based on the examination of these
1740J09 panels reveal that *3Martesia*0 attains dimensions of 8, 17 and
1750J09 36 \0mm in 45, 55 and 90 days respectively in Port Blair waters.
1760J09 $^Structural timbers affected by *3Limnoria*0 in Andaman waters are (trade
1770J09 name in parenthesis): *3Tectona grandis*0 (Teak) *3Lagerstroemia
1780J09 hypoleuca*0 (pyinma), *3Dipterocarpus lurbinatus*0 (Gurjan),
1790J09 *3Artocarpus chaplasha*0 (Chaplash), *3Calophylum*0 \0spp. (Poon),
1800J09 *3Mimusops littoralis*0 (Bullet wood) *3Shorea robusta*0 (Sal), *3Acacia
1810J09 hilotica*0 \0ssp. *3indica*0 (Babul) *3Acrocarpus fraxinifolius*0
1820J09 (Mundani), *3Canarium strictum*0, (Dhup) *3Dysoxylum
1821J09 binectariferum*0 (White cedar), *3Endospermum
1830J09 malaccense*0 (Bakota), *3Eugenia Syzygium cunnisill*0 \0sp.
1840J09 (Jaman), *3Lannea coromandelica*0 (Modal), and *3Terminalia paniculata*0
1850J09 (Kindal). ^Considering the structural quality of these
1860J09 timbers (density) and the rapidity with which they are destroyed, it would
1870J09 appear that *3Limnoria*0 is one of the major wood-destroying species
1880J09 in Port Blair waters.
1890J09 $*3performance of polymer sheathings*0-- ^Timber blocks (30 x 15
1900J09 \0cm) laminated with fibreglass/ polyester materials were immersed at 2
1910J09 borer infested sites in Port Blair harbour. ^These blocks with suitable
1920J09 controls were kept immersed for 18 months. ^Periodical examination
1930J09 of these blocks showed that they were completely free from borer attack.
1940J09 ^The presence of 200 *Ymm size scars revealed that borer larvae
1950J09 did attempt to_ attack these blocks but failed to_ penetrate into them.
1970J09 $^During this project underwater performance of 28 \0ft fast-motor boat
1980J09 sheathed with fibreglass/ polyester material was also watched. ^The material
1990J09 offered complete protection to this boat both from teredid and
2000J09 pholadid borers.
2010J09 $*3Deterioration of structural timbers*0-- ^A summary of the results
2020J09 obtained from test panels on the performance of structural timbers in Port
2030J09 Blair waters is given in Table 3. ^Several of these timbers are
2040J09 completely destroyed in about 12 months. ^Of the 6 timber species
2050J09 (4 indigenous and 2 imported) which have performed well in Bombay and Cochin
2060J09 waters, only *3Gniacum officinale*0 (Lignum vitae) and *3Tectona
2070J09 grandis*0 (Teak) in that_ order, have shown resistance to borer
2080J09 attack in Port Blair waters. ^This situation indicates the severity
2090J09 of wood-borer activity in Andamans. $*<*3Discussion*0*>
2110J09 $^The settlement of fouling organisms on the underwater structures in inshore
2120J09 and offshore waters of Andamans is both rich and varied. ^The
2130J09 test panels exposed here to_ asses the seasonal fluctuations in fouling
2140J09 indicate that the settlement is heavy and more or less continuous throughout
2150J09 the year. ^*Port Blair is thus a '12-month' fouling port.*#
        **[no. of words = 02003**]

        **[txt. j10**]
0010J10 **<*3RECENT ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE IN INDIA*0**>
0020J10 $^The inland aquaculture resources of India are estimated as 1.6 million
0030J10 \0ha of freshwater ponds and tanks, 2.0 million \0ha of brackish water
0040J10 lagoons and impoundments, 0.72 million \0ha of natural lakes and
0050J10 2.0 million \0ha of man-made reservoirs. ^*India is perhaps one of
0060J10 the few countries in the world which have vast inland aquaculture resources.
0070J10 ^Unfortunately, a significant part of this potential resource
0080J10 is unutilized and even the part that_ is in use
0081J10 is under-utilized. ^The contribution of inland fish production
0090J10 in India is about 40% of the total fish production of the country, of
0100J10 which at least 50% is contributed by aquaculture resources alone. ^It
0110J10 is unfortunately not realised that the potentials of aquaculture resources
0120J10 are so great that, if properly developed and exploited, these
0130J10 could contribute 15 to 16 times more than their present yield.
0140J10 ^In the following pages I outline some of the important achievements in
0150J10 inland aquaculture in India in the last few years.
0160J10 $*<*31. Fry/ fingerling production*0*>
0170J10 $^The first research programme undertaken after independence was increasing
0180J10 the survival rate of spawn and fry of cultivable carps (*3Catla catla,
0190J10 Labeo rohita*0 and *3Cirrhinus mrigala*0) during their nursing.^The
0200J10 mortality rate of spawn in nursery ponds was as high as 97% which
0210J10 was almost reversed as a result of detailed researches conducted at the
0220J10 Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute and a survival of about
0230J10 50% made easily possible under field conditions with the application
0240J10 of the newly developed techniques. ^Further improvements have been
0250J10 effected in the technology in recent years. ^The rate of stocking
0260J10 in nursery ponds initially was 1 million spawn/ \0ha which has now been
0270J10 increased to ten times, \0i.e. 10 million/ \0ha. ^The concept of
0280J10 well-manured, predator-- and weed-free, nurseries, with abundance
0290J10 of natural fish food (zooplankters) which is simultaneously supplemented
0300J10 by protein rich organic feed of vegetable origin, has been developed.
0310J10 ^Great emphasis is now laid on the water quality (\0pH,
0320J10 \0DO, ammonia, alkalinity, phosphates and nitrates).
0330J10 ^Despite such a high rate of stocking, a survival of over 66% is possible
0340J10 with the addition of cobalt (0.01 \0mg/ fish/ day) in the feed.
0350J10 ^This technological development enables production of a very large number
0360J10 of fry/ unit area which is especially advantageous in view of the
0370J10 paucity of nursery space in the country. $^Similarly, the development
0380J10 of a three-tier system of culture, \0i.e. growing the fry
0390J10 obtained from nursery into another set of ponds called rearing ponds,
0400J10 before finally stocking them in larger water sheets for production of
0410J10 table-sized fish has proved itself to_ be greatly advantageous in
0420J10 handling the young ones and increasing survival rates. ^Fingerling rearing
0430J10 techniques have been developed and a survival of over 80% is
0440J10 now obtained in such operations when the stocking density is as
0450J10 high as 350,000 fry/ \0ha. ^A 3-month rearing gives a crop of fingerlings
0460J10 which in terms of weight is of the order of 3,000 \0kg/ \0ha, each
0470J10 individual fish growing to 100-150 \0mm which is a suitable size for
0480J10 stocking larger sheets of water. ^A survival of over 90% from well-prepared
0490J10 stock ponds can be expected in all cases where large sized fingerlings
0500J10 are stocked.
0510J10 $*<*32. Pond preparation*0*>
0520J10 $^Considerable work had to_ be done during the course of rearing experiments
0530J10 on developing the techniques of pond preparation and fertilization.
0540J10 ^As the import of derris-root powder, which was used as a fish
0550J10 toxicant for eradication of predatory and weed fishes at the research
0560J10 farms, was stopped, the need to_ find a suitable indigenously
0570J10 available substitute was felt. ^A large number of plant toxins were
0580J10 screened and the root and bark of *3Barringtonia acutangula*0,
0590J10 seed of *3Milletia pachycarpa*0 and \0*3M.*0 *3piscida*0, and *3Croton
0600J10 tiglium*0 found quite effective. ^However, non-availability
0610J10 of these products on a commercial scale resulted in the popularisation
0620J10 of the use of *4mahua oilcake (*3Bassia latifolia*0), despite its
0630J10 requirement in large quantities as an efficient piscicide at 2,500
0640J10 \0kg/ \0ha-meter and a longer detoxifying period. ^The fish killed by the
0650J10 application of *4mahua oilcake is fit for human consumption unlike certain
0660J10 chemical piscicides. ^Ammonia (15 \0ppm \0N) too is an effective
0670J10 piscicide, weedicide and a nitrogenous fertiliser. $^Studies
0680J10 on the effect of various types of organic and inorganic fertilzers and
0690J10 their dosages indicated that an application of universally available
0700J10 cowdung at 10,000-20,000 \0kg/ \0ha results in an abundant growth of fish
0710J10 food organisms in nursery, rearing and stock ponds. ^In acid soils,
0720J10 this application is preceded by treatment with lime at 300 \0kg/ \0ha.
0730J10 ^Use of poultry manure has been found to_ be very effective
0740J10 and much smaller quantities than cowdung constitute an effective dose.
0750J10 in recent years, utilization of inorganic fertilisers has also found a place
0760J10 in pond preparation. ^Urea for slightly acidic to neutral and
0770J10 ammonium sulphate for alkaline soils are suggested for pond preparation.
0780J10 ^Calcium-ammonium nitrate is another suitable fertiliser for acid
0790J10 soils which provides both calcium and nitrogen at the same time.
0800J10 ^For stock ponds, liming followed by an initial high dose of cowdung (5,000-10,000
0810J10 \0kg/ \0ha) or *4mahua oilcake (2,500 \0kg/ \0ha-m) followed
0820J10 subsequently by alternate application of inorganic and organic fertilisers
0830J10 every month is generally recommended in systematic fresh water carp
0840J10 culture.
0850J10 $*<*33. Fish breeding*0*> $^The
0860J10 cultivable carps of India namely Catla (*3Catla catla*0), *4rohu (*3Labco
0870J10 rohita*0) and mrigal (*3Cirrhinus mrigala*0) breed annually in
0880J10 flooded rivers and contiguous fields during the monsoon months. ^Naturally,
0890J10 these resources therefore constitute the collection grounds for the
0900J10 young ones of these species. ^Natural collections from the
0910J10 rivers and flooded fields are but a mixture of both desirable and undesirable
0920J10 species of fish as most of the predatory and weed fishes also
0930J10 breed during the same season. ^This results not only in wastage
0940J10 during collection but also during subsequent handling, rearing and
0950J10 transport where the undesirable fish seed is either responsible
0960J10 for large-scale predation or competition for food, space and oxygen.
0970J10 ^It was, therefore, necessary to_ develop a technique whereby
0980J10 the cultivable carps could be bred exclusively for their seed
0990J10 and at will. ^The practice of breeding these fishes at will by
1000J10 creating semi-natural conditions is already known for a long time in certain
1010J10 districts of Bengal and Bihar. ^This technique, known as
1020J10 *4bundh breeding, has now been considerably improved and extended to
1030J10 various parts of the country. $^However, of the two types of *4bundhs,
1040J10 wet and dry depending upon the availability of water either throughout or
1050J10 a part of the year, the dry type yield better quality seed and are
1060J10 more dependable than the wet ones. ^The general unsuitability of
1070J10 the site and construction, maintenance and operation costs have been
1080J10 the main impediments in the multiplication of *3dry*0 *4bundhs in seed
1090J10 production. ^The technique, wherever possible, is certainly advantageous
1100J10 for mass production of fish seed and has also been successfully
1110J10 used for experimental spawning of the Chinese major carps (grass carp
1120J10 and silver carp) which are now in great demand in India.
1130J10 $^An important landmark in the history of freshwater aquaculture research
1140J10 and development has been the spawning of cultivable fishes by administration
1150J10 of fish pituitary gonadotropins known as induced breeding or hypophysation.
1160J10 ^The technique of induced breeding was first developed
1170J10 in India in 1955 and not only the indigenous carps but also
1180J10 the exotic carps as well as several species of catfishes, air-breathing
1190J10 fishes and mullets can now be spawned within a 2 x 1 x 1 \0m
1200J10 box-like cloth chamber, *3hapa*0, fixed half or three-fourths submerged
1210J10 in water. ^Mature males and females when injected with the
1220J10 pituitary gland extract, ovulate and spermiate either naturally or by
1230J10 application of gentle pressure on the abdomen of the brood fish after
1240J10 a lapse of a few hours of injection. ^The dosages for the different
1250J10 species have been standardised and the technique is increasingly being
1260J10 used for the production of fish seed for aquaculture in the country.
1270J10 $^The techniques for hatching the eggs were also very poor and generally
1280J10 resulted in heavy mortality. ^However, the use of double-walled cloth
1290J10 *3hapas*0 (the outer one of muslin cloth and the inner one of round-meshed
1300J10 mosquito netting) which is a sort of an open box within a box, has
1310J10 helped in increasing the hatching and the survival rate of the young
1320J10 hatchlings. ^Yet another development during the last five years
1330J10 has largely done away with the vagaries of nature as the *3hapas*0 have
1340J10 to_ be fixed in ponds where high temperatures, heavy winds or fluctuating
1350J10 water levels, algal blooms, crabs and trash fish, generally
1360J10 create havoc resulting in mass mortalities or poor survival.
1370J10 ^The new technique makes use of continuously running water through a
1380J10 series of glass jars, where the eggs are kept, virtually buoyant, and
1390J10 provided with sufficient aeration. ^The hatchlings, drifting out through
1400J10 the jar spout on to an open conduit, are collected in a separate
1410J10 receptacle where again a continuous shower provides adequate
1420J10 aeration. ^Since the glass jar hatchery is put on land under
1430J10 a shed, the field hazards to which *3hapas*0 are exposed are largely
1440J10 done away with as also the recurring expenditure on cloth *3hapas*0
1450J10 which hardly last a season.
1460J10 *<*34. Composite fish culture*0*>
1470J10 $^Considerable attention has been paid in recent years to_ increase the
1480J10 per hectare production of table fish from stock ponds. ^Experiments
1490J10 in this direction conducted from the early sixties initially gave
1500J10 productions of 3,000-4,000 \0kg/ \0ha/ \0yr. ^However, in course of
1510J10 time further experimentation resulted in higher and higher rates of
1520J10 fish production so much so that production as high as over 9,000 \0kg/
1530J10 \0ha/ \0yr was obtained in experimental ponds. ^This technology involving
1540J10 the use of indigenous (\0*3C.*0 *3catla*0, \0*3L.*0 *3rohita*0 and
1550J10 \0*3C.*0 *3mrigala*0) and exotic (*3Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthaimichthys
1560J10 molitrix*0 and *3Cyprinus carpio*0) major carps coupled
1570J10 with a set of management practice is termed as composite fish culture.
1580J10 ^Stocking densities from 3,000 to 10,000 fingerlings/ \0ha have
1590J10 been used and densities around 5,000 to 7,500 fingerlings/ \0ha found
1600J10 easily manageable. ^As in the case of nursery and rearing ponds,
1610J10 the concept of well-manured, predator-free ponds with a natural
1620J10 abundance of fish food organisms is also the rule in composite fish culture.
1630J10 ^In order to_ achieve high productions, periodic fertilisation
1640J10 of the ponds and daily feeding of fish with supplementary food items
1650J10 like groundnut oilcake and rice bran (1:1) at 2-3% of the body weight
1660J10 of the fish stock is necessary. ^The various species stocked in the
1670J10 pond are so proportioned that the natural food is utilised without
1680J10 much competition between the defferent species. ^These proportions
1690J10 have been carefully worked out in the course of a decade of experimentation.
1700J10 ^Surface feeders (Catla and silver carp) constitute about 35%
1710J10 followed by mid-feeders (*4rohu and grass carp) which account for
1720J10 about 30%. ^The bottom feeders (Mrigal and common carp) constitute
1730J10 another 35%. ^Since silver carp feeds on the primary producers
1740J10 (phytoplankton) which are always in a greater abundance than the secondary
1750J10 producers (zooplankton), a higher percentage of silver carp (25%) than
1760J10 Catla (10%) is stocked in a pond. ^Of the mid-feeders, *4rohu
1770J10 browses on a wide variety of planktonic algae and organic debris and
1780J10 constitutes 20% of the stock as against grass carp which forms 10% of
1790J10 the total density. ^As grass carp can be raised on aquatic or land weeds
1800J10 resulting in economy of supplementary feed, a variety of aquatic or land
1801J10 vegetation, cattle fodder and various vegetable wastes, are provided
1810J10 in a floating enclosure in the pond for its consumption. ^Supplementary
1820J10 feed in the form of a dough is provided on feeding trays hung
1830J10 1/2 to 1 \0m below the water surface, only after the grass
1831J10 carp are satiated. ^The bottom feeders,
1840J10 Mrigal (15%) and common carp (20%), obtain their natural feed
1850J10 from the bottom detritus, decaying organic matter and semi-digested
1860J10 faecal matter passed out by the voraciously feeding grass carp. ^The
1861J10 unutilised faecal matter of grass carp acts as a feriliser. ^This
1870J10 synergistic equation is the crux of composite fish culture. $*<*35.
1880J10 Domestic sewage/ livestock wastes as fish pond fertilisers*0*>
1890J10 $^The practice of utilising domestic sewage for fertilising fish ponds
1900J10 is in vogue in several parts of the world and also in India around
1910J10 Culcutta for a very long time.*#
        **[no. of words = 02008**]

        **[txt. j11**]
0020J11 **<*3SIZE CORRELATIONS AMONG THE CAMBIUM AND ITS DERIVATIVES IN DALBERGIA
0030J11 SISSOO*0**> $*<INTRODUCTION*>
0040J11 $^Size correlations among the cambial initials and their derivatives have
0050J11 attracted the attention of several investigators during the past few
0060J11 decades. ^These studies concern different aspects of the phloem
0070J11 and xylem with respect to their position in the tree, either radially
0080J11 within the growth ring or with respect to the distance from the stem
0090J11 centre or height in the tree. ^Reviews on this subject include those
0100J11 of Spurr and Hyvarinen (1954), Dinwoodie (1961), and Philipson *(0et
0110J11 al.*) (1971). ^Most of the plants studied, however, have non-storied
0120J11 cambia, there being few works on those possessing storied cambia.
0130J11 ^Obsevations on plants with storied cambia include those of Chalk *(0et
0140J11 al.*) (1955) who studied size variation of the fibers within a growth
0150J11 ring and reported that their length increases from the early wood to
0160J11 somewhere in the middle of the ring, then decreases suddenly at the
0170J11 ring boundary. ^This decrease, however, does not coincide with the length
0180J11 of fibers in the early wood of the next ring. ^*Hejnowicz and
0190J11 Hejnowicz (1959) made measurements of the length of the fibers and vessel
0200J11 members of *3Robinia pseudoacacia, another plant with storied cambium
0210J11 and recorded an increase in fiber length from early to late wood with
0220J11 an abrupt decrease in length at the ring boundary. ^The amplitude of
0230J11 the fiber length also showed a tendency to_ increase from the pith outwords.
0240J11 ^*Chalk *(0et al.*) (1955), however, found that neither the fibers
0250J11 nor parenchyma cells show such an increase in length from pith to the
0260J11 cambium. $^Little information has been published relating the size of
0270J11 cambial derivatives to the size of the cambial intials. ^One of
0280J11 the pioneering contributions in this field is that_ of Bailey (1920),
0290J11 who studied this relationship in *3Ginkgo, several members of the coniferae,
0300J11 and the dicotyledons. ^He concluded that in most of the conifers,
0310J11 the length of the tracheids closely resembled (or they become slightly
0320J11 longer) the length of the fusiform initials from which they are derived.
0330J11 ^In dicotyledonous trees, however, he observed that the fibers
0340J11 were longer than the fusiform initials while the vessel members were approximately
0350J11 of the same length as the fusiform initials. ^*Chattaway (1936)
0360J11 found that the fibers in a dicotyledonous wood can assume dimensions
0370J11 1.1-9.5 times the length of the fusiform initials, especially when
0380J11 the latter are very short. ^*Butterfield (1973) reported that the vessel
0390J11 elements are of the same length as the fusiform initials in *3Hoheria
0400J11 angustifolia, another plant with storeyed cambium. $^The present
0410J11 investigation is aimed at providing the information on the relationship
0420J11 in size between the cambium initials and their derivatives in *3Dalbergia
0430J11 sissoo, a tropical tree with storied cambium. ^This plant
0440J11 was chosen because the seasonal variations in its cambial activity have
0450J11 already been investigated at this laboratory by Paliwal and Prasad
0460J11 (1970). ^Further, Ghouse *(0et al.*) (1974) have recently calculated
0470J11 the ratio of the fusiform initials in this plant along with some other
0480J11 species. $*<MATERIAL AND METHODS*> $^The material was
0490J11 collected from a tree growing at the departmental Botanical Garden.
0500J11 ^Small portions of the bark and wood measuring 6.5 x 9.5 \0cms were cut
0510J11 from the tree trunk at the breast height. ^These were fixed in Craf
0520J11 *=3 mixture. ^Later, by using an electric saw and single-edged blades,
0530J11 2.5 x 2.0 \0cms pieces, containing portions of the wood and bark were
0540J11 obtained. ^Transverse and tangential longitudinal sections at 20-24
0550J11 \0*Ymm were cut on a wood microtome. ^These were later placed serially
0560J11 in a mixture of 70 per cent alcohol and glycerine (1 : 1) over a
0570J11 slide and tied to it with a fine sewing thread. ^They were then stained
0580J11 with tannic acid, ferric chloride and lacmoid mixture as outlined by
0590J11 Cheadle *(0et al.*) (1953). ^Sections were left in the stain for
0600J11 12-18 \0hrs, passed through dehydration series and the thread was removed
0610J11 after these had been cleared through xylene. ^Mounting was done
0620J11 in neutral canada balsam. ^Measurements of the fusiform initials and
0630J11 their derivatives, except the fibers, were carried out in the tangential,
0640J11 and radial longitudinal sections and that_ of the vascular rays and
0650J11 ray initials in the radial longitudinal sections of the stem. ^The
0660J11 size of the fibers was measured after macerating the bark and wood with
0670J11 nitric acid and potassium chlorate for half an hour and then staining
0680J11 with safranin, after washing the macerated tissue. ^An average of
0690J11 40 measurements was obtained and the length and breadth of the same elements
0700J11 was measured. $*<OBSERVATIONS*> $\0*3^*D. *3sissoo
0710J11 has a storied cambium and this arrangement is retained by its vascular
0720J11 derivatives at maturity (\0Figs. *=1C; 2A). ^The xylem consists
0730J11 of vessels, wood fibers, and parenchyma cells; the latter alternating the
0740J11 former two and organized into regular longitudinal strands. $*3Cambium--
0750J11 ^This tissue has two cell types-- the fusiform and ray initials.
0760J11 ^The fusiform initials are hexagonal with almost pointed ends.
0770J11 ^They contain a large number of plastids with other cytoplasmic contents,
0780J11 and a conspicuous nucleus (Plate *=1D). ^These undergo radial longitudinal
0790J11 divisions which are not always from tip to tip of the initials
0800J11 and result into two unequal daughter cells (Plate *=1D). ^The cambial
0810J11 derivatives which differentiate into parenchyma cells, undergo further
0820J11 transverse divisions (\0Fig. 2B). ^This process has been observed
0830J11 more commonly at that_ stage of the cells where the plastids have
0840J11 yet not accumulated too much starch. ^Usually, once the latter stage
0850J11 has been arrived (except in those cells which differentiate into crystalliferous
0860J11 parenchyma cells), cell division ceases and further differentiation
0870J11 occurs. ^The ray initials are isodiametric and divide in
0880J11 various planes. $*3PhloemO.-- ^The phloem has four types of cells--
0890J11 sieve elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma cells,
0891J11 and the phloem fibers. ^At maturity
0900J11 the sieve elements have an empty lumen apart from a \0p-protein plug
0910J11 close to the sieve plate (\0Fig. *=1A). ^A few plastids have
0920J11 also been observed in them. ^The end walls of the sieve plates are
0930J11 transverse to slightly oblique with a callose deposition all over
0940J11 their surface (\0fig. *=1A). ^The sieve plates are simple with
0950J11 numerous pores evenly distributed. ^The sieve areas are also located
0960J11 on the radial walls (lateral walls) each having numerous pores
0970J11 on it similar to those on the end wall. ^Each sieve element has
0980J11 associated with it one or two or rarely three companion cells (Plate
0990J11 *=1A). ^The latter have a narrow lumen with dense cytoplasmic
1000J11 contents. ^The phloem parenchyma cells are of three types-- crystalliferous,
1010J11 non-crystalliferous, and intermediate type. ^Crystalliferous
1020J11 cells are formed after 6-8 transverse divisions in each
1030J11 phloem mother cell and the compartments thus formed each contains
1040J11 a hexagonal crystal (Plate *=1B). ^Later these cells
1050J11 undergo lignification. ^*Holdheide (1951) called such cells
1060J11 as crystal-fibers (Kristallfasern) and stated that they
1070J11 could later deposit secondary wall thickening to become crystal-containing
1080J11 fibrous compartments (Kristallkammerfasern). ^The non-crystalliferous
1090J11 cells are produced after a single transverse division
1100J11 in the phloem mother cell and each contains a number of plastids,
1110J11 at various stages of differentiation (Plate *=1A, B). ^These
1120J11 two cell types form separate strands in the phloem. ^The intermediate
1130J11 type of parenchyma cells also originate in the same manner. ^One
1140J11 of the derivatives produced after a transverse division of the
1150J11 fusiform initial forms the crystalliferous cells after undergoing
1160J11 further septation and the other half remains devoid of crystals
1170J11 like the ordinary non-crystalliferous parenchyma cell (\0Fig. *=1B.).
1180J11 ^The phloem fibers are non-septate, highly thickened
1190J11 cells with pointed ends and posses a comparatively broad
1200J11 lumen, especially in the middle region. $^The sieve elements undergo
1210J11 a slight increase in their width but decrease in their length,
1220J11 the crystalliferous parenchyma
1230J11 cells gain in their size at maturity, whereas the non-crystalliferous
1240J11 parenchyama cells are approximately half the length of the
1250J11 fusiform initials. ^All the parenchyma cells are more or less
1260J11 of the same width. ^Completely differentiated phloem fibers
1270J11 become 6.2 times longer and almost two times wider than
1280J11 the fusiform initials (Table 1). $*3XylemO.--
1290J11 ^The vessel elements are of two types (a) broad and long,
1300J11 (b) narrow and short. ^These are distributed randomly
1310J11 and exhibit pitted thickenings (bordered pits) on their
1320J11 walls with a transverse to slightly oblique, simple plate (\0fig. 2B).
1330J11 ^Occasionally, the vasicentric parenchyma initials
1340J11 were seen to_ undergo divisions in various planes
1350J11 even within a single precursor. ^These cells contain numerous
1360J11 starch grains at maturity and surround the vessel elements
1370J11 which occur either singly or in groups of two (rarely
1380J11 three). ^Stages of nuclear degeneration were also observed
1390J11 in the differentiating elements (\0Fig. 2C). $^The wood
1400J11 fibers are uniformly non-septate and possess a narrow lumen and form
1410J11 longitudinally running strands (\0Fig. 2B).
1420J11 ^They have pointed ends showing intrusive growth. ^Their walls
1430J11 are highly lignified. ^The crystalliferous parenchyma
1440J11 cells do not form longitudinally running strands but are scattered
1450J11 in contrast to those in the phloem. ^ the starch-storing parenchyma
1460J11 cells form regular groups and each cell acquires 10-15
1470J11 starch grains in it. ^The latter are concentric and possess a central
1480J11 hilum as shown in Figure 2A, D. ^The intermediate type
1490J11 of parenchyma cells are formed in the same manner as has been
1500J11 described for phloem. ^Dimensions of both types of vessel element
1510J11 grew up considerably at maturity. ^Whereas the narrower ones
1520J11 (measuring 151.1 x 62.4 \0*Ymm) gained approximately 4-5 times
1530J11 in their width, those falling in the broad category (measuring
1540J11 195.5 x 232.4 \0*Ymm) become almost 16 times wider. ^The wood
1550J11 fibers are almost 8-9 times longer and only slightly wider than
1560J11 the fusiform initials (Table 1). $*<*3DiscussionO*> ^It is
1570J11 evident from our investigation that except for the fibers and the
1580J11 parenchyma cells, there is only a slight difference in the size
1590J11 of the cambial derivatives as compared to the cambial initials.
1600J11 ^As has been pointed out by Bailey (1920), in contrast
1610J11 to the non-storied cambium, the increase in the circumference
1620J11 of the plants with storied cambia cannot involve the elongation
1630J11 of the daughter cells to any great extent since the
1640J11 tier arrangement of the cambium will be lost. ^In the storied
1650J11 cambium, the fusiform initials divide by anticlinal divisions
1660J11 only in the radial longitudinal plane which produce cells
1670J11 in tiers and these need no further elongation. ^This permits
1680J11 the storied arrangement to_ be maintained as such, even in the
1690J11 adult stems having larger diameters. ^This has also been
1700J11 borne out by our present study since the storied arrangement
1710J11 is not only retained by the cambium but also in its derivatives
1720J11 even till maturity. ^This, thus indicates that there
1730J11 are no transverse/ anticlinal divisions in the fusiform initials
1740J11 except for those in the parenchyma cell initials and
1750J11 in the formation of the companion cells. ^In contrast to the
1760J11 fusiform initials in the non-storied cambium, the cells
1770J11 in the storied cambium do not show intrusive growth.
1780J11 $^It must be pointed out, however, that the slight decrease
1790J11 in the length of the sieve elements in this plant cannot be attributed
1800J11 to any sort of transverse divisions in the fusiform initials
1810J11 of which they are the derivatives, since they undergo,
1820J11 only radial longitudinal divisions. ^Further, no division
1830J11 could be recorded in the sieve element initials except while
1840J11 forming the companion cells in contrast to those reported
1850J11 by Esau and Cheadle (1955) for *3AsiminiaO and *3WigellaO,
1860J11 and by Zahur (1959) for some other dicotyledons. ^Besides,
1870J11 the factors which influence the size variations of these derivatives
1880J11 in non-storied combia \0i.e., frequency of pseudo-transverse
1890J11 divisions elongation of the new initials, and the size of
1900J11 the growth ring (Philipson *(0et al.,*) 1971) can be ruled out
1910J11 to_ be operating in this taxon since no such features were recorded here.
1920J11 ^The plausible explanation for this at least in part is the occurrence
1930J11 of some oblique anticlinal divisions (radial longitudinal) as reported
1940J11 by Bailey (1920). ^This may also be due to the transfer of the pointed
1950J11 hexagonal tips of the fusiform initials to transverse position
1960J11 in the sieve elements. ^Further, we did not notice any decrease
1970J11 in the width of the sieve elements due to the cutting off of the
1980J11 companion cells as has been recorded by Esau and Cheadle
1990J11 (1955), instead, these experienced a slight increase in this
2000J11 direction. $^Of the three types of parenchyma cells
2010J11 in the phloem which form strands alternating to the sieve
2020J11 elements only the crystalliferous type undergo slight intrusive
2030J11 growth.*#
        **[no. of words = 02020**]

        **[txt. j12**]
0010J12 **<*3An apparatus for liqui-sol quenching**>
0020J12 $^An apparatus to_ produce foils of quenched metals and alloys from the
0030J12 melt suitable for the study of lattice defects by X-ray diffractometric
0040J12 technique has been described. \0^*Al-Cu system has been selected for
0050J12 rapid solidification and it has been shown that, with the help of the present
0060J12 apparatus, the limit of the primary solubility is extended and the
0070J12 large supersaturation is relieved on annealing at elevated temperatures.
0080J12 ^The single phase foils thus produced can be used for the study
0090J12 of lattice defects. $*<*31. INTRODUCTION*> $^It is well
0100J12 known that when metals and alloys are rapidly quenched to solid state
0110J12 from melts, high temperature phases can be retained with the same crystal
0120J12 structure in a supersaturated condition. ^This high rate of cooling
0130J12 not only helps in retaining high temperature phases but also introduces
0140J12 a sufficient amount of lattice defects in them (Kirin & Bonefacic
0150J12 1974). ^Additionally new phases and sometimes even amorphous
0160J12 phases have been observed in these cases (Klement *(0et al*) 1960).
0170J12 ^These lattice defects, namely, size of the coherently diffracting
0180J12 domains, microstrain in them and faults, can be effectively studied by X-ray
0190J12 line profile analysis with the help of an X-ray diffractometer (Kirin
0200J12 & Bonefacic, 1974). ^During the last decade a considerable
0210J12 number of devices have been developed to_ quench metals and alloys from
0220J12 the melt (Ananthraman & Suryanarayana 1971) and the techniques vary widely
0230J12 depending upon the requirements for rapid solidification and sample
0240J12 sizes. ^The present method describes a technique where it is simple
0250J12 to_ produce foils of quenched metals and alloys suitable for X-ray
0260J12 diffractometer study, which is our ultimate aim of the present series of
0270J12 study. ^*Kumar & sinha (1969) describe an apparatus to_ solidify a
0280J12 melt rapidly into foils. ^The average thickness of such foils is 0.15
0290J12 to o0.20 \0mm and they did not mention the size of the foils. ^In the
0300J12 present method we have been able to_ produce foils of the size 1 \0cmx
0310J12 1 \0cm suitably selected from larger ones. ^We have selected \0Al-\0Cu
0320J12 system for rapid solidification and it has been shown that, with the
0330J12 help of the present apparatus, the limit of the primary solid solubility
0340J12 is extended and the large supersaturation is relieved on annealing at
0350J12 elevated temperatures. $*<*32. EXPERIMENTAL*> $^When a
0360J12 drop of molten metal or alloy falls on a cool metallic disc rotating on
0370J12 a horizontal plane with high frequency, the side of the molten drop in
0380J12 touch with the metallic disc gets solidified immediately and moves relatively
0390J12 faster than the upper portion and thus thin film is produced within
0400J12 a fraction of a second. ^These foils thus produced have average thickness
0410J12 of the order of 8 x 10*: - 3**: \0cm and the size is quite suitable
0420J12 for diffractometric study where 1.2 \0cm x 0.5 \0cm is the normal size
0430J12 of the sample. ^Figure 1 is the side view of the apparatus. *3^*HO
0440J12 is the heater where temperature can be raised up to 1400*@ \0C and the
0450J12 temperature is measured with a suitable thermocouple-- and a millivoltmeter.
0460J12 *3^R is the copper disc which can be rotated by a motor *3M with
0470J12 regulated speed. *3^*L is the cylindrical
0480J12 part below and in touch with the disc *3R, where iced, brine
0490J12 water or liquid air \0etc. can be kept to_ lower the temperature of the
0500J12 disc. *3^*C0 is the graphite crucible with a hole at the top and
0510J12 *3CH is the crucible holder with which the molten drop can be poured
0520J12 on the disc *3R. ^The whole portion above the base *3B is covered
0530J12 and the whole operation can be done in inert gas atmosphere to_ avoid
0540J12 oxidation of the foils. $^Four aluminium-copper alloys containing
0550J12 0.66, 1.30, 1.66 and 2.17 at % of copper were prepared from aluminium
0560J12 and copper of 99% purity and the final composition was determined by chemical
0570J12 analysis. ^The molten alloys of requisite amount were kept at
0580J12 900*@ \0C for one hour in the furnace and then dropped on the disc rotating
0590J12 at 1400 \0rpm at room temperature (30*@ \0C). ^The films thus
0600J12 obtained were examined metallographically immediately in the etched and
0610J12 unetched condition. ^*X-ray and microhardness techniques were used
0620J12 to_ study the nature of the alloys as in the as-solidified condition and
0630J12 after annealing in vacuum for 30 minutes at 150*@ \0C, 250*@ \0C, 350*@
0640J12 \0C. and 400*@ \0C. ^*Debye-Scherrer photographs of all the quenched
0650J12 and annealed samples were taken in a camera of 11.4 \0cm diameter using
0660J12 filtered \0CuK*;*Ya**; radiation. ^These cylindrical samples
0670J12 were chosen from the selected portion of the quenched and annealed materials.
0680J12 ^Lattice parameter was determined using Straumanis technique
0690J12 and Nelson-Riley*'s extrapolation function. ^The microhardnesses
0700J12 of all specimens were measured and for each one an average of readings
0710J12 were taken. $*<*33. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION*>
0720J12 $^Figure 2 shows a metallograph of as-quenched alloy containing 2.17 at
0730J12 % \0Cu. ^The metallograph clearly shows the dendritic type of growth
0740J12 with a nucleation centre. ^Electron microprobe analysis was done
0750J12 to_ identify the central portion. ^The analysis shows a copper deplated
0760J12 region at the central portion of a grain. ^The concentration of \0Cu
0770J12 increases gradually after the central portion and remains constant
0780J12 throughout the other portion of the grain. ^Figure 3 shows the variation
0790J12 of lattice parameter and microhardness as a function of copper content
0800J12 of the alloys. ^The lattice parameter continuously decreases and the
0810J12 microhardness increases with increase in copper content. ^*Debye-Scherrer
0820J12 photographs of all the four alloys when quenched show that only
0830J12 *Ya-phase has been formed. ^The limit of solid solubility increases
0840J12 upto 2.17 at % of \0Cu and the present instrument can be used for
0850J12 preparing such type of supersaturated solid solution. $^The decomposition
0860J12 of the super saturated solid solutions was studied in the temperature
0870J12 range 150*@ \0C and 400*@ \0C by the study of lattice parameter and
0880J12 microhardness. ^Figure 4(a) shows a continuous increase of lattice parameter
0890J12 for each alloy annealed for 30 minutes in the temperature range 150*@
0900J12 \0C to 400*@ \0C as a result of relief of supersaturation through
0910J12 precipitation of copper. ^Figure 4(b) shows the corresponding changes
0920J12 in the microhardness values which decrease gradually with increase of annealing
0930J12 temperature. $^The variation in lattice parameter and microhardness
0940J12 of the as-quenched foils can be explained on the basis of the composition
0950J12 of the supersaturated solid solutions. ^The bulk specimen of
0960J12 the four alloys described here are mixtures *Ya and *Yb phases at room
0970J12 temperature. ^The lattice parameter of *Ya-phase in them will depend
0980J12 on the proportions of \0Al and \0Cu present in that_ phase. ^The
0990J12 liquisol quenched foils of these alloys, on the other hand, are supersaturated
1000J12 solid solutions with *Ya-phase only. ^Therefore, more and more
1010J12 copper atoms enter into aluminium lattice and the proportion of copper
1020J12 becomes larger than that_ in the *Ya-phase of the bulk specimen. ^Thus
1030J12 cell dimensions contract in the quenched foils and density of the materials
1040J12 increases. ^With the increase in the density of the foils,
1050J12 their microhardness increases. ^The lattice parameters of *Ya-phases
1060J12 in the bulk-specimen will be larger than those observed for samples annealed
1070J12 at 400*@ \0C for 30 minutes, while microhardness in bulk will
1080J12 be smaller. ^Besides, lattice defects introduced due to quenching will
1090J12 increase the microhardness of the foils. ^The observed variations in
1100J12 lattice parameter and microhardness in as-quenched foils are due to supersaturation
1110J12 of *Ya-phase and lattice imperfections. ^Further study
1120J12 of lattice defects by X-ray diffraction is under progress. $*<ACKNOWLEDGEMENT*>
1130J12 $^The authors are thankful to \0Prof. *(0M.R.*)
1140J12 Das for his interest and helpful discussions. **<*3Current
1150J12 trends in atomic collision experiments**> $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*>
1160J12 $^Experimental studies on atomic collision processes are as old as
1170J12 the discovery of the electrical discharges in gases. ^However,
1180J12 in the first stage of the systematic study, experimental data on
1190J12 outershell excitation and ionisation were accumulated with
1200J12 the projectile ion beam not usually mass analysed. ^In a later
1210J12 period of this stage mass analysed ion beam was used. ^The use
1220J12 of an electromagnetic isotope separator as a low energy accelerator
1230J12 producing 10-100 \0keV mass analysed ion beam was initiated
1240J12 by Kistemaker and his group for outer shell ionisation and
1250J12 excitation experiments Karmohapatro 1976, Van Eck *(0et al*) 1962;
1260J12 Van Eck and Kistemaker 1960; Sluyters 1959, de Heer 1956).
1270J12 $^In recent years, more sophisticated experimental methods (Massey
1280J12 and Gilbody, 1974) like velocity selection using rotating slotted
1290J12 discs, merging beam and crossed beam techniques have been introduced
1300J12 for increasing sensitivity of detection, eliminating background
1310J12 effects, attaining high angular resolution and for obtaining
1320J12 results for ions of energy as low as in the electron volt region.
1330J12 ^The experiments have been extended to heavy ion induced inner shell
1340J12 ionisation with X-ray emission and to_ study the channeling
1350J12 phenomena due to impact of heavy ions in solids. ^Beam
1360J12 foil spectroscopy, ion scattering spectrometry and secondary ion
1370J12 mass spectrometry are modern techniques for studying the gaseous
1380J12 and solid atoms or molecules. ^The methods reveal unending
1390J12 fundamental phenomenon in atomic physics. $^Machines like a small
1400J12 accelerator, a laboratory isotope separator or a conventional
1410J12 mass spectrometer are the sources for monoenergetic ions handled
1420J12 by the experimentalists. $^In the present paper we shall describe
1430J12 a few experiments on atomic collisions which reveal the
1440J12 interference effects and channeling phenomena. ^The former is a
1450J12 quantum mechanical effect depicting the wave nature of atoms and
1460J12 molecules and the latter is based on a classical concept with an extensive
1470J12 application in solid state physics. ^Both the phenomena help us
1480J12 to_ obtain new findings in the fundamental behaviour of atomic
1490J12 collisions in gases and solids. $*<*32. INTERFERENCE EFFECTS*>
1500J12 $*<(**=1) *3Rainbow scattering.*> $^In elastic collisions
1510J12 between atoms or molecules, rainbow scattering is a phenomenon
1520J12 compared to the optical rainbows. ^In figure 1, the geometry of
1530J12 light rays in a raindrop forming rainbows are shown. ^With the
1540J12 increase of the miss distance *3r, the angle of the emergent light
1550J12 rays decrease to a minimum *Yj*;*3r**; and then increases as *3r
1560J12 is further increased. ^The formation of a primary rainbow is explained
1570J12 without even the wave concept of light as done by Descartes with
1580J12 the geometry shown in figure 1. ^Light rays undergoing two or
1590J12 more internal reflections produce secondary or higher order
1600J12 rainbows in the same way. ^However, for details of the primary or
1610J12 secondary rainbows, a wave description is necessary, since rainbow
1620J12 angle is dependent upon the refractive index of water for light and
1630J12 the outer edges are less intense then what Descartes theory predicts.
1640J12 ^In optical rainbows, the interference effects produce supernumery
1650J12 rainbows inside the primary or secondary rainbow. ^The situation
1660J12 arises when two light rays emerging at the same angle enter
1670J12 two different points corresponding *3r*;1**; and *3r*;2**; in figure
1680J12 1, they traverse slightly different amounts of water resulting in
1690J12 a phase difference. ^Depending on whether they are out of step
1700J12 by half a wave length or a full wave length, there will be fringes
1710J12 in the light intensity. ^The spacing between the two maxima of such
1720J12 rainbows depends on the wavelength of light and the diameter of the water
1730J12 drop. ^The spacing is greater for a smaller drop with a distinct
1740J12 maxima of a supernumery rainbow different from the primary one.
1750J12 $^In figure 2, trajectories in the atomic scattering shown can be
1760J12 compared with \0fig. 1. ^The repulsive core is the dark circle surrounded
1770J12 by a sphere of attraction. ^Between these two spheres *Yj*;*3r**;
1780J12 is the minimum deflection angle called rainbow angle. ^The
1790J12 scatterd particles appear in more quantities near *Yj*;*3r**;
1800J12 than nearby angles. ^So the intensity as a function of *Yj shows a
1810J12 maxima at *Yj*;*3r**; producing the rainbow structure similar to
1820J12 optical phenomena. *Y^J*;*3r**; gives a direct measure of *3E
1830J12 the well depth of the interaction potential shown in figure 3.
1840J12 $^In view of the classical theory, there will be a sharp spike
1850J12 of intensity at *Yj*;*3r**; superposed on a background of small angle
1860J12 attractive scatterings by the outer edge of the interatomic potential.
1870J12 ^The large angle scatterings due to repulsive core are weak
1880J12 and in an experiment both the repulsive and attractive scatterings in
1890J12 negative and positive angles cannot be distinguished. ^Thus
1900J12 both types of the scattered particles will be superposed. $^But the
1910J12 wave nature of the atoms predicts the interference effect between the
1920J12 particles scattered due to the attractive and repulsive potentials resulting
1930J12 in a supernumery rainbow in the primary one, as in the optical
1940J12 phenomena.*#
        **[no. of words = 02035**]

        **[txt. j13**]
0010J13 **<*3auto urine therapy: treatment and diet**> $^*I was telling him
0020J13 that \0AUT could cure almost any known disease including cancer and heart
0030J13 disease. ^His reaction was not in the form of a rational argument
0040J13 but as a negative statement based on preconceived religious notion.
0050J13 ^This was clear from what he said: "^But for the strict taboo Islamic
0060J13 religion has put on urine, I would have appreciated your views". $^My
0070J13 conversation with Janab Mehdi Hasan has been published in
0080J13 a lighter vein in my column "Over A Glass Of *4Shivambu". $^On my
0090J13 return to Bombay, I was going through the exclusive interview my editorial
0100J13 staff had obtained from *4Ayurvedacharya *(0V.V.*) Vyas, when
0110J13 a sentence uttered by the learned *5Vaidya Pandit*6 struck me dumb.
0111J13 ^This sentence is "*4Ayurveda prescribes treatment for physical, mental
0112J13 and spiritual diseases. ^Therefore, it cannot antagonise
0120J13 religious scriptures. ^According to these scriptures, consumption
0130J13 of urine would be considered a sin". ^What a sacrilege! $^Many
0140J13 Catholic families live in abject penury, and suffer untold hardships because
0150J13 there is a religious taboo against birth control. ^If a Catholic
0160J13 man happens to_ be a manual labourer and has already eight or nine
0170J13 children, he cannot stop there because of the edict of the Church.
0180J13 ^Sex being a powerful force, this labourer adds one or two more children
0190J13 to his unenviable tally and is immersed deeper into poverty and suffering,
0200J13 all because of religious fads and injunctions. $^The tragic but enthralling
0210J13 story of a *4Muslim lady who, untrammelled by religious belief,
0220J13 got a second lease of life through pure and simple \0AUT although many
0230J13 renowned doctors of Jaslok, Massina, \0J.J. and Jain Group of
0240J13 Hospitals, where she was alternately admitted, had discharged her because,
0250J13 according to them, she was a terminal case and incurable, should serve
0260J13 as a lesson to all. ^Could the *4mullas, who think urine is abominably
0270J13 filthy have saved her? ^Kudos to the lady who, flinging aside religious
0280J13 edict, courageously agreed to Auto-Urine Therapy. $^Likewise, hundreds
0290J13 of Hindu patients suffering from cancer, heart, diabetes and asthma
0300J13 have been saved by \0AUT. ^All the *4shastris and Shankaracharyas
0310J13 could not have saved them. ^Would the Pope or his Cardinals, who
0320J13 live in great comfort if not luxury, share the torments of the Catholic
0330J13 labourer with umpteen children? $^Why then mix up religion with a mission
0340J13 of mercy, which is \0AUT, and hence I say: To hell with religious
0350J13 dogmas and edicts. ^To hell with fads and fulminations. ^Put
0360J13 yourself on \0AUT when you are ill or if you want to_ be hale and hearty
0370J13 throughout your life like that_ young man of 84-- our *5Sada Jiwatlal*6
0380J13 Prime Minister, \0*4Shri Morarji Desai. $*=2 $*<*3HEALTHY
0390J13 DISEASE-FREE LIFE WITHOUT DOCTORS*0*> $^If auto-urine therapy is relevant
0400J13 to any country in the world, it is to India. ^Here are the reasons:
0410J13 $^During the decades which followed the thirties, more importantly since
0420J13 World War *=2 (1939-45), the medical world has undergone an almost
0430J13 unrecognizable metamorphosis changing the entire complexion of medical
0440J13 care of the masses and classes alike. $^The net result of this radical
0450J13 and revolutionary change is that good medicare has become frightfully
0460J13 expensive and hence the exclusive privilege of the monied class-- the old
0470J13 aristocracy, the neo-rich hoarders, adulterators, black-marketeers, smugglers
0480J13 and other species of social and anti-social elements, who have plenty
0490J13 of money to_ throw about. $^As for the 80 per cent of the population,
0500J13 who produce 73 per cent of our grand national product, three-fourth
0510J13 of whom are below the poverty line the other one-fourth being just able
0520J13 to_ make both ends meet, any sort of medical care means going through a
0530J13 series of torments. $^For these people there are no consulting physicians
0540J13 and surgeons, nor even third class doctors let alone specialists.
0550J13 ^There is a plethora of private hospitals, family hospitals, nursing homes,
0560J13 specialised and unspecialised clinics and high-priced special rooms
0570J13 in public hospitals. ^But even in their wildest dreams they can never conjure
0580J13 up enough money to_ go to any of these posh medicare centres.
0590J13 $^For them it is the good old story of interminable waiting in the queues
0600J13 with the patience of Job, humiliating treatment from examining doctors
0610J13 in the \*0.P.D., nurses and even ward boys and finally disappointment
0620J13 because they had not first seen the almighty doctor *4saheb with foot-long
0630J13 degrees in his private consulting room and paid the blood money. ^Only
0640J13 those who had the money and the wisdom to_ do it now got admission
0650J13 because the same almighty doctors, who now sit in the hospitals as honorary
0660J13 physicians and surgeons, are in charge of examination of patients and
0670J13 admissions. ^This is the vicious circle! $^At the end of the thirties,
0680J13 the scene in the medical world and medical care of citizens was totally
0690J13 different. ^Conventional doctors holding \0M.B.B.S., \0L.M.S.
0700J13 and such other modest degrees with their small dispensaries ruled the
0710J13 roost in cities and towns, quite a sprinkling of them serving even the townships
0720J13 of the nation. ^The poor people in towns, townships
0721J13 and adjoining villages could easily get themselves diagnosed together
0730J13 with the 'mixtures' the 'powders' and the 'pills' for all manner
0740J13 of ailments affecting them. ^And for any major complaints or surgery there
0750J13 were always the Government or Municipal hospitals, uncrowded, and for
0760J13 treatment unpaid. $^The old generation of doctors had not polluted
0770J13 their souls at the altar of greed, lust for money and luxurious living.
0780J13 $^They took but small fees never exceeding two or three *4rupees in cities
0790J13 and never more than a rupee from patients in townships and villages.
0800J13 $^The scene today is diametrically different. ^A new and powerful
0810J13 medical community of consulting physicians and surgeons and specialists
0820J13 with degrees denoting 'learned length and thundering sound' and who
0821J13 are in charge of the medical world. $^In our April issue no less an
0822J13 authority on renal medicines than \0Dr. *(0K. C.*) Kuruvila, Chief
0823J13 Nephrologist of Jaslok Hospital, had dwelt at length on the golden
0824J13 virtues of many of the properties in human urine. ^There is also a
0825J13 wealth of concrete evidence about the wonder cures of which \0AUT
0830J13 is capable of. $^In these circumstances is not auto-urine
0840J13 therapy, which does not cost the poor people even a Pakistan *4paisa,
0850J13 the most relevant medicare for our country*'s teeming millions immersed
0860J13 in poverty? ^If it is good enough for our Prime Minister who, after
0870J13 drinking self urine for decades, still goes about his onerous and arduous
0880J13 work with the zest and vigour of men in their twenties although he is
0890J13 now an octogenarian, is it not good for the people whose welfare he is
0900J13 looking after with such dedicated concern? ^If it is good for me who, after
0910J13 beginning auto-urine treatment on myself works like a war horse knowing
0920J13 neither fatigue nor exhaustion, is it not good for our people at large?
0930J13 $^And so, I say: Friends, Indians, countrymen, take to auto-urine
0940J13 therapy today without hesitation, compunction, revulsion or vacillation
0950J13 and report to me your wonderful feelings after a month. ^Good luck and
0960J13 all the best. $*=3 $*<*3PERFECT HEALTH WITHOUT DRUGS*0*> $^It is
0970J13 time that enlightened Indians started stressing the importance of sex
0980J13 education to growing children and adolescents. ^It is also time parents
0990J13 started rethinking on the subject. ^If sexologists, social reformers
1000J13 and parents co-operate to_ give proper sex instructions and knowledge
1010J13 to the growing children, it would curb the sociological causes leading to
1020J13 our degeneracies, abnormalities, perversions and consequent increase in
1030J13 venereal diseases, sex crimes, social and family life including the scarlet
1040J13 phenomenon called incest. $^In this connection it would be interesting
1050J13 to_ make a comparative study between what we had inherited from our
1060J13 ancestors and discarded thoughtlessly, and what is prevailing in Modern
1070J13 Society. ^*From the *4Vedic age of our history, our ancient lore
1080J13 was pregnant with sex knowledge. ^The supreme importance of this subject
1090J13 found expression in the ageless rock carvings, sacred temples and classic
1100J13 sculptures and paintings that_ are today the pride of our cultural
1110J13 heritage. $^In order to_ understand in its proper perspective the imperative
1120J13 need for imparting sex education to our children and adolescents,
1130J13 it is necessary to_ state the following facts to_ broaden the minds of
1140J13 our budding thinkers: $^It was Havelock Ellis, indisputably the
1150J13 greatest authority on the arts and sciences of sex the Western world
1151J13 had produced who said: "Sex lies at the root of life, and we can never
1160J13 learn to_ reverence life until we know how to_
1170J13 understand sex." ^*I would add that sex is not only the mainspring of life,
1180J13 but also the very art and science of living. $^Nature has divided
1190J13 the higher forms of life into two sexes. $^*Nature has divided the
1191J13 higher forms of life into two sexes. ^Nature has also created sexual
1200J13 desire and the need to_ love and mate, to_ reproduce the species.
1210J13 ^On this rough material the human mind has imposed its own variations and
1220J13 techniques. ^On this simple natural instinct, man has erected an exceptionally
1230J13 complex emotional structure. ^But this structure has differed
1240J13 with the ages and the peoples erecting it. $^Love has been brutalised
1250J13 and love has been made sublime. ^Some have paid greater attention
1260J13 to the physical aspects rather than the aesthetic. ^We must take
1270J13 these differences as they exist. ^No dogmatic standards could be built
1280J13 by which to_ measure the degree of a people*'s civilization and cultural
1290J13 level reached by them. ^Sex means and has meant different things to
1300J13 different races in different ages. ^And customs, beliefs and ideals have
1310J13 changed with the changing times. $^To_ take our own example, the technique
1320J13 of love and sex today is no longer the art and science it was when
1330J13 Vatsyayana and Kalyanamalla wrote their epics. ^As
1340J13 Paolo Mantegazza had said: India from the immemorial past has handed
1350J13 down invaluable instructions in the art of love. ^This their wise men
1360J13 have taught as the most important branch of education. ^But where
1370J13 is this knowledge today? ^It has definitely been buried in the hurry
1380J13 and scurry of modern life. $^Speaking for India alone, I must confess
1390J13 that we have built up a dogmatised system of ethics within the framework
1400J13 of legal prohibitions, deification of man and subjugation of woman,
1410J13 and an armoured code of family discipline. ^But until proper sex education
1420J13 is given to our growing generation, the volcanic power of sex instincts
1430J13 and impulses would continue to_ break through all prohibitions, taboos
1440J13 and moral disciplines and manifest themselves through undesirable channels.
1450J13 $^My thoughts now lead me to the question of aphrodisiacs. ^Throughout
1460J13 the history of mankind, man has tried to_ increase the pleasures
1470J13 of sexual life through amulets, potions, magic, *4mantras and aphrodisiacs.
1480J13 ^In our modern society aphrodisiacs claiming fantastic potential
1490J13 reign supreme. ^All I have to_ tell the people who pay high prices
1500J13 for these concoctions is that they are all useless but for their psychological
1510J13 impact and wherever they are really useful, they would create serious
1520J13 dangerous side effects gradually. ^It is better to_ abstain from
1530J13 them. $^Hence I say: Eschew aphrodisiacs. ^Start on \0AUT for
1540J13 sexual power and vigour and a healthy and normal life. $*=4 $*<*3NATIONALISE
1550J13 ALL HEALTH SERVICES*0*> $^They say medical science has
1560J13 taken gigantic strides resulting in man becoming much less susceptible
1570J13 to diseases and premature death. ^But facts do not justify such claims.
1580J13 $^The people in both our rural and urban areas have a much lower health
1590J13 standard now than what it used to_ be a few decades ago. ^The incidence
1600J13 of diseases in our cities and villages has not only increased in
1610J13 proportion but also multiplied in number. $^Without any laborious thinking
1620J13 or delving into medical literature I can list, off hand a variety
1630J13 of causes that_ contribute to disease and death.*#
        **[no. of words = 01933**]

        **[txt. j14**]
0010J14 **<*3Oral rehydration in infantile diarrhoea*0**>
0020J14 $*<*3Controlled trial of a low sodium glucose electrolyte solution*0*>
0030J14 $SUMMARY ^The paper describes the first controlled trial
0040J14 of an oral glucose electrolyte solution designed on the basis of the
0050J14 optimum pathophysiological needs for rehydration in infantile diarrhoea.
0060J14 ^The solution, having a sodium concentration of 50 \0mmol/l, was
0070J14 tried in a group of 20 infants with moderate to severe dehydration due
0080J14 to acute diarrhoea and was compared with a matched group of 19 infants
0090J14 predominantly under 2 years of age taking a 'standard' oral solution
0100J14 with a sodium concentration of 90 \0mmol/l. ^They could be hydrated
0110J14 as well with a low sodium oral solution alone as with the standard
0120J14 solution. ^Intravenous fluid was not required in either group.
0130J14 ^The group treated with the high sodium 'standard' solution appeared
0140J14 to_ develop hypernatraemia and/ or periorbital oedema more frequently
0150J14 than the other group. ^Also, the low sodium solution eliminated
0160J14 the need for additional free water orally. $^Development of oral
0170J14 hydration for acute diarrhoeal diseases has emerged as a major therapeutic
0180J14 advance (Pierce *(0et al*)., 1968; Hirschhorn *(0et al*)., 1968,
0190J14 1972, 1973; Sack *(0et al*)., 1970; Nalin *(0et al*)., 1970; Mahalanabis
0200J14 (0et al*)., 1973, 1974; Lancet, 1975). ^A single universal
0210J14 oral hydration solution having a sodium concentration of 90 \0mmol/l has
0220J14 been recommended by \0WHO/ \0UNICEF (Treatment and Prevention
0230J14 of Dehydration in Diarrhoeal Diseases, 1976) for rehydration, in
0240J14 all age groups with acute diarrhoea of all causes. ^This universal
0250J14 oral hydration solution emerged largely from the studies in adult patients
0260J14 with acute cholera and has subsequently been used in children.
0270J14 ^It has been shown that the average faecal sodium concentration in infantile
0280J14 diarrhoea is about 56 \0mmol/l as against 101 and 140 \0mmol/l in
0290J14 children and adults with cholera respectively (Mahalanabis *(0et al*).,
0300J14 1970). ^Furthermore, the possible risk of hypernatraemia after
0310J14 the use of such a solution in infants has prevented its wider acceptance
0320J14 by paediatricians. $^This study was designed (a) to_ evaluate the
0330J14 efficacy and safety of an oral solution with a lower sodium concentration
0340J14 (50 \0mmol/l) similar to the mean faecal sodium concentration in infantile
0350J14 diarrhoea, (b) to_ attempt complete hydration of infants with moderate
0360J14 and severe dehydration with oral solution alone, and (c) to_ investigate
0370J14 the possible risk of salt overload in infantile diarrhoea with the
0380J14 oral solution advocated by \0WHO/ \0UNICEF. $*<*3Material and
0390J14 methods*> $^Infants and children aged 4 months to 4 years, admitted
0400J14 with a history of acute watery diarrhoea with or without vomiting,
0410J14 and with moderate to severe dehydration as judged by clinical examination
0420J14 (\0i.e. moderate to marked loss of skin turgor, sunken eyes, dry mucous
0430J14 membrane, tachycardia with or without a feeble pulse), were included
0440J14 in the study. ^They were randomly assigned to either of two treatment
0450J14 groups, A and B. $^Children in group A were hydrated by an
0460J14 oral solution (solution A) similar to the one advocated by \0WHO/
0470J14 \0UNICEF (Treatment and Prevention, 1976) having the following
0480J14 composition: \0Na*:+**:90, \0K*:+**:15, \0Cl*:-**:75,
0490J14 \0HCO*;3**; 30 \0mmol/l (90, 15, 75, 30 \0mEq/l), and glucose 90
0500J14 \0mmol/l (1621 \0mg/100 \0ml). ^Children in group B were treated
0510J14 by an oral solution (solution B) containing \0Na*:+**:50, \0K*:+**:15,
0520J14 \0Cl*:-**:50, \0HCO*:-**:*;3**; 15 \0mmol/l,
0530J14 glucose 170 \0mmol/l (3063 \0mg/100 \0ml). ^Both solutions had a
0540J14 calculated osmolarity of 300 \0mOsm/l. $^Before treatment the child
0550J14 was weighed nude on a balance with a sensitivity of 1 \0g. ^A nasogastric
0560J14 tube was introduced, the stomach aspirated, and intragastric
0570J14 drip of either solution was started. ^Solutions A and B were given
0580J14 at approximately 10 \0ml and 12.5 \0ml/kg per hour, respectively,
0590J14 until complete clinical hydration was achieved. ^Those children who
0600J14 had further diarrhoea were given the same solutions orally as drinks
0610J14 to_ replace stool losses. ^Patients in group A were actively encouraged
0620J14 to_ drink additional water after 4 hours of hydration. ^Allowance
0630J14 of free water in these children was dictated by ethical considerations
0640J14 and our desire to_ conform to the recommendations of \0WHO/ \0UNICEF
0650J14 (Treatment and Prevention, 1976). $^Initial hydration was
0660J14 usually achieved within 12 to 24 hours, after which patients were allowed
0670J14 dilute milk and/ or breast milk; low lactose milk formula not being available.
0680J14 ^Whole cows*' milk was restored usually within 3 days of
0690J14 admission. ^Older children were allowed components of adults diet
0700J14 within 24 to 48 hours. ^All patients received tetracycline hydrochloride
0710J14 50 \0mg/kg body weight per day for 4 days, in accordance with
0720J14 the prevailing practice in the paediatric unit where the study was conducted.
0730J14 $^Clinical features, plasma specific gravity, and haematocrit
0740J14 were recorded on admission, at 6 hours, after initial hydration,
0750J14 48 hours after admission, and on recovery. ^Recovery was defined as
0760J14 a time when a stable body weight was attained after diarrhoea had stopped.
0770J14 ^This usually took 5 to 6 days. ^Plasma electrolytes were
0780J14 estimated in triplicate from frozen samples on admission, after initial
0790J14 hydration, and at recovery in a flame photometer, plasma \0CO*;2**;
0800J14 combining power by a Van Slyke volumetric apparatus, and plasma specific
0810J14 gravity by a temperature compensated refractometer (*(oT. S.*) Meter*:-R**:,
0820J14 American Optical \0Co.).
0830J14 $^Stool samples were examined routinely for the presence of reducing substance
0840J14 using Benedict*'s qualitative reagent. ^Methods for isolation
0850J14 of enteropathogens have already been described (Sack *(0et al*).,
0860J14 1970). $*<*3Results*> $^Of the 39 infants, 19 received
0870J14 solution A (group A) and 20 solution B (group B). $*3Nutritional
0880J14 status. ^Table 1 shows that except for 2 children in group
0890J14 A and 1 in group B, all had varying degrees of malnutrition. ^Clinical
0900J14 kwashiorkor was present in 3 in group A and 2 in group B.
0910J14 $*3Enteropathogens. ^Known enteropathogens were shown only in
0920J14 4 cases of group A; three were enteropathogenic \0*3E *3coli (\0EPEC)
0930J14 type 0.128:K67 (B12) and the fourth *3Vibrio cholerae
0940J14 *3El tor (Inaba ). ^In 5 patients in group B enteropathogens were
0950J14 isolated: three were \0EPEC type 0.128:K67 (B12), and two
0960J14 were \0*3V. cholerae *3El tor (one Inaba, and one Ogawa).
0970J14 ^Lack of facilities prevented the search for reovirus as an aetiological
0980J14 agent. $*3Clinical features. ^Table 2 shows that the clinical
0990J14 features were comparable in the two group of patients. ^93%
1000J14 of the children had altered sensorium (\0i.e. drowsy, or drowsy with
1010J14 irritability to touch, or comatose) of whom 10% had frank convulsions on
1020J14 admission. ^Hypernatraemia (\0Na>150 \0mmol/l) on admission
1030J14 was noted in 2 in group A and 1 in group B (\0Fig.). ^Neurological
1040J14 manifestations were absent in all of the children with hypernatraemia
1050J14 on admission; however, one had a history of seizures before admission.
1060J14 ^Per cent weight gain, and biochemical values recorded on admission
1070J14 and at various points during recovery (Table 3, \0Fig.) showed
1080J14 no significant differences between the two groups. $*3Results
1090J14 of treatment. ^All the children in both groups were successfully
1100J14 hydrated orally and none required intravenous therapy. ^Table 4
1110J14 shows the rate and amount of oral fluids given to each group of patients.
1120J14 ^In group A 2 patients were hypernatraemic on admission (\0Fig.),
1130J14 of whom one became normonatraemic after treatment, while the other
1140J14 remained hypernatraemic until recovery; and 2 normonatraemic children
1150J14 on admission developed hypernatraemia after treatment. ^However,
1160J14 none of these patients showed neurological manifestations. ^Detailed
1170J14 clinical and biochemical information on the patients with persistent
1180J14 hypernatraemia is given in Table 5. ^In group A periorbital
1190J14 oedema was noted in 7 patients after initial hydration, which regressed
1200J14 over a period of 1 to 5 days. ^In group B hypernatraemia on admission
1210J14 was noted in one case, which persisted up to the end of initial
1220J14 hydration but returned to near normal at the time of recovery (\0Fig.).
1230J14 ^This child also showed no neurological manifestation. ^In
1240J14 3 cases mild periorbital oedema unrelated to hypernatraemia was noted
1250J14 but regressed over a period of 1 to 2 days. $^There were 2 late
1260J14 deaths (1 pneumonia, 1 septicaemia) in group B. ^Both were kwashiorkor
1270J14 babies, with wasting, pitting oedema, typical hair and skin
1280J14 changes. ^2 patients in group B and 1 in group A had abdominal distension
1290J14 with hypoperistalsis on admission but all 3 responded to oral
1300J14 hydration. ^A significant amount of glucose in the stool was found
1310J14 only in 2 children hydrated with the low sodium oral solution containing
1320J14 a relatively higher amount of glucose, but it did not interfere with
1330J14 oral rehydration. ^Vomiting, which is not uncommon during the
1340J14 initial phase, also did not prevent successful hydration. $*<*3Discussion*>
1350J14 $^This is the first controlled study using an oral glucose
1360J14 electrolyte solution containing an optimum concentration of sodium
1370J14 designed in accordance with the pathophysiological needs (Darrow, 1946;
1380J14 Darrow *(0et al*)., 1949) of hydration therapy in infantile diarrhoea.
1390J14 $^We have shown that comparable groups of infants predominantly
1400J14 under 2 years of age, with moderate to severe degree of dehydration,
1410J14 can be adquately hydrated with either solution alone. ^A steady intragastric
1420J14 drip and prior aspiration of stomach contents contributed to
1430J14 these satisfactory results from oral therapy even in those with severe dehydration.
1440J14 ^Although stool volumes could not be measured during therapy,
1450J14 careful clinical evaluation, repeated weighing of the infant,
1460J14 and sequential measurement of plasma specific gravity and haematocrit were
1470J14 deemed adequate indices of favourable response to oral therapy.
1480J14 $^Previous studies have shown a significant rise in serum sodium in eight
1490J14 paired observations (Hirschhorn *(0et al*)., 1972), and periorbital
1500J14 oedema in 3 out of 17 infants (Hirschhorn *(0et al*)., 1973) treated
1510J14 with an oral solution similar to solution A, but no frank hypernatraemia
1520J14 was reported. ^Although no significant difference
1530J14 was found in this study for the development of hypernatranemia and/
1540J14 or periorbital oedema between the two groups, nevertheless children
1550J14 treated with a higher salt solution showed a trend towards developing
1560J14 these complications more frequently in spite of persistent efforts
1570J14 to_ administer water freely by mouth. $^Several factors
1580J14 may have contributed to the persistence of hypenatraemia in these
1590J14 children. ^They were all young (Table 5) and were febrile on admission.
1600J14 ^The only hypernatraemic child who became normonatraemic
1610J14 after therapy was relatively older (3.74 years). ^No
1620J14 significant relationship between the nutritional status and persistence
1630J14 of hypernatraemia was observed (Table 1). ^In an effort to_
1640J14 combat undernutrition, we introduced full strength cows*' milk
1650J14 formula early, leading to varying degrees of osmotic diarrhoea in
1660J14 these children presumably due to temporary lactase deficiency
1670J14 (Chatterjee *(0et al*), 1977) which further contributed to hypernatraemia
1680J14 (Fordtran, 1973). ^Another important factor was that
1690J14 the majority of the children, including those who remained hypernatraemic
1700J14 had low levels of serum potassium even in the presence of
1701J14 acidosis on admission, reflecting low total body potassium.
1710J14 ^This is known to_ cause sodium retention from the administered
1720J14 fluid particularly if it is deficient in potassium (Cheek,
1730J14 1956; Katcher *(0et al*)., 1953). ^It is notable that the group
1740J14 having high sodium oral solution received comparatively less potassium
1750J14 with respect to sodium than the other group. ^Although it
1760J14 would have been useful to_ investigate the response of the kidneys
1770J14 to salt overload in these children, ethical considerations prevented
1780J14 us from submitting them to any salt loading test when they had just
1790J14 recovered from severe acute diarrhoea. $^Solution B with a lower
1800J14 sodium concentration is not only as effective as the recommended A universal
1810J14 solution but also eliminates the need to_ ensure additional free
1820J14 water intake, thus rendering treatment much simpler, and its use
1830J14 reduces the risk of salt overload particularly under less stringent
1840J14 clinical supervision. ^Although none of the patients with persistent
1850J14 hypernatraemia manifested any central nervous
1860J14 system signs, this finding and also the frequent occurrence of periorbital
1870J14 oedema suggest caution in using high sodium oral hydration
1880J14 solutions in infants under 2 years of age. $**<*3Short reports**>
1890J14 $*<*3Immunodeficiency associated with laevocardia,
1900J14 bronchiectasis, and paranasal sinus anomalies*> $^Several individuals
1910J14 with the triad of laevocardia (situs inversus with left-sided heart),
1920J14 bilateral bronchiectasis and abnormalities of paranasal sinuses
1930J14 have been described (Chandra and Khetarpal, 1963; Sharpe, 1963;
1940J14 Lee, 1965; Datta, 1968; Magalini 1971). ^In such patients, the
1950J14 frequency of infecttions, particularly of the respiratory tract, is
1960J14 increased. ^We report the presence of immunodeficiency in the
1970J14 first patient to_ be described with this syndrome (Chandra and Khetarpal,
1980J14 1963). $*<*3Case report*> $*3Patient. ^A 7-year-old girl
1990J14 was brought to hospital with a history of repeated respiratory
2000J14 infections since early infancy. ^She had developed normally, and
2010J14 her weight and height were on the 25th and 10th centiles respectively.*#
        **[no. of words = 02007**]

        **[txt. j15**]
0010J15 **<*3ACUTE PULMONARY EMBOLISM*0**> $*<*3The prevention of acute pulmonary
0020J15 embolism*0*> $*3^VENOUS*0 thromboembolism is a frequent
0030J15 complication in hospital patients. ^It is often asked whether acute
0040J15 pulmonary embolism can be prevented and, furthermore, whether it
0050J15 is worth preventing since the mortality due to this complication is extremely
0060J15 low and all prophylactic measures require supervision, extra work,
0070J15 organization, and vigilance. ^The data presented in this
0080J15 paper support the argument that acute pulmonary embolism should be prevented,
0090J15 especially since several prophylactic measures are now availabale
0100J15 that_ make prevention a practical proposition. $*<THE NEED FOR PROPHYLAXIS*0*>
0110J15 $^This need can best be illustrated by the consideration
0120J15 of various facts. ^Despite advances in the management of pulmonary
0130J15 embolism the mortality due to this condition is increasing; the deaths
0140J15 recorded in the registrar General*'s report for England and Wales
0150J15 indicate that there has been nearly a sixfold increase in such mortality
0160J15 during the last 30 years. ^It has been estimated that in the \0UK
0170J15 approximately 21000 patients die each year from this cause (\0DHSS,
0180J15 1970) while the figures reported for the \0USA vary
0190J15 between 47000-140,000 (Hume *(0et al*), 1970). $^Several autopsy
0200J15 studies have shown that most cases of major pulmonary embolism are not diagnosed
0210J15 during life and are therefore not treated (Freiman *(0et al*),
0220J15 1965, Sevitt, 1968). ^Two thirds of the deaths from acute
0230J15 pulmonary embolism occur within 30 minutes of the embolic event (Donaldson
0240J15 *(0et al*), 1963). ^This is too brief a period for pulmonary
0250J15 embolectomy to_ be performed or for any benefit to_ be derived from
0260J15 thrombolytic therapy, which has been shown to_ be highly effective in
0270J15 producing rapid lysis of emboli (Hirsh *(0et al*), 1968); National
0280J15 Heart and Lung Institute Cooperative Study, 1970; Miller
0290J15 *(0et al*), 1971). ^Furthermore, approximately 80 per cent of pulmonary
0300J15 emboli arise without premonitory signs of peripheral venous thrombosis
0310J15 and consequently treatment with heparin and oral anticoagulants to_
0320J15 prevent embolism is often not given. ^Thus, to_ say that one*'s policy
0330J15 is to_ treat massive pulmonary embolism or its precursor, peripheral
0340J15 venous thrombosis, is to_ expose patients to an unacceptable risk of
0350J15 fatal complications. $^The most rational approach would therefore seem
0360J15 to_ be that_ of developing an effective method of prophylaxis if the mortality
0370J15 due to pulmonary embolism and the misery due to the postphlebitic
0380J15 syndrome are to_ be significantly reduced. ^If such a method is to_
0390J15 be adopted on a wide scale it has to_ fulfil the following criteria: it
0400J15 must be simple, safe, and effective; it must be applicable to all types
0410J15 of patients at risk of developing deep venous thrombosis; and it must cover
0420J15 the period of risk, which in surgical patients has been shown to_
0430J15 extend from the time of operation until 7-10 days afterwards. $*<AVAILABLE
0440J15 METHODS*> $^The main attempts to_ prevent deep venous thrombosis
0450J15 can be conveniently divided into two groups: those directed towards
0460J15 the elimination of stasis in the deep veins of the legs and those employed
0470J15 to_ counteract changes in blood coagulability. $*<*3Elimination
0480J15 of stasisO*> $^Despite general agreement that stasis plays a
0490J15 significant role in the pathogenesis of venous thrombosis and despite increasing
0500J15 awareness of the hazards of bed rest, there is conflicting evidence
0510J15 as to the efficacy of early ambulation and leg exercises in reduciing
0520J15 the incidence of deep venous thrombosis: some workers say they are of
0530J15 value (Murley, 1950) while others deny this (Blodgett and Beattie,
0540J15 1946). ^Unfortunately, these conclusions are based on physical signs
0550J15 alone, which are often quite inadequate for the diagnosis of venous
0560J15 thrombosis. ^Although elastic stockings have been shown to_ increase
0570J15 the rate of venous return, recent studies using the *:125**:i-labelled
0580J15 fibrinogen test (an accurate and objective method of detecting deep
0590J15 venous thrombosis) have failed to_ confirm the beneficial effects in
0600J15 surgical patients who wear elastic stockings throughout their hospital
0610J15 stay (Rosengarten *(0et al*), 1970) ^Elevation of the lower extremities
0620J15 has also been shown to_ increase the rate of venous return, but
0630J15 again controlled studies have found this to_ be ineffective in preventing
0640J15 venous thrombosis (Rosengarten and Laird, 1971). $^The limitations
0650J15 of intensive physical prophylaxis in general surgical cases were
0660J15 clearly demonstrated by Flane *(0et al*) (1969) using the
0670J15 *:125**:i-labelled fibrinogen test to_ detect leg vein thrombi. ^In
0680J15 this study patients wore elastic stockings from the time of admission
0690J15 until discharge, had frequent vigorous leg exercises before and after
0700J15 operation, had the foot of the bed elevated, and were provided with a
0710J15 foot board to_ aid plantar flexion against resistance; pressure on the
0720J15 calves during operaion was avoided by the use of a Sorbo rubber stand
0730J15 and after operation the legs were kept elevated until consciousness permitted
0740J15 exercise and movement. ^Ambulation began between the first
0750J15 and third postoperative days, depending on the type of operation.
0760J15 ^Despite all efforts, the overall results of these physical measures
0770J15 were disappointing; thrombosis was detected in 25 per cent of 67 patients
0780J15 having intensive physiotherapy and in 35 per cent of 65 concurrent
0790J15 controls. ^However, a significant reduction was seen in elderly patients
0800J15 undergoing major operations, in whom the incidence of thrombosis
0810J15 was 24 per cent compared with 61 per cent in the controls. ^Different
0820J15 results have been reported by Tsapogas *(0et al*) (1971) who
0830J15 found these methods to_ be highly effective in preventing thrombosis.
0840J15 $^More specific attempts have now been made to_ prevent stasis during
0850J15 operation and several methods for increasing venous return from the lower
0860J15 limbs have recently been investigated. ^One of these is electrical
0870J15 stimulation of the calf muscles during operation: two electrodes
0880J15 are applied to the calf and a low voltage current is used to_ contract
0890J15 the muscles every 2-4 seconds. ^The beneficial results of this method
0900J15 of preventing stasis and consequently of reducing thrombosis, first
0910J15 reported by Doran *(0et al*) in 1964, have now been investigated by
0920J15 several other workers using the radioactive fibrinogen test for assessment.
0930J15 $^Another method is pneumatic compression of the calves, which
0940J15 involes encasing each leg in an envelope of plastic material and rhythmically
0950J15 altering the pressure to_ squeeze the calf muscels and increase
0960J15 venous return. ^Two different types of devices are available for
0970J15 clinical use. ^One is the Roberts Venous Flow Stimulator manufactured
0980J15 by \0BOC which comprises two plastic boots inflated by
0990J15 a cylinder of air or oxygen; the controlling mechanism is preset to_
1000J15 inflate the boots to 45 \0mmHg in 8 seconds every 2 minutes (Cotton
1010J15 and Roberts, 1973). ^This gap of 2 minutes is allowed between
1020J15 compressions because it was found that in older patients the arterial
1030J15 flow may be slower and the leg may take a much longer time to_ fill up
1040J15 with venous blood. ^The other device, the Flowtron Intermittent
1050J15 Compression System manufactured by Flowtron Aire (Hills
1060J15 *(0et al*), 1972), is an electric pump which inflates each legging
1070J15 alternately so that compression at 40-45 \0mmHg for one minute is
1080J15 followed by relaxation for one minute. ^It is claimed that the Roberts
1090J15 Venous Flow Stimulator is more effective than the Flowtron
1100J15 Intermittent Compression System because, although it has
1110J15 very little effect on the mean venous flow, by squeezing empty the
1120J15 sinuses in the solcal veins and valve pockets it disturbs the venous
1130J15 return as maximally as possile (Cotton and Roberts, 1975).
1140J15 ^The advantage of this method is that it can be used not only during
1150J15 operation but also in the postoperative period. ^A third method that_
1160J15 has been investigated consists of passive plantar flexion and dorsiflexion
1170J15 of the foot during operation by means of motor-driven pedals which
1180J15 again increases blood flow (Sabri *(0et al*), 1971).
1190J15 $^In the studies using these different methods the radioactive fibrinogen
1200J15 test was employed to_ detect the presence of deep venous thrombosis.
1210J15 ^There is little doubt that all these methods lessen stasis and lower
1220J15 the incidence of venous thrombosis. ^One of the conclusions drawn
1230J15 by Hills *(0et al*) (1972) is that their method of intermittent compression
1240J15 is ineffective in high risk patients undergoing operations for malignant
1250J15 disease. ^However, Cotton and Roberts (1975) have shown
1260J15 that their method of compression is equally successful in patients with
1270J15 and without malignant disease. ^Although many of these trials have
1280J15 found that the methods employed are effective in reducing the incidence
1290J15 of deep venous thrombosis, they provide no information on acute
1300J15 pulmonary embolism. ^Furthermore, although the reported incidence
1310J15 of fatal pulmonary embolism in surgical patients is approximately 0.5-1.0
1320J15 per cent, there is no certainty that the patients who die
1330J15 do not belong to the resistant group (approximately 25 per cent) who
1340J15 are not protected by these physical measures.
1350J15 $*<*3Counteracting blood coagulability*>
1360J15 $^Many attempts have been made to_ prevent thrombosis by simpler means such
1370J15 as the use of chemical agents. ^These can be classified into three
1380J15 main groups. $^First, it has been suggested that adhesion of
1390J15 platelets to subendothelial connective tissue at the site of the venousendothelium
1400J15 that_ is presumed to_ be damaged and the subsequent events
1410J15 leading to platelet aggregation may account for thrombus formation.
1420J15 ^If this platelet aggregation can be prevented it is conceivable that the
1430J15 thrombus will not form. ^It is with this background that various
1440J15 drugs that_ interfere with the different aspects of platelet function
1450J15 have been investigated; these include dextran (usually dextran 70) dipyridamole,
1460J15 aspirin, and chloroquine.
1470J15 $^The second chemical approch involves the use of drugs that_ interfere
1480J15 with the coagulation mechanism. ^A vital step in the sequence of
1490J15 coagulation is the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin under the influence
1500J15 of activated factor X. ^The thrombin so formed acts on the
1510J15 fibrinogen to_ convert it to fibrin, which in turn forms the essential
1520J15 network of a venous thrombus. ^Two different types of drugs have
1530J15 been used to_ block the coagulation sequence: oral anticoagulants which
1540J15 act by reducing the synthesis in the liver of various clotting factors
1550J15 (such as prothrombin and factor X), and heparin which acts primarily
1560J15 by increasing factor X inhibitor activity. ^Therefore small doses
1570J15 of heparin given before factor X is activated are effective in preventing
1580J15 thrombosis but do not affect the clotting time.
1590J15 $^The third group of drugs is thought to_ act on the venous endothelium
1600J15 to_ increase the naturally occurring fibrinolytic activity in the body.
1610J15 $^*Astrup (1956) has suggested that thrombosis may be partly due to a local
1620J15 or generalized imbalance between coagulation and fibrinolysis.
1630J15 ^A shift in the balance towards fibrinolysis could prevent thrombosis or
1640J15 rapidly lyse recent thrombi, while impairment of fibrinolysis would encourage
1650J15 the growth of the thrombus. ^Various investigators (Pandolfi
1660J15 *(0et al*), 1969; Nilsson *(0et al*), 1970) have shown that fibrinolytic
1670J15 activity in the blood and the vein walls is abnormally low in the
1680J15 majority of patients with recent deep venous thrombosis or superficial
1700J15 thrombophlebitis. $*<*3Drugs affecting platelet function*>
1710J15 $^The evidence that drugs such as aspirin and dipyridamole (known to_ interfere
1720J15 with platelet function) effectively reduce the incidence of deep
1730J15 venous thrombosis is unconvincing and these agents should probably not
1740J15 be used for the prophylaxis of venous thrombosis. ^In a recent double-blind
1750J15 randomized trial the efficacy of aspirin in preventing postoperative
1760J15 venous thromboembolism was assessed (Report of the Steering Committee
1770J15 of a Trial Sponsored by the Medical Research Council, 1972).
1780J15 ^In this study, 303 patients over the age of 28 years admitted for
1790J15 elective operation were included; they were randomly allocated to a
1800J15 treated or a control group and received either aspirin 600 \0mg or a placebo
1810J15 consisting of plain white tablets. ^Deep venous thrombosis was
1820J15 diagnosed by the *:125**:i-labelled fibrinogen test. ^Twenty two per
1830J15 cent of the patients who received the placebo developed thrombi, compared
1840J15 with 27.5 per cent of those receiving aspirin.
1850J15 $^Similarly disappointing results were reported by O*'3Brien (1971).
1860J15 ^However, Salzman *(0et al*) (1971) compared the protective effects
1870J15 of warfarin, dipyridamole, dextran 40, and aspirin in 69 patients
1880J15 who were admitted for hip arthroplasty and claimed that the results with
1890J15 aspirin were better than those in an untreated group reported previously.
1900J15 ^One interesting point in this study was that while the incidence
1910J15 of deep venous thrombosis (as detected by clinical criteria) was lower
1920J15 in the aspirin-treated patients compared with the control group, the
1930J15 incidence of pulmonary embolism was not reduced. ^This paradoxical
1940J15 result raises the question of whether the administration of aspirin
1950J15 (1-2 \0g/ day) may have masked some of the clinical features such as pain,
1960J15 tenderness, and increased temperature.*#
        **[no. of words = 02013**]

        **[txt. j16**]
0010J16 **<*3Thin needle aspiration biopsy as a diagnostic aid for breast
0020J16 tumours**> $^Since thin needle aspiration biopsy as a diagnostic
0030J16 aid for breast tumour has not been widely used in our country,
0040J16 the authors intended to_ give this technique a fair trial. ^Acceptance
0041J16 by the patients has been very good and the initial hesitation by the clinicians
0050J16 has been replaced by an encouraging response. ^Advantages
0060J16 of this method are manifold: it is practically a painless procedure,
0070J16 hospitalisation is not required and the result can be obtained in
0080J16 an hour. ^In the present series, 31 cases have been studied and an
0090J16 accuracy rate of more than 90% attained. ^Though not a large series,
0100J16 the results compare favourably with those obtained by workers
0110J16 in more advanced countries. ^This proves the simplicity and usefulness
0120J16 of this technique. $*3^IT*0 is more than forty years
0130J16 since Martin introduced aspiration biopsy in 1930 as a substitute
0140J16 for excisional biopsy, and it took more than three decades before
0150J16 it was recognised and accepted as a valuable diagnostic aid. ^The
0160J16 main reasons for this delay was its non-acceptance by clinicians
0170J16 for the fear of dissemination of malignant cells, and the inability
0180J16 of the pathologists to_ interpret the results correctly.
0190J16 ^Due to rapid strides in the field of cytology and cancer research
0200J16 during the last decade and a half, it is now possible to_ differentiate
0210J16 the various cell types and their nature-- malignant or otherwise,
0220J16 so that the trained pathologist, more precisely the cytologist
0230J16 can now give a more accurate pre-operative diagnosis of the needle
0240J16 aspirate. $^Thin-needle aspiration is preferable to the conventional
0250J16 thick-needle aspirations, since the thick-needle causes
0260J16 more trauma and resultant aspiration of blood may distort the result.
0270J16 ^In Europe, particularly Scandinavian countries, thin needle
0280J16 aspiration biopsy has gained wide acceptance in recent years
0290J16 (Zajicek, 1974). ^A high degree of accuracy in interpreting such
0300J16 biopsies has been achieved. ^Advances in the technique itself,
0310J16 using a thin-needle and plastic syringes capable of producing high
0320J16 negative pressure and a metal syringe holder, have been shown to_
0330J16 give fairly adequate material with little or no blood contamination.
0340J16 ^Since the technique lends itself to outpatient diagnosis,
0350J16 the cost of hospitalisation has also been considerably reduced
0360J16 (Webb, 1975, Frable, 1976) $*<*3MATERIAL*0*> $^31 cases of Lumps
0370J16 in the breasts were studied. ^All cases were clinically
0380J16 examined and only definite palpable lumps were subjected to this study.
0390J16 ^Cases of fibroadenosis and similar conditions were not aspirated.
0400J16 ^All cases presented here were confirmed by operation and
0410J16 subsequent histological examination. ^Table *=1 shows the number
0420J16 and type of cases studied. ^Though not a large series, this fairly
0430J16 represents the types of cases encountered in this part of the
0440J16 country. $*<*3METHOD*0*> $(**=1) *3Diagnostic equipment*0: ^22 gauge
0450J16 1 1/2 inch needle, a disposable 20 \0cc plastic syringe capable of producing
0460J16 high vacuum, and a 'Cameco' (Sweden) pistol grip syringe holder
0470J16 are used for the aspiration (\0Fig. 1, a & b).
0480J16 $(**=2) *3Technique of aspiration:*0 ^The technique advocated by
0490J16 Zajicek (1974) is used. ^The skin overlying the lump is cleaned
0500J16 with antiseptics, the tumour is fixed between the thumb and fingers
0510J16 of the left hand and the needle fitted to the syringe and holder
0520J16 held in the right hand (\0Fig. 1b) is thrust into the breast.
0530J16 ^When the tumour is reached, the plunger of the syringe is drawn out
0540J16 with the help of the pistol grip of the holder, thus creating
0550J16 a vacuum, and the needle is pushed into the tumour mass. ^By making
0560J16 back and forth movements in different directions within the substance
0570J16 of the tumour mass more and more cells are aspirated into
0580J16 the needle, observing constantly the nozzle of the syringe.
0590J16 ^As soon as some material is visible in the nozzle, or when it is
0600J16 felt that enough cells have been aspirated into the needle, the
0610J16 manoeuvre is stopped. ^The plunger is slowly released so as
0620J16 to_ equalise the pressure in the syringe and the needle is withdrawn.
0630J16 ^Local pressure with dry gauze prevents any oozing
0640J16 of blood from the puncture point. ^If blood is aspirated,
0650J16 the same procedure may be repeated using a thinner needle till
0660J16 a clear aspirate is obtained. $(**=3) *3Preparation of
0670J16 smear:*0 ^Two clean glass slides are used. ^The needle is taken
0680J16 off the syringe, the plunger of the syringe is drawn back again,
0690J16 the needle is re-fitted and a drop or two of the aspirate is allowed
0700J16 to_ settle on the slide by pushing the plunger down. ^If
0710J16 the material is liquid, smears can be prepared like a blood slide;
0720J16 if it is a thick cellular aspirate, the two slides are pressed
0730J16 to each other and slided down so as to_ make smears on both
0740J16 slides. $(**=4) *3Fixation & staining:*0 ^The smears are
0750J16 fixed with 95% alcohol for a period of 30 \0mins. before drying.
0760J16 ^Staining is carried out on the fixed slides by
0770J16 Giemsa stain diluted 1:10 in phosphate buffer, or with acid
0780J16 carbol fuchsin 1%. ^After staining the slides are washed in
0790J16 water and can be dehydrated and mounted in a neutral mounting
0800J16 medium like Euparol or Permount. ^Routine Haematoxylin-Eosin
0810J16 or Papanicolaou stain may also be used. $(**=5) *3Examination
0820J16 of slides:*0 ^The cells are studied under a good quality
0830J16 conventional microscope using low and high power, and
0840J16 oil-immersion lenses. ^The nuclear details, relationship of
0850J16 cells and cytoplasmic metachromasia, all help in the diagnosis.
0860J16 ^The metachromasia is best seen with the Giemsa stain
0870J16 and is useful in picking out areas of stroma and seeing the relationship
0880J16 of epithelial cells to stroma in cases of fibroadenoma
0890J16 of the breast (\0Fig. 2 a, b, c). ^The nuclear characteristics
0900J16 of malignancy are well known and pleomorphic bizarre cellular
0910J16 patterns are often observed (\0Fig. 3 a, b, c). $^It is
0920J16 interesting to_ note that with some experience it is possible to_
0930J16 predict the expected diagnosis during aspiration by the
0940J16 'feel' of the needle and the tissue resistance encountered as
0950J16 the needle traverses the tumour mass. ^In malignancy the aspirate
0960J16 is obtained easily, in firm tumours as in fibroadenoma
0970J16 relatively scanty material is obtained, while in sclerosing
0980J16 (fibrosing) adenomatosis great resistance is encountered and only
0990J16 as a little thin interstitial fluid with scanty cellular material
1000J16 is aspirated. $*<*3RESULTS & LIMITATIONS*0*> $^The
1010J16 overall results of aspiration biopsy were good. ^There was
1020J16 one 'false negative' and two 'negative' results. ^The false
1030J16 negative result was in a case of carcinoma associated with
1040J16 infection. ^Aspiration showed inflammatory cells. ^Antibiotics
1050J16 reduced the lump but it did not resolve completely whereupon
1060J16 it was excised. ^Tissue biospy showed carcinoma.
1070J16 ^One of the cases of negative result was of duct carcinoma
1080J16 situated in the deeper breast tissue. ^The needle did not reach
1090J16 the tumour mass so that only normal breast tissue was aspirated.
1100J16 ^Excision biopsy proved it to_ be a case of duct carcinoma.
1110J16 ^The other case was that_ of sclerosing adenomatosis,
1120J16 where only interstitial fluid without any definite cell structure
1130J16 was aspirated. ^Postoperative histological examination
1140J16 confirmed the diagnosis. ^Emphasis must be put on clinical
1150J16 judgement which can never be replaced by any other means. ^Whenever
1160J16 in doubt, excisional biopsy should be done. ^*Table
1170J16 *=2 shows the correlation between the clinico-pathological and
1180J16 aspiration biopsy results. ^Though a small series, these
1190J16 results compare favourably with those obtained by Zajicek (1974),
1200J16 Webb (1975) and Frable (1976) (Talbe *=3). $*<*3DISCUSSION*0*>
1210J16 $^It is a great help for the clinician if preoperative
1220J16 diagnosis can be made with certain accuracy, with minimum
1230J16 risk and trauma to the patient. ^In this respect thin-needle
1240J16 aspiration biopsy is ideal. ^Patient acceptance has
1250J16 been very satisfactory, and over 90% accuracy has been achieved
1260J16 in this series, and more than 95% by others (Table *=3). ^The
1270J16 only problem has been the reluctance of the clinicians, their main
1280J16 objection being dissemination of malignant cells and seeding
1290J16 of the needle track by cancer cells. ^This apprehension has
1300J16 been refuted by Berg and Robbins (1962). ^In their extensive
1301J16 studies of aspirated breast cancer patients for a period of over twenty
1302J16 years, no difference in their overall survival rate was seen compared
1303J16 to the controls.
1310J16 $*<*3CONCLUSIONS*0*> $^Thin needle aspiration biopsy is a fairly safe
1320J16 procedure in trained hands, and it gives reasonably accurate
1330J16 results, thereby helping the clinician to_ plan the best line
1340J16 of treatment. ^It should however be emphasised that aspiration
1350J16 biopsy is only one of the diagnostic methods and negative
1360J16 result does not always exclude the pathology. ^The result should
1370J16 always be correlated with the clinical findings and if required
1380J16 a repeat aspiration may be done or other means of confirmation
1390J16 adopted. $*<*3ACKNOWLEDGEMENT*0*> $^We are grateful to \0Dr.
1400J16 *(0I.*) Granberg, Cytology and Cancer Research Unit, \0Dept.
1410J16 of Pathology, Karolinska Institute and Huddinge Hospital,
1420J16 Stockholm, Sweden, who first got us interested in this
1430J16 field demonstrated the technique, and provided some of the equipment
1440J16 for this study. $**<*3Synovial sarcoma*0**> $*<*3AN
1450J16 ANALYSIS OF 31 CASES IN 26 YEARS.*0*> $^31 cases of synovial
1460J16 sarcoma were studied from the morbid anatomical point of view.
1470J16 ^Synovial saracoma histologically is Biophasic in Character.
1480J16 ^Due to a spectrum of histological patterns which may
1490J16 be encountered in these tumours, they have to_ be differentiated
1500J16 from a variety of other tumours. ^A clear cell variant has
1510J16 recently been added to the other morphological varieties.
1520J16 ^The presence of mast cells and their significance has been discussed.
1530J16 $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*> $*3^SYNOVIAL*0 sarcoma, despite
1540J16 its name, is a tumour not restricted to joints and may arise
1550J16 from tendon sheaths, bursae, fascia, intermuscular septae,
1560J16 and it is also known that any connective tissue cell may be transformed
1570J16 into a synovial cell following appropriate stimulation.
1580J16 ^This could explain the presence of tumour at sites in which
1590J16 no synovial membrane is to_ be found like synovial sarcoma reporeted
1600J16 at the bifurcation of the carotid artery (Golomb *(0et al*),
1610J16 1975 and also in the abdominal wall (Berkheisser, 1952).
1620J16 ^Histologically, these tumours are diagnostic problems because
1630J16 a spectrum of morphological patterns may be encountered in these
1640J16 tumours and unless one is familiar with these patterns, an
1650J16 error in diagnosis is possible. ^40 cases of synovial sarcoma
1660J16 were collected from the records of which 9 cases were deleted
1670J16 on review as they did not conform to the classical histological
1680J16 picture of synovial sarcoma. $*<*3CLINICAL FEATURES*0*>
1690J16 $*<*3Incidence*0*> $^Synovial sarcoma is a rather uncommon
1700J16 malignant tumour of soft tissues. ^*Stout (1961) reviewed
1710J16 2,075 cases of malignant tumours of soft tissues and peripheral
1720J16 nerves of which 3.5% were synovial sarcomas. ^*Hampole and Jackson
1730J16 (1968) have reported a higher incidence of 9.6%. ^Amongst
1740J16 the malignant tumours of bones and joints also, it is a tumour
1750J16 of relatively infrequent occurrence. ^In oun series of 514 malignancies
1760J16 of bones and joints within a 20 year period, the incidence
1770J16 of synovial sarcomas was 6%. ^*Mayo Clinic has
1780J16 reported an incidence of 10% of the total malignancies of bones
1790J16 and joints (Cadman & Kelly, 1965). $*<*3Age & Sex incidence*0*>
1800J16 $^These tumours primarily affect the younger age group,
1810J16 the maximum number occurring in the 2nd and 3rd decades. ^The
1820J16 youngest patient in this series was 12 years and the oldest
1830J16 was 42 years of age. (Table-*=1) ^*Sirsat and Doctor (1968) also
1840J16 observed a higher incidence of this tumour in a younger age group,
1850J16 64% occurring under 40 years of age. ^*Van Andel (1972) found
1860J16 this tumour to_ be commonest between the ages of 20 to 40 **[sic**]
1870J16 years. ^In Cadman *(0et al*)'S series (1965), 67% cases were
1880J16 below 40 years of age. $^With regard to sex incidence, the
1890J16 tumours in this series were more common in males as compared
1900J16 to females, the ratio being 3:1 (Table *=1). ^*Cadman *(0et al*) (1965)
1910J16 found a sex ratio of 3:2 in males and females. ^However,
1920J16 in another report on 25 cases of synovial sarcomas by Hampole and
1930J16 Jackson (1968), the incidence was reported higher in women.
1940J16 $*<*3Location*0*> $^These tumours were commonly seen in the lowerextremity,
1950J16 27 tumours occurring in the lower limbs (Table *=2).
1960J16 ^The knee region was the commonest site and other sites to_
1970J16 follow were foot, hip, ankle and thigh. ^In the upper extremity
1980J16 only 4 tumours were seen of which 2 were in the elbow region and one
1990J16 each in the shoulder region and dorsum of hand.*#
        **[no. of words = 02000**]

        **[txt. j17**]
0010J17 **<*3Immunoblastic lymphadenopathy-- report of a caseO**> $*<*3SummaryO*>
0020J17 $^A case of immunoblastic lymphadenopathy has been
0030J17 presented which had the characteristic clinical and histological
0050J17 features. ^The patient did pot respond to chemotherapy and
0060J17 succumbed to the disease. ^Instead of the usual polyclonal
0070J17 gammopathy associated with this condition, he showed a fall in
0080J17 \0IgM levels, \0IgG and \0IgA being within normal limits. ^The
0090J17 significance of the latter finding is not known. $*<*3Introduction*0*>
0100J17 $^Generalized lymphadenopathy with or without
0110J17 fever and hepatosplenomegaly is seen in a variety of diseases.
0120J17 ^Lymph node biopsy for establishing the diagnosis may sometimes
0130J17 be essential but the distinction between malignant and
0140J17 reactive proliferation of the lymphoreticular tissue is at
0150J17 times difficult. ^The entity described as angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy
0160J17 with dysproteinaemia by Frizzera, Moran and Rappaport
0170J17 (1974) and as immunoblastic lymphadenopathy by Lukes and
0180J17 Tindle (1975) is situated on the borderline between benign and malignant
0190J17 immunoblastic proliferation and exercises the skill of
0200J17 a pathologist. ^It is imperative that the condition should be distingusihed
0210J17 from Hodgkin*'s disease as the available evidence indicates
0220J17 that chemotherapy may be harmful to the patient in the former
0230J17 condition. $<*3Case reportO*> $^A 35-year-old man presented
0240J17 with a history of fever and painful enlargement of inguinal lymph
0250J17 nodes of a month*'s duration. ^He had taken a course of tetracycline
0260J17 and chloromycetin without any benefit. ^A week before admission
0270J17 to hosptial he had noticed a painful swelling in the neck.
0280J17 ^He also had a marked loss of weight and appetite. ^There
0290J17 was no skin rash or itching. $^Exmination revealed a generalized
0300J17 lymphadenopathy with involvement of cervical, axillary and
0310J17 inguinal lymph nodes. ^The liver was not enlarged and the spleen
0320J17 was just palpable. ^In addition, the patient was febrile and had
0330J17 mild pallor. $*<*3Laboratory investigationsO*> $^Haemoglobin was 11.6
0340J17 \0g/dl, \0WBC 6.8 x 10*:8**:/\0l (32% neutrophils, 48% mature lymphocytes
0341J17 15% monocytes, 3% cosinophils and 2% basophils) and \0ESR
0350J17 was 40 \0mm/first hour (Westergren). ^The peripheral smear
0360J17 showed a normocytic, normochromic picture. ^Serum globulins
0370J17 were 3.4 \0g/dl. ^The immunoglobulins as measured by Mancine*'s
0380J17 radial gelimmunodiffusion technique were as follows (normal
0390J17 values in parentheses): \0IgG, 163 \0i.u. (120-246);
0400J17 \0IgA, 63 \0i.u. (55-268); \0IgM, 56 \0i.u. (108-204). ^Bone
0410J17 marrow smear showed an increase in the raticulum cells
0420J17 and well differentiated plasma cells. ^Chest X-ray was normal.
0430J17 ^An abdominal lymphangiography showed enlargement of the
0440J17 internal iliac and preaortic group of lymph nodes with marked
0450J17 lymphangiectasis. ^Two lymph node biopsies were taken. ^Both
0460J17 showed the characteristic histological picture of immunoblastic lymphadenopathy.
0470J17 ^The patient was given antibiotics for one week
0480J17 and was discharged. $^A month later he was re-admitted. ^The predominant
0490J17 complaint was lymphoedema of the left lower limb. ^However,
0500J17 fever was continuing. ^Weight-loss was marked and the lymph nodes
0510J17 had further enlarged. ^Therapy with cyclophosphamide (200 \0mg/day)
0520J17 was started. ^The patient*'s general condition rapidly
0530J17 deteriorated and he died 12 days after starting chemotherapy.
0540J17 ^Permission for a postmortem was refused. $*<*3Pathologigal featuresO*>
0550J17 $^Sections from two lymph node biopsies measuring 1 x 0.8
0560J17 0.6 \0cm and 2 x 1 x 1 \0cm were stained with haematoxylin eosin,
0570J17 periodic acid Schiff, methyl green pyronin and reticulin.
0580J17 $^Both biopsies showed similar histological features. ^The lymph
0590J17 node architecture was completely effaced. ^There was a marked
0600J17 proliferation of small branching capillaries lined with plump
0610J17 endothelial cells (\0Fig. 1) ^The lymph node was infiltrated by a
0620J17 polymorphous population of cells and it showed a marked depletion
0630J17 of lymphocytes. ^The cellular infiltrate was composed of plasma
0640J17 cells, immunoblasts, and a few lymphocytes (\0Fig. 2). ^The immunoblasts
0650J17 were large polygonal cells having a moderate amount
0660J17 of amphophillic cytoplasm, an oval large nucleus with finely reticulated
0670J17 chromatin and prominent nucleoli. ^An occasional binucleate
0680J17 Sternberg Reed-like cell and a few mitotic figures were
0690J17 also seen (\0Fig. 3). ^In a few areas there was an amorphous
0700J17 eosinophilic material separating the cellular infiltrate. ^Similar
0710J17 material was also seen deposited in the walls of the vessels.
0720J17 $*<*3DiscussionO*> $^The clinical manifestations of this
0730J17 case diagnosed histologically as immunoblastic lymphadenopathy
0740J17 were similar to those described by Lukes and Tindle (1975)
0750J17 and Frizzera *(0et al.*) (1974). ^The disease developed
0760J17 rapidly, presenting with fever, lymphadenopathy and loss of weight,
0770J17 and was clinically diagnosed as HodgkinS disease.
0780J17 $^The histology of lymph node biopsy showed the characteristic
0790J17 features of immunoblastic lymphadenopathy, fulfilling the four
0800J17 essential criteria laid down by Lukes and Tindle (1975). ^These
0810J17 are: $(a) diffuse involvement of the lymph node; $(b) proliferation
0820J17 of immunoblasts, plasma cytoid immunoblasts and plasma
0830J17 cells with lymphocyte depletion; $(c) proliferation of arborizing
0840J17 small capillaries; $(d) deposit of an amorphous eosinophilic
0850J17 interstitial material. $^Most of the patients with this
0860J17 disease show polyclonal gammopathy in the serum. ^However, this
0870J17 patient showed normal values of \0IgG and \0IgA and a
0880J17 subnormal \0IgM level. ^The significance
0890J17 of this finding is not known. ^Definite hyperglobulinaemia
0900J17 was found in thirteen out of fourteen cases analysed by Lukes
0910J17 and Tindle (1975), whereas one patient showed no abnormality
0920J17 in the serum globulins. ^Deficiency of any of the immunoglobulins
0930J17 has not been reported so far. $^The cytotoxic therapy was
0940J17 of no avail in this case and the condition of the patient deteriorated
0950J17 rapidly after starting the treatment. ^This was also the
0960J17 experience of Kalus (1976).
0970J17 $^The aetiology of this condition is as yet unknown. ^*Lukes and Tindle
0980J17 (1975) consider it as a hyperimmune proliferation of the B-cell system
0990J17 which may be triggered off as a result of hypersensitivity reaction to
1000J17 therapeutic agents. ^*Schultz and Yunis (1975) reported a case of
1010J17 immunoblastic lymphadenopathy associated with a prolonged administration
1020J17 of liver extract, suggesting that the syndrome may be caused by chronic
1030J17 antigenic stimulation. ^Occurrence of malignant lymphoma is well known
1040J17 in association with disorders of the immune system such as systemic lupus
1050J17 erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis. ^*Sjogren*'s syndrome and alpha
1060J17 chain disease (as cited by Rappaport and Moran, 1975). ^*Immunoblastic
1070J17 lymphadenopathy, although not considered essentially malignant, has a
1080J17 potential for developing into a malignant tumour of lymphoreticular tissue.
1090J17 ^In the absence of a post-mortem in this case, the possibility of a
1100J17 malignant transformation of the lesion could not be excluded. ^In the
1110J17 series of Lukes and Tindle (1975), three cases of immunoblastic lymphadenopathy
1120J17 showed a transformation of immunoblastic sarcoma.
1130J17 $**<*3Tuberculous abscess of the brain*0**> $*<*3Summary*0*>
1140J17 $^A bacteriologically confirmed case of tuberculous abscess of the brain
1150J17 is reported. ^Tuberculous brain abscess unlike tuberculoma does not
1160J17 exhibit the typical granulomatous changes and the diagnosis is confirmed
1170J17 by demonstration of tubercle bacilli either by staining or culture.
1180J17 ^An antituberculous regime should be started immediately the diagnosis
1190J17 has been established. $*<*3Introduction*0*>
1200J17 $^Although involvement of the brain by tuberculosis is not uncommon
1210J17 on the Indian subcontinent, tuberculous brain abscess, an encapsulated
1220J17 collection of pus containing viable tubercle bacilli is quite rare.
1230J17 ^*Bannister (1970) described one case and mentioned five others (Evans
1240J17 and Smith, 1931; Rand 1935; Singh, Pandya and Dastur, 1968).
1250J17 ^*Devadiga *(0et al.*) (1969) reported one case of bacteriologically
1260J17 confirmed tuberculous brain abscess. ^Recently, Rab *(0et al.*) (1975)
1270J17 described one case of tuberculous brain abscess proved by demonstration
1280J17 of tubercle bacilli in the pus and by histology. $^In several series of
1290J17 tuberculomas of the brain it was mentioned that pus or pus-like material
1300J17 was found. ^*Obrador amd Urquiza (1948) recorded one case in which the
1310J17 pus did not show any organisms and the culture was also negative. ^*Arseni
1320J17 (1958) had only one case containing pus in his series of 201
1330J17 tuberculomas of the brain treated surgically. ^*Higazi (1963) mentioned
1340J17 one tuberculoma containing pus but did not give operative or post-mortem
1350J17 details. ^*Dastur and Desai (1965) in a series of 107 tuberculomas, described
1360J17 eight containing pus-like material but it was not mentioned whether
1370J17 the pus contained tubercle bacilli or whether the material was caseated
1380J17 tubercular debris. ^One case of cystic tuberculoma was reported by
1390J17 Dastur, Desai and Dastur (1962) and another by Rao, Subrahmanyam and
1400J17 Sathe (1963). $^The authors now describe a case of tuberculous brain
1410J17 abscess which was confirmed bacteriologically. ^The histological
1420J17 sections of capsule showed chronic non-specific infection.
1420J17 $*<*3case report*0*> $^A 20-year-old female was first admitted in the
1430J17 psychiatry unit in July, 1974 with a 10-year history of progressive
1440J17 impairment of memory, and insomnia. ^For one year she had had intermittent
1450J17 headaches, vomiting, right-sided focal convulsions and had experienced
1460J17 several attacks of brief unconsciousness. ^On examination,
1470J17 she was anaemic and ill nourished. ^Fundi showed papilloedema. ^Motor
1480J17 and sensory systems were normal. ^There was no neck stiffness. ^She
1490J17 was transferred to the authors*' unit for investigations. ^Her haemoglobin
1500J17 was 8 \0g/dl: total leucocyte count 8 x 10*:9**:/\0l, differential
1510J17 count polymorphs 64% lymphocytes 32% eosinophils 2% monocytes 2% and
1520J17 \0ESR 17 \0mm in the first hour. ^Tuberculin test was negative.
1530J17 ^Chest X-ray films showed no abnormality. ^*X-ray skull revealed
1540J17 erosion of dorsum sellae and posterior clinoid processes. ^Echo-encephalography
1550J17 showed shift of midline echo by 6 \0mm to the right.
1560J17 ^Left carotid angiography revealed proximal rounded shift of anterior
1570J17 cerebral artery to the right on \0A-P view and posterior and downward
1580J17 displacement of pericallosal artery on lateral view. ^Operation was
1590J17 refused by the husband and the patient was taken home. $^The
1600J17 patient was re-admitted 2 years later with a 2-months*' history of continuous
1610J17 headache; frequent vomiting; right-sided weakness, incontinence of
1620J17 urine and faeces; altered sensorium and right-sided focal fits. ^She
1630J17 was drowsy and disorientated. ^She had optic atrophy, left ptosis,
1640J17 upper motorneurone ritht facial palsy, right hemiparesis and dysphasia.
1650J17 ^Tendon reflexes were brisk on the right side with extensor plantar.
1660J17 ^Investigations showed her haemoglobin was 9 \0g/dl, total leucocyte
1670J17 count 12.5 x 10*:9**:/\0l, differential count polymorphs 68% lymphocytes
1680J17 27% eosinophils 5% and \0ESR 22 \0mm in the first hour . ^Tuberculin
1690J17 test was negative. ^Chest X-ray was normal. ^Skull X-ray showed
1700J17 signs of increased intracranial pressure. ^Echo-encephalography
1710J17 showed shift of midline echo by 8 \0mm towards the right. $^Left
1720J17 frontal craniotomy revealed a deep, medially placed frontal lobe abscess
1730J17 with a thick capsule containing 60 \0cm*;3**; of thick pus. ^Only
1740J17 partial excision of the capsule was possible. ^The post-operative period
1750J17 was uneventful. ^A direct smear from the pus prepared with Ziehl
1760J17 Neelsen stain revealed no acid-fast bacilli. ^Histological studies
1770J17 of the abscess and its wall showed chronic non-specific inflammatory
1780J17 changes. ^Culture of the pus for pyogenic opganisms was sterile.
1790J17 ^The patient was discharged on anticonvulsants. $^One month later
1800J17 the patient was admitted with meningitis. ^On examination she was responding
1810J17 only to deep painful stimuli and was toxic. ^There was marked
1820J17 neck stiffness and Kernig*'s sign was positive. ^There was no
1830J17 improvement on treatment with gentamicin. ^Six weeks after operation
1840J17 *3Mycobacterium tuberculosis*0 was cultured from some pus. ^She
1850J17 was put on antituberculous chemotherapy and steroids and showed remarkable
1860J17 improvement. $*<*3Discussion*0*> $^*Ramamurthi and
1870J17 Varadarajan (1961) and Dastur and Desai (1965) have reported that about
1880J17 20% of all intracranial space-occupying lesions in India are tuberculomas.
1890J17 ^In Africa, where tuberculomas and tuberculous encephalopathy
1900J17 are common occurrences, 30% of intracranial tumours are tuberculomas
1910J17 (Scrinshaw, Garden and Taylor, 1968). ^In 1933 Garland and Armitage
1920J17 found eighty-nine tuberculomas in 13000 post-mortems performed in Leeds,
1930J17 England. ^*Evans and Courville (1938) found forty-three cases
1940J17 of tuberculomas in 15000 post-mortems. ^However, these reports do not
1950J17 mention tuberculous brain abscess. ^Thus, tuberculous brain abscess
1960J17 is rare compared to tuberculoma. $^According to Rand (1935),
1970J17 tuberculous brain abscess, unlike tuberculoma, does not show the typical
1980J17 granulomatous changes such as collection of epitheloid cells and giant
1990J17 cells around central area of caseation. ^Instead, tuberculous abscess
2000J17 shows only chronic non-specific inflammatory changes as seen in
2010J17 the present case. ^Diagnosis is established only with the demonstration
2020J17 of tubercle bacilli. ^In the present case a tuberculous aetiology of
2030J17 the abscess was confirmed by positive culture. $^If the tuberculous aetiology
2040J17 is not confirmed and anti-tuberculous treatment is not enforced
2050J17 at the earliest date, there is every likelihood that the infection will
2060J17 spread, leading to death of the patient. ^It is the authors*'
2070J17 opinion that all chronic brain abscesses should be treated as being tuberculous
2080J17 unless proved otherwise. ^Anti-tuberculous chemotherapy should
2090J17 be discontinued only after excluding a tuberculous aetiology.*#
        **[no. of words = 01962**]

        **[txt. j18**]
0010J18 **<*3OPTIMIZATION: THEORY & APPLICATIONS*0**> $*3Initial solution*0.
0020J18 ^An initial solution for the problem stated in \0Eqs.
0030J18 (10.29) can be taken as $*Me $and $*Me (10.30)
0030J18 $^If b *Ms 0, this solution will be feasible and optimal since
0040J18 c *Ms 0 in \0Eqs. (10.29). ^In this case there is nothing more
0050J18 to_ be done as the starting solution itself happens to_ be optimal.
0060J18 ^On the other hand, if some of the components *Mn are
0070J18 negative, the solution given by \0Eqs. (10.30) will be optimal
0080J18 (since c *Ms 0) but infeasible. ^Thus the method starts with
0090J18 an optimal (actually better than optimal) and infeasible solution.
0100J18 ^The algorithm forces this solution towards feasibility
0110J18 while keeping it optimal all the time. ^This is the reason
0120J18 why Balas called his mehtod as *3pseudo dual simplex method*0.
0130J18 ^The word *3pseudo*0 has been used since the method is
0140J18 similar to the dual simplex method only as far as the starting
0150J18 solution is concerned and the subsequent procedure has no
0160J18 similarity at all with the dual simplex method.
0170J18 $*<SOME DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS*> $^Before presenting the
0180J18 various steps of the algorithm, we shall introduce some
0190J18 definitions and notations. $(**=1) *3Partial Solution:
0200J18 ^If some (but not all) of the *3n variables *Mn are assigned
0210J18 the values of 0 or 1 each, then the solution is called
0220J18 a partial solution (*Mn). $^Thus if *Me the solution
0230J18 $*Me (10.31) can be called a partial solution. ^For convenience of
0240J18 notation we shall use the symbols *3i and *3- i to_ represent
0250J18 *Me and *Me respectively. ^According to this notation, the
0260J18 above partial solution can be written as $*Me. $^This notation
0270J18 has the advantage of identifying the variables along with their
0280J18 binary values. $(**=2) *3Free Variables: ^The variables
0290J18 which are not included in a partial solution (*Mn) are called
0300J18 free variables. ^For example, for the partial solution
0310J18 shown in \0Eq. (10.31), the variables *Mn and *Mn will be the
0320J18 free variables. ^These are called free variables since we have
0330J18 a choice of assigning a value of 0 or 1 to each of them. ^Hereafter,
0340J18 we will assume that all the free variables are equal
0350J18 to zero unless stated otherwise. $(**=3) *3Completion of a *3Partial
0360J18 Solution: ^If each of the free variables of a partial
0370J18 solution (*Mn) are assigned values 0 or 1, then the complete
0380J18 set of variables (including the partial solution) is called completion
0390J18 of the partial solution. ^Thus for the partial solution
0400J18 stated in \0Eq (10.31), there are four possible completions as
0410J18 shown below: **[table**] $^Notice that in all the four completions,
0420J18 the values of *Mn, *Mn and *Mn have been kept as 1, 1
0430J18 and 0 respectively as specified by the partial solution *3J in
0440J18 \0Eq. (10.31). $(**=4) *3Intial Partial Solution: ^To_ solve
0450J18 the problem stated in \0Eqs. (10.29) we start with an initial
0460J18 partial solution that_ has no variables assigned, that_ is,
0470J18 all the variables are free variables each with a value of zero.
0480J18 ^This initial partial solution is denoted as *Mn. $(**=
0490J18 5) *3Explicit and Implicit Enumeration of Solutions: ^If a problem
0500J18 involved only 2 or 3 binary variables, all the possible solutions
0510J18 can be enumerated explicitly as follows: **[table
0520J18 **] ^On the other hand, if a problem involves *3n
0530J18 binary variables with *3n *Ms 4, the explicit enumeration of
0540J18 all the possible 2*:*3n**: solutions will become more and
0550J18 more tedious as the value of *3n increases. ^One of the systematic
0560J18 procedures for enumerating the solutions for any values of *3n
0570J18 is to_ draw a network as illustrated in \0fig. 10.4 for *3n = 4. $^In
0580J18 the network shown in \0Fig 10.4 each node represents one possible solution.
0590J18 ^The numbers marked at each node denote the subscripts
0600J18 of the variables that_ have a value of 1 in the solution
0610J18 represented by that_ node. ^Thus node 0 represents a solution
0620J18 (0, 0, 0, 0) in which none of the variables has a value of 1, node
0630J18 3 represents the solution (0, 0, 1, 0), node (1, 3, 4,) represents
0640J18 the solution (1, 0, 1, 1), \0etc. ^To_ construct the
0650J18 network, we draw from any particular node *3A, one line for
0660J18 each variable that_ was not having a value of 1 in the solution represented
0670J18 by the node *3A. ^As an example, consider the node
0680J18 marked (2, 3) in \0Fig 10.4. ^Since the variables *Mn and
0690J18 *Mn do not have a value of 1 in the solution corresponding to
0700J18 this node, two lines are drawn from this node, one to_ include *Me
0710J18 (node (1, 2, 3,)), and the other to_ include *Me (node 2, 3, 4,) in
0720J18 the new solutions. $^Thus the networks, similar to the one
0730J18 shown in \0Fig. 10.4, will serve to_ enumerate all the solutions
0740J18 explicitly. ^Suppose that in a problem having 4 binary vaariables
0750J18 *Me, for example, has been found to_ be infeasible. ^Then,
0760J18 if we are solving the problem by enumeration, we need not
0770J18 consider all those solutions in which *Me. ^This means that
0780J18 we have *3implicitly enumerated all the solutions associated
0790J18 with the open nodes in \0Fig 10.5 (\0.i.e., the solutions in which
0800J18 *Me). $^Similarly assume that the solution in which *Me
0810J18 and *Me (all other variables equal to zero) has been found to_ be
0820J18 feasible (not necessarily an optimum). ^Once this information
0830J18 is known, all the solutions in which the other variables (other
0840J18 than *Mn and *Mn take a value 1 need not be considered. ^This
0850J18 is because of the fact that all the cost coefficients *Mn in \0Eqs.
0860J18 (10.29) are nonnegative and any solution with variables having
0870J18 a value of 1, besides *Mn and *Mn, will be worse than the solution
0880J18 (1, 0, 0, 1). ^This means that as soon as we find that (1, 0,
0890J18 0, 1) is feasible, we have implicitly enumerated all those solutions
0900J18 having *Me and/ or *Me. $this
0910J18 concept of implicit enumeration plays an important role in the
0920J18 Balas algorithm. ^This concept permits us to_ investigate explicitly
0930J18 only a small number of the 2*:*3n**: possible solutions and automatically
0940J18 account for (implicitly enumerate) all the remaining solutions.
0950J18 $(**=6) *3Fathomed Partial Solution: ^In Balas
0960J18 method, we start with the initial partial solution *Mn as defined
0970J18 in (**=4) and try to_ assign a value of 0 or 1 to one free variable
0980J18 at a time and generate a series of new partial solutions *Mn, *Mn,...
0990J18 (the rules for introducing a free variable to the current partial
1000J18 solution to_ generate a new partial solution will be given later.)
1010J18 ^These partial solutions are generated such that they are forced
1011J18 towards the feasible region gradually (notice that the initial
1020J18 solution given by \0Eqs. (10.30) is infeasible). ^While generating
1030J18 the series of partial solutions *Mn, *Mn, ... it is possible
1040J18 that one of the completions of a particular partial solution, say,
1050J18 *Mn becomes feasible. ^When this feasibility is encountered
1060J18 for the first time, the corresponding value of the objective function
1070J18 is stored as *Mn and will be considered as the best feasible
1080J18 value obtained so far. ^As a convention, the best value
1090J18 of the objective function *Mn will be taken as +*Ms before the first
1100J18 feasible solution is encountered. $^During the iterative process,
1110J18 any feasible partial solution that_ does not yield a smaller
1120J18 value than the available *Mn will be discarded. ^However, if a
1121J18 new feasible partial solution gives an objective function value smaller
1122J18 than *Mn, the new value of *Mn will be taken as *Mn. ^Thus *Mn
1123J18 can be considered as an
1130J18 upper bound on the optimal value of the objective function at any
1140J18 stage and its value might be changing as the iterative process
1150J18 continues. $^When a completion of the partial solution *Mn
1160J18 gives a feasible solution with an objective function value smaller
1170J18 than *Mn or when a completion of *Mn which will improve the infeasibility
1180J18 in the current solution could not be found then the
1190J18 partial solution *Mn is said to_ have been fathomed. ^It can
1200J18 be noticed that once a partial solution *Mn is fathomed, it means
1210J18 that all the completions of *Mn have been implicitly enumerated
1220J18 and hence they need not be considered in the future iterations.
1230J18 ^The details as to how fathoming can be achieved will be given later.
1240J18 $(**=7) *3Backtracking. ^If a partial solution is fathomed,
1250J18 we know that there will not be any use in investigating its
1260J18 remaining completions. ^Hence we have to_ somehow ensure
1270J18 that such completions will be excluded from consideration in our future
1280J18 enumerations (either explicit or implicit). ^A procedure,
1290J18 known as backtracking, can be used for this purpose.
1300J18 ^In backtracking,
1310J18 we simply replace one of the variables in the current partial
1320J18 solution (which is fathomed) with its complement to_ generate a new
1330J18 partial solution. $^For example, let us consider a problem
1340J18 with four binary variables and let the solution *Mes is
1350J18 found **[sic**] feasible with an improved value of the objective function.
1360J18 ^Thus the completion (1, 0, 0, 1) of the partial solution
1370J18 (*Me, *Me) has been found to_ be feasible and give an improved
1380J18 value of the objective function. ^This means that the
1390J18 partial solution (*Me, *Me) is fathomed. ^In this case
1400J18 to_ avoid redundancy (repetetion of the implicitly enumerated solutions)
1410J18 in the enumeration process, we might next examine the partial
1420J18 solution (*Me, *Me). ^We can see clearly that whatever
1430J18 completions we consider for this partial solution, the completions
1440J18 of the fathomed partial solution (*Mes) will not be repeated
1450J18 and hence the redundancy will be avoided. $^As soon
1460J18 as a new partial solution is generated, we will try to_ make it
1470J18 fathomed as outlined in difinition (**=6). ^When this is done, we
1480J18 proceed to_ generate a new partial solution by using the backtracking
1490J18 procedure. ^Thus, we will be able to_ enumerate (implicitly
1500J18 or explicitly) all the 2*:*3n**: possible solutions by applying this
1510J18 backtracking procedure only a few number of times. ^After the
1520J18 backtracking is completed, the solution corresponding to the current
1530J18 value of *Mn will represent the optimum solution of the
1540J18 problem. ^If the value of *Mn remains at *Ms it means that
1550J18 none of the *Mn solutions is feasible for the given problem.
1560J18 $*<NOTATIONS*> $^We shall use the following notations in the
1570J18 presentation of Balas*' method. ^*Mn = set of variables that_ have been
1580J18 assigned a value of 0 or 1 in *3KTh iteration. ^It indicates
1590J18 the variables involved in a partial solution in *3KTh iteration.
1600J18 ^*Mn = set of variables involved in the initial partial
1610J18 solution \0.i.e. 0th iteration) ^It is taken as a null set.
1620J18 ^*Mn = set of all the *3n variables of the problem. $^*Mn = set
1630J18 of free variables that_ were not included in the partial solution
1640J18 during the *3KTh iteration. ^As stated in definiton (**=2)
1650J18 all the free variables are assumed to_ be zero, unless stated
1660J18 otherwise. ^*Mn = the particular set (not necessarily all) of free
1670J18 variables which are likely to_ improve the current solution.
1680J18 ^This set is called the improving set of variables. ^*Mn = a measure
1690J18 of the total infeasibility of the problem when the variable
1700J18 *Mn is assigned a value 1 in the *3KTh iteration. ^*Mn
1710J18 = value of the objective function at the beginning of *3K0th iteration.
1720J18 $*Mn = the least value of the objective function achieved
1730J18 so far. ^We want to_ improve the solution further, if possible.
1740J18 *<*3Algorithm*> $^We start with *Mes set, *Me with at least
1750J18 one component of *Mes and *Me. $STEP 1. ^Determine an entering
1760J18 variable from the set of free variables, *Mn as follows: $STEP
1770J18 1 (a) ^First find the set of promising variables *Mn which
1780J18 are likely to_ improve the current solution (*Mn) by eliminating
1781J18 all the nonpromising variables. ^This will be done in two stages.
1790J18 $^In the first stage, we eliminate all those free variables which
1800J18 do not result in forcing at least one negative slack variable
1810J18 *Mn towards the feasible region. ^For this, consider any slack
1820J18 variable *Mn that_ is negative in the current partial solution.
1830J18 ^The only way to_ improve the value of *Mn is to_ assign a value 1
1840J18 to some free variable *Mn in which case we obtain *Me \0i.e.
1850J18 *Me. (10.32) $^It can be seen that *Mn will be forced towards the feasible
1860J18 region (towards a positive value) only if *Me. ^Thus we can eliminate
1870J18 all those free variables *Mn (*Mn belongs to the set *Mn)for
1880J18 which *Me as nonpromising variables.*#
        **[no. of words = 02027**]

        **[txt. j19**]
0010J19 **<ANALYTICAL \0*V*S. IMPLICIT NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF CERTAIN TIME-DEPENDENT
0020J19 FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS**> $*3Summary: ^It has been found
0030J19 by several researchers that implicit numerical solutions of time-dependent,
0040J19 viscous fluid flows exhibit better stability and convergence
0050J19 properties than those obtained by virtue of explicit methods. ^Since
0060J19 for most of these problems analytical solutions are not yet known
0070J19 the validity of numerical solutions was established by comparing
0080J19 them with the experimental results. ^In this work, certain partial
0090J19 differential equations of fluid dynamics, whose analytical solutions
0100J19 are well-known, were solved by implicit numerical methods.
0110J19 ^A comparison between the two types of solutions, analytical and numerical
0120J19 shows that the implicit method gives very effective results
0130J19 independent of mesh sizes, time steps and Reynold*'s numbers.
0140J19 $*3Introduction: ^Numerical solution of nonlinear
0150J19 partial differential equations has a special significance in
0160J19 fluid dynamics. ^The necessity to_ solve equations of motion
0170J19 of transient viscous fluid flow is felt in environment and energy
0180J19 related problems, in weather prediction and in hemodynamics of
0190J19 prosthetic heart valve transplant. ^Since analytical solutions
0200J19 in these cases are not generally known, efforts were made to_ solve
0210J19 them numerically. ^At present, there are several numerical
0220J19 techniques available to_ solve these equations (Roache 1976). ^The
0230J19 one used most often is an explicit scheme where the time derivative is
0240J19 approximated by a two-point forward difference formula.
0250J19 ^The primary advantages of such a scheme are: (**=1) it has a simple
0260J19 computational algorithm and (**=2) it generally requires less
0270J19 computer memory storage. ^However, stability and convergence
0280J19 criteria of such a method are rather stringent [Dey 1977, Roache
0290J19 1976] in the sense that larger time steps and/ or Reynold*'s nubmber
0300J19 could destroy the stability of the numerical solution.
0310J19 ^In fact, Scala and Gordon (1968) restricted their works on Navier-Stokes
0320J19 equations to very small time steps and Fromm (1964) noticed
0330J19 instabilities for large Reynold*'s number. ^*Mueller (1976)
0340J19 applied upwind differencing explicit methods in his studies on
0350J19 blood flow through prosthetic heart valves. ^He had a stringent
0360J19 restriction on time steps and in the conclusion he mentioned
0370J19 that beyond Reynold*'s number of 500 "differencing technique gives
0380J19 results within the scatter of experimental data," although in
0390J19 reality he mentioned, the Reynold*'s number is as high as 5 x
0400J19 10*:4**: $^It was uniformly recorded by Thompson (1968), who
0410J19 solved Navier-Stokes*' equations by an implicit method approximating
0420J19 the time-derivative by backward differences, that the numerical
0430J19 solutions are unconditionally stable for all time steps and
0440J19 free stream Reynold*'s number. ^*Dey (1970, 1975, 1976) verified
0450J19 the same results as Thompson found, while studying transient
0460J19 viscous fluid flow past a circular cylinder. ^The effectiveness and
0470J19 strength of implicit schemes were also studied by Briley and McDonald
0480J19 (1974) and by McDowell and Prandle (1972). ^But,
0490J19 since analytical solutions of these equations were not known,
0500J19 some comparison was made primarily against available experimental data
0510J19 which often are not as rigorous and precise as we expect them
0520J19 to_ be. ^Thus in this project, the usefulness of an implicit
0530J19 scheme was subjected to further investigation and analysis. ^Here,
0540J19 four distinct problems, which have well-known analytical solutions,
0550J19 were considered for implicit numerical solution. ^These are
0560J19 (**=1) Three dimensional heat conduction equation, (**=2) Motion
0570J19 of a suddenly accelerated flat plate in a viscous fluid which is
0580J19 otherwise at rest, (**=3) One dimensional gas dynamics equation
0590J19 and (**=4) Burger*'s equation on turbulence model. $^The
0600J19 implicit finite difference analogs were formed in each case by
0610J19 approximating time derivative by a two-point backward difference
0620J19 formula and the space derivatives by central differences. ^Excepting
0630J19 for the heat conduction equation, the numerical solution was
0640J19 obtained mostly by applying iterative matrix factorization.
0650J19 ^*Reiss*' (1972) analysis shows that such an algorithm is quite
0660J19 powerful especially when we have equations involving tri-diagonal
0670J19 matrices. ^Previously Thompson (1968) and Dey (1970)
0680J19 applied Gauss Seidel iterations with optimised relaxation
0690J19 parameter to_ solve the finite difference matrix equations which
0700J19 form the analogs of Navier-Stokes*' equation. ^*Dey (1977)
0710J19 also applied a perturbed nonlinear functional iteration to_ solve
0720J19 nonlinear partial differential equations. ^All these methods
0730J19 were implicit and were unconditionally stable for all time steps
0740J19 and free stream Reynold*'s number. ^Since in this work the
0750J19 implicit solutions were checked against exact solutions as
0760J19 presented by tables and graphs, the strength of implicit methods
0770J19 have been firmly established. $*32. Three
0780J19 dimensional Heat Conduction Equation: ^*Let us consider the three
0790J19 dimensional heat conduction equation: $*Me (2.1) $where *Mn
0800J19 is the Laplacian, and the equation is subjected to the following
0810J19 initial boundary conditions: $^At *Mes (2.2) $for *Mes (2.3) $^The
0820J19 analytical solution of (2.1) subject to the above initial-boundary
0830J19 conditions is given by: *Mes (2.4) $*36. Discussion:
0840J19 ^The primary objective of this work was to_ study a comparison
0850J19 between analytical and numerical solutions by implicit techniques
0860J19 of certain fluid flow problems. ^The study conducted so far
0870J19 gives encouraging results. ^We now intend to_ make a critical
0880J19 assessment of this work, analyzing its limitations and overall
0890J19 effectiveness. $*<(**=1) *3Computational time and computer
0900J19 memory storage requirements:*> $^Along with the excellent stability
0910J19 and convergence properties which implicit finite difference
0920J19 analogs usually provide, they generally require high speed
0930J19 computers with large memory storage since in most of these cases
0940J19 large matrices are used. ^Computations in this work were done mostly
0950J19 by an \0IBM 360/50 computer system. ^For Burger*'s equation,
0960J19 computational time was quite large, especially when *Mn
0970J19 was small. ^The criterion for convergence was max *Mn where
0980J19 *Me. ^We required a memory storage about 120 \0K and about 90 minutes
0990J19 of execution time for *Me. ^The average number of iterations for
1000J19 convergence was 8. ^The matrix factorization scheme virtually
1010J19 failed for *Me because oscillations were found at points on
1020J19 computed velocity profiles where oscillations were not expected.
1040J19 ^These could be created by
1050J19 the severity of the shocks which developed close to these points
1060J19 showing instabilities. ^Furthermore, since convergence
1070J19 criterion in the code is just necessary and convergence process
1080J19 should be mathematically very slow for *Me a smaller value
1090J19 of *Mn could have caused better results. ^But this idea was dropped
1100J19 since computational time already exceeded three hours.
1110J19 ^At this stage, the matrix factorization method was abandoned, and a
1120J19 different implicit scheme, \0PIS (Dey 1977), was employed.
1130J19 ^The results agree closely with the existing solution by Ames
1140J19 (1971). ^Since this agreement is discussed quite extensively
1150J19 in (Dey 1977 \0Fig. 8), to_ avoid duplication, we did not give the
1160J19 same graph here. ^However, it must be noted that the iterative
1170J19 matrix factorization applied in this work was not combined with
1180J19 any successive over/ under relaxation scheme. ^A study
1190J19 has been undertaken to_ develop a relaxation method having multiple
1200J19 relaxation parameters to_ generate a significantly faster rate
1210J19 of convergence. ^A very limited amount of progress has been
1220J19 achieved so far. $*<(**=2) *3Effect of Time Steps:*>
1230J19 $^Throughout our studies in *3this work we found that the
1240J19 effects of time steps on the implicit numerical solution are virtually
1250J19 nil. ^These have been systematically represented in Table
1260J19 1 and Figures 1 to 12. ^With respect to the solution of Burger*'s
1270J19 equation for *Me. ^*Table 2 has been constructed to_ show
1280J19 the *3actual differences between numerical solutions for time
1290J19 steps 0.005 and 0.01. ^Although, for *3this work we may claim
1300J19 that such effects are negligible, it is well known that to_ detect
1310J19 some subtle flow properties of highly time dependent flows for
1320J19 example, wakes behind fluff bodies, large-time-step solution will
1330J19 not be as effective as those by smaller time steps (Dey 1970, Thompson
1340J19 1968). $*<(**=3) *3Computational Wellposedness:*>
1350J19 $^All results presented in this work were thoroughly checked
1360J19 for computational wellposedness. ^In order to_ do this, the
1370J19 input parameters *Mns together with the initial/ boundary conditions
1380J19 were given small changes. ^The computational results were
1390J19 infinitesimally affected by them. ^The tabular and graphical
1400J19 results given in this paper regarding effects of time steps certainly
1410J19 established computational wellposedness of numerical solution
1420J19 with respect to time. $*(**=4) *<*3Explicit \0vs. Implicit
1430J19 Numerical Solutions:*> $^Instabilities of numerical solutions
1440J19 of Burger*'s equation by explicit numerical methods were
1450J19 recorded by Ames (1971) (\0Fig. 2.9) for *Me and Ziebarth (1975)
1460J19 showed the oscillatory solutions of one dimensional gas dynamics
1470J19 equation by both leap-frog as well as upwind differencing explicit methods
1480J19 when he used *Me. ^The instabilities recorded by Fromm (1964)
1490J19 with regard to the explicit numerical solution of Navier-Stokes*'
1500J19 equations for incompressible fluid flows, might have been
1510J19 caused by the numerical method. ^Among some very commendable applications
1520J19 of explicit numerical methods to_ solve fluid flow problems,
1530J19 the works of Thoman and Szewczyk (1969) and Chatterjee and
1540J19 Debnath (1976) are worth mentioning. ^In (Thoman and Szewczyk 1969)
1550J19 by using directional differences for nonlinear advection
1560J19 terms in the vorticity transport equation, the authors
1570J19 were able to_ enhance "calculational stability at high Reynold*'s
1580J19 numbers." ^However, the restrictions on time steps were
1590J19 stringent (Equation 10). ^In (Chatterjee and Debnath 1976)
1600J19 mathematical models of tidal flow problems, the comparison
1610J19 between the experimental data and the explicit finite-difference
1620J19 solutions is indeed very interesting. ^But again, the severe
1630J19 restriction on the time step is present (equation 4.1).
1640J19 ^The authors were critical about the implicit solution of
1650J19 similar equations by McDowell and Prandle (1972) but those
1660J19 comments are hardly convincing. ^Implicit techniques
1670J19 do not necessarily smooth out the results having sharp changes.
1680J19 ^As an example, we may refer to Figure 8 of this article.
1690J19 ^The iterative matrix solution *3did show sharp disturbances
1700J19 in velocity profiles between *Me and *Me as expected
1710J19 theoretically. ^We may also refer to Figure 7 in (Dey 1977)
1720J19 where sharp changes of velocity profiles were not smoothed out by the
1730J19 iterative scheme. $^For the sake of comparison Berger*'s
1740J19 equation was solved by an explicit numerical method where
1750J19 the time derivative was approximated by a two point forward
1760J19 time difference formula and the space derivatives were approximated
1770J19 by central differences. ^The explicit analog was:
1780J19 $*Me. ^With *Me, the sufficient conditions for computational
1790J19 stability for *Me (Dey 1977) were satisfied. ^The
1800J19 results found (see Table 1) have excellent agreement with analytical
1810J19 solutions. ^However, because of such a small time step, the
1820J19 \0CDC CYBER 7214 computer system took about 382 octal \0secs. for
1830J19 the execution of the code; whereas the same computer system took
1840J19 only 118 octal \0secs. for the implicit numereical solution
1850J19 by iterative matrix factorization and produced almost the same
1860J19 results using a time step *Me (Table 1). ^For smaller values
1870J19 of *Mn explicit solutions generated oscillatory results as experienced
1880J19 by Ames (1971) $*<(**=5) *3Matrix inversion \0vs, Matrix
1890J19 Factorization:*> $^It may be noticed that
1900J19 theoretical stability and convergence analysis in this paper,
1910J19 was done with regard to matrix inversion. ^However, we did not apply
1920J19 matrix inversion for actual numerical solution. ^Since our matrices
1930J19 are large (and smaller *Mn makes them larger), inversion involves
1940J19 computational complications (Chapter 2, isaacson and Kelller
1950J19 1966) whereas matrix factorization method is computationally
1960J19 quite simple and above all very economical (Page 57
1970J19 chapter 2, Isaacson and Keller 1966). $*37. *3Conclusion:
1980J19 ^Numerical solutions of partial differential equations in
1990J19 fluid dynamics were mostly validated by experiments (Dey 1970, Fromm
2000J19 1964, Roache 1976, Schlichting 1958, Thoman and Szewezyk 1969,
2010J19 Takamatsu, Randall and Dey 1969). ^Hence a necessity
2020J19 was felt to_ check the effectiveness of numerical methods against
2030J19 analytical solution by direct comparisons. ^This was done
2040J19 in this paper with some success.
2050J19 $^Implicit numerical solutions were already found to_
2060J19 demonstrate better stability and convergence properties. ^From
2070J19 that_ viewpoint we have *3not established here any new information.
2080J19 $^Some properties of the implicit analogs discussed
2090J19 in this work may be directly extended to Navier-Stokes*'
2100J19 equations. ^For example, matrix representations of
2110J19 three dimensional heat conduction equation may be generalized
2120J19 to three dimensional Navier-Stokes*' equation. ^Thompson
2130J19 (1969) and Dey (1970, 1975, 1977) did it for some two dimensional
2140J19 cases. ^*Berger*'s equation retained several characteristics
2150J19 of Nevier-Stokes*' equation and the theorem 4
2160J19 giving certain characteristics of the implicit analog of Burger*'s
2170J19 equation may be extended to Navier-Stokes*' equations
2180J19 as could be found in (Dey 1977, Theorem: 2). $^The
2190J19 agreement between analytical and implicit numerical solutions
2200J19 given here would possibly lead towards more applications
2210J19 of such numerical techniques. ^However, it is strongly
2220J19 recommended that such an analog should be combined with some
2230J19 relaxaton parameter to_ accelerate the rate of convergence cutting
2240J19 down thereby computational costs. $*38. *3Acknowledgement:
2250J19 ^The author wishes to_ thank his undergraduate students \0Mr.
2260J19 Timothy Biessel and \0Mr. James *(0M.*) Hartrich for conducting
2270J19 computer works in this project.*#
        **[no. of words = 02024**]

        **[txt. j20**]
0010J20 **<STUDY OF SECOND ORDER EFFECT IN CURVATURE OF THE EXTERNAL STREAM IN
0020J20 THE THEORY OF GLANCING INTERACTION BETWEEN SHOCK WAVE AND LAMINAR BOUNDARY
0030J20 LAYER WITHOUT SEPARATION**> $*3Summary*:0 ^In the Theory of Glancing
0040J20 Interaction between Shock Wave and Boundary Layer Laminar and
0050J20 Turbulent without and with separation (RAY), it was revealed in
0060J20 the earlier investigations (publications) that during Laminar interactions
0070J20 without separation, there would be strong curvature effect of the
0080J20 external stream on the said problem which reflected in the first order analysis
0090J20 (1973). ^In the present analysis, the second order effect on the
0100J20 same problem of the first order analysis has been investigated by the
0110J20 perturbation method involving the technique of STEEPEST DESCENT and
0120J20 evaluated in terms of incomplete functions after Eulerizations of the
0130J20 series which exhibit insignificant second order effect on heat transfer
0140J20 results whereas significant effect on Skin friction results (on first
0150J20 approximation of weak variations of the coefficients on the stretched co-ordinate
0160J20 during Eulerization). $^However, an alternative method of
0170J20 calculations for the skin friction results in the second order analysis
0180J20 is suggested in workable form following (0L.*) Niron for further improvement.
0190J20 $*3Introduction: ^The 'Critical Viscous Sub-layer' Theory
0200J20 (Ray 1960a, 1962a) is a serious attempt over a decade*'s research
0210J20 works to_ establish the fact in viscous interaction problems \0i.e., when
0220J20 a disturbance to the Boundary Layer (compressible), either self induced
0230J20 or externally induced, has been considered, disturbances to the
0240J20 Inertial forces as well as to the viscous forces are of the same order
0250J20 of magnitude within a thin layer well inside the usual Boundary Layer
0260J20 due to Ludwig Prandtl and called as 'Critical Viscous Sub-layer' where
0270J20 the velocity of flow is so slow (because of the proximity of the boundary
0280J20 wall) that the compressibility effect therein can be neglected. ^Thus
0290J20 viscous effect is purely constrained within the 'Critical Viscous
0300J20 Sub-layer' in the compressible Boundary Layer interaction phenomenon.
0310J20 $^This is rather a two-layer Theory in the viscous interaction problems,
0320J20 where the effects of viscosity are retained in the inner layer of
0330J20 Prandtl*'s Boundary Layer (where an inviscid irrotational field is co-existing
0340J20 with a rotational field) thereby completely defining the structure
0350J20 of the entire flow field in the specified problems of Prandtl*'s
0360J20 Boundary Layer Theory. $^In the Boundary Layer Stability Theory,
0370J20 ample evidence of this 'Critical Viscous Sub-Layer' is exemplified in
0380J20 the Raleigh*'s Theorem, dealing with the non-viscous part of the complete
0390J20 Orr-Sommerfield*'s equation. ^This theorem states that when *Me,
0400J20 *Me, \0i.e., the wave velocity *Mn is equal to the mean velocity
0410J20 *Mn at a point *Mn, where *Mn defines the critical point in the solution
0420J20 of the Orr-Sommerfield*'s equation. ^Within this layer defined
0430J20 by *Mn, there is an intense deformation of vorticity which destabilizes
0440J20 the flow. ^This idea is confirmed by the fact the effect of viscosity is
0450J20 well known to_ be one of diffusion, which is related to the 'Critical
0460J20 viscous sub-layer' region in the 'Origin of Turbulence', 'Conical Flow
0470J20 Theory', 'Heat Transfer' problems, 'Flame propagation' problems,
0480J20 'Shock Boundary Layer' problems and several other disturbed Boundary
0490J20 Layer flow problems (Ray 1968a, 1968b, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1961).
0500J20 $^In the study of Three Dimensional Shock Boundary Layer Interaction
0510J20 problems with the help of 'Critical Viscous Sub-layer' Theory,
0520J20 a particular aspect of the problem was chosen where a mathematical model
0530J20 could be formulated for the physical problem of Glancing Interaction
0540J20 of Shock wave with Boundary Layer, laminar and turbulent without and
0550J20 with separation (Ray and Rangachari 1971a, 1973a, 1973b, Ray 1973,
0560J20 1974). ^However, the real stimulus for the theoretical works in this particular
0570J20 problem came from two existing experimental works (Stalker, 1960;
0580J20 Punov 1966) in the turbulent Boundary Layers with separation (the
0590J20 mechanism of generating the shocks being different in the two cases); it
0600J20 is revealed that due to this particular type of shock interaction, the
0610J20 flow parameters (external to the Boundary Layer) exhibit invariance in
0620J20 one of the principal directions of flow. ^This corresponds to the well
0630J20 known 'Independence principle', which does not impair the cross flow
0640J20 behaviour characterizing the Three Dimensional aspects of this particular
0650J20 flow phenomenon. $^In this Glancing Interaction (or in this Sweep
0660J20 Back Effects due to Shock Interaction with the Boundary Layers),
0670J20 only normal component of the main flow contributes to the above mentioned
0680J20 phenomenon which corroborates the 'Independence Principle' and as
0690J20 such, it is a special case of three dimensional shock boundary layer interaction
0700J20 phenomenon. $^Since the present problem obeys the Independence
0710J20 Principle, the mathematical works start based on the knowledge in
0720J20 the corresponding two dimensional shock interaction problems. $^Now in the
0730J20 two dimensional shock interaction problems, it has been established over
0740J20 years*' research works (Ray, 1960a, 1962a, 1959, 1962b, 1960b, 1966,
0750J20 1961) (published and reviewed) that only a fraction of Prandtl*'s Boundary
0760J20 Layer becomes important for the consideration of viscous effects
0770J20 in such problems, namely in any interaction problems where disturbances
0780J20 are superimposed on the Boundary Layers. $^In the two dimensional
0790J20 shock boundary layer interaction problems, the disturbance to the Boundary
0800J20 Layer (compressible), specifically, pressure disturbance travels up
0810J20 and down stream from the theoretical point of impingment of the shock on
0820J20 the Boundary Layer defining in practice a finite zone of interaction
0830J20 across which pressure jump occurs continuously. ^However, mathematically,
0840J20 the pressure jump \0i.e., the error in the pressure *Mn decays asymptotically
0850J20 (rather exponentially) upstream of the point of impingement
0860J20 of the shock during interaction with the boundary layer. $^Now, considering
0870J20 the present problem of Glancing Interaction, the net effect in the
0880J20 Laminar as well as in the Turbulent Boundary Layer interactions is
0890J20 the turning round of the external flow in the principal plane of flow
0900J20 \0i.e., in *Mn plane (Ray and Rangachari 1971, 1973a, b, Ray 1973, 1974).
0910J20 ^Hence, the natural choice of solving the problem is to_ search for
0920J20 an appropriate similarity solution of the external flow to the Boundary
0930J20 layer with due weightages for considerations of the specific physical
0940J20 problem. $^Because of the considerations stated in the corresponding
0950J20 two dimensional shock interaction problems, consideration of exponential
0960J20 pressure due to Glancing Interaction is quite logical to_ start with
0970J20 the problem. ^Furthermore, the interaction zone is small so that the exponential
0980J20 function can be approximated to_ behave linearly. $^Now the question
0990J20 is: given the exponential pressure distribution in the main-stream
1000J20 direction, what should be the appropriate similarity solution in the
1010J20 present problem? ^It is rather difficult to_ start with the compressible
1020J20 case (\0i.e., to_ consider the physical plane where the Glancing Interaction
1030J20 is taking place) for the investigation of the appropriate similarity
1040J20 solution in the present case. ^Hence the incompressible case is considered
1050J20 which has simulated some of the considerations of the Glancing Interaction
1060J20 phenomenon, to_ derive the appropriate similarity solution,
1070J20 namely *Mn, the free stream velocity component in the main stream direction
1080J20 (*3x-direction) (independent of *3z because of the independence
1090J20 principle) which is *Mn, D being a constant and *Mn, the free stream
1100J20 velocity component in the *3z-direction being constant (Ray 1962c, Ray
1110J20 and Rangachari 1971b). ^However, during derivation of this particular
1120J20 similarity solution (Ray 1962c, Ray and Rangachari 1971b), *Mn has
1130J20 been neglected. ^On the contrary *Mn is associated with the term *Mn
1140J20 and the other term considered and retained is *Mn which is of the same
1150J20 order of magnitude as the term *Mn namely *Mn with *Mn thus, it justifies
1160J20 that the constant associated with the term *Mn must be negligibly
1170J20 small compared with that of *Mn (Ray 1973, 1962c, Ray and Rangachari
1180J20 1971b). ^Furthermore, *Mn very small means that *Mn behaves linearly
1190J20 at some distance onwards. ^This is however necessary because when the
1200J20 energy equation in the external potential flow (\0i.e., the equations
1210J20 in Bernoulli*'s the corresponding incompressible flow) is written in the
1220J20 form *Mn = constant and with *Mn *Mn =*Mn the energy equation reduces
1230J20 to: *Mn = constant, in which the pressure term is decreasing and the
1240J20 velocity term is increasing with increasing *Mn(*Mn being constant
1250J20 pressure, say reservoir pressure in such a flow situation): and this form
1260J20 of energy equation cannot be exactly satisfied for all values of *Mn.
1270J20 ^Treating it rather a transcendental equation which will have theoretically
1280J20 infinite number of values of *Mn of which the relevant ones are to_
1290J20 be considered, it should be defined for some ranges of values of *Mn
1300J20 and this exactly justifies the linear behaviour of *Mn at some distance
1310J20 away from the origin (of the reference co-ordinate system) to_ satisfy
1320J20 the energy equation and for which the exponential function also behaves
1330J20 linearly. $^On the other hand to_ calculate higher order approximations
1340J20 in the present Boundary Layer analysis of the Glancing Interaction phenomenon,
1350J20 because of the neglection of the term *Mn which is a measure
1360J20 of the curvature of the external stream, it is referred in the present
1370J20 problem as the effect of curvature of the external stream *Mn (while proceeding
1380J20 towards the origin of the reference co-ordinate system) and it
1390J20 has been investigated in the present problem by perturbation analysis as
1400J20 the first order effect (Ray, Rangachari 1973a) and a second order analysis
1410J20 has been presented here in the present paper. $^The essence of
1420J20 such derivation of the similarity solution in the Boundary layer analysis
1430J20 in the incompressible case is that Boundary Layer Thickness grows
1440J20 as *Mn and this is exactly the reason to_ know in advance to_ identify
1441J20 *Mn =
1450J20 the critical viscous sub-layer (in connection with the compressible
1460J20 Boundary Layer in shock interaction phenomenon) because Prandtl*'s Boundary
1470J20 Layer thickness *Mn grows as *Mn (without pressure gradient and
1480J20 it grows thicker with increasing adverse pressure gradient). ^The physical
1490J20 situation as governed by the above mentioned Bernoulli*'s equation
1500J20 in the incompressible case may be conceived of as a flow from a reservoir
1510J20 through an orifice. ^The Boundary Layer growth (as well as Temperature
1520J20 Boundary Layer growth) as *Mn actually occurs in the physical problem
1530J20 of natural flow phenomenon (such as in atmospheric, geophysical situations
1540J20 (Schlichting 1968). ^Thus, the whole idea of the mathematical
1550J20 treatment of the corresponding compressible flow related to Glancing
1560J20 interaction has been conceived in the corresponding incompressible flow.
1570J20 $^Furthermore, in the incompressible flow (at this stage, without any
1580J20 particular reference to Glancing Interaction) with the external velocity
1590J20 distribution *Mn and *Mn = constant, the Meksyn*'s method (Meksyn,
1600J20 1961) was employed which evolved a way to_ satisfy the boundary condition(s)
1610J20 at *Mn (a real difficulty in the Boundary Layer Theory). ^In
1620J20 mathematical physics, it is called the Debye*'s method or Saddle point
1630J20 method in which only few terms of the infinite series employed contribute
1640J20 predominantly towards the solution of the problem. $^Although Meksyn*'s
1650J20 method is said to_ be not very exact, it gives sufficiently good
1660J20 approximation (within 3%) in Hayday and Bowles work (Hayday, Bowles
1670J20 1967). ^In the incompressible case of the present problem, results were
1680J20 compared with existing works of Hartree and Cook (Hartree 1937, Cook
1690J20 1950) which are the so-called exact solutions by multiplying the present
1700J20 results (Ray and Rangachari 1971b) by a numerical factor 1.16 and they
1710J20 showed very close agreement. $^In the compressible case, there needs
1720J20 a modification of the considerations employed in the corresponding incompressible
1730J20 case. ^Here it may be remarked that the flow in the physical     he
1740J20 plane (namely in the plane where the shock interaction is taking place)
1750J20 has been solved in the transformed plane (or co-related compressible
1760J20 plane) by means of Stewartson*'s transformations (Stewartson 1949). ^The
1770J20 reason is that the transformed Boundary Layer equations (along with
1780J20 the Energy equation) in the co-related compressible plane become simpler
1790J20 and similar to those in the incompressible case (Ray and Rangachari
1800J20 1971b). ^In the co-related compressible plane, the velocity distribution
1810J20 in the main-stream direction is given by *Me (*Mn being a constant)
1820J20 and *Mn = constant (Ray and Rangachari 1973a, b) correspond to *Mn
1830J20 free stream velocity in the main stream direction in the physical compressible
1840J20 plane (where the shock interaction is taking place) and = *Mn
1841J20 being the corresponding
1850J20 free stream velocity in the incompressible case (\0i.e., *Mn
1860J20 and *Mn the correlated function between compressible and corresponding
1870J20 incompressible flows and determined as an alternating infinite series
1880J20 which by regrouping will indicate *Mn as a convergent decreasing function
1890J20 of *Mn, \0i.e., the velocity *Mn is decreasing corresponding to the
1900J20 pressure rise (\0i.e., *Mn) due to shock.*#
        **[no. of words = 02014**]

        **[txt. j21**]
0010J21 **<*3Mathematics in social sciences**> $*<*3Introduction*>
0020J21 $^Sociology, Economics, Political Science, History, Geography, Social
0030J21 Psychology, Archeology, Anthropology are some subjects which can
0040J21 be put under the head social sciences. ^The social sciences agree as to
0050J21 their general logic as sciences. ^In widest sense the term science denotes
0060J21 all ordered and reliable knowledge. ^So a philologist, critical historian
0070J21 can truly be called Scientific. $^It is a common-place remark among
0080J21 many social scientists that mathematics, however useful it may have
0090J21 proved in the Physical Sciences, can play no essential role in the Social
0100J21 Sciences, because "human beings are not amenable to mathematical
0110J21 laws". ^They further say that mathematical analysis is quantitative while
0120J21 their field cares for qualitative analysis. $^To the mathematician
0130J21 trained in the spirit of modern mathematics, the views just presented seem
0140J21 to_ be based on nothing more profound than a misunderstanding. ^According
0150J21 to American physicist Gibbs Mathematics is a language. ^Any meaningful
0160J21 proposition can be expressed in a suitable mathematical form and
0170J21 any generalisations about social behaviour can be formulated mathematically.
0180J21 ^It is simply not true that mathematics is useful only in qualitative
0190J21 analysis. ^Doubtless many branches of mathematics such as Algebra,
0200J21 calculus are qualitative in nature. ^But the whole field of mathematical
0210J21 logic is purely qualitative. ^For more than 2000 years mathematicians
0220J21 have been making correct inferences of the most intricate sort. ^*Boole
0230J21 is considered to_ be the father of modern logic. ^*Frege, Peano, Russell,
0240J21 Kurt Godel, Hilbert, Tarski also helped the development of logic.
0250J21 ^Logic is the youth of mathematics. ^Mathematics, is the manhood of
0260J21 logic. ^Theory of logic inference has relevance to every human deliberation.
0270J21 ^Logic has been successfully applied to Psychology, Economics,
0280J21 \0etc. ^Logical analysis or deduction assure true conclusions only if
0290J21 we start with true premises. ^A person wishing to_ be indepth in the
0300J21 art and science of correct reasoning must study argument form which is a
0310J21 part of logic. ^The Mendelian theory of inheritance is the prototype of
0320J21 the transformation of qualitative into quantitative analysis via probability
0330J21 and calculus. $*<*3Economics*> $^It is precisely in the
0340J21 field of Economics, where the individuals studied, are engaged in relatively
0350J21 highly conscious calculating operation, that mathematical methods
0360J21 have been most successful. $^We can represent income and consumption as
0370J21 the absissa and ordinate respectively, if in a graph, we represent the
0380J21 postulated relation by a straight line with a positive slope of less
0381J21 than tan 45*@
0390J21 \0ie. 1 cutting the ordinate above the origin. ^Thus a problem in economics
0400J21 can be interpreted in terms of mathematics. ^Consider the following
0410J21 problems in economics: $(a) ^If the prices are high, people will
0420J21 tend to_ buy less, when people buy less, manufacturers produce less; therefore
0430J21 *3high prices are associated with high production. $(b) ^If prices
0440J21 are high manufacturers will produce more, since it is more profitable
0450J21 for them to do so; therefore *3high prices are associed with high production.
0460J21 $^At a verbal level both arguments are convincing yet obviously
0470J21 they cannot both be valid. $^Let *Mn = amount which people use
0471J21 $*Mn =
0480J21 amount the manufacturers produce. $(a) ^Says that *Mn is a decreasing function
0490J21 of *Mn (*Me say) and *Mn ^The second argument says that
0500J21 *Mn is an increasing function of *Mn (*Me say). $^These relations express
0510J21 the behaviour of consumers, the market and producers respectively.
0520J21 ^So long as there is no change in any one*'s behaviour the values of *Mns
0530J21 will remain constant. ^There will be no question whether supply varies
0540J21 directly or inversely with price, since neither moves at all. ^Suppose,
0550J21 however, that there were a shift in the tastes of consumers so that
0560J21 *Mn changes into *Mn. ^We have now *Me, *Me, *Me. $^This can
0570J21 be interpreted mathematically as 'prices and production will move together.'
0580J21 $^If consumers*' tastes are constant but production conditions are
0590J21 variable, high prices will be associated with low production. ^Thus mathematical
0600J21 symbolism resolves the apparent contradiction between the two
0610J21 arguments and explains when each is valid. $^Consider computing machines
0620J21 that_ have been programmed to_ represent a particular theory. ^In a
0630J21 so called analogue computer there is generally a one-one correspondence,
0640J21 between the circuits of the computer and equations of a mathematical theory
0650J21 of the phenomena. ^In the special case of a simulator there is a direct
0660J21 correspondence between the anologue and the phenomena. ^In addition
0670J21 to the moinac mentioned above, which can be considered hydraulic simulator,
0680J21 Stretz and others have used electrical analogue to_ represent the
0690J21 theory of *3macro economics. $^Economics is the genus of which macro
0700J21 economics and microeconomics are species. $^Economists want to_ be able
0710J21 to_ advise alternative policies for business, government, and personal
0720J21 uses. ^For this they have to_ know what outcome to_ expect from various
0730J21 actions. ^This is dealt with in Applied Economatrics. ^There we deal
0740J21 with observed samples, of statistical data. ^This requires the use of calculus,
0750J21 advanced analysis, matrix algebra, Statistics and other mathematical
0760J21 methods. $^The chief use of pure mathematics in economic questions
0770J21 seems to_ be in helping a person to_ write down quickly, shortly and
0780J21 exactly some of his thoughts for own use, and to_ make sure that he has
0790J21 enough, and only enough, premisses for his conclusions. $^Consider the following
0800J21 problem in economics about *3Equilibrium of the consumer: $^Let
0810J21 *Mn = money available for expenditure. (Income) *Mn, *Mn, ...,
0820J21 *Mn be prices of *3n commodities *Mn, *Mn, ..., *Mn be amounts of
0830J21 respective commodities the consumer buys. $^*Me, Provided he spends all
0840J21 his income. ^Wants of the individual be expressed by utility function
0850J21 *Me. $*3^The amounts bought will be determined by the condition that
0860J21 *Mn is maximum. $^Thus a problem in economics is first translated
0870J21 into mathematics. ^Now by using Lagranges*' method of undetermined multiplier
0880J21 for finding extremum values of a function the problem can be solved
0890J21 and the solution can be interpreted. $^Here I have quoted very few
0900J21 examples from economics where mathematics is used. ^But it should be noted
0910J21 that economics is nothing but study of mathematics. $*<*3Political
0920J21 Science*> $^In political science we are interested in the problems
0930J21 of the following type. $^A particular political party P is interested
0940J21 in knowing the number of people in her favour. ^For this survey is conducted,
0950J21 but because person (voter) is influenced by so many factors like
0960J21 his religion, economic condition, \0etc the problem that_ me tackle me
0970J21 **[sic**] more remains to_ be only political but it becomes social, economic,
0980J21 psychological also. $^This being the case use of mathematics in
0990J21 a particular Social Science is not the only significant factor. $*<*3Use
1000J21 of statistics*> $^Statistics is a branch of mathematics which is
1010J21 very widely used in all Social Sciences. ^In social sciences one is
1020J21 often required to_ compare different individuals, castes, religions, groups
1030J21 \0etc. ^It is also useful to_ know the magnitude of inter-individual
1040J21 differences \0eg. X is more popular than Y, Y is more populor than
1050J21 Z. ^Here we have compared X & Y and Y & Z. ^But a more precise understanding
1060J21 demands that we should know whether difference in popularity
1070J21 of X and Z is greater, equal or less than that_ between XY and XZ.
1080J21 ^Here the method of assesment to_ be used is called as 'method of paired
1090J21 comparison'. ^The calculations involve use of permutation & combinations
1100J21 and statistics in particular. ^The above method can be used for scaling
1110J21 utility of various commodities, popularity of politicians, eminence
1120J21 of scientists, morale of different groups, aesthetic appeals of advertisement,
1130J21 workers*' acceptability of various management policies and number
1131J21 of other
1140J21 attributes. $^Ranking method has two modifications (1) Average rankings
1150J21 (2) method of paired comparison. ^Here the different individuals are ranked
1160J21 with regard to the degree of the trait they possess. ^This method is
1170J21 also used in social sciences. ^Factor analysis is also a useful method
1180J21 in social sciences. ^The details of its application has been described
1190J21 in statistical tests Correlation is extremely useful in preliminary investigation
1200J21 of causal relationships. **[sic**] ^Correlation is basically
1210J21 a measure of relationship between two variables. ^In the field of economics
1220J21 there is a correlation between the price at which products are sold
1230J21 and the amount available for sale. ^There are many types of correlations
1240J21 \0eg. Pearson product moment, tetrichonic correlation, Phi *Yf coefficient,
1250J21 Contingency coefficient \0etc. ^In all aspects of life we find
1260J21 that there are relationships of one sort or the other. ^It should be
1270J21 noted that these relationships do not necessarily imply that one is the
1280J21 cause of the other. ^In some cases we find that two variables are related
1290J21 because they are both related as caused by the third variable. ^Thus
1300J21 different types of correlations told above are to_ be used at proper places.
1310J21 $^For studying so many problems in social science we have to_ collect
1320J21 data. ^For this, sampling techniques are very necessary. ^Little attention
1330J21 is given to the problem of drawing a good sample. ^Laboratory dignoses
1340J21 about the state of an health is based on the fact that the circulating
1350J21 blood is well mixed and that one drop tells the same story as another.
1360J21 ^But when material is far from Uniform as is often the case, the method
1370J21 by which the sample is obtained is critical and the study of techniques
1380J21 that_ ensures a trustworthy sample becomes important. $*<*3History*>
1390J21 $^*Sir John Sedey defines History as 'past everything'. ^Thus
1400J21 history is past economics, past mathematics, \0etc. ^Social history deals
1410J21 with life of inhabitants of the past, *(0G. M.*) Trevelyan has defined
1420J21 social history as history of people with politics left out. ^Study
1430J21 of population requires knowledge of statistics and economics. ^Historian
1440J21 is also required to_ have acquaintance with the development of science.
1450J21 ^Because with passage of time knowledge which was once specialised becomes
1460J21 common place. ^Economics interpretation of history came into public
1470J21 focus with Marx, in particular with his materialist interpretation of
1480J21 history. ^Economic aspects are among the principal interpretations of history.
1490J21 $^Economic history requires knowledge of economics (and so of mathematics)
1500J21 for its full understanding. ^For a proper understanding of man*'s
1510J21 history in the past one must have sufficient knowledge of economics
1520J21 in the hunting, pastoral and agriculture stages. $^Slave trade, emancipation
1530J21 of Catholics are topics common to History, Politics, Sociology
1540J21 and Economics. $*<*3Archeology*> $^Archeology is regarded as
1550J21 a discipline which is valuable in building up the cultural history of
1560J21 humanity as a whole. ^Archeology now means science dealing with and interpreting
1570J21 all the things made by man in relation to his circumstances and
1580J21 needs. ^Therefore archeology work means work involving the active participation
1590J21 of the historian, the Sociologist, economist, the environmental
1600J21 geologist \0etc. $^With the help of stratigraphic digging and new methods
1610J21 of dating, classification, counting, histographs \0etc it has become
1620J21 possible to_ arrive at precise chronology. ^Archeology aspires to_ bridge
1630J21 the gaps in the cultural and social history of mankind irrespective
1640J21 of the barriers of country, religion and race. $*<*3Psychology*>
1650J21 $^Psychology deals with finding a measure of the way in which we behave.
1660J21 to_ measure the way in which we behave psychologists give some questions
1670J21 and we have to_ number those questions. ^This process is called as coding.
1680J21 ^The process is for classification of the data. ^Coding makes cross
1690J21 tabulation easy. ^This data then can be analysed by statistical methods.
1700J21 $^In social sciences we follow different tests. (0^*K-R*) reliability
1710J21 test (Kuder Richardson reliability test) is one of them. ^The formula
1720J21 is as follows. **[formula**] where M = mean, K = number of items,
1721J21 S = standard
1730J21 deviation. ^Thus there is wide use of mathematics in Social Sciences
1740J21 including Social Psychology. $^Number systems are used in social sciences.
1750J21 ^Thereby we are introducing mathematics in social sciences. ^In playing
1760J21 games we frame one set of rules for one game and another set for other
1770J21 game. ^Mathematics is nothing but setting up rules and playing up
1780J21 with them. ^Consistently, with a view to ordering the data for some purpose.
1790J21 ^In using number system for a specific purpose of measurement in social
1800J21 sciences, we must know fully what different numbers imply. ^In tests
1810J21 of personality or achievements, the number cannot only rank order, equal
1820J21 differences in terms of dimensions. ^In some cases numbers may be used
1830J21 without having any implication of rank order, such as giving numbers
1840J21 to rooms, chairs or tables.*#
        **[no. of words = 02008**]

        **[txt. j22**]
0010J22 **<PSYCHOLOGY-- AN EASTERN PERSPECTIVE**> $*<*3*4Yoga and Vendanta*>
0020J22 $^All Indian religions have a common spiritual source: even
0030J22 Christianity and *4Islam as lived by the Indian people are profoundly
0040J22 influenced by the state of mind which is peculiar to India.
0050J22 ^One school of thought which incorporates most of the ingenious
0060J22 psychological insights of all other orthodox as well as heterodox
0070J22 systems is *4Vedanta. *4^*Vedanta is the last of a series of six
0080J22 systems of Indian philosophy. ^Another school of this series,
0090J22 which is equally popular, is *4Yoga. ^The original expounder
0100J22 of *4Yoga was an ancient seer known as Patanjali. ^His
0110J22 *4Yoga aphorisms were revalued in the commentary of Vyasa
0120J22 who is well known as the expounder of the *4Vedanta system.
0130J22 ^The writings of Vyasa and his commentators present an Indian
0140J22 approach to psychology which today is generally accepted by
0150J22 all scholars in India. $*<*3A Clean Slate to_ Begin with*>
0160J22 $^It is not my intention to_ advocate any creed or give exclusive
0170J22 importance to any one school of thought or system of philosophy
0180J22 or phychology either of the East or of the West. ^We can
0190J22 begin with a clean slate. ^Some of us are familiar with western
0200J22 schools, some with eastern schools and some with both. ^As I
0210J22 commence this inquiry I want to_ keep my mind free of the many
0220J22 theories that_ are put forward either by one school or the other
0230J22 of the East or the West. $^When I use the term I,
0240J22 "I request you also to_ think of your own personal self so that you
0250J22 can follow the trend of my thoughts from your personal point of
0260J22 view. ^For instance, I am sitting here. ^*I close my eyes to_
0270J22 be just with myself. ^*I turn inward and ask: "What am I most
0280J22 certain of at this moment?" $^What I feel so sure of now is that
0290J22 I am sitting here. ^In other words I exist. ^To me this existence
0300J22 is vary real. ^Here I am relating my existence to reality.
0310J22 ^To_ be logically correct, I am predicating reality
0320J22 to existence. ^From this I draw the conclusions: "^What is real
0330J22 is that_ which exists", and conversely, "only the real exists".
0340J22 ^The corollary I draw of this is that I am real. $"^What
0350J22 is this 'I' I am referring to? ^Where do I experience it?"
0360J22 $^The first thing I did was, close my eyes to_ gather my thoughts
0370J22 and to_ be with myself. ^That_ means my center is
0380J22 experienced within this body and not outside it. ^To_ be more
0390J22 precise, there is an experience of an awareness. ^Within that_
0400J22 awareness is a core as it were, to which every detail of that_
0410J22 awareness is related. ^This core is what I call "I". ^This
0420J22 experience must be the same for all. ^Our awareness is not
0430J22 static. ^Like the moving pictures of light and shade on a cinema screen
0440J22 or on television, awareness is always flowing and changing.
0450J22 ^*I cannot figure out from what source this awareness originates,
0460J22 and also I do not see how the awareness of the present moment
0470J22 vanishes into oblivion to_ make room for a fresh awareness.
0480J22 ^In fact, my experience of life is none other than these flowing
0490J22 and changing vicissitudes of awareness. ^Of course, I can
0500J22 also add to it all the in-between lapses of consciousness that_
0510J22 occur during deep sleep. $^The "I" referred to_ here should
0520J22 not be mixed up with the highly scandalized "ego" of psychopathology
0530J22 or the "ego" unsympathetically derided by the puritanical
0540J22 religious teacher or evangelist. ^In the present case
0550J22 it is to_ be understood as a simple point of reference in consciousness,
0560J22 which is experienced as a togetherness, a center of intense vividness,
0570J22 a personal identity, and a point into which all external impressions
0580J22 and sensations flow in and also from which all decisions
0590J22 and directed consciousness flow out. $^We do not
0600J22 begin life with an immediate recognition of this center as an "I"
0610J22 factor. ^When small babies are beginning to_ talk, they refer
0620J22 to themselves by whatever name they are called such as, "Mary
0630J22 wants candy" or "Mary hurt," and not "I want candy" or "I am
0640J22 hurt". ^A baby looks at herself (himself or herself) as one piece.
0650J22 ^In fact some great seers also speak like babies. ^*Ramana
0660J22 Maharshi referred to himself as "this". ^When he said,
0670J22 "This thinks," he did not really mean his body was thinking. ^He
0680J22 was referring to the same center, as we are when we say "I think"
0690J22 or "I feel". ^Whether it is a point of convergence or a point
0700J22 of divergence of consciousness, each of us knows and experiences
0710J22 it as our center. $^Through my inquiry, I have been locating
0720J22 myself. ^The question in my mind at this moment is not "Who
0730J22 am I?" but "Where am I?" $^Well, I am in the body.
0740J22 $^What am I? $^*I am this awareness. $^Is this awareness real? $^*I
0750J22 cannot think of anything more real than this awareness. $^If this
0760J22 body is the field of my awareness, can I say the body is also
0770J22 my 'self' or should I say "I am not this body"? $^I think I should
0780J22 not push this question any further. ^If I do so I*'3ll bring
0790J22 myself to a wall of ignorance where the psychologist, the physiologist
0800J22 and the biologist stand helplessly bewildered, unable to_
0810J22 resolve the fundamentals such as: "What is life?", "Who structures
0820J22 an organism and regulates its function?" and "How does consciousness
0830J22 originate?" ^These questions can wait. $^Even
0840J22 though the physiologist likes to_ think of stimulus and response
0850J22 as two separate functions happening at two extremities of a
0860J22 nerve channel, the Indian seer, for example Narayana guru wants
0870J22 to_ treat it as a binary function of the same consciousness.
0880J22 $^Instead of asking what causes awareness, let us make our
0890J22 selves more familiar with awareness. ^One way of understanding
0900J22 a thing is by looking at its structure. ^Another
0910J22 way is to_ understand its function. $^Has awareness any structure?
0920J22 $^It has. $^Do we know it all at once? $^No. $^What is
0930J22 the immediate knowledge of the structure of my consciousness? $^One
0940J22 thing I notice is how it pervades my entire body. ^If a fly sits
0950J22 on my nose, I become aware of it. ^If you stare into my eyes, I
0951J22 become aware of you. ^If a thorn pricks my toe,
0960J22 I become aware of its pain. ^If I lick a drop of honey, I become
0970J22 aware of its sweetness. $^The awareness of the external
0980J22 world comes to me as an act of perception or sensation. ^The
0990J22 external world is first sensed at the fringes of the field of
1000J22 awareness as an impression, a sensation, a rapture, \0etc.
1010J22 ^It can be pleasurable, soothing, painful, provocative, irritating
1020J22 or, in any case strong enough to_ register the presence of an
1030J22 object of interest. $^The environment, the field of awareness
1040J22 and the perceiver-- this is how I see the situation. ^The
1050J22 perceiver has to_ play the double role of interpreting the environment
1060J22 in terms of a value system such as favorable, threatening
1070J22 \0etc, and directing a response to the situation such as participation,
1080J22 indifference or withdrawal. ^In either case the factors
1090J22 that_ interact are "I" the perceiver, and "this", the
1100J22 perceived. $*<*3Presentiment and Selective Response*>
1110J22 $^The next phase of our inquiry spotlights the criteria involved
1120J22 in judgments made by the perceiver. ^When one person experiences
1130J22 a certain temperature as pleasant, another shuns it
1140J22 as severe. ^What decides each one*'s norm or pleasure or
1150J22 pain? ^Is it the quantitative impact of the temperature, or
1160J22 a preconditioned quality of the receiving organism? $^The very possibility
1170J22 of such a doubt presupposes that the environmental
1180J22 factor (objective quanta of the stimulus) can determine the value
1190J22 of an experience and that_ the inner preconditioning (subjective
1200J22 presentiment) is decisive in evaluating an experience.
1210J22 ^We have already seen how the same quanta of temperature
1220J22 can be felt differently by two people even when the thermometer
1230J22 measures it to_ be the same. ^That_ means the major
1240J22 factor is the subjective consciousness which includes a perceiver
1250J22 and its accompanying instrument, the physical organism
1260J22 equipped with a sensory motor system conditioned by prior
1270J22 experience. $^The intelligent system we speak of here
1280J22 as the person has an evolutionary history. ^It can be as
1290J22 simple as a Pavlovian pain-pleasure reflex conditioning
1300J22 that_ has been structuring the value index from the day of the
1310J22 organism*'s exposure to the environment, or it can be the complex
1320J22 history of the evolution of an entire race, or it can even be such
1330J22 an obscure thing as the individuation of a psyche through its
1340J22 exposure to several life series. ^You can cut the evolutionary
1350J22 history of the individuated psyche to_ suit the capacity
1360J22 of your imagination. ^In simple terms the responding mind
1370J22 is conditioned by its previous experience. ^While western
1380J22 psychologists prefer to_ think of the selective function
1390J22 as an indirect influence of genetic factors and a direct
1400J22 consequence of preconditioning, the eastern seers like to_
1410J22 interpret it as a habitual choice based on presentiment acquired
1420J22 through several previous incarnations. ^When it comes to
1430J22 a matter of speculation the acceptance of a theory depends partly
1440J22 on its logical plausibility and partly on the person*'s capacity
1450J22 to_ take a bold stand. $^One may not easily recognize
1460J22 a selective response when the response comes as a reaction
1470J22 to a physical stimulus like heat or cold. ^Let us move
1480J22 on to a more subjective environment, such as encountering a
1490J22 state of mind. ^In presenting my thoughts, I need your
1500J22 co-operation. ^Are you sympathetic or critical? ^Do you
1510J22 want to_ give me a patient hearing, or are you so impatient as
1520J22 to_ turn away from me? ^These considerations are very important
1530J22 to me. $^When I worry about these factors, I
1540J22 am not exposed to physical stimuli such as heat or cold, but to social
1550J22 attitudes. ^My understanding of your attitude can
1560J22 influence my response to you. ^What I term here as influence
1570J22 implies my selective response. ^*I can respond only in
1580J22 a way that_ suits my value judgment. ^My value judgment is
1590J22 bound to_ be colored by my presentiment. ^For this reason the
1600J22 Indian seer substitutes the ego with a system of consciousness called
1610J22 the *4antahkarana, the inner organ. ^This is a system
1620J22 that_ can cognize, interrogate, remember, relate, connate judde
1630J22 and affectively respond with a sense of agency **[sic**] and a personal
1640J22 identity. $*<*3Several Worlds of the Individual*> $^Suppose
1650J22 we read in a newspaper the following report: ^In the city of
1660J22 Ethica Anderson was living with Beatrice. ^Last week
1670J22 a son was born to Beatrice of Anderson". $^This
1680J22 news would not look very unusual to us. ^Old fashioned people
1690J22 among us might wonder if they were properly married in a church.
1700J22 ^Suppose the report continues like this: $"^*Anderson was only
1710J22 18 Beatrice was really his mother who is 36. ^The neighbourhood
1720J22 stormed over this and Anderson stung with the feeling
1730J22 of guilt, committed suicide. ^*Beatrice was admitted
1740J22 to a psychiatric center. ^Despite the protest of the neighborhood,
1750J22 'Uncle Joe', a recluse who lives by the riverside
1760J22 is taking care of the infant. ^He says, 'Every baby born is
1770J22 sacred and has the sanction of god to_ live and be cared for.'"
1780J22 $^Here we have a whole bunch of problems: $^Is it possible
1790J22 for a son to_ mate with his mother? $^Is it natural? $^If it is unnatural,
1800J22 why does nature favor such an emotional affinity? ^Why
1810J22 does it allow the fertilization of an ovum in such an unusual circumstance
1820J22 and why doesn*'4t nature inhibit the growth and delivery
1830J22 of the baby? $^If biological laws favor such a possibility
1840J22 why should people be shocked? $^Why should a person fear public
1850J22 opinion? $^What is guilt? $^Is the sense of guilt innate or acquired?
1860J22 $^Why did the young man kill himself? $^Was he afraid that the neighborhood
1870J22 would kill him? $^If he was afraid to_ die, how could he
1880J22 kill himself? $^Is this a case of incest? $^Why did his mother give herself
1890J22 up to his fantacy? $^Was she insane? $^What is insanity?
1900J22 $^Has insanity any physical cause?*#
        **[no. of words = 02000**]

        **[txt. j23**]
0010J23 **<*3CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND CHILD GUIDANCE*0**> $^Maybe the interest children
0020J23 are observed to_ evince in the "civilized" societies is mere a matter
0030J23 **[sic**] of whetting curiosity aroused by concealment and taboo than
0040J23 of any truly sexual arousal. ^Play that_ involves the sex organs is common
0050J23 in the primates and the human young. ^Again, to what extent it is part
0060J23 of general play activity and how much of it is truly sexually motivated
0070J23 is difficult to_ assess. ^It would certainly be misleading to_ call
0080J23 it sex play in the sense of deeply erotic pre-coital activity that_ is a
0090J23 feature of adult sexuality. ^Another aspect of sex drive in children as
0100J23 held by the psychoanalysts is the relationship of the child with the opposite
0110J23 sex parent, and classical psychoanalysis is replete with expositions
0120J23 of its dynamics. ^Oedipus and electra complexes have long become a
0130J23 part of popular literature, but it is extremely doubtful whether these 'explanations'
0140J23 serve any purpose. ^It would possibly be much more scientifically
0150J23 appropriate to_ account for such relationships in terms of socio-cultural
0160J23 variables operating in the parent-child relationships. ^To_ sum
0170J23 up, we really know very little about childhood sexuality as a specific
0180J23 source of motivation. ^The only thing that_ can be said definitively in
0190J23 this regard is that the child*'s responses are qualitatively different
0200J23 from those of the adult, and that sex as a motivating factor is less sustained
0210J23 and as an energizer is small until it is boosted by endocrine secretions
0220J23 at puberty. $*<*3Secondary Drives and Child Development*0*>
0230J23 $^Children of all ages strive to_, as men and women of all ages do,
0240J23 attain favourable notice, social approval, or distinction. ^Such motives
0250J23 are developed early in life, and are maintained with more or less equal
0260J23 vigour all through life. ^These drives are variously called ego needs
0270J23 or acquired drives, depending upon one*'s theoretical frame of reference.
0280J23 ^The first usage came from a deep-psychology approach which is essentially
0290J23 Freudian, and the second from Hullian behaviourism. ^In fact,
0300J23 the concept of acquired or secondary drive as it is popularized in the
0310J23 literature, has directly emanated from Hull and his followers*' works.
0320J23 $^Acquired drive means the capability of certain stimuli to_ move an
0330J23 individual to certain kinds of behaviour by virtue of their consistent association
0340J23 with a primary reinforcing situation. ^That_ is, stimuli consistently
0350J23 associated with a primary reinforcing situation acquire reinforcing
0360J23 properties themselves. ^Such associations could induce motivation
0370J23 as well as lead to reinforcement. ^For instance, rats will continue to_
0380J23 press a bar whose only effect is a clicking sound long after the bar pressing
0390J23 ceases to_ provide food; apparently, the clicks have come to_ be rewarding
0400J23 through having been connected with food. ^Similarly, when a rat
0410J23 is subjected to electric shocks repeatedly in the presence of, say, a
0420J23 red light, the rat would, in its presence, jump or emit whatever original
0430J23 response that_ avoided the shock, that_ is, the rat develops a fear.
0440J23 *3^Fear can motivate behaviour while fear reduction reinforces it*0.
0450J23 $^Ramifications of this phenomenon to child development are all-pervading.
0460J23 ^A whole lot of secondary drives would be developed from the small set
0470J23 of primary or basic drives. $^The situations associated with nutrition
0480J23 elimination, sleep, temperature control \0etc. would acquire drive properties
0490J23 in due course and tend to_ control behaviour in the sense of arousing
0500J23 and reinforcing them. ^For instance, in the nursing situation, the
0510J23 mother becomes the most significant stimulus, and gradually, the very sight
0520J23 and sound of the mother comes to_ acquire reinforcing properties from
0530J23 various sources, she being associated with the satisfaction of all the
0540J23 primary needs of the young child. ^Slowly, the acquired reinforcing properties
0550J23 of the mother becomes autonomous, that_ is, she tends to_ become
0560J23 reinforcing, in and for herself independent of what she does. ^Similarly,
0570J23 the father also acquires reinforcing properties. ^And the child tends
0580J23 to_ do things his parents like or approve. $^At this point, it would
0590J23 be pertinent to_ recognize that basically two classes of stimuli, namely
0600J23 (a) people, and (b) inanimate objects, can acquire reinforcing properties.
0610J23 ^The drive properties people
0611J23 come to_ acquire can be called 'social drives', roughly equivalent to
0620J23 what the psychoanalysts call ego needs. ^Since the associations with
0630J23 inanimate objects usually does not remain **[sic**] consistent for long,
0640J23 they do not acquire strong and persistent reinforcing properties. ^On the
0650J23 other hand, the child lives in a social world, and most of his satisfactions
0660J23 come through and with people. ^Therefore, the acquired drives tend
0670J23 to_ centre largely around people. ^In short, the saliency of the secondary
0680J23 drives are largely social. ^That_ explains our commencing this
0690J23 section with social approval, recognition, distinction, \0etc., as the examples
0700J23 of secondary drives. $^It is obvious that it is virtually impossible
0710J23 to_ detect all the acquired drives operating in the life of a child.
0720J23 ^Even listing the acquired drives in a given culture is extremely difficult.
0730J23 ^Of course, there have been attempts to_ develop a comprehensive
0740J23 taxonomy of motives. ^*Maslow, for instance, offers a hierarchically arranged
0750J23 list of human needs. ^Starting with the physiological needs, it
0760J23 moves up to self-actualization as the highest, through the intermediary
0770J23 needs of safety, affection, and esteem. **[figure**] $^One of the
0780J23 implications of the concept of acquired drives as motives for child development
0790J23 is that the array of motivations that_ arouses and controls their
0800J23 growth is extremely large and varies not only due to variations in ontogenic
0810J23 development, but also due to socio-cultural variables. ^That_ is,
0820J23 the cultural values, social customs, child-rearing practices, \0etc.,
0830J23 all have differential effect on child growth. ^It has been shown, for example,
0840J23 that child-rearing practices lead to different kinds of responses,
0850J23 as reflected through cultural practices, to anxiety-provoking
0860J23 situations. ^Similarly, severity of early training was found to_ be correlated
0870J23 to crime. ^Even within a given society, there are differences
0880J23 of values and practices between classes, and they differentially contribute
0890J23 to the acquisition of acquired drives. ^For example, it was shown that
0900J23 middle-class children are more fearful of getting dirty while engaged
0910J23 in a finger-painting test. ^It is explained that this occurs as a result
0920J23 of consistent home influences which cause the child to_ be orderly,
0930J23 conscientious, responsible, tame, and over-anxious. ^Many other investigators
0940J23 have come to similar conclusions about the effects of cultural and
0950J23 social differences on child behaviour. $*<*3Emotion and Emotional Development*0*>
0960J23 $^Before we proceed further with the understanding of the
0970J23 dynamics of child behaviour, we have to_ consider one aspect of motivational
0980J23 phenomena we have so far neglected. ^In the beginning of our discussion,
0990J23 we have delineated the domain of inquiry into arousal and directional
1000J23 functions. ^Arousal is a characteristic function of emotions. ^Therefore,
1010J23 we shall consider the emotional development of the child before going
1020J23 further with our inquiry of the motivational phenomena. $^When we talk
1030J23 of joy, anger, fear, or sympathy, we all seem to_ understand what
1040J23 we mean by emotions. ^The psychologists, however, are not unanimous on
1050J23 what they mean by emotions. ^Some psychologists make a distinction between
1060J23 emotion and emotional behaviour. ^They hold the view that emotion is
1070J23 a construct for the underlying neural process of emotional behaviour.
1080J23 ^Emotional behaviour is the activity that_ is correlated with emotions and
1090J23 includes both organized emotional responses and emotional disturbances.
1100J23 ^Notwithstanding such differences, emotion may be defined as a heightened
1110J23 state of subjective experience accompanied by skeletal-motor and autonomic-humoral
1120J23 responses. $^All emotions can be conceptually analyzed
1130J23 as constituting of three parts: (**=1) arousing-- a stimulus or a group
1140J23 of stimuli arousing an emotion; (**=2) reactive-- an autonomic-humoral
1150J23 or motor response, and (**=3) feeling-- a heightened subjective experience.
1151J23 $^It
1160J23 is generally agreed that all human beings are genetically endowed with
1170J23 the potentiality for developing patterned emotions, though at birth affective
1180J23 reactivity is limited to undifferentiated generalized state of excitement.
1190J23 $^Such findings as similar facial expressions by normal and
1200J23 blind-deaf children in experiencing various emotions, and greater similarity
1210J23 in smiling or fear responses to strangers between identical twins than
1220J23 between *3fraternal*0 twins, support the conclusion that genetically
1230J23 determined patterning predispositions exist. $^Variations in emotional
1240J23 behaviour between and within cultures, however, exist. ^These differences
1250J23 are explained by the cultural variations in the conditions evoking particular
1260J23 emotions and the customary modes of affective expression developed
1270J23 by communities over long periods of time. ^Idiosyncratic differences
1280J23 are explained by the history of ontogenic development of the individuals.
1290J23 ^Children demonstrate a consistency in the idiosyncratic patterns of
1300J23 emotional expression. ^Some children respond most vigorously in the motor
1310J23 sphere, others in the autonomic sphere, still others with equal vigour
1320J23 in both spheres. ^Another fact about emotions is that it is multiply determined,
1330J23 that_ is, the same emotion may be aroused by different stimuli
1340J23 or contexts. ^That_ is why it is impossible, even in a specified cultural
1350J23 context, to_ predict the emotional reaction accurately from the eliciting
1360J23 stimulus alone. ^Factors such as the individual*'s peculiar life
1370J23 experiences and particular associations of that_ stimulus, situational
1380J23 factors as current goals and the particular behavioural context have to_
1390J23 be taken into account. ^Also emotion responses are determined by cognitive
1400J23 and other developments attained by children at different age levels.
1410J23 $^Pressures for curbing certain emotions exerted by a culture tends to_
1420J23 affect the publicly noticeable part of the emotional behaviour. ^The
1430J23 subjective experience and the physiological responses, being away from public
1440J23 scrutiny, survive cultural repressions. ^That_ is why visceral response
1450J23 to emotional stimuli as measured by galvanic skin response (\0GSR)
1460J23 is much greater in older children than in the younger ones. $*<*3General
1470J23 Trends in Emotional Development*0*> $^The first step in
1480J23 emotional development is the differentiation of specific emotions out of
1490J23 the undifferentiated generalized state of excitement prevailing in the
1500J23 neonatal. ^This development occurs approximately between the age of six
1510J23 months and three years. ^The development of perceptual discrimination of
1520J23 stimuli and the emergence of new motor capabilites and differential autonomic
1530J23 responses are pre-requisites for emotional differentiation. $^With
1540J23 age the properties of stimuli-evoking emotions undergo changes. ^These
1550J23 changes can be due to various reasons. ^Cultural and specific family influences
1560J23 are two widely prevalent determiners. ^Another important reason
1570J23 is increasing cognitive skills. ^The subtlety and complexity of stimuli
1580J23 widen as the child gains in perceptivity and anticipation of implications.
1590J23 ^For example, when the infant becomes capable of perceiving the threatening
1600J23 implications of strangers, his susceptibility to fear increases.
1610J23 ^In the same way, brighter school children have been found to_ become
1620J23 afraid of certain situations at an earlier age than their duller peers,
1630J23 'and older children more responsive than younger ones to more symbolic
1640J23 emotional stimuli'. $^The reverse process also works at the same age
1650J23 period. ^As the child gains in cognitive complexity, he also gets desensitized
1660J23 to a host of previously emotion-evoking stimuli. ^The stimuli which
1670J23 could arouse him previously may now become innocuous as he becomes more
1680J23 critical and less suggestible. $^With age, not only stimulus-complexity
1690J23 increases, but the modes of emotional expression also undergo changes.
1700J23 ^Generally speaking, emotional behaviour becomes specific, directed, and
1710J23 functional with increasing age. '^Response intensity' of the older child
1720J23 acquires a selective gradation. ^Newly acquired motor skills change
1730J23 the topography of the emotional response pattern prevalent at birth. ^The
1740J23 infant can only cry, but the child can run, hide, dodge or argue. ^Further,
1750J23 socialization prescribes the acceptable forms of emotional expression
1760J23 appropriate to the context of time, space, and social set-up. ^For
1770J23 example, it is found that lower class children tend to_ express emotions
1780J23 more by motor activity, whereas the middle class children resort to more
1790J23 abstract and ideational forms. ^As noted earlier, with the suppression of
1800J23 overt emotional behaviour the increase in the autonomic component occurs
1810J23 with a corresponding decrease in motor responses. $*<*3FEAR*0*>
1820J23 $^Fear is one of the primary emotions, and possibly the most pervading
1830J23 one in its implications to the development of the individual. $^Fear
1840J23 is not specific in the first half-year of life. ^With the acquisition
1850J23 of perceptual differentiation, the fear response begins to_ take shape.
1860J23 ^During early infancy, fear is most commonly elicited by unexpected loud
1870J23 noises, rapid or abrupt displacement in space, pain, strange events, and
1880J23 sudden movements. ^As the child grows older, these stimuli become inadequate
1890J23 to_ elicit the same responses, and such new stimuli as darkness,
1900J23 solitude, wild animals, storms, supernatural and mysterious phenomena and
1910J23 unusual and grotesque forms tend to_ elicit fear responses.*#
        **[no. of words = 02018**]

        **[txt. j24**]
0010J24 **<*3MAGNITUDE OF SIZE DIFFERENCE AND RELATIVE SIZE JUDGMENT*0**> $^The
0020J24 size judgment task is assumed to_ involve a sequence of mental processes
0030J24 between the presentation of stimulus and subject*'s discriminatory response.
0040J24 ^These mental processes, according to Helmholtzian "size-distance"
0050J24 theory (see Hochberg, 1971), takes **[sic**] perceived distance into
0060J24 account in arriving at the judgment of size. ^That_ is, the starting
0070J24 point is the retinal image (s) which is interpreted with respect to perceived
0080J24 distance (D*'3) to_ give an output perceived size (D*'3). ^The
0090J24 image "s" is available to the subject in the retinal projection and the
0100J24 perceived distance is determined by the various cues available in the normal
0110J24 viewing conditions. ^Accordingly, it can be expected that the processing
0120J24 time for targets of two different sizes presented simultaneoulsy
0130J24 and manipulated to_ differ with respect to visual angle and distance,
0140J24 will vary as a function of the variables that_ enter into the size
0150J24 judgment task. ^These processes take a finite amount of time and would depend
0160J24 on the stimulus structure and the nature of processing involved (see
0170J24 Egeth, 1966). $^Consider a simplified procedure where two non-representational
0180J24 objects (upright rectangles) of same or different sizes are
0190J24 presented simultaneously, in which the distance and visual angles are manipulated,
0200J24 subject*'s task being to_ decide as quickly as possible whether
0210J24 the two rectangles are "same" or "different" with respect to size.
0220J24 ^For two targets with different sizes, in such situations, it is expected
0230J24 that: (1) "different" response times (\0RTs) should increase
0240J24 with the decrease in the magnitude of the physical size difference (*Zd)
0250J24 between the two targets; (2) "different" response times for a condition
0260J24 where the visual angles subtended by the two targets (of different
0270J24 sizes) are different should be faster in comparison to a condition
0280J24 where the visual angle subtended by the targets (of different sizes) are
0290J24 the same. ^The present experiment is designed to_ test these predictions,
0300J24 in a relative size judgment task. $*<*3METHOD*0*> $*3Subjects:*0
0310J24 ^The subjects were nine volunteer undergraduates at the University
0320J24 of Wisconsin, \0U.S.A., with normal or corrected vision. $*3Apparatus:*0
0330J24 ^The apparatus consisted of three units: a display unit, an electronic
0340J24 counter/ timer (Psionix 1248B), and a response unit. ^The floor
0350J24 of the display unit was of wood, 12 feet long and 3 feet wide, having
0360J24 wooden texture. ^An upright flat black wooden panel at the far end served
0361J24 as the backdrop for the display. ^Another upright panel at the
0362J24 near end was
0370J24 equipped with an extended padded viewer. ^Normal fluorescent room illumination
0380J24 prevailed. ^A fall type shutter was used to_ occlude subject*'s
0390J24 view of the stimuli. ^When the shutter was released, the viewing window
0400J24 was instantly cleared, allowing an unrestricted view of the floor
0410J24 and background as well as the targets. ^The response unit consisted of
0420J24 two light-touch pushbuttons mounted 6 inches apart below the viewing
0430J24 window. ^The timer was started by the fall of the shutter and stopped
0440J24 by the pushbutton response. \0^*RT was measured in milliseconds. ^Two
0450J24 lights on the timer panel indicated to Experimenter what response was
0460J24 made ("same" or "different"). $*3Stimuli:*0 ^The stimuli were four pairs
0470J24 of white cardboard rectangles, 2, 3, 4, and 5 inches in height and
0480J24 one inch in width. ^Each rectangle was mounted separately on a metal
0490J24 rod (1/8 \0in. in diameter) with long dimension upright. ^The center of
0500J24 each rectangle was at a constant height, aligned with subject*'s line
0510J24 of sight. ^The supporting rod was inserted into a 2 x 2 \0in. metal base.
0520J24 ^The stimuli were presented 4, 6, 8, or 10 feet from the subject. ^Accordingly,
0530J24 the 2 \0in. rectangle at 4 feet, the 3 \0in rectangle at 6 feet,
0540J24 the 4 \0in. rectangle at 8 feet, and the 5 \0in. rectangle at 10 feet
0550J24 subtended a constant visual angle of 2*@ 25*'5 of an arc. ^The lateral
0560J24 separation between the centers of the two stimuli at the viewing distance
0570J24 of 4 feet was 2 inches. ^For greater viewing distance, the lateral
0580J24 separation was increased proportionally to_ maintain a constant angle for
0590J24 lateral separation. $*3Procedure and Design:*0 ^Two same-size or diffferent-size
0600J24 rectangles were presented simultaneously at the same
0610J24 distance or at different distances
0610J24 from the subject. ^The instructions required the subject to_ report
0620J24 "sameness" or "difference" with respect to height by pressing the "same"
0630J24 button or "different" button when they were judged to_ differ in size.
0640J24 ^Thus, it was Donders*' \0b-type task, which required both a discrimination
0650J24 with respect to the stimulus and a choice with respect to the
0660J24 response (Woodworth, 1954; \0p. 32.) ^The stimuli were viewed binocularly
0670J24 and head movements were unrestricted. $^All the subjects were tested
0680J24 on successive days, at the same time, each for five sessions,
0690J24 each lasting one hour. ^The first day was devoted to
0700J24 practice involving sample trials from all four experimental conditions.
0710J24 ^Four experimental conditions were formed by manipulating the relationship
0720J24 between the two paired stimuli with respect to objective size, objective
0730J24 distance, and visual angle. ^The four conditions thus formed are
0740J24 presented in Table 1. $^To_ make possible a binary response, the
0750J24 stimulus pairs in condition *=1 were combined with those in condition *=3
0760J24 in one experimental session. ^Similarly, conditions *=1 & *=4, conditions
0770J24 *=2 & *=3, and conditions *=2 & *=4, were combined for the remaining
0780J24 three experimental sessions. ^Thus, the probability that the stimulus
0790J24 pair would be same or different was .5 for each session. ^However, only
0800J24 the "different" responses (conditions *=1 & *=2) were relevant to_ test
0810J24 the hypotheses. $^In each experimental session there were 24 stimulus
0820J24 pairs (12 from each condition). ^Each of these 24 stimulus pairs was repeated
0830J24 four times (twice in one lateral arrangement and twice in reversed
0840J24 arrangement), making a total of 96 trials in each experimental session.
0850J24 ^The order of presentation of these stimulus pairs in each experimental
0860J24 session (for each of the four sets) was randomized independently
0870J24 for each subject. ^Also, the order in which the four sets were assigned
0880J24 to the nine subjects was randomized. ^A rest pause of 5 minutes was
0890J24 provided midway in each session. $^At the beginning of each session,
0900J24 the instructions were read out and subject was acquainted with the four
0910J24 rectangles and viewing box. ^The instructions encouraged subjects to_ respond
0920J24 as rapidly as possible without making errors. ^An objective size-matching
0930J24 set (see Epstein, 1963) was induced; subject was explicitly
0940J24 instructed to_ respond to objective size. ^He was also told that the
0950J24 width of all targets was the same and that_ he should disregard width.
0960J24 ^Before releasing the shutter, a ready signal was given and subject was
0970J24 required to_ place his forehead on the padded extension of the viewing
0980J24 window and position his index fingers on the pushbuttons. ^The shutter
0990J24 was reset mannually after each response and the stimulus pair replaced
1000J24 by the next pair in the random series. ^The stimuli were always removed
1010J24 and replaced whether a change was called for by the random sequence
1020J24 or not. ^After every response, oral feedback was given about the accuracy
1030J24 of the response. ^If a response was wrong, the trial was repeated
1040J24 later during the same session and the error was recorded. ^Since we wished
1050J24 to_ confine our analysis to correct responses, this procedure ensured
1060J24 that the full complement of \0RTs would be considered under every condition.
1070J24 ^As it turned out, wrong responses were very infrequent.
1080J24 $*<*3RESULTS*0*> $^In condition *=1, the two targets of different
1090J24 sizes were presented at the same distance and subtending different visual
1100J24 angles. ^In condition *=2 two targets of different sizes were presented
1110J24 at different distances in such a way that the two targets, in this
1120J24 condition, always subtended the same visual angle (\0e.g., 2 \0in. size
1130J24 at 4 feet and 5 \0in. size at 10 feet). ^In both the conditions the time
1140J24 taken to_ respond "different" was recorded in milliseconds. ^The mean
1141J24 "different" \0RT
1150J24 for condition *=1 & *=2 are presented in Figure 1 & 2, respectively,
1160J24 as a function of average egocentric distance. ^In each of the figures
1170J24 there are three curves representing three *Zd values. ^The following
1180J24 observations may be made from Figures 1 & 2: $1. ^Mean "different"
1190J24 \0RTs tended to_ vary inversely with *Zd, the magnitude of size difference.
1200J24 ^That_ is, smaller the *Zd longer the \0RT. ^This relationship
1210J24 is consistently observed over the three *Zd values in both the
1220J24 experimental conditions. $2. ^Mean "different" \0RT in condition
1230J24 *=2 is higher than the mean "different" \0RT in condition *=1.
1240J24 ^The mean \0RT in condition *=1 is found to_ be 547 *(0m. secs.*) and
1250J24 600 *(0m. secs.*) in condition *=2. ^This shows that it takes longer
1260J24 to_ process "different" response when the two targets (of different sizes)
1270J24 subtend the same visual angle and are presented at different distances
1280J24 in comparison to a situation when the two targets (of different sizes
1290J24 ) are subtending different visual angles and are at the same distance.
1300J24 $3. ^Mean "different" \0RT increases as a function of average egocentric
1310J24 distance (Broota & Epstein, 1973). $^In order to_ establish the
1320J24 significance of the results, the data were subjected
1330J24 to analysis of variance, the design being a two factor
1340J24 experiment (2 x 3) with repeated measures (within subject design) on both
1350J24 the factors (Winer, 1971; \0p. 593). ^Factor A had two levels representing
1360J24 condition *=1 and *=2. ^Factor B had three levels representing
1370J24 magnitude of size difference (*Zd = 1*", 2*", 3*"). ^The results
1380J24 of analysis of variance are presented in Table 2. $^It is observed that
1390J24 the F values for both the main effects (A & B) are significant [\0F
1400J24 (1, 8) = 6.75; \0p < .05 and \0F (2, 16) = 13.59; \0p < .01 respectively.]
1410J24 ^This shows that the processing time differs significantly in the
1420J24 two experimental conditions.
1430J24 ^Further, significant B factor indicates that the magnitude
1440J24 of size difference (*Zd) affects the \0RTs. ^The interaction of
1450J24 *Zd x conditions is found to_ be non-significant. $*<*3DISCUSSION*0*>
1460J24 $^The results of condition *=1 & *=2 explicitly show that "different"
1470J24 \0RTs vary inversely with *Zd. ^These results are in conformity with
1480J24 the findings reported by Nickerson (1971), with tones differing on
1490J24 a single dimension. ^Similar results have been obtained by Gupta & Broota
1500J24 (1975) in a study on the judgment of apparent vertical. ^The increase
1510J24 in the \0RT with diminishing magnitude of difference (*Zd) between
1520J24 the two stimuli is indicative of the gradually increasing complexity
1530J24 of the discrimination task. ^There is, thus, greater tendency to_ decide
1540J24 "same" erroneously when the difference between the stimuli is very
1550J24 small. ^It follows that, in such situations, the errors of commission
1560J24 (pressing "same" key when "different" is correct) should be negatively correlated
1570J24 with the magnitude of size difference (*Zd). ^That_ is, errors
1580J24 become more numerous as the magnitude of size difference decreases.
1590J24 ^Further, because the complexity of the task increases with diminshing
1600J24 *Zd, under the accuracy instructions, the subject needs to_ analyse greater
1610J24 number of stimulus dimensions before a "different" (correct) response
1620J24 is initiated. $^The first conjecture is supported by Table 3 in
1630J24 which the errors, in both the conditions, have been found to_ be more numerous
1640J24 for *Zd = 1*", than for the other two *Zd values. ^Comparison
1650J24 of \0R*T related functions reveal that the processing time in condition
1660J24 *=2 (Figure 2) increases much faster in comparison to condition *=1,
1670J24 especially for *Zd = 1*", with increasing egocentric distance. ^This
1680J24 shows that the subject has to_ analyse greater number of stimulus dimensions
1690J24 to_ arrive at the "different" response. ^This complexity emanates
1700J24 from the fact that the visual angle of the two targets in this condition
1710J24 being the same, the relative visual angle itself carries no information
1720J24 about the stimulus difference. ^The relative difficulty of condition
1730J24 *=2 over condition *=1 has been corroborated by the ratings of the subjects
1740J24 in the experiment. ^Further, the mean \0RT in condition *=2 has
1750J24 been found to_ be 600 *(0m. secs.*) and 547 *(0m. secs.*) in condition
1760J24 *=1 and the errors are also related in that_ order. $^It may be concluded
1770J24 that the diminishing magnitude of size difference and equal retinal subtense
1780J24 of the two simultaneously presented targets increase the complexity
1790J24 of the perceptual task and requires the subject to_ process greater
1800J24 number of stimulus dimensions, to_ arrive at the correct judgment of size.*#
        **[no. of words = 02013**]

        **[txt. j25**]
0010J25 **<3MEN WITH VASECTOMIES: A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION*0**> $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*>
0020J25 $^*Mass Vasectomy Camps have been organised in India
0030J25 by several States. ^Such a *3massive-camp approach*0 started from
0040J25 Kerala during 1970 and 1971. ^It was expected that several thousands
0050J25 of persons would be operated in each camp. ^In the first such large camp
0060J25 organised in Ernakulam during July 1971, a total of 62,913 vasectomy
0070J25 operations were performed. ^Such a sudden upsurge in volunteering for vasectomy
0080J25 has put the operation on an altogether new footing. ^Today it
0090J25 is not so much a medical as a social innovation, and it is in this context
0100J25 that it should be rightly scrutinised from many sides, including the
0110J25 psychological side. $^In the past, the studies which have been done in
0120J25 this area aimed at investigating the socio-psychological effects of vasectomy.
0130J25 ^However, no conclusive results have yet been known. ^Most of
0140J25 the work that_ has been done concerned with the individual*'s attitudes
0150J25 towards vasectomy-- whether he is satisfied with his operation, \0etc.
0160J25 ^Such studies have mostly been of retrospective nature where the respondent,
0170J25 who underwent vasectomy, was either interviewed or given a questionnaire
0180J25 to_ fill-in and then the various demographic characteristics as
0181J25 related to sterilization were analysed and
0190J25 delineated. ^In these studies, the attempts were made more to_ *3evaluate
0200J25 the vasectomy*0 rather than the individual as *3effected **[sic**]
0210J25 by it*0. ^Many of these studies, however, claimed to_ have found
0220J25 favourable reactions to vasectomy, while some of them reported that operation
0230J25 had damaging psychological and other behavioural effects. ^Long
0240J25 back, Dandekar (1963) pointed out the limitations of such studies including
0250J25 the lack of careful psychological and clinical measurements made
0260J25 *3before*0 vasectomy and the lack of a "control group" which is essential
0270J25 in order to_ conduct an enquiry on a scientific basis. ^Others (Kapoor,
0280J25 1968, 1972a, 1972b, 1973a, 1973c; Poffenberger & Wells, 1965) also
0290J25 emphasized the same more rigorously at several occasions, which was conspicuously
0300J25 absent in the recent study of Wig *(0et al*) (1970, 1972).
0301J25 ^When Dandekar
0310J25 (1963) published some results of her study of vasectomised males
0320J25 she had tacitly classified the possible after-effects of vasectomy
0330J25 which could be studied as: (a) Psychological, (b) Physical, (c) Reactions
0340J25 of vasectomised person to his own sterilisation, and (d) Reaction
0350J25 of society toward vasectomised persons. ^The first three of these interrelated
0360J25 phenomena concern only the individual. ^The fourth is concerned with
0370J25 the reactions of others to the individual and this in turn is related
0380J25 to the individual. ^In retrospective studies done so far, it is only possible
0390J25 to_ get some information of limited value on (c) and (d) above.
0400J25 ^At any rate, the actual effect of the male sterilization cannot be gauged
0410J25 until more carefully controlled studies are designed and carried out
0420J25 with the help of some sensitive measuring instruments and tools. $^As the
0430J25 camps, that_ were proposed to_ be organized in several States, provided
0440J25 an opportunity to_ test samples of persons, as small experimental projects
0450J25 "before the operation and after the operation" on psychological aspects,
0460J25 it was decided to_ make an objective psychological evaluation of
0470J25 the vasectomized persons. $*<*3METHOD*0 $*3Study Design & Sample:*0*>
0480J25 ^As has been discussed above, it is clear that when a study is restricted
0490J25 to "before" and "after" characteristics of vasectomised cases only,
0500J25 there is no objective basis for determining the effect of vasectomy because
0510J25 there is no *3comparison*0 or *3control*0 group. ^This suggested a
0520J25 study design to_ capture the advantages of each which may be called a
0530J25 "*3before-after*0" *3study design using both an Experimental
0540J25 and a Control group*0. ^For this purpose, a random sample of 343 persons
0550J25 was drawn from the universe of volunteers who came to Ernakulam
0560J25 Camp in July 1971.
0570J25 ^The data was collected during the peak period of operations for 10 days
0580J25 ^This sample constituted an *3Experimental Group*0 (\0EG) consisting
0590J25 of persons who volunteered themselves for undergoing vasectomy operation
0600J25 in the camp where they were also offered more than usual incentives,
0610J25 in *3cash*0 as well as in *3kind*0 after the operation. ^Obviously,
0620J25 they were deemed to_ be in a highly motivated state. ^Another sample
0630J25 of 329 non-volunteers, or persons not willing to_ have the vasectomy but
0640J25 motivated to_ practise family planning as far as possible, was also constituted
0650J25 as a *3Control Group*0 (\0CG) for comparison purposes.
0660J25 ^Both the groups were as far as possible equated on a number of variables,
0670J25 \0viz., age, sex, education, place of residence and size of the family
0680J25 \0etc. ^There was no randomized assignment of respondents to groups;
0690J25 nor the experimental treatments were assigned at random. ^However,
0700J25 every effort was made to_ use the samples from the same population and
0710J25 to_ use samples as alike as possible. ^The similarity of the two groups
0720J25 was also checked using information available as mentioned above, \0i.e.
0730J25 age, education, residence, size of family, \0etc. ^The equivalence
0740J25 of the two groups was also checked, later on, using the *3means*0 and
0750J25 *3standard deviations*0 of the pretests on dependent variables, \0viz.,
0760J25 *3Neuroticism*0 and *3Anxiety*0 (Table 1, and \0Fig.1). ^These precautions
0770J25 were taken to_ increase the possibilities of attaining internal validity.
0780J25 ^Since the groups (Experimental or Volunteers and Control or
0790J25 Non-volunteers) were "equal" on the dependent variables, one can assume,
0800J25 (if the differences (D Scores) between the *3pre-test*0 and the
0810J25 *3post-test*0 of the \0EG are significantly greater than the differences
0820J25 of the \0CG), that the discrepancy is explained not by other variables
0830J25 but by the experimental variable or *3vasectomy*0. ^This design enables
0840J25 one to_ eliminate to some extent the distorting effects introduced
0850J25 by the measurement process and by uncontrolled events. ^Since the \0CG
0860J25 as well as the \0EG are usually subjected to these influences,
0870J25 the difference between *3d*0 (the change in the \0EG) and *3d*'3*0 (the
0880J25 change in the \0CG) should constitute a measure of the
0890J25 effectiveness of experimental variable (\0i.e., *3vasectomy*0). $^The
0900J25 degree of motivation, of course, at the time of 'before-measurement',
0910J25 between the Experimental and the Control Groups could not be equated
0920J25 as may be fairly assumed that the former group had an added advantage of
0930J25 availing the high incentives both in *3cash*0 and in *3kind*0 (amounting
0940J25 to \0Rs. 114.00 per acceptor) after the operation and for which the
0950J25 latter group did not volunteer. ^A better approach therefore would have
0960J25 been to_ conduct the before-measurement (a base-line study) prior to
0970J25 organising the Massive Vasectomy Camp efforts, followed by the *3pre*0-test
0980J25 just before the operation. ^This could have identified the
0990J25 effects of incentives also by comparing the two groups on the dependent
1000J25 variables prior to introduction of experimental variable. ^Such ideal
1010J25 conditions and controls are typical of a *3true*0 experimental design
1020J25 and are normally not feasible in field experiments where it is difficult
1030J25 to_ control the exact time and the specific persons to whom an experimental
1040J25 variable is applied. ^As such, the *3quasi-experimental design*0,
1050J25 such as the present one, is the next preferred one which can reduce
1060J25 the plausibility of rival hypotheses to a sufficient extent to_ permit
1070J25 at least an acceptable level of causal inference if the study has been done
1080J25 carefully. ^The main limitation of this design is its sensitivity
1090J25 to interaction among the main effects and to differences between the groups,
1100J25 if any, in characteristics related to the dependent variables under
1110J25 observation. ^In view of these general weaknesses, which are not
1120J25 uncommon to other basic experimental designs, our generalisation of the
1130J25 findings should also be restricted to which we shall turn in later sections.
1140J25 $*3Tools*0: ^It is sometimes much easier to_ categorise the
1150J25 types of human phenomena one wishes to_ study than it is to_ devise objective
1160J25 methods of study. ^The most difficult problem in social and
1170J25 psychological research is the development of satisfactory measurement techniques.
1180J25 ^In order to_ make a valid evaluation, the study involved an
1190J25 objective *3pre*0 as well as *3post*0 (before and after) questionnaire-measurements
1200J25 of both the groups and for which two standardized psychological
1210J25 tests, as indicators of behavioural change, were used. ^These two
1220J25 objective psychological tests were: (1) *3Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire*0
1230J25 (\0NSQ) by Scheier and Cattell (1961), and (2) *3Anxiety
1240J25 Scale Questionnaire*0 (\0ASQ) by Cattell and Scheier (1963).
1250J25 ^Both of them were already standardised in Indian conditions (Kapoor,
1260J25 1966; Kapoor, 1970) and later adapted in Malayalam language also. $^The
1270J25 \0NSQ had 4 components, besides a *3total Neuroticism score,*0
1280J25 as described below: $1. *3^Factor I*0: is a measure of over-protection,
1290J25 tender mindedness, protected emotional sensitivity, *3versus*0 tough-mindedness.
1300J25 $2. *3^Factor F*0: is a measure of Depressiveness,
1301J25 inhibited, sober,
1310J25 seriousness *3versus*0 Happy-go-lucky. $3. *3^Factor E*0: is a messure
1320J25 of Submissiveness, suggestibility, dependence *3versus*0 Dominance.
1330J25 $4. *3^Factor Anxiety*0: is a measure of worry, guilt-proneness,
1340J25 tension and emotional immaturity and instability *3versus*0 self-confidence,
1350J25 calmness and ego-strength. $^The above four factors constitute
1360J25 the *3total neuroticism.*0 ^The entire Scale has 40 items or statements
1370J25 and the maximum possible range of scores being 0 to 80. ^A high score
1380J25 on the scale indicates *3neuroticism*0 a low score "*3an emotional stability*0"
1390J25 indicative of mental health. $^Similarly, the \0ASQ had
1400J25 the following five components, besides a *3total Anxiety score,*0 as discribed
1410J25 below: $1. *3^Factor Q*;3**;*0: is a measure of Defective
1420J25 integration or lack of self-sentiment. $2. *3^Factor C*0: is a measure
1430J25 of Ego-weakness or lack of ego-strength. $3. *3^Factor L*0: is a
1440J25 measure of Suspiciousness or paranoid insecurity. $4. *3^Factor O*0:
1450J25 is a measure of Guilt-proneness. $5. *3^Factor Q*;4**;*0: is a measure
1460J25 of Frustrative tension. $^All the above five factors constitute
1470J25 the *3total Anxiety Scale*0 which also contains 40 items with a maximum
1480J25 obtainable score of 80. ^A high score on the scale indicates that the
1490J25 person whose anxiety level could be getting serious, while low score
1500J25 is indicative of his stability, feeling of security and mental health generally.
1510J25 $^The above two scales were first adapted into Malayalam language
1520J25 and after purging out certain items and then revising, modifying
1530J25 and adding some new items, following the item-analyses, the scales were
1540J25 finalized for administering to the groups. ^The *3reliabilities*0 of the
1550J25 \0NSQ and \0ASQ, in terms of *3stability coefficients*0 after
1560J25 a gap of 15 months, worked out to_ be .70 and .68, respectively. ^The
1570J25 *3validity coefficients*0 of both the scales, in terms of the average correlation
1580J25 between *3individual items*0 and total test score ranged between
1590J25 +.38 and +.42, with no cases of inconsistent direction of relation, and
1600J25 the *3multiple correlation*0 between all items of the total score exceeded
1610J25 +.91 on both |0NSQ and \0ASQ. $*3Procedure:*0 ^The two tests
1620J25 were administered to Experimental as well as Control Groups during
1630J25 a period of 20 days (10 days for each group) in the Camp with the help
1640J25 of a team of interviewers who were borrowed from the Department of Psychology,
1650J25 Kerala University, for a limited period and were trained in
1660J25 psychological testing. ^The "before" (*3pre*0) test was done just preceding
1670J25 the vasectomy operation for the \0EG. "^After" (*3post*0) test
1680J25 was completed in October 1972 on the same group with the same two tests.
1690J25 ^The same was done with \0CG. ^Thus, the total time gap between
1700J25 "before and the after" measurements (*3pre*0 and *3post*0 testing) was of
1710J25 15 months for the \0EG and the same gap was maintained in the \0CG
1720J25 also. ^However, the size of the samples, during the *3after*0 measurement
1730J25 phase was reduced to 240 for the \0EG and 260 for the \0CG, because
1740J25 some of the cases had migrated from their place of residence, had not
1750J25 turned up for interview despite repeated reminders, had already undergone
1760J25 vasectomy during the period, and/ or could not be traced due to wrong
1770J25 addresses. ^The analyses and their results are therefore based on the
1780J25 data which enabled us to *3pair*0 the individuals on whom both "before"
1790J25 and "after" measurements were completed. $*<*3RESULTS AND DISCUSSION*0*>
1800J25 $^It was interesting to_ note in analysing the data for the *3before*0-measurement
1810J25 of both the E & C groups that the levels of *3neuroticism*0
1820J25 and also of *3anxiety*0 between them were almost *3equal*0. ^For example,
1830J25 the total mean score on \0NSQ was 45.85 for the \0EG and 44.95
1840J25 for the \0CG which revealed no significant statistical difference
1850J25 (Table 1, Columns 3 & 7). ^Similarly, the total mean score on \0ASQ
1860J25 for the \0EG was 35.18 and for the \0CG it was 34.87 which again
1870J25 revealed no difference of statistical significance (same Table).*#
        **[no. of words = 02008**]

        **[txt. j26**]
0010J26 **<*3Perspectives on Adult Crime and Correction (A Comparative
0020J26 Study of Adult Prisoners and Probationers)*0**>
0030J26 $^At the district level, in the first instance, the probation services
0040J26 were started at Ajmer and Bikaner in 1960. ^Eight more
0050J26 districts, namely, Alwar, Jodhpur, Kota, Pali, Sriganganagar,
0060J26 Sikar and Udaipur were introduced to these services in
0070J26 1962. ^The whole State was covered under the Act in 1964 dividing
0080J26 it into eighteen probation districts, each with the staff of a District
0090J26 Probation Officer, a lower division clerk and a peon.
0100J26 ^One of these was a lady Probation Officer for looking after the female
0110J26 probationers. ^But this position was altered in 1967 when on account
0120J26 of economic measures the posts of District Probation Officers
0130J26 and District Social Welfare Officers were merged and each of the
0140J26 26 districts was allotted to one District Probation and Social
0150J26 Welfare Officer. ^Later on again forced by the economy cut, number
0160J26 of such officers was reduced to twenty, thereby allotting two districts
0170J26 to some of the Probation Officers. ^With this sort of amalgamation,
0180J26 the District Officers were charged with responsibilities
0190J26 under the three different areas, \0viz., probation, welfare of backward
0200J26 classes and general social welfare. ^Thus at present there is no
0210J26 separate staff as such for probation work. ^The pattern of the Probation
0220J26 Officers in whole of the State now is as follows: Chief
0230J26 Probation Officer-- one; Probation Officer (Headquarters)--
0240J26 one; District Probation and Social Welfare Officers-- twenty;
0250J26 Probation and Prison Welfare Officers-- six (at Jaipur,
0260J26 Jodhpur, Ajmer, Kota, Bikaner and Udaipur); Probation
0270J26 Officers-- two (at Jaipur and Kota); and Honorary Probation
0280J26 Officer-- one (at Jodhpur).
0290J26 $*<*3The Probationers*0*> $^In the whole State of Rajasthan the
0300J26 total number of probationers released on probation under supervision from
0310J26 1962 to 1971 was 2,626. ^In the beginning in 1962, only 31 probationers
0320J26 were released. ^But the number increased to 488 by 1965. ^After
0330J26 this there was a gradual decrease in the number of offenders, so that
0340J26 in 1971 the number stood at a mere 135. ^From these figures it is obvious
0350J26 that in the initial years of these services, probation work showed
0360J26 a clear progressive trend and if the same trend had continued it would
0370J26 have been considerably consolidated. $^Thus, when the probation work
0380J26 might have been consolidated and expanded, it showed sharp decline
0390J26 even with the increase in the number of probation officers. ^This could
0400J26 be attributed to the fact that up to June, 1967, there were two diffierent
0410J26 sets of officers independently looking after the probation and social
0420J26 welfare work. ^But, as has been said earlier also, owing to economic
0430J26 measures taken in 1967, the posts of District Probation Officer
0440J26 and Social Welfare Officer were merged into one and thus making the
0450J26 official to_ shoulder heavy quota of work. $*<*3Probationers Surveyed*0*>
0460J26 $^The total number of probationers under the supervision of
0470J26 the District Probation Officer, Jaipur at the time of the beginning
0480J26 of our study was 63. ^All these were male probationers. ^Of these
0490J26 63 probationers, 3 were those who had been convicted twice before being
0500J26 released under the supervision of the probation officer, 2 were released
0510J26 as their term of probation had expired and 2 were less than 16 years
0520J26 of age. ^Excluding these probationers from our study, we studied
0530J26 56 probationers only. $^The term of probation and nature of crime
0540J26 indicate that in large number of cases, crimes committed by the probationers
0550J26 were misdemeanours (92.87 per cent), only in 7.13 per cent cases
0560J26 were they felonies, punishable either by death or life imprisonment.
0570J26 ^Of the 56 probationers, about half (51.8 per cent) were released
0580J26 under supervision for the offence of theft. ^In non-victim criminality,
0590J26 the highest rate of crime (80 per cent) pertained to adulteration of food,
0600J26 whereas the remaining cases related to smuggling. ^As in prisoners
0610J26 so also among probationers, the victim-involved criminality is predominated
0620J26 by non-victim criminality. ^All the probationers were first
0630J26 offenders. ^The mean term of probation was found to_ be 1.3 years.
0640J26 $^Of the total probationers, only 23.20 per cent belonged to the rural areas,
0650J26 while 76.80 per cent were residents of the urban areas. ^More than
0660J26 four-fifths of the probationers were from young age-group (82.24 per
0670J26 cent), the highest percentage (53.67 per cent) being from the age-group
0680J26 of 16-20 years. ^The youngest probationer was 16 years of age and the
0690J26 oldest was 52 years old. ^16.9 per cent probationers were unemployed
0700J26 while the remaining were engaged in one or the other earning pursuits.
0710J26 ^Of the 47 earning probationers, 25.66 per cent were engaged
0720J26 in cultivation, 27.75 per cent in services, 34.04 per cent in business
0730J26 and the remaining were engaged in miscellaneous occupations.
0740J26 ^About half (53.2 per cent) of the probationers belonged to low income group
0750J26 (income up to 300 \0p.m.), whereas 42.55 per cent belonged to the
0760J26 middle (income from \0*4Rs. 300 to 1,000 \0p.m.) and 4.25 per cent to the
0770J26 upper income (income of more than \0*4Rs. 1,000 \0p.m) groups. ^Further,
0780J26 78.58 per cent probationers were literate and the rest (21.42 per
0790J26 cent) were illiterate. ^Of the literate probationers, 1.78
0800J26 per cent were graduates, 48.58 per cent were matriculates, 10.71
0810J26 per cent were educated up to the primary level, while 17.51 per cent
0820J26 were able to_ read and write although they did not have any formal education.
0840J26 $*<*3Supervision Practices*0*>
0850J26 $^Failure or success of probation in reforming the offenders largely depends
0860J26 on the handling of the probationers during the period of supervisoion.
0870J26 ^During this period, the probation officer actively tries
0880J26 to_ modify the ideas, beliefs, values of individual personality and its
0890J26 power of growth by keeping the probationer in his own social setting.
0900J26 ^This strengthens his relationship with his fimily and the
0910J26 community. ^Furthermore, the probation officer warns the probationer
0920J26 from time to time against indulging in deviant activities. ^To_
0930J26 achieve this end, the probation officer dissociates the probationer
0940J26 from bad associations and offers him guidance in the various
0950J26 aspects of life, such as studies, employment, health, recreation \0etc.
0960J26 ^Thus, during the supervision, the probation officer
0970J26 enforces certain minimum conduct requirement on the probationer by
0980J26 which he encourages the development of his insight and acceptance of
0990J26 responsibilities. ^Frequent visits by the probationer to the
1000J26 probation officer and by the probation officer to the probationer*'s
1010J26 home, place of work and neighbourhood, are of great importance
1020J26 in achieving these goals. $*<*3Visits*0*> $^Our survey
1030J26 revealed that the theoretical ideologies of probation services are different
1040J26 from the practical operations. ^As per rules, the probationer
1050J26 is supposed to_ contact the \0P.O. at least 4 times during
1060J26 the first month of the supervision. ^During the first half of
1070J26 the remaining period, the probationer has to_ visit the \0p.O.
1080J26 fortnightly and in the second half of the period once in a month. ^Thus,
1090J26 the minimum prescribed visits of a probationer to the \0p.O. are
1100J26 approximately 22 per year, when awarded one year*'s probation term; 38
1110J26 visits (27 during first year and 11 during second year) when awarded
1120J26 2 year*'s probation term; and 57 visits (26 during first year, 19
1130J26 visits during second year and 12 visits during third year) when awarded
1140J26 three year*'s probation term. ^It was found from our study that during
1150J26 the first month all the probationers regularly (4 times) visited
1160J26 the probation officer. ^Out of 56 probationers, 21 were regular
1170J26 throughout their probation term, whereas the remaining 35 probationers
1180J26 were found to_ be irregular in their visits to probation
1190J26 officers. $^Most of such probationers missed between 5
1200J26 and 6 visits. ^Further analysis of the data reveals that the offenders
1210J26 were more irregular during the second half of their supervision
1220J26 period (13 out of 16 missed more than 4 visits) in relation to the
1230J26 first half of their supervision period (5 out of total 19 probationers
1240J26 who were in first half of their supervision period missed
1250J26 more than 4 times of minimum prescribed visits.) ^Along with this,
1260J26 it can also be said that the offenders who were awarded probations
1270J26 for two or three years were found to_ be more irregular (except
1280J26 2 all had missed more than 4 times) in comparison to those who were
1290J26 awarded probation for less than one year (15 out of 23 missed between
1300J26 one and four visits). ^This shows how the visits of the probationers
1310J26 to the probation officers*'s office were much below the minimum
1320J26 visits prescribed by the rules. ^The condition was more
1330J26 severe in the case of probation officers*' visits. $^In 48.29
1340J26 per cent cases the probation officer never visited the probationers*'
1350J26 home, place of work, friends*' circle, teachers \0etc. ^Obviously,
1360J26 in all these cases the probation officer did not think it necessary to_
1370J26 visit the probationers*' surroundings. ^Such an attitude shows the indifference
1380J26 of the probation officer to his duty. ^Thus in
1390J26 these cases, it would hardly be profitable to_ asses the real behaviour
1400J26 of the offenders on the basis of momentary behaviour
1410J26 exhibited during the visits at office. ^Their act may be the
1420J26 direct result of familial maladjustment. ^Therefore, the members
1430J26 of family and sometimes immediate relatives must be interviewed,
1440J26 separately in each and every case so that true assessment
1450J26 of the improvement of the probationers can be judged and the
1460J26 various problems resulting from their behaviour be solved.
1470J26 ^In 48.29 per cent cases, the supervision of the probationers was directed
1480J26 only on the basis of performance during the office visits.
1490J26 ^Quite likely, this attitude on the part of the \0P.O.s, (that only
1500J26 the major cases were investigated well) was the result of the double
1510J26 work-load (probation as also social welfare work) assigned to
1520J26 them in the State. ^Consequently, the probation officers applied
1530J26 their energies only to those cases which would have been really
1540J26 harmful if they were not supervised diligently. ^The
1550J26 analysis of the figures, concerning the meetings the probation officers
1560J26 had with the offenders*' family members, employers, neighbours,
1561J26 friends, and teachers, revealed that the probation officers
1570J26 met the offenders*' family members (19) and neighbours (12) in a
1580J26 large number of cases as compared to a very few cases in which they visited
1590J26 the offenders*' employers (4) and friends (1). ^In none
1600J26 of the cases they tried to_ contact the offenders*' teachers.
1610J26 $^It was found that though the probation officer studied the social
1620J26 surroundings of the probationers such as a home or neighbourhood,
1630J26 yet in none of the cases he tried to_ get information from
1640J26 the parents or the family members about their habits, attitudes
1650J26 \0etc. ^Had they collected this information, it would have proved
1660J26 useful in the reformation of the probationers. ^So also it
1670J26 was found that only in two cases, the probation officer had guided
1680J26 the probationers on the basis of diagnosis made during the pre-sentence
1690J26 investigations. ^Even in these cases the probationers
1700J26 as well as their family members were informed of the conditions
1710J26 imposed on them by the court. $^It would be seen
1720J26 that the probation officers generally avoid visiting the
1730J26 offenders either at their place of work or in the school, \0etc.,
1740J26 owing to the problems of antagonistic views and adjustment for
1750J26 the probationers. ^But the probation officer whom we interviewed
1760J26 did not accept this view. ^He informed us that he visited
1770J26 all the places such as the probationer*'s home, school, place of
1780J26 work. ^And if after knowing his true identity, any employer terminated
1790J26 his services or neighbours and friends began to_ hate
1800J26 him, the probation officer did not interfere. ^This attitude
1810J26 he defended on the grounds that he wanted the probationers to_
1820J26 face the reality and thereby to_ adjust himself to the normative
1820J26 pattern of society. ^This probation officer, we were informed,
1830J26 found it hard to_ decide whether or not he ought to_ notify the
1840J26 probationer of his impending visit. ^On the one hand, he was
1850J26 confronted by the ethic of respect for the individual and on the
1860J26 other, by his obligation to_ protect society and supervise the
1870J26 probationers. ^At the initial stage of probataion, almost in
1880J26 all cases (where the probation officer had visited the homes) visits
1890J26 were without prior notification. ^At later stages also the
1900J26 number of unannounced visits was higher (23) than the number (4) of
1910J26 announced visits. ^The unexpected visits reveal the true atmosphere
1920J26 of the home, attitudes of the neighbours and other persons
1930J26 who are related in any way to the probationers. ^The probation
1940J26 officer revealed that the cases where the visits were announced
1950J26 previously were those where the offender was not in the need of surveillance.*#
        **[no. of rords = 02020**]

        **[txt. j27**]
0010J27 **<*3North East India: A Sociological Study*0**> $^Lack of knowledge
0020J27 about the statutory functions of the \0NEC might have also given
0030J27 credence to the lurking suspicion. $^In the present paper an attempt is
0040J27 made to_ discuss the statutory functions of the \0NEC (forming part
0050J27 *=1 of the paper), to_ analyse its role as a regional economic development
0060J27 agency
0060J27 (Part *=2) and lastly, to_ review its performance in the direction
0070J27 of stimulating balanced growth of the region (Part *=3). $^When for promoting
0080J27 inter-state cooperation and coordination Zonal Councils were already
0090J27 set up under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, what was the
0100J27 need, some ask, for constituting the \0NEC under a separate Act of Parliament,
0110J27 instead of forming simply a North Eastern Zonal Council?
0120J27 ^One critic (Prabhakar, 1973) has even expressed the view that the \0NEC
0130J27 has been set up "to_ make sure that the 'border' regions would not
0140J27 be loosely drifting into postures of defiance, or nursing ambitions of
0150J27 autonomy... the \0NEC seeks, not merely to_ usurp the limited powers
0160J27 of the states, but to_ totally replace, as it were, the authority of
0170J27 states by the Centre, *3especially by the most actively repressive organs
0180J27 of the Centre*0". $^It may be recalled that when the Zonal Councils
0190J27 were first formed, several criticisms were also levelled against them.
0200J27 ^But on review of the functioning of the Central Zonal Council, *(0S.*)
0210J27 Maheshwari (Maheshwari, 1965, \0p. 1138) concluded: "The fear
0220J27 that these Councils constitute the proverbial fifth wheel in the administrative
0230J27 coach impeding speed and efficiency has proved to_ be entirely
0240J27 unfounded... ^The Council... does not constitute another level in the
0250J27 traditional hierarchy. ^It is also not entirely true that the Zonal Council
0260J27 is the handmaid of the Centre... the Council has a purely advisory
0270J27 status which obviously inhibits the exercise of anything like dictatorial
0280J27 powers over either the Centre or the participating States." $^In
0290J27 the same way it may be argued that in the case of the \0NEC also there
0300J27 need not be any apprehension about any sinister role to_ be played by
0310J27 it as Act does not arm it with any executive powers. ^Functions of the
0320J27 \0NEC are laid down in Clause 4 of the North-Eastern Council Act
0330J27 which reads: $*<*3Functions of the Council*0*> $(1) ^The Council
0340J27 shall be an advisory body and may discuss any matter in which some or
0350J27 all of the States represented in that_ Council or the Union and one or
0360J27 more of the States represented in that_ Council, have a common interest
0370J27 and advise the Central Government and the Government of each State
0380J27 concerned as to the action to_ be taken on any such matter and in particular,
0390J27 may discuss and make recommendations with regard to: $(**=1)
0400J27 any matter of common interest in the field of economic and social planning;
0410J27 $(**=2) any matter concerning inter-State transport and communications:
0420J27 $(**=3) any matter relating to power or flood control projects
0430J27 of common interest. $(2) ^For securing the balanced development of the
0440J27 north-eastern area, the Council shall forward proposals. $(a) formulating
0450J27 the States represented in the Council a unified and coordinated regional
0460J27 plan (which will be in addition to the State Plan) in regard to
0470J27 matters of common importance to that_ area; $(b) regarding the priorities
0480J27 of the projects and schemes included in the regional plan and the stages
0490J27 in which the regional plan may be implemented; and $(c) regarding the
0500J27 location of the projects and schemes included in the regional plan, to
0510J27 the Central Government for its consideration. $(3) ^The Council shall:
0520J27 $(a) review, from time to time, the implementation of the projects
0530J27 and schemes included in the regional plan and recommend measures for effecting
0540J27 coordination among the Governments of the States concerned in the
0550J27 matter of implementation of such projects and schemes; $(b) where a
0560J27 project or scheme is intended to_ benefit two or more States, recommend
0570J27 the manner in which: $(**=1) such project or scheme may be executed or
0580J27 implemented and managed or maintained; or $(**=2) the benefits therefrom
0590J27 may be shared; or $(**=3) the expenditure thereon may be incurred;
0600J27 $(c) on a review of progress of the expenditure, recommend to the Central
0610J27 Government the quantum of financial assistance to_ be given, from time
0620J27 to time, to the State or States entrusted with the execution or implementation
0630J27 of any project or scheme included in the regional plan; $(d)
0640J27 recommend to the Government of the State concerned or to the
0641J27 Central Government the undertaking of necessary surveys and investigation
0650J27 of projects in any State represented in the Council to_ facilitate
0660J27 consideration of the feasibility of including new projects in
0670J27 the regional plan. $(4) ^The Council shall review from time to time the
0680J27 measures taken by the States represented in the Council for the maintenance
0690J27 of security and public order therein and recommend to the Government
0700J27 of the States concerned further measures necessary in this regard.
0710J27 $^The Clause is quoted verbatim to_ make it clear that the \0NEC*'s
0720J27 most important function would be to_ bring about coordinated development
0730J27 of the region with funds provided by the Centre and without interfering
0740J27 with the respective plans of the member States (The different projects
0750J27 under the regional plan also will be executed by the State Government
0760J27 or Union Territory Administration concerned). ^And this feature distinguishes
0770J27 the \0NEC from the Zonal Councils. ^The Prime Minister
0780J27 also drove this point home while inaugurating the \0NEC when she characterized
0790J27 it as "a promising innovation in regional planning". $^The
0800J27 Act gives \0NEC powers also to_ review the law and order situation in
0810J27 different member States (sub clause 4), it is true, but the Council
0820J27 can only recommend measures to the States concerned in this respect. ^Therefore
0830J27 this does not purport the dilution of the autonomy of the States
0840J27 as given in the Constitution. ^This being a border region has some extraordinary
0850J27 security problems which must be admitted and as the best security
0860J27 is economic prosperity so also economic prosperity is perilled by
0870J27 lack of public order and security. $^Besides the common Governor of Assam,
0880J27 Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura, other members of the
0890J27 Council are the Administrators of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, Chief
0900J27 Ministers of the member States and of Mizoram and one Counsellor
0910J27 to the Administrator of Arunachal Pradesh. ^The President of India,
0920J27 of course, may nominate a Union Minister as a member of the Council.
0930J27 ^Though the Chairman of the Council shall be nominated by the President
0940J27 of India, it can be safely assumed that the Governor would be
0950J27 the obvious choice as at present. ^And with the Governor as the Chairman
0960J27 the Council becomes a really regional agency. $^The \0NEC comprises
0970J27 five States, namely, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya Nagaland and Tripura
0980J27 and two Union Territories which are Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.
0990J27 ^*Nagaland has, however, opted to_ remain out of the Council. ^But
1000J27 it is expected that Nagaland will also join the Council ultimately.
1010J27 ^The region (including Nagaland) has a total area of 2,55,037 \0sq. \0kms.
1020J27 with a population of 195.79 *4lakhs. (^For greater details see Ganguly,
1030J27 1974). $^The question that_ naturally arises is: do these units
1040J27 ideally form one planning region? ^A planning region may be delineated
1050J27 on the basis of any one of the following three considerations (Meyor,
1060J27 1969, \0p. 243; Richardson, 1969, \0p. 17): $(1) ^Homogeneity with
1070J27 respect to topography or climate, natural resources, level of special, economic
1080J27 and political development, \0etc. $(2) ^Nodality or polarization
1090J27 centring some urban metropolitan area. $(3) ^Administrative coherence or
1100J27 identity. $^The North-Eastern Region clearly falls in the first category.
1110J27 ^Its homogeneous features in the field of topography, rainfall, level
1120J27 of socio-economic development are well-marked (for elaborate discussion
1130J27 see, Ganguly, 1974, \0p. 282-283). ^Some geographers and regional
1140J27 planning experts have therefore, included these States and Union Territories
1150J27 into one macro planning region *(0P.*) Sen Gupta, 1968, \0p.
1160J27 191. Chandrasekhara, 1971, \0p. 59-73 Misra, Sundaram and Rao, 1974,
1161J27 Appendix
1170J27 A to \0Ch. *=3). ^By constituting the \0NEC the government
1180J27 has recognized the need for transferring more resources from the centre
1190J27 through a regional plan for accelerated development of this area which
1200J27 has immense resource potential though "the technical know-how is yet deficient,
1210J27 and socio-economic obstacles to technological transformation of
1220J27 the resources do still persist." *(0^*P.*) Sen Gupta, 1968, \0p. 90).
1230J27 $^This matter has a relevance in the wider context of achieving balanced
1240J27 regional growth of the country. ^Economists have noted with concern
1250J27 the fact that "Economic progress in the 1950*'3s and early 1960*'3s was
1260J27 more rapid in the developed States than in the less developed ones."
1270J27 (Nath, 1970, \0p. 247). ^This is, of course, not a uniquely Indian problem.
1280J27 ^Even the developed countries like \0U.S.A., \0U.K., France,
1290J27 \0U.S.S.R., Italy, \0etc. have sharp disparities in the rates of
1300J27 growth of different regions. (^See Meyor, 1969, \0p. 247.). ^Regional planning
1310J27 bodies have, therefore been functioning in some countries to_ tackle
1320J27 this problem. ^In \0UK each planning region (there are ten planning
1330J27 regions) has a Regional Economic Council consisting of representatives
1340J27 from business, trades unions and the professions and a Planning Board
1350J27 comprised of civil servants representing different government departments.
1360J27 "^Together these bodies were to_ provide machinery for regional economic
1370J27 planning, the councils to_ provide broad strategy and the boards
1380J27 to_ coordinate the activities of governmental departments". (Lee, 1971,
1390J27 \0p. 163). $^*France is divided into 21 planning regions and each
1400J27 region*'s plan is integrated with the national plan. ^Similarly, in the
1410J27 Soviet Union there are regional economic councils ('Sovnarkhozy') for
1420J27 formulations of regional plans for development of industries and infrastructure
1430J27 (Nath, 1970). $^Whenever any backward region of a country requires
1440J27 inflow of investment resources from the central or federal government,
1450J27 it is the general practice to_ effect such flow of funds in a planned
1460J27 manner through some regional development agency. ^In the \0USA, "the
1470J27 central powers of the federal government were so restricted that its
1480J27 point of entry into regional planning was the field of water resources
1490J27 where it had primary jurisdiction. ^Through development of water resources
1500J27 for a multiplicity of uses it was hoped that social and economic advance
1510J27 in the watershed would be furthered. ^The watershed, therefore, became
1520J27 rapidly identified as the 'proper' region for planning, and recognition
1530J27 that land resources are ultimately re-related to the use of water only
1540J27 strengthened this view... ^The best known and certainly the most advanced
1550J27 regional planning agency in the United States is the Tennessee
1560J27 valley Authority," (Friedman, 1956, \0p. 503-04). $^In Italy there is
1570J27 a regional planning body named the Southern Development Agency (*3the
1580J27 Cassa per il Mezzogiorne*0) through which the Italian Government
1590J27 has been making massive investments in public works programme for development
1600J27 of Southern Italy which is relatively less developed than Northern
1610J27 Italy (Chenery, 1962, \0p. 668). $^The North-Eastern region
1620J27 of our country is also an area with rich natural resources, such as, coal,
1630J27 mineral oil and gas, silimanite, hydro-power potential, forests, \0etc.,
1640J27 but the level of their exploitation being very low the average per capita
1650J27 income of the region is lower than the country*'s average. ^This
1660J27 is evident from the fact that while the average per capita income of all
1670J27 States is \0*4Rs. 551 that_ of Assam including Meghalaya is \0*4Rs.
1680J27 543, Tripura \0*4Rs. 503, Manipur \0*4Rs. 492 and Nagaland \0*4Rs.
1690J27 371 (Report of the Sixth Finance Commission, 1973, \0p. 163). $^To_
1700J27 provide employment to the population of the working age of the region
1710J27 as also to_ improve the living standard of the people, the available resources
1720J27 have to_ be properly developed. ^Resources like hydro-potential,
1730J27 minerals, cropsoil-rainfall zones, \0etc., are not in all cases distributed
1740J27 along lines of political divisions at the level of States. ^Therefore
1750J27 proper development of these resources would call for coordinated
1760J27 efforts of different States under a commonly formulated plan of action.
1770J27 ^Secondly, the progress of exploitation of power, minerals, forests, soil
1780J27 and water resources is directly related to the development of transport
1790J27 (by road, rail, water and air) and communication facilities. ^And both
1800J27 the development of the infrastructure and the natural resources depend
1810J27 on two vital inputs, namely, capital and organization. ^On all these
1820J27 counts the prospects for the rapid development of the different political
1830J27 units separately and the region as a whole are essentially dependent
1840J27 on the coordinated and comprehensive plan of development of available resources
1850J27 with increased mobilization of capital, expertise and enterprise.*#
        **[no. of words = 02029**]


        **[txt. j28**]
0010J28 **<*3Million cities of India*0**> *<*3Bombay: An Exploding
0010J28 Metropolis*0*> $^These are the areas changing fast:
0020J28 the villas set in the midst of trees are being replaced by skyscrapers
0030J28 and luxury flats. ^Along the Back Bay, this upper class residential
0040J28 zone descends to a promenade of monotonously uniform multi-storeyed
0050J28 apartment structures-- the Marine Drive, which houses upper and middle
0060J28 class people. ^The south end of the Marine Drive, close to the administrative
0070J28 area, has the Diplomatic enclave of Cuffe Parade, and further
0080J28 beyond along the Foreshore road adjoining the newer reclamations of Backbay
0090J28 is another zone of skyscrapers, just emerging and fast changing
0100J28 the skyline. ^This again is mainly upper class, residential area. ^The
0110J28 upper class residential zone of Cumbala Hill descends in the north to
0120J28 the Hornby Vellard and extends beyond along the Worli seaface in a residential
0130J28 zone, very similar to the Marine Drive. ^The eastern water
0140J28 front extending from the fort northwards right up to Sewri-Wadala hums
0150J28 with port functions. ^Docks and wharves, warehouses and godowns and associated
0160J28 auxiliary functions characterize the area. ^Here, life runs on
0170J28 a clock work and bulk-handling basis. ^The roads are congested with heavy
0180J28 traffic. $^To the north of the old residential core is a low lying
0190J28 ground reclaimed in the early phases of development of Bombay. ^The lowest
0200J28 levels of this depression adjoining the Hornby Vellard has been converted
0210J28 into Race-course. ^Elsewhere, this area, extending as far north
0220J28 as the other old nucleus of north Bombay (Dadar, Naigaum) is the zone
0230J28 of the textile industry. ^The skyline is dotted with the chimneys which
0240J28 emit smoke and pollute the environment. ^This zone records fairly high
0250J28 population densities, because of the presence of a large number of *4chawls
0260J28 (industrial workers*' tenements) many of which are housed in dingy,
0270J28 old dilapidated structures with almost no civic amenities. ^This is
0280J28 the labour area of Bombay *3par excellence*0. $^The northern sections of
0290J28 the city island extending from Prabhadevi in the west to Wadala in the
0300J28 east, Dadar in the south to Mahim-Sion in the north is a middle class
0310J28 residential area, developed during the forties, and later, submerging
0320J28 the old village cores. ^The roads are better aligned and wider, and the
0330J28 houses are generally three-storeyed. ^Unlike the older residential zones
0340J28 of south Bombay, north Bombay can boast of more open space, parks and
0350J28 greens. $^Beyond the Mahim Creek and along the Western railway and
0360J28 \0S.V. Road lie a succession of residential suburbs which house the
0370J28 middle income service personnel. ^Full use has been made of the landscape
0380J28 while setting up these suburbs. ^*Bandra, Pali Hill and Khar are located
0390J28 on higher grounds and house the upper class people. ^Middle and lower
0400J28 income housing colonies are strung along the railways and on newly
0410J28 reclaimed grounds. ^The low lying areas and creeksides house the hutment
0420J28 dwellers. ^Along the Central railway and between Kurla and Mulund,
0430J28 several industrial units have developed during the last 30 years. ^*Kurla,
0440J28 however, is an old textile industrial core, an outlier to the main cotton
0450J28 mill zone of the city. ^North Kurla-Ghatkopar-Vikroli is an automobile
0460J28 and light engineering zone. ^Further beyond up to the municipal
0470J28 limits along the Shastri Marg is a zone of chemical and drug industries.
0480J28 ^Between the two railways, along the link roads between the western
0490J28 and eastern suburbs, an industrial zone has developed during the fifties
0500J28 and sixties. ^Unlike the old industrial core, the industries here are
0510J28 mostly small and medium in size and are housed in industrial estates like
0520J28 those of Pawai, Marol, Saki and others. ^It is mainly a light engineering
0530J28 area, though film and chemical industries are also present. ^To
0540J28 the east of Kurla is a fast-growing residential suburb of Chembur-Govandi-Devnar.
0550J28 ^The building of the new bridge across Thana creek to the
0560J28 mainland along this section is leading to a ribbon-like residental development,
0570J28 extending eastwards upto Mankhurd. $^*Trombay is a "restricted"
0580J28 industrial area with a cluster of two oil refineries, a petrochemical
0590J28 complex, a fertilizer plant, a thermal power unit, and the \0BARC
0600J28 (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). ^A green belt is prominent in the
0610J28 north centre, the substantial part of it devoted to the National Park.
0620J28 ^To the south of it is a large reserve developed by the government owned
0630J28 Aarey Milk colony. ^The hill-sides are being eaten away by quarries
0640J28 industry. $^From the foregoing review, it is apparent that the suburban
0650J28 (electrified) railway service, the new highways, alternate arteries
0660J28 and trunk roads act as powerful factors contributing to the new urban expansion.
0670J28 ^The post-war explosion of the metropolis is well reflected in
0680J28 the changing skylines of the city*'s landscape. ^A strong residential renewal
0690J28 is evident in the newer reclamations of the Foreshore zone, as well
0700J28 as in old core areas of urban decay. $^The civic amenities to the population
0710J28 are provided by its own local self government, namely the Corporation,
0720J28 whose jurisdiction extends over the city and its suburbs. ^The
0730J28 corporation area for purposes of administrative control is divided into
0740J28 15 wards (7 in the city and 8 in the suburbs) and 88 sections. ^It derives
0750J28 a total annual revenue of about \0*4Rs 4.5 *4lakhs-- from octroi
0760J28 (\0*4Rs 1.51 *4lakhs), land and house taxes (\0*4Rs 1.5 *4lakhs) and
0770J28 others, and incurs an expenditure of \0*4Rs 5.7 *4lakhs annually on
0780J28 civic amenities. ^Besides, the Corporation runs the city*'s bus transport
0790J28 and electricity distribution. $*<*3SOCIAL AMENITIES IN GREATER
0800J28 BOMBAY*0*> $*<*3The Intra-city Transport*0*> $^The backbone of public
0810J28 transport in Greater Bombay is the suburban rail system, catering
0820J28 mainly to the long distance commuters from the suburbs to the city, and
0830J28 the \0BEST buses that_ provide feeder services from the interior residential
0840J28 and industrial localities to the nearest rail heads (Table 6).
0850J28 ^The two services are well-coordinated to_ offer an efficient urban transportation
0860J28 for the city. **[table**] $^The elongated, insular nature
0870J28 of the city island its limited links with the suburban Salsette, the
0880J28 relief of Salsette with a central hill and lateral lowlands, and equally
0890J28 limited links of Salsette with the mainland across the Ulhas estuary,
0900J28 have all profoundly influenced the transport network of Bombay and its
0910J28 region. ^The central and the western railways linking the city with
0920J28 its region have their terminals close to the city centre. ^Over 2000 suburban
0930J28 locals carry commuters living in suburban Bombay to work places
0940J28 in the city and back. ^Following the build of the land, the railways run
0950J28 south to north, with cross links between the two and a feeder link from
0960J28 Kurla to Mankhurd. ^The peak hour traffic between 8 and 11 \0a.m.
0970J28 and between 6 and 9 \0p.m. can carry 1.5 *4lakh passengers per hour. ^About
0980J28 60 per cent of commuters make use of the suburban railways. $^With
0990J28 certain changes in working hours in many sectors and the change in the
1000J28 timings of shifts in factories, the suburban locals now run to full capacity
1010J28 even during the non-peak hour times. ^The increasing trend in the
1020J28 development of industrial suburbs has now generated two-way traffic at all
1030J28 the times of the day even though the eccentric location of the city centre
1040J28 in the south where shopping and other facilities are concentrated
1050J28 generate downtown peak rush in the mornings and a reverse flow in the evenings.
1060J28 ^Nearly 40 per cent of employment is concentrated within a radius
1070J28 of 3 \0km from the city centre and about 60 per cent within a 10 \0km
1080J28 redius (Table 7). **[table**] $^About 30 per cent of the commuter traffic
1090J28 is handled by the \0BEST reputed to_ be the best city bus service
1100J28 in the country. ^The arterial roads follow the railways on either side
1110J28 and are interlinked by vital east to west feeder roads, both in the city
1120J28 and in the suburbs. ^About 1300 intra-city buses, 1600o taxis and about
1130J28 one *4lakh cars besides trucks ply on them. ^About 27 *4lakh people
1140J28 commute in buses daily. ^With half of the road space occupied by buses,
1150J28 the road traffic in the city centre crawls at a speed of 6 \0km per
1160J28 hour. $*<*3Power and Water Supply*0*> $^The city consumes a lion*'s
1170J28 share (more than 60 per cent) of the power generated in Maharashtra.
1180J28 ^Two thermal plants located at Thakurli (136 \0mw), and Trombay (336
1190J28 \0mw), one nuclear plant located at Tarapur (190 \mw), and three hydel
1200J28 units located in the *4ghats at Bhivpuri, Khopoli and Bhira (together
1210J28 276 \0mw) supply electric power to the city and its region. ^The Koyna
1220J28 hydel power unit and the Nasik thermal station divert a large part of
1230J28 their output to Bombay. ^The total power consumption in the city exceeds
1240J28 1200 \0mw. $^The present need of domestic and industrial water is
1250J28 met from the reservoirs-- Tulsi, Vehar and Powai-- one below the other
1260J28 in the central Horseshoe valley and Tansa and Vaitarna. ^Together
1270J28 they supply 218 million gallons per day. ^About 55 million gallons are
1280J28 used up by industries and the rest is available for domestic use giving
1290J28 about 20 gallon per day per head. ^Plans are afoot to_ further augment
1300J28 the water-supply by tapping the Ulhas and its tributaries in the immediate
1310J28 hinterland. $*<*3Health and Educational Facilities*0*> $^*Bombay
1320J28 has 125 general hospitals, 74 dispensaries, 10 \0TB hospitals
1330J28 and 13000 hospital beds, apart from a large number of medical practitioners.
1340J28 ^This facility accounts for about a quarter of the total in the state;
1350J28 yet, it is inadequate, and what is worse, its anomalous spatial distribution,
1360J28 with a concentration in central and south Bombay makes the suburbs
1370J28 starve and suffer. ^The same is the case with the educational facilites
1380J28 even though Bombay is the leading educational centre of the State,
1390J28 catering to 4.35 *4lakh children at the secondary school level (as
1400J28 against the State total of 19.4 *4lakhs, \0i.e., about 22 per cent), and
1410J28 88000 students at the higher education level (including technical and
1420J28 professional courses), against a state total of 3.1 *4lakhs (27 per cent).
1430J28 ^It is a seat of two universities, apart from a number of specialized
1440J28 research institutions like the \0TIFR, \0BARC, Institute of
1450J28 Demography, Tata Institute of Social Sciences and others. ^The higher
1460J28 educational facility shows a concentration in the city centre, though
1470J28 during the last few decades, a welcome dispersal it taking place in north
1480J28 Bombay and the inner suburbs. $*<*3Recreation Facilities*0*>
1490J28 $^Parks and open grounds are quite inadequate in the city, as an insignificantly
1500J28 small proportion of land is under this type of use. ^The old residential
1510J28 areas are the worst hit. ^The city centre has some open space
1520J28 in its *4maidans on the reclaimed lands. ^The newly developed residential
1530J28 areas in north Bombay and in suburbs like Khar are also better served.
1540J28 ^The National Park area in Borivli, the Aarey Colony, and the
1550J28 Vehar-Powai lake reserves form a green belt along the northern fringe
1560J28 and provide a welcome open space for the weekend holiday seekers. ^Recreation
1570J28 centres as well as points of entertainment such as cinema houses
1580J28 crowd in south Bombay; some of them have however gone to the residential
1590J28 areas of central Bombay also. $*<*3HOUSING*0*> $*<*3Housing
1600J28 Shortage*0*> $^About 13 *4lakh housing units, apart from a large number
1610J28 of slums, house the population of Bombay and its suburbs. ^Over 20,000
1620J28 tenements are being added every year by various bodies such as the
1630J28 Maharashtra Housing Board, the Corporation, Cooperative bodies of
1640J28 private builders and others. ^Yet, the estimated deficiency in housing
1650J28 in the city at present is about 2 *4lakh tenements. $^According to some
1660J28 estimates, the density of population per \0sq mile in Bombay city (inner
1670J28 city) may approach 100,000, as against 15,287 in the suburbs. ^To_
1680J28 provide minimum housing to residents of Bombay, the city needs about a
1690J28 million dwelling units. ^It, however, had only 4.6 *4lakh units-- a deficit
1700J28 of 5.6 lakh units. ^Further, 38 per cent buildings of Bombay are
1710J28 as old as 60 years and above. ^In 1971, there were over 2 *4lakh single-room
1720J28 tenements where more than 15 *4lakh persons were living under subhuman
1730J28 conditions. $^Building activity in the city proper is in the
1740J28 nature of in-filling and urban renewal, while in the suburbs it is in the
1750J28 nature of extension and urban sprawl, submerging the old village cores
1760J28 and developing along the railways and feeder roads.*#
        **[no. of words = 02010**]

        **[txt. j29**]
0010J29 **<*3SELF, ROLE AND STATUS: STRATIFICATION THEORY OF WORK MOTIVATION*0**>
0020J29 $*<*3WORK MOTIVATION IN THE HOSPITAL*0*> $^He divided his
0030J29 subjects into an equitable payment group, an unqualified and an overpayment
0040J29 by circumstance group. ^In contrast to the predictions of equity
0050J29 theory there was a general tendency for the overpaid subjects to_ do lower
0060J29 quality work, particularly during the last 2 of the 3 sessions they
0070J29 worked. ^An additional group of overpaid subjects was included in the study,
0080J29 and in contrast to the subjects used in Adam*'s work, they were
0090J29 made to_ feel overpaid by virtue of circumstance rather than by their
0100J29 own qualifications. ^Data from this group suggested that just feeling
0110J29 overpaid was not enough to_ cause subjects to_ produce large quantities
0120J29 of work. ^The fact that the experimental manipulatons induced both inequity
0130J29 relative to self and inequity relative to others; the job performance
0140J29 of underpay and overpay employees was not significantly different from
0150J29 that_ of control group employees. ^Thus, results suggest that when the
0160J29 confounding effects of inequity responses are eliminated, perceived pay
0170J29 inequity has little effect upon job performance. ^*Goodman and Friedman
0180J29 (1968) have supported Adam theory in their findings. $^Another study
0190J29 by Goodman and Friedman (1969) 52 undergraduate overpaid subjects
0200J29 perceiving either quantity or quality as instrumental for equity resolution
0210J29 exhibited greater differences in production than comparable equitably
0220J29 paid control group. ^*Fritchard *(0et al*). (1972) have also supported
0230J29 equity theory. $^*Saran (1969) in his study concluded that after
0240J29 the introduction of the incentive plan workers not only met the standard
0250J29 but in fact secured substantial increases in productivity. ^After
0260J29 the workers had understood the importance of plan, the output increased
0270J29 to above 52%. ^Cost of production decreased. ^There was, in general,
0280J29 progressive fall in wastage in products. ^Management did not see any correlation
0290J29 between incentive plan and absenteeism. ^However, the workers
0300J29 were less inclined to_ use their leave for minor ailments, \0etc.
0310J29 $^In a study of locomotive drivers Pestonjee (1971) found that money was
0320J29 still an important incentive. ^*Sinha and Nair (1961) study was mainly
0330J29 concerned with the relationship of certain background factors in the
0340J29 job satifaction as well as the association of the job satisfaction with
0350J29 different facets of worker behaviour. ^A comparison of job satisfaction
0360J29 scores of these groups revealed the low absentee workers as significantly
0370J29 more satisfied ones. ^This was confirmed by Sinha (1965).
0380J29 $^*Rothe*'s (1970) study was based on the Welders. ^Immediately following
0390J29 the removal of the incentive system, the production dropped 25% points
0400J29 below the incentive output, and began to_ rise almost immediately. ^As
0410J29 the productivity increased from below standard to above standard, the
0420J29 consistency of week-to-week productivity also increased. ^Productivity
0430J29 at the end of 48 weeks was as high as it had been before the incentive was
0440J29 eliminated, and it was believed that incentives had changed from financial
0450J29 to social ones. $^A number of studies have been recently reported
0460J29 on work motivation according to which the employees have rated their
0470J29 preferences for the factors affecting their work. ^*Bose (1961, 1961a),
0480J29 for example, asked his subjects to_ rank the factors affecting job satisfaction
0490J29 and he found that occupational differences played an important
0500J29 role in their ranks. ^*Desai (1969) asked his subjects who were factory
0510J29 workers about their expectations from the supervisors and the management.
0520J29 ^The workers expected from the management better salary, better working
0530J29 and service conditions, and from supervisors they expected that they should
0540J29 treat them as human beings. ^*Lahiri (1965) found differences between
0550J29 the government and non-government employees in attaching importance
0560J29 to job factors. ^*Dutta (1959) in his study obtained ranks for job-satisfying
0570J29 factors, while Pryer (1962) studied dissatisfaction in industrial
0580J29 situation. $^*Ganguli (1954, 1954a, 1954b, 1957, 1957a, 1961, 1964)
0590J29 invariably found pay and monetary incentives as an important variable for
0600J29 job satisfaction among workers and supervisory staff in industry. ^These
0610J29 studies are repetitive in nature and do not contribute to the understanding
0620J29 of work incentive system as such. ^In Desai*'s (1968) study there
0630J29 is a substantial agreement among the two groups, \0i.e. blue and white
0640J29 collar workers regarding the importance of adequate earnings; job security;
0650J29 good boss. ^Similarly, there was substantial agreement about the
0660J29 relative unimportance of fair treatment of grievances and good company
0670J29 among both the groups. ^Opportunities for advancement were regarded as
0680J29 more important by the white collar workers while the blue collar workers
0690J29 considered the type of work performed as important. ^*Smith and Kendell
0700J29 (1965) found a correlation of .78 between job satisfaction and annual
0710J29 earnings. $*<*3Psychological Incentives*0*> $^*Locke and Brayan
0720J29 (1969) found that the hard goal subjects worked significantly faster
0730J29 than the easy goal subjects but the \0KR (knowledge of results),
0740J29 and no-\0KR groups did not differ in performance. $^The motivations
0750J29 of the navy enlisted men were less related to their specific jobs in the
0760J29 Antarctica than in the case of civilian scientists. ^Results confirm
0770J29 that occupational group is a moderator of the job satisfaction-job
0780J29 performance relationship, and that the relationship is higher for the scientific
0790J29 group than for navy enlisted group (Doll and Gunderson, 1969).
0800J29 $^*Friedlander and Greenberg (1969) explored the job climate in which
0810J29 24 hard core unemployed workers were placed with a view toward determining
0820J29 climate variables which might increase performance and retention.
0830J29 ^The subjects perceived their climate as far less supportive than did
0840J29 their respective supervisors. ^Those who perceived their climate as supportive
0850J29 tended to_ be rated by their supervisors as having higher competence
0860J29 congeniality and effort. ^In contrast reliability was unrelated to
0870J29 job climate and negatively related to job tension. ^Increasing the supportiveness
0880J29 of the job climate seem **[sic**] to_ be a major venue for
0881J29 increasing
0890J29 performance; and the implementation of these changes lied less in increasing
0900J29 the hard-core unemployed*'s competence than in exploring the low reliability
0910J29 (lateness and absence) he demonstrated in response to his climate.
0920J29 $^*Friedlander and Margulies (1969) felt that organisational climate
0930J29 had a greater impact upon satisfaction with interpersonal relationships
0940J29 than upon either of the other two types of satisfaction. ^Among the
0950J29 eight dimensions or organisational climate measures, *7espirit was
0951J29 most highly
0960J29 related to job satisfaction although this relationship differed significantly
0970J29 among those types of satisfaction climate characterised by intimacy
0980J29 and considerations; satisfaction with opportunities for recognisable
0990J29 signs of advancement was highest as compared to other types of satisfaction.
1000J29 ^There was lack of significant correlations between the two climate
1010J29 dimensions, aloofness and production emphasis, and any of the types
1020J29 of satisfaction. $^*Rao (1970) while trying to_ identify socio-personaal
1030J29 correlates of job satisfaction, and also the perceived need satisfaction
1040J29 of supervisory and clerical personnel, found that the occupational level
1050J29 was a variable in determining employee satisfaction. $^*Carroll and
1060J29 Tosi (1969) correlated different characteristics of goals established
1070J29 in a 'management by objectives' programme to criteria hypothesised to_
1080J29 represent success in this programme. ^Results indicated that establishing
1090J29 clear and important goals produced virtually all favourable results,
1100J29 specially for certain personality types; difficulty of goals resulted in
1110J29 positive in one personality group and in negative in another. ^Establishing
1120J29 goal priorities was also beneficial, especially for certain types
1130J29 of managers. $^*Harigopal and Chattopadhyay (1969) found significant
1140J29 differences in job satisfaction scores of managers and workers, the former
1150J29 getting a higher score. ^There were considerable differences in the
1160J29 scores of workers in perceived supervisory behaviour. ^According to
1170J29 Harigopal *(0et al*). (1969) while managers had higher job satisfaction
1180J29 as compared with workers, supervisors did not have significantly higher
1190J29 job satisfaction. $^*Hundal (1969) assessed the purely motivational
1200J29 effects of knowledge of performance in a repetitive industrial task.
1210J29 ^Subjects were low paid workers with 1-5 years experience on the job. ^Experimental
1220J29 conditions were imposed one week before starting the experiment.
1230J29 ^They adjusted readily since the experimental conditions did not
1240J29 interfere with the work. ^The subjects (workers) were randomly divided into
1250J29 3 groups; in Group A subjects received no information about their
1260J29 output; in Group B subjects were allowed a rough estimate of their out-put;
1270J29 in Group C subjects were given accurate information about their
1280J29 output and could check it further by referring to a figure displayed before
1290J29 them. ^Results showed increased output with increases in degree of knowledge
1300J29 of performance. $^*Miller (1969) found that increments in the
1310J29 ability to_ reward others had a greater effect on their behaviour than did
1320J29 comparable increments in the ability to_ punish them. $^In a study
1330J29 Davies and Binks (1969) determined the criterion of managerial success
1340J29 by rank ordering the subjects on each of the 5 sources of company information
1350J29 and summing the rank ordering for each individual. ^The subjects
1360J29 were then administered the Motivation Analysis Test, providing 10 factor
1370J29 analytically derived motives, 10 concomitant conflict scores and 5
1380J29 ancillary measures. ^Rank order indicated the positive relationships between
1390J29 the criterion and super ego strength, making motivation asceticism-optimism
1400J29 and parental home conflicts. ^Negative relationships were found
1410J29 between the criterion and narcissism, pugnacity and affectionist spouse
1420J29 attachment. $^Results of Sorcher (1969) study suggested better job
1430J29 understanding followed by a commitment to a self established goal did appear
1440J29 to_ motivate individual to_ improve his performance. ^In a study
1450J29 by Carlson (1969) significant positive correlations were observed for individuals
1460J29 with high ability correspondence (individual abilities consistent
1470J29 with those required by his job) and non-significant correlatins
1480J29 were obtained for individuals with low levels of ability correspondence.
1490J29 ^Statistically significant correlations were observed between job satisfaction
1500J29 and job performance for blue collar sample in cognitive and high
1510J29 motor ability correspondence.
1550J29 ^Statistically significant correlations (.05
1560J29 level) were observed between job satisfaction and job performance for
1570J29 the white collar sample. $^In the study by Rizzo *(0et al*). (1970)
1580J29 the derived measures of role conflict and ambiguity tended to_ correlate
1590J29 in the two samples (office and plant) in expected directions with measures
1600J29 of organisational and managerial practices and leader behaviour, and
1610J29 with member satisfaction, anxiety and propensity to_ leave the organisation.
1620J29 ^In a study by Maher and Piersol (1970) job objectives were negatively
1630J29 related to job satisfaction and overall satisfaction. ^Location
1640J29 of mission was negatively related to job satisfaction, overall satisfaction
1650J29 and perception of organisational cohesiveness. $^*Bergosform (1970)
1660J29 studied operator tracking performance in three simulated guided missiles
1670J29 systems under short term psychological stress induced by threatening
1680J29 with, and, also delivering, unpleasant electric shocks. ^Subjects were
1690J29 29 male military conscripts. ^The initial part of the stress period was
1700J29 characterised by a moderate decrement of performance and a heightened
1710J29 arousal level. $^*Latham and Ronam (1970) investigated the effect
1720J29 of goal setting and supervision on the performance criteria and found that
1730J29 supervision was correlated with high productivity and low injury rates
1740J29 only when it was accompanied by goal setting. ^*Rao and Ganguli (1971)
1750J29 found that supervisors had lesser need deficiencies and hence greater
1760J29 satisfaction than clerks. ^Clerks perceived personal life, promotion
1770J29 and ability utilisation as more important, and perceived independence,
1780J29 achievement and working conditions and independence, and technical supervision,
1790J29 as less important. ^*Ghiselli and Johnson study (1970) suggested
1800J29 that for managers in a tall organisation, there is little relationship
1810J29 between the degree of need satisfaction and success for all the five
1820J29 needs: security, social esteem, autonomy and self-actualisation. ^For managers
1830J29 in flat organisation the relationship between satisfaction and success
1840J29 is negligible for lower order needs. ^As a consequence, there is
1850J29 no difference between managers in flat and tall organisation in terms
1860J29 of the degree of relationship between satisfaction and success for lower
1870J29 order needs, and the difference continues to_ increase with higher and
1880J29 higher order needs. $^*Neff (1968) has indicated that the various determinants
1890J29 of work motivation are material needs, self esteemed activity,
1900J29 respect by others, and need for creativity. ^*Ghosh and Shukla (1967)
1910J29 believe that job satisfaction was more a function of job conditions
1920J29 than of personal factors; it has three correlates namely, attitude to supervision,
1930J29 discrimination, social situation and unreasonable work load.
1940J29 ^Personal factor did not seem to_ contribute towards work motivation. ^*Prasad
1950J29 (1965) found that for clerks length of service had positive correlation
1960J29 with the work motivation. ^*Porter*'s (1961) study was related
1970J29 with need satisfaction as perceived in bottom and middle management jobs
1980J29 in industrial undertakings.*#
        **[no. of words = 1973**]

        **[txt. j30**]
0010J30 **<*3THE CHANGING POSITION OF INDIAN WOMEN*0**> $^Apart from social
0020J30 scientists, feminists have written copiously, and even passionately,
0030J30 on the subject, and of late there seems to_
0040J30 be a welcome shift of interest among them from attacking the theory of
0050J30 the biological determinism of women to_ try and understand the processes
0060J30 which have resulted in their widespread subjection. ^*Ester Boserup*'s
0070J30 *3Women*'s Role in Economic development*0 Is a good example of this
0080J30 kind of effort and the book is a valuable contribution to both social
0090J30 anthropology and economics. ^But while I find Boserup*'s book stimulating
0100J30 I must confess to a certain sense of discomfort at her tendency
0110J30 to sweeping generalization as, for instance, in her linking dowry in
0120J30 south Asia to the loss of women*'s agricultural role. ^At the micro-level,
0130J30 facts are far more complicated in their inter-relationships than
0140J30 Boserup*'s work would lead one to_ imagine. $^Anthropologists
0150J30 ought to_ welcome the new upsurge of interest in women; the knowledge
0160J30 and insights produced by the other disciplines might stimulate their
0170J30 work in new directions, and in turn, the information they have gathered
0180J30 over the decades, their concepts, and in particular, their techniques
0190J30 of fieldwork, might not only promote fruitful co-operation in the field
0200J30 of women*'s studies but lead to increased co-operation between the social
0210J30 sciences in other areas as well. ^An additional gain may be a sharpened
0220J30 awareness of the existence of an androcentric bias in social science
0230J30 research generally. ^But I think that it is naive to_ expect ethnocentrism
0240J30 (in studying other societies), class- or caste-centredness
0250J30 (in studying one*'s own and other societies) to_ disappear as a result
0260J30 of such awareness. ^What is at best likely to_ happen is a keener
0270J30 appreciation of the fact that the observer has his prejudices and preferences,
0280J30 not to_ mention values, and this may not only improve the quality
0290J30 of the data collected but make him less dogmatic about his conclusions.
0300J30 ^It may also lead to a realization of the need to_ have the same social
0310J30 phenomena studied by men and women from different cultures, and from
0320J30 different class and ethnic backgrounds. ^A clash of multiple views
0330J30 and perspectives is not only healthy for the social sciences but for policy-making.
0340J30 $*<*=2*> $^The subject of my lecture, 'The changing position
0350J30 of Indian women,' is vast and of bewildering complexity. ^It has
0360J30 many facets, and generalization is pretty nearly impossible because of
0370J30 the existence of considerable variation between regions, between rural
0380J30 and urban areas, between classes, and finally, between different religious,
0390J30 ethnic and caste groups. ^While in certain contexts the
0400J30 Indian sub-continent is a single cultural region, in many others it is
0410J30 heuristically more rewarding to_ look upon it as a congeries of micro-regions,
0420J30 differences between which are crucial. ^For instance, the
0430J30 huge, sprawling Hindi region in the north is backward, if indices such
0440J30 as female literacy and education, male female ratio, age of marriage
0450J30 of girls, and female participation in economic activity, are taken into
0460J30 consideration. ^If female literacy alone is taken as an index, it is
0470J30 53.90 per cent in Kerala in the south-west, while it does not exceed 11
0480J30 per cent in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar.
0490J30 ^In the country as a whole, only 18.66 per cent of women are literate
0500J30 as against 39.5 per cent for men, while in the rural areas female literacy
0510J30 in only 12.92 per cent. $^Apart from differences in female
0520J30 literacy rates between regions, and between rural and urban areas, some
0530J30 institutions which affect intimately the lives of women are confined
0540J30 to certain groups inhabiting particular areas: for instance, polyandry
0550J30 continues to_ be practised by the Khasas of Jaunsar Bawar, and hypergamy
0560J30 by the Rajputs north of the Vindhyas, by the Khatris and Jats
0570J30 of the Punjab, and finally, by the Patidars and Anavil Brahmins of Gujarat.
0580J30 ^Matriliny obtains not only among the high caste Nayars and
0590J30 a few other groups in Kerala but also among the tribal Khasis, Garos
0600J30 and Panars in the north-eastern hill areas.
0610J30 $^However, inter-regional and inter-group differences are not the only
0620J30 hazard. ^In a country such as India with a long and recorded history,
0630J30 the existence of a body of literature, sacred and secular, proves
0640J30 obtrusive especially as sanction for present conduct may be derived,
0650J30 directly or indirectly, by reference to ideals and rules which are believed
0660J30 to_ be expressed in it. ^This matter becomes all the more puzzling
0670J30 as most Western-educated people actually derive such ideals, norms
0680J30 and rules from their parents or grandparents, or from a priest who himself
0690J30 may be far from well-informed on what the scriptures say on any given
0700J30 matter. (^However, when a matter is regarded as critical, a very learned
0710J30 *4Pandit or the head of a famed monastery may be approached for
0720J30 his opinion.) ^The important point to_ note, however, is that ideas and
0730J30 beliefs, derived at best second or third hand from ancient literature,
0740J30 influence ideals of conduct and behaviour. ^Since it is largely members
0750J30 of the *(Sankritized*) high castes who are more influenced by this
0760J30 literature than the others, and since they are both visible and influential
0761J30 in modern India, their perceptions and ideas about how Indians
0770J30 behave and ought to_ behave, have obtained wide currency.
0780J30 ^The high castes suffer from a bibliocentric view of society even though
0790J30 very few of them have first-hand knowledge of the sacred literature.
0800J30 $^The corpus of literature is, however, a heterogeneous one, and
0810J30 it abounds in inconsistent if not contrary ideas, rules, beliefs and
0820J30 practices. ^To_ cite an example: in the 1920*'3s there was a debate between
0830J30 orthodox and reformist sections of Brahmins living in Mysore
0840J30 City. ^The former were of the view that it was sinful to_ keep a girl
0850J30 unmarried after she had reached puberty, but the liberals did not frown
0860J30 on post-puberty marriages. (^A distinction must be made here between
0870J30 marriage and consummation, the latter being marked by a separate
0880J30 ceremony, and arranged on an auspicious day after puberty.) ^Strange as
0890J30 it may seem to educated Indians today, it was an emotionally-charged
0900J30 debate: the liberals cited the authority of the Vedas in favour of their
0910J30 view, as against the orthodox faction*'s reliance on the law-books
0920J30 (*4dharmashastras) which were much later than the Vedas, and inferior
0930J30 to them in religious authority. $^It is not only that the sacred literature
0940J30 provided sanction for contrary norms and usages, but very rarely
0950J30 an inconsistency was perceivable even in the conceptualization of so
0960J30 basic a relationship as that_ between husband and wife, and surprisingly,
0970J30 there was little awareness of the existence of such an inconsistency.
0971J30 $^*Lowie stresses the need to_ distinguish between law and fact,
0972J30 between theory and practice, and finally, between formal and informal
0973J30 relations. ^This set of distinctions is basic
0980J30 to my approach to the understanding of the position of women in different
0990J30 sections of Indian society. ^Until very recently, too much attention
1000J30 has been paid to the legal, theoretical and formal dimensions of
1010J30 women*'s position, and too little to actual relations between men and women,
1020J30 and their dynamics over a period of time. ^But concentration on
1030J30 the formal aspects was inevitable in the absence of intimate, first-hand
1040J30 studies of the part played by men and women in local communities, rural
1050J30 and urban. ^The need for micro-studies is also reinforced from another
1060J30 direction: the data obtained from different macro-surveys such as
1070J30 the census and the various rounds of the National Sample Survey conflict
1080J30 with each other, and further, they do not provide clue to the complex,
1090J30 cultural and social processes which are operative at the village level,
1100J30 and to the linkages which exist between them. ^For instance, how do
1110J30 urbanization and economic and social mobility affect those processes?
1120J30 ^How have the various programmes of rural change introduced by the government
1130J30 and by voluntary agencies affected the position of women at different
1140J30 economic and social levels? ^*I propose to_ try and lay bare in
1150J30 this lecture a few of these processes and their linkages. ^*I am aware
1160J30 that no accounts based on field-study exist of these processes, and
1170J30 if such studies had existed my task would have been much simpler and less
1180J30 hazardous but perhaps also less challenging.
1190J30 $^In my discussion I shall be restricting myself to Hindus and shall
1200J30 mostly ignore the members of the other religions. ^*Hindus are both large
1210J30 enough-- 453 million at the 1971 Census, and constituting 82.72
1220J30 per cent of the total pupulation-- and complex enough to_ be the subject
1230J30 of a single lecture. $*<*=3*> $^Eighty per cent of India*'s
1240J30 population is rural and an equal percentage of the female working force
1250J30 is engaged in agriculture. ^According to the 1971 Census, there
1260J30 were 31 million women workers of whom 25 million were in agriculture,
1270J30 2 million in the organized sector, and the remaining 4 million in non-agricultural
1280J30 occuptions in the unorganized sector (Srinivas 1974: 170).
1290J30 ^These satistics are for the country as a whole and therefore conceal
1300J30 sharp regional disparities. $^The above figures have been cited
1310J30 only to_ stress the essentially rural character of India; a character
1320J30 which, incidentally, is expected to_ survive into \0A.D. 2000.
1330J30 ^Since it was not practical to_ discuss rural women in India as a whole,
1340J30 I decided, after much cogitation and with some reluctance, to_ construct
1350J30 a model of rural society and then consider the role of women in
1360J30 each stratum of it. ^My model is necessarily an over-simplified one, and
1370J30 I have ignored not only the artisan, trading and servicing castes,
1380J30 but variations due to the operation of regional and other factors. ^*I
1390J30 shall first treat the model as synchronic and then as diachronic.
1400J30 $^From the point of agricultural activity, I shall distinguish four
1410J30 classes: 1) big landowners who supervise the work of cultivation carried
1420J30 out by servants and labourers but who do not engage themselves in manual
1430J30 work; 2) small landowners who personally cultivate their land but who
1440J30 need the services of labourers during transplantation, weeding and harvesting.
1450J30 ^They may also be working as tenants on small patches of land leased
1460J30 out from big landowners; 3) tenants who also hire themselves out
1470J30 to landowners for wages during the busy seasons; 4) and finally, landless
1480J30 labourers who subsist entirely on hiring themselves out as labourers on
1490J30 a daily or seasonal basis. ^1 and 4 are distinct categories while
1500J30 there may be varying degrees of mix between 2 and 3 in different villages.
1510J30 $^There is a clear and self-understood division of labour
1520J30 between the sexes among agriculturists and this includes both activities
1530J30 inside and outside the household. ^Each set of activities is seen
1540J30 as supportive of the other, and more significantly, agriculture is a
1550J30 familial activity: in other words, the cultivator must be either married
1560J30 himself, or work as part of his natal family. ^And where a family
1570J30 owns land, a son is needed to_ keep the farm cultivated and in the family*'s
1580J30 possession. ^The relation between a family and land is a vital
1590J30 one, for economic, political and status considerations, and it is projected
1600J30 into ritual and mystical dimensions. ^The point which I wish
1610J30 to_ emphasize here, however, is that since agriculture is a familial
1620J30 activity, it underscores the interdependence of the sexes and the means
1630J30 to such interdependence is marriage. ^In other words, agriculture implies
1640J30 marriage and a bachelor (or spinster) does not make sense in rural
1650J30 India except when he dons the ochre robes and becomes a *4sanyasi.
1660J30 ^A widower (or widow) remarries unless he is too old. ^*I have
1670J30 heard a middle-aged widower tell me that he had to_ marry as he could
1680J30 not work on his farm without someone cooking for him. $^Among
1690J30 all the classes described above, the wife cooks and serves food at least
1700J30 twice a day to all members of the household, and cooking in rural India
1710J30 often involves the processing of the grain grown or bought. ^This work
1720J30 the woman must do and extra-mural chores are always an addition. ^The
1730J30 feeding, disciplining and socialization of young children are also her
1740J30 tasks unless she has a grown daughter who then plays the role of mother
1750J30 to her young brothers and sisters. ^Among landless labourers, during
1760J30 the transplantation season, which, incidentally, occurs during the heavy
1770J30 monsoon rains, women get up as early as 4 \0a.m., and cook the food
1780J30 before leaving the house.*#
        **[no. of words = 01019**]

        **[txt. j31**]
0010J31 **<*3Principles of Population Studies*0**>
0020J31 $^The classification of checks on population growth into the two categories
0030J31 of preventive and positive also came in for criticism and was
0040J31 cited as an example of "poor classification", for the two do not form
0050J31 "independent categories." ^Moreover, it was pointed out that Malthus
0060J31 had not succeeded in connecting his positive and preventive checks--
0070J31 vice, misery and prudence-- with his theory. $^In general, Malthus
0080J31 was criticised on the following points: $(1) ^He placed undue
0090J31 emphasis on the limitation of the supply of land. ^The agricultural
0100J31 revolution of the nineteenth century, which brought in its wake the
0110J31 system of rotation of crops, chemical fertilisers, plant and animal
0120J31 breeding and improvements in the quality of livestock brought about
0130J31 a tremendous increase in agricultural production. ^The gloomy predictions
0140J31 of Malthus, therefore, did not come true. $(2) ^*Malthus
0150J31 under-estimated the importance of industrial development and did not
0160J31 take into consideration the faster and more reliable modes of transport
0170J31 which helped colonial empires to_ provide additional raw materials,
0180J31 an exploitable land supply and new markets for manufactured products.
0190J31 $(3) ^His religious beliefs prevented him from grasping the
0200J31 possibility of the widespread use of contraceptives. $^*Eversley has
0210J31 also criticised Malthus for not using the results of the 1831 census
0220J31 of England and does not think that Malthus has made any significant
0230J31 contribution to social thought. $^*Kingsley Davis on the other
0240J31 hand, while admitting that the doctrines of Malthus were not emperically
0250J31 valid, emphasised that they are nevertheless theoretically significant.
0260J31 $*3Malthus and Birth Control*0: ^As a "preventive check"
0270J31 on population growth, Malthus favoured the postponement of marriage
0280J31 and even permanent abstinence from sex. ^He, however, unequivocally
0290J31 disapproved of birth control. "^Indeed," he said, "I should always
0300J31 particularly reprobate any artificial and unnatural modes of checking
0310J31 population on account of immorality and their tendency to_ remove
0320J31 a necessary stimulus to industry." ^He was of the opinion that
0330J31 if it became possible for couples to_ limit the number of children
0340J31 according to their wishes, they would become too lazy to_ undertake
0350J31 any activity. ^An echo of the same idea is heard in the thinking
0360J31 of Mahatma Gandhi, who told Colin Clark: "^If Indians made the
0370J31 necessary efforts, they could grow all the food they need, but without
0380J31 the stimulus of population pressure and economic need, they
0390J31 will not make the effort." $(^It is indeed ironical that the Malthusian
0400J31 League, later known as the Neo-Malthusian League, took several
0410J31 years to_ discover that the person after whom they had named
0420J31 their organisation had been totally against birth control, which the
0430J31 League advocated.") $^*Malthus presents a contradiction in his role
0440J31 as a scientist and as a moralist. ^He was fully entitled to
0450J31 his opinions against birth control. ^His role as a scientist, however,
0460J31 is vitiated by the fact that he attempts to_ justify his opposition
0470J31 to birth control on empirical grounds. ^He, of course, could not
0480J31 produce any evidence to_ prove that people would become indolent if
0490J31 they only had the number of children desired by them. $*3Summing
0500J31 Up*0. ^The Malthusian theory of Population has been severely criticised
0510J31 on several grounds. ^One point, however, has to_ be conceded.
0520J31 ^Despite its several inherent weaknesses, it has been revived time
0530J31 and again. ^Though by 1900 his main thesis was almost completely rejected,
0540J31 the Malthusian thought once again came into prominence in
0550J31 the second decade of the twentieth century. ^But this wave, too, subsided
0560J31 by 1934. ^After the Second World War, however, there was a
0570J31 revival of interest in Malthus. ^The reasons are, of course, obvious;
0580J31 some of which are: the increased rate of population growth, greater
0590J31 awareness of the consequences of rapid population growth, and the
0600J31 realisation that certain natural resources are on the verge of exhaustion.
0610J31 $^The name of Malthus can never be scored off from the history
0620J31 of population thought. ^To him goes the credit for being the
0630J31 first thinker who thoroughly and systematically applied the inductive
0640J31 method to social science. ^His contribution to the development of population
0650J31 theory took several different forms. ^It was his theory that_ made
0660J31 both his supporters as well as critics realise the importance of, and
0670J31 the need for, the collection of information for the study of population
0680J31 trends and for any investigation into the relationship between
0690J31 the size and growth of population and social and economic conditions.
0700J31 ^The discussion on Malthus may be aptly concluded with a quotation
0710J31 from Charles Emil Stangeland, who remarked: "^*Malthus*'s work
0720J31 was a great one written in an opportune time, and though it cannot
0730J31 lay claim to any considerable originality as far as the theories presented
0740J31 are concerned, it was successful in that it showed more fully,
0750J31 perhaps more clearly, and certainly more effectively than had any
0760J31 previous attempt, that population depends on subsistence and its increase
0770J31 is checked by want, vice and disease as well as by moral restraint
0780J31 or prudence. $*<*3THE CLASSICAL AND THE NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOLS OF
0790J31 THOUGHT*0*> $^From the early years of the nineteenth century to the end
0800J31 of the First World War in 1918, the classical and neo-classical
0810J31 schools of thought contributed greatly to the development of population
0820J31 theory. $^The classical school of thought was founded by Adam Smith.
0830J31 ^Such illustrious personalities as David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus,
0840J31 Nassau Senior, John Stuart Mill and *(0J. B.*) Say were
0850J31 associated with it. ^These political economists believed that economies
0860J31 functioned better under a free and private initiative and in an atmosphere
0870J31 of vigorous competition rather than under government control. ^The
0880J31 classical theory was based on the notion that the production, consumption
0890J31 and distribution of wealth are determined by economic laws. $^At
0900J31 this point, it is necessary to_ distinguish between the classical
0910J31 and neo-classical schools of thought. ^The latter was founded by William
0920J31 Jerons, Carl Menger and Leon Walrus and had as its leaders
0930J31 Alfred Marshall, John Bates, Clerk, Irving Fisher and Vilfredo
0940J31 Pareto. ^The neo-classical school of thought placed a greater emphasis
0950J31 on mathematical economics and the analysis of the psychological background
0960J31 and /or consumer demands, decisions and actions. $^The contribution
0970J31 of both the classical and the neo-classical schools of political
0980J31 economists to population theory concerned an examination of the controversial
0990J31 issue of the inter-relationship between population and production.
1000J31 ^As pointed out earlier, two opposing streams of thought were
1010J31 propogated in the nineteenth century. ^According to the first, increasing
1020J31 population was an asset to production, resulting in improved
1030J31 standards of living. ^The other maintained that population increase
1040J31 led to a lowering of production. ^The controversy arose mainly because
1050J31 the increase in population was considered by the former in terms
1060J31 of the number of hands that_ produce, leading to economic well being,
1070J31 whereas the latter viewed population growth exclusively in terms
1080J31 of the number of mouths to_ be fed. ^Neither of these opposing views
1090J31 was conclusively proved because of the lack of both empirical and theoretical
1100J31 evidence. ^It was difficult to_ evaluate the net influence of
1110J31 population on production, as people have to_ be viewed both as producers
1120J31 and consumers, contributing to both aspects of production, that_
1130J31 is, supply and demand. ^The point therefore is whether population growth,
1140J31 while adding to the number of producers and consumers, simultaneously
1150J31 leads to a proportionate increase in supply and demand. ^The crucial
1160J31 question, therefore, was "How is the per capita productivity affected
1170J31 by population size?" $^This issue appeared to_ be resolved when
1180J31 the principle of diminishing returns was formulated in the second
1190J31 decade of the nineteenth century. ^According to this natural law based
1200J31 on agricultural production, successive additions of capital to a
1210J31 fixed quantity of labour would result in an increase in output, but subsequently
1220J31 the marginal output and later the average production associated
1230J31 with the variable factor would begin to_ drop. ^This law of diminishing
1240J31 returns also supported the Malthusian doctrine, for it stated
1250J31 that population growth tends to_ depress per capita production by
1260J31 adding to_ demand, thereby meaning that, after the ratio of workers
1270J31 to resources reaches a certain point, any further increase in population
1280J31 would cause a fall in the average production per worker. $^Though
1290J31 the classical economists accepted the principle of diminishing returns
1300J31 as one of the basic economic laws and gave it the status of a natural
1310J31 law, the controversy over the relationship between population
1320J31 and production continued to_ rage at two levels-- the empirical and the
1330J31 theoretical. ^As the nineteenth century advanced, it became increasingly
1340J31 clear, that empirically speaking, the general well-being of
1350J31 the people and population growth went hand in hand. ^This observation
1360J31 was, of course, used to_ discredit both the Malthusian theory and
1370J31 the principle of diminishing returns. ^At the same time, some writers
1380J31 Say, for example did sound and a note of caution that the current
1390J31 advancement in production was because of several inventions, greater
1400J31 use of power and machinery and other efficient devices, and that the
1410J31 same rate of advancement could not be guaranteed if population continued
1420J31 to_ grow rapidly. ^*John Stuart Mill and Henry Sidgwick were of the
1430J31 opinion that population had already reached the point of diminishing returns
1440J31 and that many countries would be better off with smaller numbers.
1450J31 $^The question was also extensively discussed on the theoretical level.
1460J31 ^Though the majority accepted the principle of diminishing returns,
1470J31 some economists-- Gray, Chalmers, Burn and Wirth-- asserted that
1480J31 an increasing number of people would stimulate production. ^As the
1490J31 nineteenth century advanced, the production theory itself underwent
1500J31 several changes. ^Such economists as Godwin, Ravenstone, Sedler,
1510J31 Edmonds, Scrope and Ricardo struck at the very base of the current
1520J31 production theory by attempting to_ disprove the very principle
1530J31 of diminishing returns. ^A neo-classical economist like Marshall pointed
1540J31 out that this law was applicable mainly to agricultural and not
1550J31 to industrial production. ^It was clarified that as industries offered
1560J31 greater opportunities for division of labour and as there was continuing
1570J31 technological advancement, the law of constant or increasing
1580J31 returns rather than that_ of diminishing returns, was widely applicable
1590J31 to the manufacturing industries. $^This new development in the
1600J31 theory of production again raised questions regarding the relationship
1610J31 between population and production. ^It was soon realised that the
1620J31 total and per capita production depend not only on population but
1630J31 on several other factors in the economic system, such as resources,
1640J31 labour, capital and technology. ^The role of the population variable,
1650J31 therefore, had to_ be studied within the framework of the total
1660J31 economic system. ^It was asserted that the per capita production was
1670J31 a direct function of land and other resources referred to above, and
1680J31 was inversely related to the number of people. ^The population variable
1690J31 was thus seen to_ play a dual role-- one as a factor of labour supply
1700J31 and the other as a divisor of the total product. ^It is, however,
1710J31 worth noting that not much attention was paid either to the ratio
1720J31 of workers to the total population, or to the producer-consumer ratio,
1730J31 though some consideration was given to the quality of workers in
1740J31 terms of skills. ^The possibility of population interacting with the
1750J31 factors of technology and capital was, however, not explored. ^One
1760J31 interesting point made by these classical economists was that it was
1770J31 the factor of capital which influenced the size and growth of population
1780J31 and not the latter influencing the former, indicating that the
1790J31 problem of capital formation did not receive much attention from them.
1800J31 $^By the end of the nineteenth century, the population variable was
1810J31 given a place of less importance even in the theory of distribution, for
1820J31 it was realised that this theory could not be based only on one or a few
1830J31 simple forces. Marshall, in his work on the production and distribution
1840J31 phenomena, paid little attention to the population factor. ^Some writers
1850J31 even completely ignored it. ^It is thus possible to_ observe the change
1860J31 in the thinking of intellectuals from Malthus at the beginning of
1870J31 the nineteenth century to Marshall at the end of the century-- a change
1880J31 from a position of considering population as an important factor
1890J31 influencing economic growth to that of thinking of it as being of doubtful
1900J31 significance. ^This change in thinking may be understood against
1910J31 the background of actual facts.*#
        **[no. of words = 02001**]

        **[txt. j32**]
0010J32 **<*3On the Functions of Code-Mixing in Kannada*0**> $*31. INTRODUCTON*0
0020J32 $^In many bi- and multilingual communities, one often comes
0030J32 across a type of language interaction in which two or more languages
0040J32 in the speakers*' repertoire interact to_ produce a new, 'mixed code'
0050J32 characterized by distinctive formal properties and fulfilling specific
0060J32 functional roles. ^This type of language interaction has been
0070J32 termed 'code mixing' by Kachru, who defines it as 'the use of one
0080J32 or more languages for consistent transfer of linguistic units from
0090J32 one language into another, and, by such a language mixture, developing
0100J32 a new restricted-- or not so restricted-- code of linguistic interaction'
0110J32 (Kachru 1975). ^Although the phenomenon of code-mixing is
0120J32 probably as old as bilingualism itself, it is only recently that scholars
0130J32 have begun to_ pay more than cursory attention to its linguistic
0140J32 and sociolinguistic significance. ^In this regard, three studies
0150J32 stand out: Annamalai (1971), Ure (1974), and Kachru (1975), each
0160J32 of which was developed independently of the others. ^*Annamalai shows
0170J32 that subjecting mixed languages to the same kind of close analysis
0180J32 as is accorded to natural languages in a transformational generative
0190J32 grammar can provide significant insights into such basic theoretical
0200J32 questions as the nature of lexical insertion in transformational
0210J32 grammar. ^*Ure surveys several instances of mixed languages and points
0220J32 out that they have 'a central function in developing societies'.
0230J32 ^According to her, mixed languages are 'a feature of social, not
0240J32 individual behavior-- a register in the community*'s register range, learned
0250J32 as part of linguistic socialization (\0p. 227). ^*Kachru discusses
0260J32 code-mixing as a manifestation of language dependency in bi- and
0270J32 multilingual communities such as South Asia. ^Pointing out that code-mixing
0280J32 is a role-dependent and function-dependent mode of linguistic
0290J32 interaction, he suggests an integrated theory of code-mixing which
0300J32 incorporates a version of the Firthian concept of 'context of situation'.
0310J32 $^The present paper is a modest attempt to_ extend the empirical
0320J32 scope of studies on mixed languages. ^In particular, the focus
0330J32 is on the functional roles of code-mixing, on questions such as:
0340J32 ^Why do bilinguals resort to code-mixing? ^What attitudinal implications,
0350J32 if any, do mixed languages carry? ^Are there any functions that_
0360J32 mixed languages perform that_ are not preformed by the constituent
0370J32 languages in their 'pure' form?, \0etc. ^For this purpose, I
0380J32 have examined two mixed varieties of Kannada, a Dravidian language
0390J32 of South India. ^In one variety, elements of Perso-Arabic origin
0400J32 are mixed with Kannada: in the other variety, the mixture is of
0410J32 English and Kannada. ^*I shall attempt to_ show that, while the
0420J32 overall functions of code-mixing are identical for both varieties,
0430J32 the two kinds of mixture differ significantly in the content of these
0440J32 functions and in the domains in which they perform these functions.
0450J32 $*32. CODE-MIXING IN KANNADA AN EXAMPLE*0: $^Before analyzing
0460J32 the functions of the two code-mixed varieties of Kannada in question,
0470J32 it may be useful to_ examine briefly the nature of the mixture. ^Consider
0480J32 the following text, excerpted from a contemporary 'social'
0490J32 play in Kannada. ^The passage is spoken by an irate father, who is
0500J32 outraged by his prospective son-in-law*'s demand of 'dowry' in relation
0510J32 to his daughter*'s wedding. **[quotation in code-mixed English**]
0520J32 $(...^Forgive me, dear boy. ^*I tried so much to_ control the strong
0530J32 language that_ I used. ^But, on this sacred occasion of arranging
0540J32 the holy alliance of marriage, forgetting that I am educated,
0550J32 a man of culture, broadminded, and taking me for a village-born, commercial
0560J32 minded rustic, you ask me how much 'dowry' I would give!
0570J32 ^Wouldn*'4t my blood come to a boiling point?) $^Several features of
0580J32 this text merit careful attention. ^First of all, notice that the mixed
0590J32 elements are not single, isolated lexical items: the mixture takes
0600J32 place on every level of grammatical organization. ^There are single
0610J32 nouns (*3dowry*0), verbs (*3arrange, control, use*0) attributive
0620J32 and predicative adjectives (*3commercial minded, educated*0), and entire
0630J32 noun phrases with complex internal structure (*3the sacred occasion
0640J32 of arranging the holy alliance of marriage*0). ^Secondly, notice
0650J32 that the mixed elements are not particularly culture bound, they
0660J32 are for the most part ordinary, day to day items for which perfectly
0670J32 acceptable equivalents exist in coloquial Kannada (and are used
0680J32 in non-mixed varieties). ^Thirdly, observe that the mixed elements
0690J32 obey the rules of their original language (in this case English) with
0700J32 respect to their *3internal*0 grammatical organization, while they
0710J32 obey the rules of the absorbing language (in this case Kannada)
0720J32 with respect to their *3external*0 grammatical organization. ^For example,
0730J32 the ordering of elements within the noun phrase 'the holy alliance
0740J32 of marriage' conforms to the rules of English grammar, but
0750J32 the positioning of the relative clause (the complex which translates
0760J32 as 'the sacred occasion of arranging the holy alliance of marriage'
0770J32 has a relative clause structure in the above text) with respect to
0780J32 the head noun phrase is in accordance with the structure of Kannada,
0790J32 with the relative clause *3preceding*0 the head noun. ^These three
0800J32 features of the text, namely the extensive range of levels on which mixing
0810J32 takes place, the non-culture-bound nature of the items, and their
0820J32 participation in a dual grammatical system, may be said to_ distinguish
0830J32 code-mixing from the related but not identical process of heavy
0840J32 'borrowing'. ^An important feature of code-mixing is that the mixed
0850J32 elements do not necessarily fill a 'lexical gap' in the absorbing
0860J32 language: they exist side by side with perfectly acceptable equivalents
0870J32 in the absorbing language, forming an additional lexical stratum. ^It
0880J32 is conceivable that there might be a subtle *3pragmatic*0 difference
0890J32 in the minds of the users of the mixed language between the mixed
0900J32 elements and their absorbing language counterparts, but such differences--
0910J32 if they exist-- are extremely hard to_ characterize. ^*I shall
0920J32 return to this question later. $^Code-mixing is also different from
0930J32 'code switching' in a number of important respects. ^In current sociolinguistic
0940J32 literature, the term code switching is employed to_
0950J32 refer to the *3alternate*0 use of two or more languages or varieties
0960J32 in distinct social or functional domains (see, for example Blom and
0970J32 Gumperz 1971). ^The single most important characteristic of code
0980J32 switching seems to_ be that the switch from one code to the other
0990J32 signals a corresponding switch in the social situation. ^This is precisely
1000J32 *3not*0 the case with code-mixing. ^As the above text illustrates,
1010J32 the switching (or mixing) takes place rapidly, frequently, and
1020J32 almost unconsciously, within a single social event, within a single
1030J32 text, and, in fact, several times within a single sentence. ^It is
1040J32 a hopeless task to_ try to_ find distinct, isolatable sociolinguistic
1050J32 correlates for every instance of the shift. ^Such being the nature
1060J32 of code-mixing, it seems best to_ attempt a sociolinguistic explanation
1070J32 of code-mixing in terms of the alternation between the mixed
1080J32 and the non-mixed (or 'pure') varieties. $*33. CODE-MIXING IN KANNADA:
1090J32 WHY AND WHEN*0 $^I shall now turn to the questions of the motivations
1100J32 for code-mixing and the (sociolinguistic) circumstances under
1110J32 which code-mixing is resorted to. ^These questions can only be approached
1120J32 indirectly by examining representative samples of mixed speech
1130J32 (and writing) in relation to their context of situation. ^To this
1140J32 end, I have analyzed data from 'social' plays and short stories
1150J32 in Kannada. ^*I shall first discuss the mixing of Perso-Arabic
1160J32 and Kannada and then turn to English-Kannada code-mixing. $^The
1170J32 specific functions of the mixing of Perso-Arabic and Kannada can
1180J32 not be adequately explained without reference to the history of language
1190J32 contact between Persian, Arabic and Kannada. ^The earliest
1200J32 record of contact between Karnataka (the Kannada country) and Persia
1210J32 goes back to 627 \0A.D. ^In that_ year, there was an exchange
1220J32 of ambassadors between the Kannada king Pulikesi and his Persion
1230J32 counterpart, Khusru *=2. ^There is also evidence of trade contact
1240J32 with the Arabs from around this period onwards. ^Between the fourteenth
1250J32 and the sixteenth centuries, the Kannada territory came under
1260J32 frequent attack by the Muslim rulers of the north, culminating in
1270J32 the fall of the great Vijayanagar empire in the sixteenth century.
1280J32 ^For three hundred years thereafter, the northern portions of Karnataka
1290J32 were continuously under Muslim rule. ^In the eighteenth century,
1300J32 southern Karnataka also came under Muslim rule, with two popular
1310J32 and highly respected rulers, Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan, reigning
1320J32 from the capital. ^It was during this period that Perso-Arabic
1330J32 had the greatest impact on Kannada, especially in the realms of
1340J32 administrative bureaucracy, land management and revenue, and the judiciary.
1350J32 ^The official state records of this period are in Persian
1360J32 transcribed in the Arabic script. ^*Hindustani, a style of Hindi
1370J32 marked by heavy Perso-Arabic influence, was used in the smaller divisional
1380J32 offices for record-keeping purposes. ^In addition, the Muslims
1390J32 popularized 'hardy' outdoor sports such as hunting, wrestling
1400J32 and horseback riding. ^As we shall presently see, all of these aspects
1410J32 of language and cultural contact have a direct bearing on the attitudinal
1420J32 connotations of Perso-Arabic mixing with Kannada, as well as
1430J32 the contexts of its use. $^The data for the following analysis of
1440J32 the functions of Perso-arabic code-mixing in Kannada come in part
1450J32 from a 'social' play by a highly successful dramatist, *(0T. P.*)
1460J32 Kailasam, whose use of mixed varieties of Kannada has earned him
1470J32 both commendation and criticism. ^In the play under discussion, entitled
1480J32 *3*5Poli Kitti*6*0 (Vagabond Kitti), we find a mixture of
1490J32 both Perso-Arabic elements as well as English with Kannada, but--
1500J32 and this is important-- not by the same characters. ^The characters
1510J32 in the play are drawn from an unusually wide range of social classes,
1520J32 from illiterate day-laborers all the way to the Heir Apparent to
1530J32 the throne of Mysore. ^It is interesting to_ note that the more educated
1540J32 a person the more he tends to_ mix elements from English in
1550J32 his Kannada, and the more earthy and 'physical' a person the greater
1560J32 the mixture of Perso-Arabic elements in his Kannada. ^The hero
1570J32 of the play is Kitti, who is pictured as a vagabond and a bully, strong,
1580J32 hefty and crude, but beneath the rough exterior, a loyal, generous
1590J32 and tender fellow. ^*Kitti*'s speech is an example *8per excellence*9
1600J32 of Perso-Arabic code-mixing in Kannada. ^Here are some examples:
1610J32 **[quotation in code-mixed English**] $(^This is the practice
1620J32 in our wrestling school, Sir. ^When starting the wrestling bout,
1630J32 if you smear your chest with the red earth, take the coach*'s name
1640J32 and remember the Khalif, you get real strength, Sir, real strength!
1650J32 ^This is the practice, Sir, in the school!) $(^*I was teaching him
1660J32 a trick, Sir. ^He*'1s my *4shagird Sir... ^*I mean, my friend.)
1670J32 $(^It gets late in the hassle to_ translate.) $^*Kitti*'s language
1680J32 sets him apart from all other characters in the play as a man of a
1690J32 different upbringing and character, a man of muscles, of rough ways
1700J32 and crude behavior. ^That the playwright was aware of this potential
1710J32 of code-mixing to_ evoke a certain type of attitudinal association
1720J32 is clear from the fact that he uses code-mixing as a dramatic device
1730J32 and Kitti*'s mixed speech itself becomes the subject of explicit
1740J32 comment on various occasions in the course of the play. ^At one point,
1750J32 for example, flabbergasted by the 'strangeness' of Kitti*'s speech,
1760J32 his Scout Master exclaims. $'^Who brought you up? ^Where did
1770J32 you grow up? ^Good Heavens! ^A bunch of rowdies seems to_ have joined
1780J32 our brigade. ^What language do you speak, I say? ^One quarter
1790J32 Kannada...' $*3And Kitti obligingly completes the sentence,*0
1800J32 $'...and three quarters Mussalmani, Sir. ^There are a lot of Muslims
1810J32 in my gang, Sir!' $^Notice that code-mixing in Perso-Arabic is
1820J32 regarded as an indicator of 'rowdy' behavior and a strange, non-normal
1830J32 upbringing. ^Further, Kitti*'s ready explanation reveals that
1840J32 religion is a relevant contextual variable in the mixing of Perso-Arabic
1850J32 and Kannada. ^At a later point in the play, Kitti visits a
1851J32 friend*'s home and finds himself in a situation where he has to_ carry
1860J32 on a conversation with his friend*'s mother. ^Now, his friend*'s mother
1870J32 is an orthodox Brahmin lady who has never been exposed to the sort of
1880J32 mixed speech Kitti employs. ^*Kitti is aware that his language,
1890J32 which served him so well on the playground in inspiring awe in his
1900J32 buddies, is entirely inappropriate in this context and struggles to_
1910J32 produce the 'pure' variety. ^But old habits die hard; so we find
1920J32 Kitti going back, after each mixed expression, and attempting a paraphrase
1930J32 in 'pure' Kannada.*#
        **[no. of words = 02012**]

        **[txt. j33**]
0010J33 **<*3THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE*0**> $*<*3Introduction*0*> $^Language is
0020J33 a wonderful instrument ever created by man. ^Its origin is shrouded
0030J33 in irrecoverable past. ^Should we then remain silent and bewail for
0040J33 the inscrutable? $^The quest for knowledge is deeply ingrained in
0050J33 human nature. ^Man is ever restless. ^He meditated on the cosmos
0060J33 and the relation it bears to him. ^He realised the divine nature of
0070J33 the world and referred to all creations as divine dispensations.
0080J33 $^A number of theories were mooted to_ unravel the veil. ^A theory
0090J33 of creation of language by man or of the origin of language as a result
0100J33 of an accident at one time or other gained the ground. ^The theory
0110J33 of evolution sought to_ trace the earlier beginnings of language
0120J33 with the help gained from the habit of the child and the lessons
0130J33 borrowed from animal psychology. ^The controversy on the origin of
0140J33 language is still raging. ^Our task here is to_ provide a few theories
0150J33 and of the criticisms made thereof. $*<*3History of the Inquiry
0160J33 into the Origin of Language*0*> $^The history of the inquiry
0170J33 into the origin of human speech dates back to long past, to times
0180J33 when man first began to_ speculate on language. ^All nations of antiquity,
0190J33 more or less, tried to_ delve into the mystery of the origin
0200J33 of language. ^Early attempts were mostly theological in nature. ^Philosophers
0210J33 later intruded upon the field and brightened the topic with
0220J33 metaphysical jargons. ^With the publication of a treatise by *(0J.
0230J33 J.*) Rousseau under the title-- *3Essai sur l*'3 origine des
0240J33 langues*0 (Paris, 1750), a change came about in language investigation.
0250J33 *(0^*J. G. V.*) Herder-- *3Der Ursprung der Sprache*0 (Berlin,
0260J33 1772) first laid the foundation of a scientific inquiry into it.
0270J33 $^We would not attempt to_ provide a systematic exposition of
0280J33 the various endeavours made at different times to_ unlock the key to
0290J33 the origin of language. ^This topic has been debated so much that
0300J33 the Societe de Linguistique de Paris issued a dictum that they would
0310J33 not entertain in their transactions and debates any discussions
0320J33 regarding the origin of language. ^This statement is corroborated
0330J33 in the writings of the American linguist *(0W. H.*) Whitney--
0340J33 "^No theme in linguistic science is more often and more voluminously
0350J33 treated than this and by scholars of every grade and tendency; nor
0360J33 any it may be added with less profitable result in proportion to the
0370J33 labour expended; the greater part of what is said and written on
0380J33 it is mere windy talk." $*<*3DIFFERENT THEORIES*0*> $*<*3Bow-Wow
0390J33 or Onomatopoetics Theory*0*> $^This theory holds that language
0400J33 originated in man*'s imitation of natural sounds (\0c.f. the rustling
0410J33 of the wind among the leaves, the murmur of a river, the booming
0420J33 of the thunder, the gong of a bell, \0etc.) and more specifically the
0430J33 sounds uttered by animals (\0c.f. the barking of the dog, the roar
0440J33 of a lion, hiss of a snake, \0etc.) and birds (\0c.f. the sounds of
0450J33 a cuckoo, upupu, hupoe, peewit, curlew, \0etc.). ^It thus speaks that
0460J33 there is a natural connection between the production of a sound in
0470J33 nature and the sensory impressions in man, \0i.e., language is a tonal
0480J33 stimuli and a matter of chance. ^This theory is specifically concerned
0490J33 with the language of the children (\0c.f. a child calling a
0500J33 lamb 'ba-ba' or a locomotive 'chou-chou' or cow 'mou'.) $^The origin
0510J33 of this theory is traced to the German philosopher *(0J. G.*)
0520J33 Herder. ^*Max Mueller, the Anglo-German scholar, irreverantly
0530J33 called it 'Bow-Wow Theory'. ^*Boas, the American anthropologist
0540J33 and linguist, points out that in Chinook Jargon of British Columbia
0550J33 and in the language of the South African Bantu, formation of
0560J33 new words by imitation of natural sounds is a live process. ^The American
0570J33 Indian languages-- Aztek and Mohawk-- and Zulu of Africa
0580J33 delight in onomatopoetic words. $^It may be pointed out that creation
0590J33 of new words due to onomatopoeia is a very insignificant part of
0600J33 the vocabulary of any language. ^It leaves out of account the symbolic
0610J33 and abstract quality type of words which are the core of any language.
0620J33 ^In the language of the Alaskan tribe of the Mackenzie river
0630J33 in America, words of onomatopoetic origin seem to_ be almost nil.
0640J33 ^Onomatopoetic words differ from language to language (\0c.f. \0Eng.
0650J33 Wow-Wow, \0Fr. *7oua-oua, \0It. *7bu-bu, also *7cock-a-doodle-doo,
0660J33 \0etc.). ^So far we know that language did not originate with
0670J33 a process of naming the animals. ^Sound-groups indicating meanings
0680J33 are not always helpful. ^Besides, most of the echo words (a term coined
0690J33 by *(0O.*) Jespersen) are not old but of recent origin. ^The
0700J33 words used by the children turn out on examination to_ be words
0710J33 taught to them by adults. ^Echo words played a significant role when
0720J33 non-linguistic means of communications had something to_ do in the
0730J33 society. ^With the formation of symbolic speech, echo words receded
0740J33 into the background. $*<*3Pooh-pooh (or Interjectional Theory)*0*>
0750J33 $^According to this theory language originates in spontaneous
0760J33 exclamations or instinctive ejaculations of human beings (\0c.f. the
0770J33 cries of fear, surprise, pain, anger, despair, joy, disgust, \0etc.).
0780J33 ^It thus stands that interjections are involuntary expressions of affective
0790J33 states (\0c.f. facial or limb movements and the like). ^It
0800J33 is a direct movement of a physical or mental state and lacks communicative
0810J33 value. ^It is inarticulate and differs from language to language.
0820J33 ^It plays a very important part in the life of a savage. ^The conversations
0830J33 of Greenlandish woman in interjectional utterances are illuminating.
0840J33 $^This theory had its adherents in the ancient Greek philosopher
0850J33 Epicurean, followed by Rousseau. ^*Max Mueller, *(0W.*)
0860J33 Wundt, *(0L.*) Geiger, Noire, Bechterew, \0etc. ^This theory
0870J33 merely suggests the materials language uses but never explains the
0880J33 processes through which language evolved. ^Before the emergence of speech,
0890J33 cries and not vocal sounds existed. ^Language began when interjections
0900J33 ended but that man still utters cries and uses interjections
0910J33 and that their significance is merely affective, \0i.e., expressing
0920J33 fear, surprise, \0etc. $*<*3Ding-Dong (or Pathogenic Theory)*0*>
0930J33 $^This theory speaks of a mysterious or prior coincidence between
0940J33 a sound and its sense, \0i.e., for every expression within, there
0950J33 is a manifestation outside. "^Everything which is struck rings. ^Each
0960J33 substance has its peculiar ring" (*(0M.*) Mueller). ^This theory
0970J33 is reiterated in the ideas of Pythagoras (\0C. 500 \0B.C.) and
0980J33 later supported by Heracleitus and Plato. $^This theory is merely
0990J33 a conventionalised representation of the sound of a bell and is not
1000J33 self-evident to anyone but the speaker who has learnt to_ connect
1010J33 the sound 'ding-dong' with the ringing of the bell. ^This association
1020J33 does not tell us how man came to_ attribute his conventionalised
1030J33 speech sounds with facts of experience. $*<*3Ye-he-ho Theory*0*>
1040J33 $^This theory enunciates that language originates in reflex vocal
1050J33 utterances-- (\0c.f. the gasps, the grunts and other sounds) accompanied
1060J33 by strong muscular efforts, such as drawing a heavy log through
1070J33 the underbush or making up a carcas. ^The nineteenth century scholar--
1080J33 Noire was a strong supporter of this theory. ^He saw that language
1090J33 originated in joint or common work requiring physical efforts
1100J33 during which course natural sounds emit. ^This theory errs that language
1110J33 never originated in joint work of a speechless anthropoid. $*<*3Ta-Ta
1120J33 or Mouth Gesture Theory*0*> $^Speech arose as a vocal accompaniment
1130J33 of gesture. ^*Sir Richard Paget was an exponent of this
1140J33 theory and Charles Darwin and \0Prof. Alexander Johannesson supported
1150J33 it. ^*Paget thought that language originated in gestures followed
1160J33 by the movement of the tongue, lips and jaws. ^Due to pressure
1170J33 from some quarters the hand retires and the tongue, lips and jaws accompanied
1180J33 by pantomime art ultimately became prominent and vocal expressions
1190J33 came out. $*<*3Sing-Song Theory*0*> $^This theory was
1200J33 put forward by the distinguished Danish linguist Otto Jespersen
1210J33 who held that language originated in song. ^He thought that early language
1220J33 was of tooth-breaking sounds. ^It had tones and pitches and
1230J33 a wider range of musical intervals and passionate expressions. ^It
1240J33 was merely expressive and not communicative. ^It was not practical
1250J33 but poetic and emotional. ^Love played a great part in eliciting jets
1260J33 of music and song. "^Love" he says "was born in the courting days
1270J33 of mankind; the first utterances of speech I fancy to myself like
1280J33 something between the mighty love-lyrics of puss upon the tiles and
1290J33 the melodious love-song of the nightingales." ^The earliest utterances
1300J33 were whole sentences rather than words. ^They emphasise rhythm as
1310J33 the all-pervading activity. $^*Darwin traced the origin of language
1320J33 in the musical utterances of man. ^He drew a parallel from the instinctive
1330J33 sounds of birds which as a species utter the same instinctive
1340J33 sounds to_ express the same emotions. ^This theory finds its
1350J33 echo in Herbert Spencer*'s theory of music. $*<*3Language of Early
1360J33 Man*0*> $^A question is sometimes asked whether modern man
1370J33 alone possessed language or is it attributable to his supposed ancestors--
1380J33 the Homo Neanderthalensis or to the early forms of Homo Sapiens--
1390J33 the cro-Magnon Man or the Aurignatian Man. $^The answer
1400J33 to this question was once sought through methods of comparative anatomy.
1410J33 ^Cubic capacity of the skull is sometimes taken as a guide for
1420J33 higher intelligence and Neanderthal Man was pointed out as a
1430J33 species of higher intelligence. ^Our knowledge regarding the anatomical
1440J33 and morphological formation of the brain of a fossil is too scanty
1450J33 to_ admit of a scientific conclusion. ^Moreover, it is diffcult
1460J33 to_ determine the level of intelligence from such insufficient data.
1470J33 ^Under these circumstances how can we ascribe the same intelligence
1480J33 to early and modern man? $*<*3Language of the savages*0*> $^The
1490J33 language of the uncivilised peoples has sometimes been assigned
1500J33 as the oldest linguistic evidence in the world. ^Nothing can be more
1510J33 unconvincing than this. ^Savages are not the oldest peoples nor
1520J33 their languages. ^Some savage languages are thought to_ be very complex
1530J33 while others are simple. ^Both types are the result of changes.
1540J33 ^The point of departure between the civilised and the non-civilised
1550J33 languages lies not in the ideas they express but in the method of
1560J33 expression itself. ^The language of the primitive people may provide
1570J33 us with a body of information, \0i.e., on the relation between language
1580J33 and thought but not on the origin of language. $*<*3Child Language
1590J33 Theory*0*> $^The language of the child is sometimes taken
1600J33 as the prototype of the original language. ^The child in the process
1610J33 of learning a new language does not invent anything. ^The language
1620J33 is already there and existed also for thousands of years before. ^The
1630J33 child therefore does not help us at all. ^It can only inform us about
1640J33 an original language. ^The child merely imitates what he learns
1650J33 from his environment. ^He is not a creator but an imitator and lacks
1660J33 spontaneity and novelty. ^It bears therefore no meaning that a child
1670J33 left to itself would invent a language. ^A Bengali child would not
1680J33 speak Bengali if transported to London. $*<*3Theory of animal
1690J33 sounds*0*> $^It has been urged that animal cries are the antecedents
1700J33 of language and that man has borrowed his phonetic utterances from
1710J33 the sounds of the animals of his environments. ^The study of the animal
1720J33 psychology avers that animals of any sort do not possess any language.
1730J33 ^The language of an animal has no definite sequences of sounds
1740J33 nor does it possess a definite meaning nor any variations properly
1750J33 so called in the cries they utter. ^It is strange that a body of
1760J33 zoologists and some animal psychologists still cling to the idea of
1770J33 an animal language. ^*Descartes denied the possibility of an animal
1780J33 language. $*<*3Theory of the Priority of Gesture Language*0*>
1790J33 $^This theory states that phonetic language developed from gesture
1800J33 language. ^It asserts that inner urge and external stimuli were indicated
1810J33 by a system of motor sign which was later replaced by a phonetic
1820J33 sign, \0i.e., a transposition for natural and conventional gesture
1830J33 to phonetic symbols, \0i.e., a system of natural gesture. $^This
1840J33 expression is challenged on the ground that emotional expression
1850J33 is indicated as much by audible sounds as by bodily movements. ^This
1860J33 does not prove that gesture language preceded phonetic language.
1870J33 ^The advocates of theory refer to the language of the deaf-mutes. ^But
1880J33 it forgets that a deaf-mute does not hear his own sound not to_
1890J33 speak of others.*#
        **[no. of words = 02004**]

        **[txt. j34**]
0010J34 **<*3DISTRIBUTION OF VERBAL INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES IN SANSKRIT*0**> $*<*31.10
0020J34 Syntactic constructions and selections of suffixes*0*> $^Verbal
0030J34 stems, primary or derived, participate in all sorts of syntactic
0040J34 constructions. ^Constructions relevant for selection of inflectional
0050J34 suffixes are: *4kartr-vacya, active voice; *4karma-vacya, passive
0060J34 voice; *4bhava-vacya, middle voice and *4karma-kartr-vacya, reflexive.
0070J34 ^These are structurally related. ^We need not discuss here their
0080J34 underlying structure. ^Passive and middle select *4atmanepada invariably
0090J34 while there are a few exceptions in case of reflexive. ^But
0100J34 any way in respect of selection of inflectional suffixes these three
0110J34 constructions seem to_ belong to a separate group as opposed to active.
0120J34 ^This is structurally significant in so far as the *4atmanepada
0130J34 suffixes are simply markers of constructions and carry no semantic
0140J34 nuances which they do in case of a class of primary stems when used
0150J34 in the active as we shall discuss below. ^A few illustrative examples
0160J34 of these constructions are given below. ^The corresponding active
0170J34 sentences are given on the right. $(a) 1. *5sisuna dugdham piyate*6
0180J34 *5sisuh dugdham pibati*6 '^The child takes milk.' $2. *5sraddhavata
0190J34 labhyate jnanam.*6 *5sraddhavan labhate jnanam*6 '^The faithful
0200J34 acquires wisdom.' $(b) 3. *5acaryena asyate*6 *5acaryah aste*6
0210J34 '^The teacher sits down.' $ 4. *5bhutaih nasyate*6 *5bhutani nasyanti*6
0220J34 '^The creatures perish.' $(c) 5. *5granthayah bhidyante*6 '^The
0230J34 bondages get snapped.' *5sah granthin bhinatti*6 '^He snaps the
0240J34 bondages.' $6. *5gauh dugdhe payah*6 '^The cow oozes milk.' *5gam
0250J34 dogdhi payah*6 '^He milks the cow.' $1.1. ^Sentences in (c) on the right,
0260J34 illustrate reflexive constructions. ^It may be pointed out that reflexives
0270J34 are made from causals also and here also the verbal stem selects
0280J34 *4atmanepada suffixes. ^*Panini describes it as follows: ^The causal
0290J34 of a root, the object (*4karma) of which becomes agent (*4karta)
0300J34 in the causal, takes *4atmanepada except in case of the roots that_
0310J34 have the meaning 'to_ remember with regret' (1.3.67). ^Let us take
0320J34 the sentence *5arohanti hastipakah hastinam*6, an active construction
0330J34 meaning 'the elephant-keepers mount the elephant.' ^A causal from
0340J34 this could be where someone else, say, the *4mahamatra (driver),
0350J34 causes the elephant-keepers to_ ride the elephant. ^We have thus '*5mahamatrah
0360J34 hastipakan hastinam arohayati*6 'the elephant-driver makes
0370J34 the elephant-keepers ride the elephant.' ^But if the elephant itself
0380J34 allows the elephant-keepers ride itself, the elephant becomes
0390J34 the causer. ^In that_ case we dispense with *4mahamatra, the elephant-driver;
0400J34 as causer. ^The *4nyasa describes the situation very aptly
0410J34 as follows: *5hasti hastipakan prayunkte*6: *5mamarohata iti*6
0420J34 'the elephant urges the elephant-keepers: 'you ride me.'' *4hasti is
0430J34 to_ act here both as subject and object of the verb *4arohayati. ^Thus
0440J34 we can say *5hasti hastipakan hastinam arohayati*6 where *4hasti and *4hastinam
0450J34 refer to the same object. ^Such an utterance is not attested in
0460J34 the language. ^Before it acquires acceptability the sentence structure
0470J34 undergoes certain structural changes, namely, those of dropping the
0480J34 object and selecting *4atmanepada suffixes by the stem. ^The emerging
0490J34 structure is *5arohayate hasti hastipakan*6 'the elephant causes
0500J34 the elephant-keepers ride itself.' ^The use of *4atmanepada suffixes
0510J34 in the final output is the characteristic feature of the reflexive
0520J34 construction from a causal stem. ^*Panini however, does not posit intermediate
0530J34 derivative stage, namely *5hasti hastipakan hastinam arohayati*6
0540J34 for the simple reasons, perhaps, that this is not found used
0550J34 in the language. ^He takes cognizance of the structures at two ends.
0560J34 ^He thus derives causal directly from the non-causal. ^And his
0570J34 formulation of the grammatical process naturally has to_ be in terms
0580J34 of the constituents of these structures. $1.2. ^Let us have a look
0590J34 at active constructions. ^Here also *4atmanepada suffixes are found
0600J34 to_ occur obligatorily with all or a group of primary stem to_ denote
0610J34 specific meanings. ^The two sets of inflectional suffixes thus
0620J34 show contrast in meaning here. $1.2.1 ^All verbal roots take *4atmanepada
0630J34 when the meanings of *4karma-vyatihara \0i.e. reciprocity of
0640J34 action among agents or performance of an action by an agent which is
0650J34 considered beneath his social status are intended to_ be expressed (1.3.14).
0660J34 ^The verbal stems that_ mean 'to_ move' or to_ injure form
0680J34 exception to the above(1.3.15). $^In the sentence *5vyatilunate krsanah
0690J34 krsim*6, the finite form *4vyatilunate ending in *4atmanepada
0700J34 expresses the meaning of *4karma-vyatihara. ^It implies that the farmers
0710J34 help reap one another*'s harvest. ^Similarly in the sentences
0720J34 *5brahmanah vyatilunite krsim*6 the use of *4atmanepada implies that
0730J34 the Brahmin is engaged in the activity of reaping the harvest which
0740J34 is beneath his social status. ^The work should have been done by
0750J34 a member of some low caste. ^If this meaning is expressed overtly by
0760J34 use of such phrases as *4itaretara, *4anyonya or *4paraspara, all indicating
0770J34 *3reciprocity*0, after the verbal form then the use of *4atmanepada
0780J34 is not sanctioned. ^Thus *4vyatilunanti *4itaretarasya/*4anyonyasya/*4parasparasya
0790J34 *5krsim krsanah*6 conveys the same meaning
0800J34 and here *4parasmaipada suffixes are employed. $1.2.2. ^Another instance
0810J34 is provided by a group of verbal roots which take *4atmanepada
0820J34 if the fruit of action denoted by it accrues to the agent, if not,
0830J34 then *4parasmaipada will be used (1.3.72-78). ^Such roots are identified
0840J34 by Panini in his root-lexicon by reading them with indicatory
0850J34 *4svarita pitch or *3n*0 (1.3.72). ^For instance, the root for to_
0860J34 do is read as *4dukrn in the lexicon. ^It can take either of the
0870J34 sets. *^5devadattah katam kurute*6 will, thus, imply that Devadatta
0880J34 makes a mat for his own use: while *5devadattah katam karoti*6 means
0890J34 that 'Devadatta makes a mat for someone else.' ^However, if the
0900J34 fact of the fruit of action accruing to the agent is stated explicitly
0910J34 by a word syntactically related to the verbal form, the use of *4atmanepada
0920J34 is optional (1.3.77). ^Thus *5devadattah svam odanam pacate/
0930J34 pacati*6 would mean the same \0i.e. ^*Devadatta cooks rice for himself'
0940J34 since *4svam indicates that the action takes place for the benefit
0950J34 of the agent. $^It may be noted that the semantic contrast of agent
0960J34 and non-agent orientation of fruit of action denoted by the group
0970J34 of roots as pointed out above holds good for causal derivative stems
0980J34 also (1.3.74). ^There are, however, some exceptions and counter
0990J34 exceptions which have been taken note of by Panini. ^We need not reproduce
1000J34 these here. ^However, if fact of orientation of fruit of action
1010J34 is overtly marked, the use of *4atmanepada is optional as in the
1020J34 case of non-causals pointed out earlier. $^It may be pointed out
1030J34 that the semantic distinction shown by inflectional suffixes in case
1040J34 of the group of verbal roots is neutralized in passive and reflexive
1050J34 constructions, *5devadatta odanam pacate*6 'Devadatta cooks rice
1060J34 for himself' contrasts, with *5devadatta odanam pacati*6 'Devadatta
1070J34 cooks rice for someone else.' ^But these distinctions cannot be retrieved
1080J34 from *5devadattena odanah pacyate*6, a passive construction.
1090J34 ^Nor can we specify anything about the agent (with regard to its person
1100J34 and number) from the reflexive *5odanah pacyate*6 'rice is cooked.'
1110J34 $ 2.0 ^We have stated above that in active voice also *3all*0
1120J34 primary stems in the meaning *4karma-vyatihara and a group of primary
1130J34 stems and causals for denoting agent orientation of fruit of action,
1140J34 take *4atmanepada suffixes. ^But elsewhere in active voice no generalization
1150J34 can be made with regard to selection of inflectional suffixes
1160J34 by verbal stems, primary or derivative. ^The distribution is
1170J34 unique and has to_ be stated for each stem individually in the lexicon.
1180J34 ^And this is precisely what Panini does in his root-lexicon.
1190J34 ^He specifies therein the roots that take *4atmanepada by reading them
1200J34 with indicatory *4anudatta pitch or *3n*0 (1.3.12). ^Rest of
1210J34 roots that_ are left unmarked take *4parasmaipada (1.3.78). ^Thus there
1220J34 are roots that_ take exclusively one or other set of suffixes.
1230J34 $^But this is not the whole story. ^Information given in the lexicon
1240J34 does not exhaust all the facts of linguistic usage. ^Some of the roots
1250J34 in collocation with various features: formal, semantic or otherwise
1260J34 change over from one class to another. ^A root recorded in the
1270J34 lexicon, for instance, as selecting *4atmanepada may change over to
1280J34 *4parasmaipada in specific environments or vice-versa or a root recorded
1290J34 as taking either set may be restricted to only one of these. ^In
1300J34 such a case then the semantic distinction implied by the use of the
1310J34 either sets **[sic**] is lost. ^Further the lexicon provides no information
1320J34 about the derivative stems made from verbal roots as well as nominals.
1330J34 ^Nor does it talk about selection of suffixes by phrasal stem. ^This
1340J34 information has been provided in the grammar. ^We shall like to_
1350J34 discuss these facts below. ^First we shall deal with the environments
1360J34 under which selection at preferences change. ^Later we take up
1370J34 the question of selection of suffixes by derivative and phrasal stem. $*<*33.0.
1380J34 Environments conditioning selection:*0*> $*<*3.1. *4Upasargas:*0*>
1390J34 $^There are twenty-two *4upasargas which are syntactically associated
1400J34 with the verbal forms (1.4. 58-59). ^Morphologically these contitute
1410J34 a separate category and may precede or follow a verbal form
1420J34 or may be interrupted by other elements (1.4.80-82). ^These may modify
1430J34 the meaning of a verbal stem to any extent. ^These constitute legitimate
1440J34 grammatical environments under which selectional preferences
1450J34 may undergo a change. ^A few illustrative examples are given here.
1460J34 *4^Vis to_ enter, though recorded in the lexicon as belonging to *4parasmaipada
1470J34 group, changes over to *4atmanepada when used with *4ni
1480J34 (1.3.17); \0e.g. *5grham nivisate*6 he enters the house, otherwise,
1490J34 *5grham visati*6. *4^Ji 'to_ conquer' may take either set but with
1500J34 the *4upasarga *4para and *4vi it is restricted to *4atmanepada only
1510J34 (1.3.19). ^In case of *4para there is a change of meaning also. ^Thus
1520J34 we have *5raja satrun jayati/jayate*6, but only *5raja satrun vijayate*6
1530J34 'the king conquers the enemies.' ^So also we have *5raja satrun
1550J34 parajayate*6 'the king defeats the enemies.' $*<*33.2. *(Karaka-relations:*0*>
1560J34 $^The *4karaka relations of a root assume significance
1570J34 in the choice of suffixes in case of certain roots. ^For instance,
1580J34 in the sentence *5sah dasya dhanam samprayacchate*6, the verbal
1590J34 root takes *4atmanepada which otherwise usually takes *4parasmaipada.
1600J34 ^The explanation is that *4da 'to_ give' preceded with the upasarga
1610J34 *4sam (even when some other *4upasarga is used alongwith *4sam)
1620J34 takes *4atmanepada when governing the third *4vibhakti which has the
1630J34 sense of fourth \0i.e. dative case (1.3.55). ^The peculiar meaning
1640J34 that_ attaches to such a usage is that 'he offers money to the maid-servant
1650J34 with a view to *3seducing*0 her.' ^This is made explicit
1660J34 by *4katyayana in the *4varttika on the above *4sutra. ^He says 'to_
1670J34 denote indecent behaviour the third *4vibhakti is used in place
1680J34 of the fourth (*5asistavyavahare danah prayoge caturthy-arthe trtiya*6).
1690J34 ^If instead of the third, the fourth *4vibhakti is used, the peculiar
1700J34 shade of meaning will be lost. $^Here is a more interesting
1710J34 case. *4^Ni 'to_ carry' takes *4atmanepada when an abstract entity
1720J34 inherent in the *4karta (agent) occurs as its *4karma (object) (1.3.37).
1730J34 ^In the sentence-- *5sa krodham vinayate*6 -- 'he controls his anger',
1740J34 the verbal form occurs in the *4atmanepada because its object
1750J34 *4krodha 'anger' is an entity of abstract nature and inheres in the
1760J34 agent. ^Otherwise we have *4parasmaipada as in *5sa devasya krodham
1770J34 vinayati*6, 'he controls Deva*'s anger' or *5sa asvam vinayati*6
1780J34 'he controls the horse.' $*<*33.3. Tense-mood*0*> $^There are ten
1790J34 tense-mood distinctions in Sanskrit. ^A verbal root takes a particular
1800J34 set of suffixes in all tenses or moods based on it. ^But there
1810J34 are exceptions to this general practice. *4^Mr 'to_ die' is to take
1820J34 *4atmanepada always. ^But it is actually restricted to *4lun, aorist;
1830J34 *4lin, benedictive and those tenses which take a suffix with an
1840J34 indicatory *3*4s*0 (1.3.61). ^Elsewhere it takes *4parasmaipada.
1850J34 \0^E.g. *4amrta 'he died'; *4mrsista 'may he die'; *4mriyate
1860J34 'he dies', \0etc. ^But *4marisyati 'he will die,' \0etc. $^The
1870J34 verbal roots *4dyut 'shine' and a few others take *4atmanepada as
1880J34 marked in the lexicon. ^But these optionally take *4parasmaipada in
1890J34 *4lun, aorist (1.3.91). \0^E.g. *4dyotate 'it shines' but *4adyutat
1900J34 or *4adyotista 'he shone'. $*<*33.4. Categories of transitive-intransitive.*0*>
1910J34 $^On syntactic basis a root may be transitive, intransitive
1920J34 or both. ^In case of some stems these categories of transitive
1930J34 and intransitive become significant with regard to selection of inflectional
1940J34 suffixes. ^For instance, *4car 'to_ move' with *4ut is
1950J34 both transitive and intransitive. ^It takes *4atmanepada when it is
1960J34 used transitively and *4parasmaipada intransitively (1.3.53). ^In
1970J34 *5sa guru-vacanam uccarate*6-- 'he transgresses the words of his teacher'
1980J34 it is *4atmanepada, while in *5baspam uccarati*6 -- 'vapour
1990J34 rises up' it is *4parasmaipada.*#
        **[no. of words = 02007**]

        **[txt. j35**]
0010J35 **<*3TOWARDS A NON-NATIVE STANDARD IN INDIAN ENGLISH*0**> $*3ABSTRACT:*0
0020J35 ^The notion of a non-native standard in relation to the use of English
0030J35 in India is discussed with emphasis on a distinction between
0040J35 'language standard' and 'pedagogic standard'. $*<*3The Argument*0*>
0050J35 $^This paper is a discussion of the idea of a non-native standard
0060J35 in relation to the use of English in India. ^Certain well-recognized
0070J35 properties of a 'language standard' have been suggested in the research
0080J35 available on the subject; these pre-requisites have been examined
0090J35 in the context of a claim for an Indian English standard (hereafter
0100J35 called 'Educated Indian English' or \0EIE). ^After defining
0110J35 the term 'standard', the distinction between 'native' and 'non-native'
0120J35 varieties of English has been presented in terms of the areas
0130J35 of similarities and differences. ^It has been suggested that differences
0140J35 manifest largely at the phonetic level; there are also some differences
0150J35 (non-shared in nature) at the lexical level. $^A further distinction
0160J35 has been suggested between a 'language standard' and a 'pedagogic
0170J35 standard'; previous studies have tended to_ ignore this distinction.
0180J35 ^Guided by pedagogical requirements, researchers have drawn varying
0190J35 conclusions depending on the bias of their argument. ^Those who advocate
0200J35 the inadequacy of a non-native variety as a pedagogic standard have
0210J35 sought to_ rely on a description of the language system and a comparison
0220J35 with the system of the native variety/ varieties of English. ^They
0230J35 contend that Indian English cannot be viewed as a standard in
0240J35 the context of its deviances (in phonology, lexicon, and syntax); these
0250J35 deviances are further held to_ be unsystematic. ^Others find two
0260J35 drawbacks in such studies: the choice of an appropriate sample which
0270J35 should constitute the non-native standard, and, a lack of sensitivity
0280J35 to the existence of a language in a socio-cultural context. ^This
0290J35 view claims that there is a non-native standard of Indian English;
0300J35 it is called Educated Indian English (\0EIE). $^The concept of
0310J35 a non-native standard (\0EIE) can be supported by an analysis of
0320J35 the following considerations; $(a) the speech community, the linguistic
0330J35 system, and, the matrix of functions that_ the language seeks
0340J35 to_ serve; and $(b) the communication efficiency of the language in
0350J35 its socio-cultural context. $*<*31.0 What is meant by "standard"?*0*>
0360J35 $^The dictionary meaning of the term 'standard' refers to "something
0370J35 established by authority, custom, or general consent as a model or
0380J35 example", or, "substantially uniform and well-established by usage in
0390J35 the speech and writing of the educated and widely recognized as acceptable".
0400J35 ^The emphasis in these definitions is on a "model" or an "example"
0410J35 which is "substantially uniform" and is widely "acceptable". ^The dictionary
0420J35 meaning of "standard English" is given as under: $the English
0430J35 that_ with respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary
0440J35 is substantially uniform though not devoid of regional differences,
0450J35 that_ is well-established by usage in the formal and informal speech
0460J35 and writing of the educated, and that_ is widely recognized as acceptable
0470J35 wherever English is spoken and understood. $(Webster*'s Seventh
0480J35 New Collegiate Dictionary, 1966) $^This definition clarifies
0490J35 the phrase "substantially uniform" with a view to admitting the possibility
0500J35 of "regional differences" including societies wherever "English
0510J35 is spoken and understood". ^The standard speech is thus specific
0520J35 to a speech community which has substantial uniformity in its linguistic
0530J35 forms and, further, which has the widest acceptance in a given community.
0540J35 ^ the codification of these linguistic forms has to_ be done
0550J35 by an appropriate choice of the speech of the educated, and preferably,
0560J35 on the basis of the formal language, if it has to_ demonstrate substantial
0570J35 uniformity. ^Language used in informal situations is likely to_
0580J35 be characterised by idiolectal differences, which in turn are markers
0590J35 of differences in personal styles. $^The choice of the educated
0600J35 users using the language in a formal manner can only be made from among
0610J35 speakers and situations endowed with varying characteristic features.
0620J35 ^It is in this context that the idea of a "cline of bilingualism"
0630J35 (Kachru, 1965), has been suggested. ^It is an arbitrary scale and the
0640J35 bilinguals are ranked on it in terms of their proficiency in English.
0650J35 $^The search for a standard form of speech is thus more of an abstraction
0660J35 made from a variety of available alternatives. ^These alternatives
0670J35 are available in the form of varying proficiency in English, varying
0680J35 range of situations wherein English is used, and varying functions
0690J35 that_ the language performs in a sociocultural context. $*<*31.1
0700J35 Native and Non-native*0*> $^The native user of a language is characterized
0710J35 by the following features: $(a) that he has acquired, not
0720J35 learnt, the language from his childhood in normal social surroundings;
0730J35 $(b) that he uses the language in formal, informal, intimate and
0740J35 non-intimate situations (Bhatia, 1972); $(c) that he has the facility
0750J35 to_ use the various registers of the language in correlation with the
0760J35 situations wherein the language is used; and $(d) that his language shows
0770J35 minor yet well-recognized phonetic variations; all other components
0780J35 of the language system are almost the same; $^Whereas the non-native
0790J35 user of a language $(a) has learnt, not acquired, the language
0800J35 from the school stage of education; $(b) uses language in formal, non-intimate
0810J35 and informal situations, rarely or never in intimate situations;
0820J35 $(c) has limited facility to_ use the various registers of the
0830J35 language in correlation with the situations wherein the language is
0840J35 used; and $(d) shows phonetic deviations in a significant way (often
0850J35 approximated to his first language phonetic forms); there are also marked
0860J35 differences in lexical manifestations under the influence of the
0870J35 first language. $^The non-native language user differs in his use
0880J35 of linguistic forms; his use of the language is intended to_ serve
0890J35 limited (functional) purposes . ^The influence of the speaker*'s first
0900J35 language on the phonetic habits learnt in the second language gives
0910J35 rise to the phenomenon called 'foreign accent'. ^Other phonetic deviations
0920J35 noted in research are: the use of retroflex consonants (made with
0930J35 the tip of the tongue curled back) for /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/
0940J35 (Halliday, *(0et al*), 1964); a tendency toward equalizing the four or
0950J35 more degrees of phonetic stress notable in mother tongue varieties
0960J35 (Prator, 1968); and, deviations in rhythm and intonation (Kachru,
0970J35 1969). ^There are also some differences in lexis (should these be called
0980J35 'addition' to or 'expansion' of the lexical stock of the language?)
0990J35 in terms of phenomena and concepts not shared with native varieties
1000J35 of English, and, those transferred from the mother tongue to English.
1010J35 $^The crucial question, however, is whether these deviations have
1020J35 the effect of rendering Educated Indian English dissimilar to the
1030J35 native varieties of English. ^Will there be a sharp and marked loss
1040J35 in intelligibility between speakers belonging to native and non-native
1050J35 varieties? $*<*31.2 Pre-requisites for a Standard*0*> $^Most
1060J35 scholars agree to the nature of characteristic features that_ constitute
1070J35 a standard speech. ^It is, however, in their understanding of these
1080J35 features that_ prejudices creep in and provide varying conclusions
1090J35 about the feasibility of a non-native variety as a standard form. ^In
1100J35 some cases, the confusion can be traced back to a possible mix up
1110J35 between a 'language standard' and a 'pedagogic standard'. $^*Halliday *(0et
1120J35 al*) (1964) suggest the following conditions for the acceptable **[sic**]
1130J35 of a variety as a standard form: $(a) ^It should be used by a large
1140J35 body of population; and $(b) The speech form should be mutually intelligible
1150J35 with other varieties of English used by similar professional
1160J35 and educated groups in other countries. $^It follows from (b) that
1170J35 the extent of deviation in the areas of lexis and grammar must be small.
1180J35 ^It also admits the possibility of phonetic variation though the number
1190J35 of contrasts, the number of phonological units, must remain fairly
1200J35 close to those of the other educated accents. $^These pre-conditions
1210J35 have been suggested for the recognition of a pedagogic standard
1220J35 in second-language teaching situations. ^A non-native standard for
1230J35 instructional purposes is also essential in the absence of live interaction
1240J35 with the native speakers (Bhatia, 1975). ^*Halliday *(0et al*)
1250J35 (1964) state that "social and educational markers of the professional
1260J35 and governmental Englishmen they were accustomed to meeting are no
1270J35 longer there in the Indian situation." ^*English in India has acquired
1280J35 distinct local markers in the form of constant live interaction.
1290J35 ^However, the acceptance of such a standard is valid only in the limited
1300J35 context of a functional role; not as an expression of one*'s innermost
1310J35 feelings or as an expression of national culture. ^The validity of
1320J35 the concept of a non-native standard has to_ be limited, by its very
1330J35 nature, in terms of the functional role that_ it acquires as a second
1340J35 language. $^*Kachru (1965, 1966, 1969) relates the idea of a non-native
1251J35 standard to a cline of bilingualism wherein the standard speaker
1360J35 is placed somewhere above the central point (the highest point is the
1370J35 ambilingual point); the advantage in this kind of an explanation is
1380J35 the recognition that the non-native speaker does not necessarily equal
1390J35 the native speaker in his command of the language. ^The non-native
1400J35 speaker*'s speech is invested with intelligibility in the sense that
1410J35 he is able to_ use English "effectively for social control". $^*Bhatia
1420J35 (1972, 1975) has described the \0EIE speech in terms of six
1430J35 parameters. ^In attempting to_ provide a sociolinguistic perspective
1440J35 to the question of a non-native standard of English in India, he
1450J35 has suggested the following six parameters: $1. Speaker or user; $2.
1460J35 Communication situations wherein English is used in India; $3. \0EIE
1470J35 as distinct from uneducated Indian English; $4. Formal features
1480J35 of English spoken in India; $5. \0EIE vis-a-vis other dialects
1490J35 of native and non-native English; and $6. Comprehensibility of \0EIE
1500J35 to native and non-native speakers. $^He argues that a detailed
1510J35 analysis of the above parameters and their proper integration should
1520J35 ensure the choice of the non-native standard. $^As was suggested earlier,
1530J35 research work has not indicated any sharp differences in the recognition
1540J35 of pre-requisites of a standard; varying perspectives have only
1550J35 sought to_ present the parameters in the context of the dominant orientation
1560J35 of a given study. ^It is, however, in the application or interpretation
1570J35 of the parameters that_ sharp differences have arisen. ^In one
1580J35 of the sharpest attacks on the acceptance of non-native standards
1590J35 in second-language teaching situations, Prator (1968) repudiates the
1600J35 very idea on the same ground that Halliday *(0et al*) (1964), Kachru
1610J35 (1965, 1966, 1969) and Bhatia (1972) enunciate. ^*Prator*'s attack
1620J35 is directed against the 'British heresy', as he chooses to_ call
1630J35 it, in the field of \0TESL. $^The tone in which Prator responds
1640J35 to the essay included in Halliday *(0et al*) needs to_ be understood
1650J35 with some moderation, for the Pratorian argument is largely
1660J35 'polemic' and irked by the claim to 'precedence' in the British acceptance
1670J35 of the non-native models as standards for teaching. ^*Prator*'s
1680J35 prejudice is apparent when he chooses to_ label the non-native model
1690J35 in the pedagogic situation as the "ultimate model" for all Indian
1700J35 learners learning English, while Halliday *(0et al*) limited its
1710J35 acceptability strictly to the Indian educational scene. ^In case the
1720J35 learner found himself in a native setting, he should automatically
1730J35 begin to_ respond to the native speech. ^It is quite true that hardened
1740J35 muscular activity may hamper reform in certain phonetic habits; however,
1750J35 he is likely to_ change in his use of suprasegmental phonemes,
1760J35 lexis and syntax. ^*Prator*'s essay seems to_ suffer from a sense
1770J35 of national rivalry with the British; it thus colours the discussion
1780J35 of the subject very strongly. ^Such statements as the one given
1790J35 below are quite revealing in this context: $^It would be *3manifestly
1800J35 untrue*0 to_ suggest that the British *3originated*0 the idea
1810J35 that there is a special Indian variety of English that_ should be
1820J35 taught in the schools of India... $(\0pp. 459-60, my italics).
1830J35 $^He also raises the question of pride in the use of a particular standard
1840J35 or model; an Afghan, according to Prator, takes great pride
1850J35 in being told that he speaks English like a native speaker, while
1860J35 an Indian takes pride in the local model. ^The crucial question is
1870J35 the situation of language use: an Indian speaking to another Indian
1880J35 uses the local model more as a marker
1890J35 of identity and group-membership; the same Indian may take great pride
1900J35 in using a native model while speaking to a native speaker.*#
        **[no. of words = 02009**]

        **[txt. j36**]
0010J36 **<*3The Great Classroom Hoax and other Reflections on Indian Education*0**>
0050J36 $^If we developed
0060J36 alternatives to the existing network of schools, colleges and
0070J36 universities, the reaction of professional educators would predictably
0080J36 be to_ commend such enterprise, until it came to the point of certifying
0090J36 or recognizing the credentials obtained outside the traditional
0100J36 system. ^For years now, the Government in Delhi have been considering
0110J36 the idea of scrapping degree requirements for positions in the
0120J36 public service that_ do not need university training, or could be filled
0130J36 on the basis of competitive tests. ^Does not everyone in Delhi
0140J36 know that, without a decision on this point, people are not likely
0150J36 to_ accept non-traditional forms of learning as alternatives to the
0160J36 formal system? $^In this context, it is amusing to_ watch the virtuous
0170J36 wrath of educators over the phenomenon of private coaching establishments
0180J36 that_ take trustful candidates*' money on false guarantees
0190J36 of success. ^These establishments (one of whom published a comically
0200J36 illiterate advertisement in a national newspaper the other day)
0210J36 promise short-cuts to learning, which in actual fact they fail to_ provide.
0220J36 ^But the traditional institutions within the educational system,
0230J36 that_ oblige the young to_ take the longer route, also fail to_
0240J36 get their clientele to the promised destination. ^Since this latter
0250J36 pursuit costs more than the private coaching classes, and the money
0260J36 comes from public funds, there is a case for working up a higher
0270J36 degree of wrath over this larger swindle. $^The traditional system is
0280J36 so well-entrenched that it does not take kindly to variations even
0290J36 when they are officially sponsored. ^A notable example is what happened
0300J36 to the Rural Institutes that_ had come into being on the recommendation
0310J36 of the Radhakrishnan Commission, and whose programmes
0320J36 were designed and co-ordinated by a national council on rural higher
0330J36 education appointed by the Government of India. ^Despite the relevance
0340J36 of these programmes to the rural economy, and academic standards
0350J36 comparable to those of most degree colleges, the Institutes*' diplomas
0360J36 were not recognized by most of the traditional universities.
0370J36 ^While lesser establishments rose to the status of what the Government
0380J36 ungrammatically calls 'deemed universities' the Rural Institutes
0390J36 have been obliged to_ stay outside the mainstream of our higher
0400J36 education. ^Does the same kind of embarrassment await the non-formal
0410J36 alternatives that_ are now being talked of? $^It is not as if the
0420J36 academic community is unaware of the compelling reasons that_ oblige
0430J36 us to_ turn to non-traditional ways of learning. ^One reason is that
0440J36 the resources for expanding the traditional system along traditional
0450J36 lines have been exhausted. ^Another is that, even if we had the
0460J36 resources, there would still be need for alternatives, for the formal
0470J36 system does not exhaust the possibilities of learning. ^There is
0480J36 even the danger that, if the formal ways of learning were all we have,
0490J36 even the efficient work of school, college and university would
0500J36 be undone by the influences that_ operate outside these establishments.
0510J36 ^The 20 hours a week even in a good college may not prevail against
0520J36 what happens in the other 80 odd waking hours spent in the world
0530J36 outside. ^Seats of learning have, for sheer survival, to_ strive
0540J36 to_ create a learning society around them. $^Teaching is today the
0550J36 largest profession in the country, and yet we need more teachers.
0560J36 ^Invaluable as the services of professional teachers are, we also
0570J36 need a new kind of teacher for certain new kinds of learning. ^These
0580J36 new teachers have to_ come from outside the academic world. ^This
0590J36 amounts to no more than recognizing and developing the genuine learning
0600J36 that_ is already taking place in practically every business, trade
0610J36 and profession. ^And this non-formal sector need not be confined
0620J36 to 'learning-how' subjects such as linguistic or mechanical skills,
0630J36 but could include theoretical subjects like philosophy, mathematics
0640J36 and aesthetics. $^The exclusiveness of the academic profession has
0650J36 lately not been leading the learners to any heights of excellence.
0660J36 ^Its attitude, meanwhile, is akin to what was guyed in the famous
0670J36 undergraduate rhyme about Benjamin Jowett: $^*I am the master of
0680J36 this college; $What I don*'4t know isn*'4t knowledge. $^To_ ensure
0690J36 acceptance of this stance, scholars today employ a device that_ Ivan
0700J36 Illich refers to in one of his vigorous indictments of academic
0710J36 practices: "Information is locked into special languages, and specialized
0720J36 teachers live off its re-translation." ^What we need is an open
0730J36 system, in which universities do not function like secret societies,
0740J36 and the disciplines are not turned into arcane pursuits. $^Perhaps
0750J36 the most expedient way to_ let in fresh air, and develop alternatives
0760J36 in post-secondary education, is for colleges to_ design a non-formal
0770J36 and non-traditional sector outside the prescribed routine of
0780J36 studies, and with the assistance, if necessary, of non-faculty personnel,
0790J36 to_ offer short courses both to their regular, full-time
0800J36 students on a voluntary basis, and to others who might be interested.
0810J36 ^These additional courses could range all the way from those involving
0820J36 manual and mechanical skills to_ reading Plato and Sankara
0830J36 and Karl Marx. ^It should be possible to_ find competent professionals,
0840J36 experts and enthusiasts, outside the academic system, who are
0850J36 interested enough in educational change to_ be willing to_ donate
0860J36 some of their time and energy to_ discuss such subjects with young
0870J36 learners. ^Within the regular faculty itself, there should be many
0880J36 who would welcome the relief and the freedom that_ such programmes
0890J36 offer. $^Colleges could also do some self-examination and find
0900J36 answers to the following questions: ^Does the student have to_
0910J36 come to college to_ learn what he now does? ^Does the college need
0920J36 the personnel and the plant that_ it now has, to_ do what it now does?
0930J36 ^Could they be used for reaching a higher level of achievement? ^And
0940J36 what does the college fail to_ give the student at present, which
0950J36 he needs? ^The answers could lead to many hitherto untrodden paths
0960J36 of learning. $*<*3Great Books and Text Books*0*> $^The Ministry
0970J36 of Education announced recently, with modest pride, that "no less
0980J36 than 4000 titles have been published under the scheme for the production
0990J36 of university level books in Indian languages." ^This works
1000J36 out to two or three hundred titles in each of the principal languages
1010J36 used as media of learning in some sectors of our higher education.
1020J36 ^Not a large number, but, considering the next to nothing with
1030J36 which the regional *4Granth Academies started, the output is not to_
1040J36 be scoffed at. ^There was however no call for the smugness of the
1050J36 official spokesman*'s claim that "by the end of the current plan period,
1060J36 there will be enough books in the Indian languages in almost
1070J36 all disciplines." ^How many or how much would be enough? $^That_
1080J36 phrase about "enough books" represents a view of the use of textbooks
1090J36 that_ has done much harm to the quality of our education. ^The primacy
1100J36 of the textbook in school and college is a recent phenomenon.
1110J36 ^As a pupil in primary school, I did not have any textbook other than
1120J36 the single language reader that_ was prescribed. ^Today, children
1130J36 need a sizeable bag to_ lug their textbooks to class. ^In secondary
1140J36 school, we did not have textbooks to_ do subjects like physics
1150J36 and chemistry, but students seem to_ need them today. ^In college
1160J36 too, while textbooks were listed, no student felt obliged to_ buy
1170J36 any textbook except in the language courses. ^The importance now attached
1180J36 to textbooks indicates a narrowing of our educational vision.
1190J36 $^Fortunately, most students have a healthy dislike of textbooks. ^Most
1200J36 textbooks are badly written, and are ephemeral products. ^That
1210J36 they should be abhorred is legitimate. ^But unfortunately, when a good
1220J36 book gets into this dismal company, it too falls into disfavour with
1230J36 the young. ^The curriculum includes no effort to_ develop such
1240J36 critical faculty as would distinguish a good book from a bad one.
1250J36 ^And unimaginative pedagogy helps to_ turn even a delightful book
1260J36 into an instrument of torture. ^A friend once told me that, reading
1270J36 *3The Rape of the Lock*0 years after leaving college and enjoying
1280J36 every line of it, he could hardly believe that it was the same poem
1290J36 on which he had spent many agonized hours in class as an undergraduate.
1300J36 ^*I was luckier in the teachers who introduced me to the great
1310J36 books heritage. $^A good textbook should be a seductive invitation
1320J36 to learning, and not a cage to_ imprison the minds of unsuspecting
1330J36 youth. ^A way to_ deal with the average textbook is to_ use it for
1340J36 academic target practice; students could sharpen their critical wits
1350J36 through discovering the omissions, repetitions, inaccuracies and obsolescences
1360J36 in the book. ^This may seem to_ presume in the student
1370J36 higher capabilities than the author*'s. ^Not necessarily. ^A student
1380J36 of average ability once told me that three-fourths of the voluminous
1390J36 textbook in economics he was doing, seemed to_ be shameless padding.
1400J36 ^His class could have learnt its economics in the liveliest way
1410J36 by exposing the trickeries of the author. $^There are modest levels
1420J36 on which such exercises could be done. ^*I remember doing a book
1430J36 of English prose selections with an Intermediate class many years
1440J36 ago. ^While the selections in the book came from standard writers of
1450J36 the language, the editing and the printing had been done by near-illiterates,
1460J36 and the text was full of printing mistakes, an average of two
1470J36 or three to a page. ^*I pointed some out in the beginning, but after
1480J36 a while, it became an interesting game in the class, students vying
1490J36 with one another in spotting the errors. ^At one stage, a student
1500J36 ventured to_ ask why such a badly printed book should have been prescribed
1510J36 by the Board. ^As a member of the Board myself, I weakly explained
1520J36 that perhaps the first edition had been free from error, and
1530J36 what we were doing was a reprint. ^*I did not mention that the publisher
1540J36 probably had friends in the Board. ^It involved some trouble
1550J36 and a lot of correspondence before the book was replaced the next
1560J36 year. ^Meanwhile, I was happy with what my class had accomplished.
1570J36 ^It had denounced a textbook, a valuable educational exercise. $^*I
1580J36 could tell many shameful tales of the textbook racket. ^But I would
1590J36 urge that neither teachers nor students should overdo any righteous
1600J36 indignation in the matter. ^An inferior textbook need not limit
1610J36 the range of one*'s reading or learning. ^We could match the dictum
1620J36 of the old wag who said, "Whenever my attention is drawn to a new
1630J36 book, I read an old one." ^He was obviously a curmudgeon, and missed
1640J36 some good things. ^Our dictum could be: "Read the textbooks you have
1650J36 to_, but get back to the great books as soon as you can." $^Paradoxically,
1660J36 the average student*'s attitude to both the categories of
1670J36 books, I have paired in the title of this article is unenthusiastic.
1680J36 ^He dislikes textbooks, by healthy instinct. ^He goes in fear of the
1690J36 great books, owing to ignorance. ^Maybe, the first time anyone recommended
1700J36 a classic to him, it happened to_ be the wrong choice. ^Even
1710J36 in the presence of the mighty, a reader has a right to his own
1720J36 likes and dislikes. $^There could be serious divergence of views even
1730J36 on the most widely acclaimed of classics. ^For *(0F.R.*) Leavis,
1740J36 the 'great tradition' of the English novel began with Jane Austen.
1750J36 ^Speaking of the same author, Mark Twain deplored that they
1760J36 had allowed her to_ die a natural death. *3^*The Confessions*0 of
1770J36 \0St. Augustine ranks high among the world*'s autobiographies, but
1780J36 Hilaire Belloc, a stout defender of all things Catholic, found
1790J36 the Catholic saint*'s autobiography unbearably tedious. ^There are
1800J36 people who, like Matthew Arnold, rave about the *3Meditations*0
1810J36 of Marcus Aurelius, but at least one notable critic once dismissed
1820J36 him as 'a bore among emperors, and the emperor of bores.' ^*Alan Forrest,
1830J36 writing recently in *3Books and Bookmen*0, described the
1840J36 works of Nobel laureates in literature as 'a list of Great Unreadables.'
1850J36 ^A journalistic exaggeration this, but even confronted by eminence,
1860J36 we should be proud enough to_ call our souls our own. $^That there
1870J36 could be no consensus on such ventures as a list of the Hundred
1880J36 Great Books of the world, may be seen in the trenchant comments
1890J36 that Dwight Macdonald made on the publication of the impressive 52-volume
1900J36 set of the *3Great Books of the Western World*0.*#
        **[no. of words = 02034**]

        **[txt. j37**]
0010J37 **<*3Educational Supervision*0**> $^The democratic philosophy has certain
0020J37 basic tenets. ^Briefly these are: $*31. ^Democracy stands for the
0030J37 worth, dignity and freedom of the individual*0-- ^This means that the
0040J37 individual soul is of supreme value because it comes from God. ^This
0050J37 also means that the individual man is of supreme value because he
0060J37 contributes to the good of society. ^It is true that all men do not possess
0070J37 the same abilities nor in the same measure. ^It is also true that
0080J37 they do not contribute to social life to the same extent. ^But the
0090J37 fact that each man does contribute in his own original way gives
0100J37 equal right of regard and respect. ^So the individual*'s personality
0110J37 and abilities are important and valuable. $*32. ^Democracy believes
0120J37 in the equality of all individuals*0-- ^Equality involves both rights
0130J37 and responsibilities. ^Rights, such as political equality before
0140J37 the law, are easily recognised and demanded because they are legally
0150J37 guaranteed. ^The corresponding responsibilities are seldom understood because
0160J37 they are not prescribed by law. ^This upsets the balance between
0170J37 rights and responsibilities. ^Equality also means equality of opportunity
0180J37 for self-development according to the individual*'s capacities
0190J37 in order to_ become a socially efficient individual. $*33. ^Democracy
0200J37 aims at the common good of all*0-- ^All individuals must develop
0210J37 a social outlook. ^This means that individuality is not a private possession
0220J37 but has to_ devote itself to the welfare of others. ^Democracy
0230J37 is a functional group organisation. ^There is freedom for all to_
0240J37 contribute to common good but not to_ hamper others*' progress.
0250J37 ^Briefly stated its faith is "the good of all is the good of each". $*34.
0260J37 ^Democracy believes that authority is not absolute but related to the
0270J37 situation*0-- ^Power is not derived from law but by superior skill and
0280J37 better contribution. ^So democracy substitutes leadership for authority.
0290J37 ^This means that a democratic society utilises the services of the
0300J37 experts without their domination. ^The leadership process consists of
0310J37 experimentation, group discussion and group decision. ^For bringing about
0320J37 change it uses persuasion instead of coercion and force. $^The implications
0330J37 of the democratic philosophy to educational supervision are
0340J37 clear. *3^Firstly*0, the old type of leader-follower relationship
0350J37 will no longer hold good, and has to_ yield place to new leadership.
0360J37 ^Imposition and direction, orders and commands, have to_ be replaced
0370J37 by cooperation and guidance. *3^Secondly*0, leadership and creativity
0380J37 are not exclusive but they, are found in all persons, though varying
0390J37 in kind and degree. ^Every person is capable of contributing something
0400J37 to the common purpose and pursuit. ^Contributions from all persons
0410J37 should therefore be invited and welcomed. *3^Thirdly*0, in democratic
0420J37 supervision there is no room for centralisation of decision-making
0430J37 power. ^All policies, plans and procedures have to_ be determined
0440J37 cooperatively by the group and decisions arrived at by the group
0450J37 are to_ be accepted and implemented by all without any reservations.
0460J37 *3^Finally*0, power and authority are not absolute; these are derived
0470J37 from the needs of the situation. $^The present day life is deeply influenced
0480J37 by science and scientific thought. ^Problems arise and are
0490J37 solved by the scientific method. ^So another source of the principles
0500J37 of supervision is science. ^Science stands for observation and discovery
0510J37 of facts and establishment of general laws from specific facts.
0520J37 ^The essential features of the scientific method are the following:
0530J37 $*311. ^The scientific method is based upon objectivity, reliability
0540J37 and validity*0-- ^It observes facts as they are, identifies the laws
0550J37 governing them by systematic analysis and expert organisation, and
0560J37 establishes the reliability and validity of the laws. $*32. ^The
0570J37 scientific method uses the techniques of survey experimentation and
0580J37 analysis \0etc*0.-- ^It controls subjectivity by impartiality, verification,
0590J37 repetition of experiments, statistical analysis and use of
0600J37 precision instruments. $*33. ^The application of the scientific method
0610J37 is limited in some aspects*0-- ^Education, as a social science,
0620J37 is a dynamic process. ^Its materials cannot be strictly controlled;
0630J37 they are not so simple as those of the physical sciences. ^Measurement
0640J37 in education cannot be as exact and accurate as in physical sciences.
0650J37 ^The process of analysis cannot be very rigid and objective. $^When
0660J37 applied to educational supervision the scientific method leads
0670J37 us to some important conclusions. *3^Firstly*0, in setting up aims and
0680J37 objectives, planning principles and procedures, assessing resources
0690J37 and evaluating results the scientific approach and method should
0700J37 be applied. *3^Secondly*0, everyday and practical problems should be
0710J37 tackled and solved scientifically. *3^Thirdly*0, the situation should
0720J37 be diagnosed properly and in decision-making the background material should
0730J37 be utilised. *3^Finally*0, objectively determined facts must lead
0740J37 to more and more effort at refinement of methods and techniques. $^Briefly
0750J37 speaking, the principles of educational supervision are drawn
0760J37 from both philosophy and science. ^Philosophy leads to formulation
0770J37 of policies, plans, purposes and values in determining which aspirations
0780J37 and ideals of the good life must be carefully considered in relation
0790J37 to life as a whole. ^The scientific method should lead to the
0800J37 solution of problems and experimental and valid conclusions instead
0810J37 of blind operation of set formulas. $^Philosophy and science, both together
0820J37 should lead to a dynamic and integrated theory and practice
0830J37 of supervision. ^This theory may be briefly summarised as under: $(1)
0840J37 ^The supervisor must secure a complete and accurate picture of current
0850J37 school practices. $(2) ^The supervisor must utilise all scientific
0860J37 knowledge about materials and methods to_ improve the condition of the
0870J37 teaching-learning situation. $(3) ^The supervisor must know research
0880J37 findings and think critically, analytically and objectively. $(4) ^The
0890J37 supervisor must enlist the cooperation of teachers, administrators
0900J37 and other persons and utilise t  ir abilities with confidence for the
0910J37 improvement of the teaching-learning situation. $(5) ^The supervisor
0920J37 must evaluate teaching-learning on the basis of not only the knowledge
0930J37 but also the understand **[sic**] skills and attitudes acquired
0940J37 by the pupils. $*<*33. Principles of Good Supervision*0.*> $^From
0950J37 the above discussion we are in a position to_ formulate the following
0960J37 principles of educational supervision: $*31. ^Supervision should
0970J37 be functionally related to administration*0: ^Besides other things,
0980J37 administration provides the physical and material conditions for education,
0990J37 such as building, equipment and the like. ^These are part of the
1000J37 educational setting or the teaching-learning situation. ^Supervision
1010J37 is concerned with *3improving*0 this situation. "^Even though supervision
1020J37 is assigned quite specific tasks within the area of administration,
1030J37 it is considered an integral part of it. ^Supervision must be primarily
1040J37 a nonmanagerial service within the total responsibilities of administration."
1050J37 ^It is clear the two are closely and functionally related.
1060J37 ^They coordinate and supplement each other. ^Good administration and
1070J37 good supervision both have the same function-- the creation of favourable
1080J37 conditions for the educational process and their maintenance at
1090J37 an effective level. ^One cannot go on without the other. ^Administration
1100J37 provides the educational setting or the teaching-learning situation,
1110J37 and supervision studies it, evaluates its strength and weakness,
1120J37 and continuously improves it. "^Administration and supervision considered
1130J37 *3functionally*0 cannot be separated or set off from each other.
1140J37 ^The two are coordinate, correlative, complementary, mutually shared
1150J37 functions in the operation of educational systems." $*32. ^Supervision
1160J37 should be based on philosophy*0. ^This means that the policies,
1170J37 plans, purposes, values and meaning of supervision should be determined
1180J37 by the philosophy or the way of life of the society whose education
1190J37 is to_ be undertaken. ^The aims, objectives, policies and plans
1200J37 are to_ be examined by the philosophic method, specially for their relevance
1210J37 to the community*'s life as whole. ^For this the quantitative
1220J37 data are to_ be critically examined for their qualitative implications
1230J37 or significance and adequacy. ^Aims and purposes are to_ be assessed
1240J37 in the light of the needs, ideals and aspirations of the community.
1250J37 ^These have also to_ be related to the evolutionary process of the
1260J37 world and the constantly going on economic and social change. ^While
1270J37 applying the philosophic method care must be taken to_ employ the
1280J37 logical process of critical thought. ^This is a difficult task and
1290J37 can be carried out only by trained thinkers, so that the conclusions
1300J37 are accurate, complete and rational. $^Thus the contribution of philosophy
1310J37 to educational supervision lies in the field of the values and
1320J37 culture of society, the resources and aspirations of the community, its
1330J37 problems and climate and the procedures of evaluating the educational
1340J37 outcomes. ^All these will guide the organisation and operation
1340J37 of the educational process. ^Emphasis is to_ be placed on the close relation
1350J37 of life with education, its subject-matter and methodology as these
1360J37 affect the individuals constituting society and the community as a whole.
1370J37 $*33. ^Supervision should be scientific*0-- ^All activities, plans,
1380J37 procedures and techniques should be based on the scientific attitude
1390J37 and method. ^Supervision should emphasise experimentation, observation
1400J37 and inference, objectivity and reliability. ^It should utilise
1410J37 the findings of research, standardised tests and statistical analysis.
1420J37 ^It should check upon the validity of facts. ^The scientific method
1430J37 should lead to more and more accuracy and precision. ^Scientific supervision
1440J37 re-interprets the aims, policies, materials and methods in the
1450J37 light of realities and the democratic social processes of life and
1460J37 education. ^It starts with securing a complete and correct picture
1470J37 of school practices, learning materials and teaching technology. ^It
1480J37 obtains knowledge about specific situations, the learner*'s motives
1490J37 and personality, and the nature of the learning process. ^It should
1500J37 take positive steps by critical thinking and objective analysis to_
1510J37 improve the situation, the pupils and the teachers. "^The supervisor,
1520J37 rather, would need to_ study carefully the personality needs
1530J37 of his individual staff members as they go about the tasks of meeting
1540J37 the requirements of the teaching duties in the particular situation."
1550J37 "^Even the effectiveness of pupils*' report forms should be constantly
1560J37 evaluated." $^Whenever rigid scientific methods cannot be applied
1570J37 good educational supervision still employs rational thinking to_ draw
1580J37 precise, impartial, objective and expert conclusions and systematically
1590J37 organise them into a workable theory. $*34. ^Supervision should be
1600J37 democratic*0-- ^Supervision should be a cooperative enterprise in which
1610J37 every one has the right to_ contribute. "^The right to_ cooperate
1620J37 in the selection of materials and methods is the right of every teacher.
1630J37 ^The right to_ help determine instructional destinations is the right
1640J37 of every teacher." ^Modern supervision respects the individuality
1650J37 and personality of pupils, teachers and other educational workers and
1660J37 gives recognition to their individual differences. "^The supervisory
1670J37 leader needs to_ guard against his impatience when the group is not
1680J37 at his level of understanding." ^He should do everything possible
1690J37 to encourage them. "^Feeling like doing a good job is a pre-requisite
1700J37 for a good instructional program, and it cannot be made up for by
1710J37 a knowledge of proper procedures, as valuable as such knowledge is.
1720J37 ^Enthusiasm, initiative, and ingenuity are now prominent as essentials
1730J37 to teaching." ^Democratic supervision provides full opportunity to discussion,
1740J37 free expression of views and opinions, enlists participation
1750J37 of all persons and welcomes and utilises their contribution for the
1760J37 improvement of the teaching-learning situation and process. ^It believes
1770J37 that everybody is endowed with rationality, creativity and energy
1780J37 and is capable of growth and improvement. ^It, therefore, stimulates
1790J37 initiative, self-confidence, and sense of responsibility among all
1800J37 workers in the discharge of their duties. "^The group should understand
1810J37 clearly the thing that has brought them together. ^The good
1820J37 leader first works toward common classification of the goals, and then
1830J37 tackles the problem of joint agreement on procedures to_ be followed
1840J37 in tackling the job." $^Good supervision has confidence in the workers*'
1850J37 worth and dignity, and is ever prepared to_ exchange ideas and
1860J37 opinions with them. ^The supervisor in "leading a group does everything
1870J37 possible to_ build up in the members the feeling that their ideas are
1880J37 the important thing." ^It provides plenty of opportunity for growth
1890J37 and improvement, and above all, ensures fair dealing with, and among,
1900J37 all persons. ^Moreover, the supervisory programme "in all aspects,
1910J37 must reflect deep concern for human relationships." ^It evaluates
1920J37 the final educational product not only on the basis of knowledge but
1930J37 also of skills, understandings and attitudes acquired by the pupils.
1940J37 ^It should remember **[sic**] that "Democratic relationships between
1941J37 supervisors, teachers, and administrators breed democratic
1942J37 relationships between pupils and teachers."
1950J37 ^Good supervision substitutes authority by leadership,
1960J37 and if authority is needed it is derived from the needs of the situation
1970J37 and superior knowledge and skills and not from the position occupied
1980J37 by the supervisor.*#
        **[no. of words = 02006**]

        **[txt. j38**]
0010J38 **<*3Educational Planning and Poverty of India*0**> $^Perhaps related
0020J38 to this problem, if not mixed up with it, is the problem of 'University
0030J38 autonomy and academic freedom,' both of which are obviously
0040J38 exercised by Universities with a few exceptions. ^Universities make
0050J38 their own appointments and are free to_ choose their syllabus. ^Despite
0060J38 this enjoyment of prerogatives it is a matter of concern that Universities
0070J38 have not been able to_ produce an intellectual and academic
0080J38 elite strong enough to_ crystallise as a social force. $^Historically,
0090J38 a strong elite had been produced in-- Moghal times called
0100J38 the '*4Mansabdars'. ^These constituted a cross section of landed aristocracy.
0110J38 ^The Moghal authority depended for exercise of authority
0120J38 on the-- '*4Mansabdars' who, in turn, derived their existence from
0130J38 Moghal grants and in this way the two became interdependent. ^Because
0140J38 of this mutually dependent existence, the '*4Mansabdar' elite collapsed
0150J38 under the impact of the British rule, which did not admit the
0160J38 aristocratic base of an elite whose loyalties were suspect. $^Compared
0170J38 to this, the example of a partyless civil service as administrative
0180J38 elite, created under the British Government, survived even after
0190J38 the withdrawal of British rule from India. ^This administrative elite,
0200J38 because of its resilence, persists with a greater force in India
0210J38 today, because the political framework within which it operates
0220J38 is weak owing to the 'rulers' being new to the task. $^The University,
0230J38 which is the reservoir of intellectual powers, has not been able to_
0240J38 leave any imprint on the decision making powers of the Governmental
0250J38 elite, much less produce its own brand of elite to_ give a direction
0260J38 to the intellectual, social and economic affairs of the country.
0270J38 ^Its right to a real economic freedom and true autonomy will inevitably
0280J38 come within its grasp when its strength increases, in proportion
0290J38 to the decision making power shared by it, in terms of its own elite;
0300J38 and not only that_, when it is able to_ serve as the forum for
0310J38 various elite groups to_ meet and gain from mutual contact. $^The Elite,
0320J38 in a liberal democracy, need not bring in an element of contradiction.
0340J38 ^Mutual contacts and consultations, the shared deliberation and
0350J38 the spirit of 'inquiry' form a democratic society. ^In India, where
0360J38 a democratic way of life is being experimented with, and where,
0370J38 because of successive doses of industrialisation, a mass society seems
0380J38 to_ be emerging it is imperative that elite sections are created
0390J38 in fields which are vital sectors of Society. $^The examples
0400J38 of American Professors drafted as ambassadors with wide, decision
0410J38 making powers to_ influence the external affairs and economic institutions
0420J38 of their country, are refreshing; it is more refreshing to_
0430J38 know that they are always in some hurry to_ be back to their teaching
0440J38 assignments and research jobs in their own Universities. $*<*3The
0450J38 teaching elite in the 19th & early 20th Century in India*0*> $^In
0460J38 the Maharashtra reform movements in the nineteenth century, college
0470J38 teachers played a great role. ^*Balashastri Jambhekar and Krishna
0480J38 Shastri Chiplunkar were both college teachers. ^*Mahadev Govind Ranade,
0490J38 was Professor of English at Elphinstone College (1868-71)
0500J38 and Dadabhai Naoroji was also a professor there. ^*Ramakrishna Gopal
0510J38 Bhandarkar an active teacher and leader of Prarthana Samaj,
0520J38 later became the famous Indologist. $^The celebrated statesmen Tilak
0530J38 and Gokhale were, both College professors. ^*Tilak started his famous
0540J38 Ganesh-Festival. ^In 1895 he raised funds to_ repair Shivajee*'s
0550J38 historic fort at Raigarh. $^In Bengal, it was the school master
0560J38 who played a significant role in nationalist movements and not the
0570J38 College teacher. ^The Middle class traditionally called the 'Bhadralok'
0580J38 in Bengal, by their first efforts, started The Indian Association
0590J38 representing the intelligentsia. ^Its managing committee, composed
0600J38 of 48 members, did not seem to_ have any College teacher while
0610J38 68% of the membership belonged to the lawyers. \0^*Dr. Gorden Johnson
0620J38 refers to the Council, first framed after the 1892 Council reforms,
0630J38 in 1893-95; 1895-97; 1897-99. ^Of the fourteen members, eleven
0640J38 were lawyers, two were *4Zemindars, and one, Surendra Nath Banerjee
0650J38 was a journalist. ^It is, of course, on record that Schoolmasters
0660J38 offered themselves for election to municipalities and district
0670J38 boards, but not the College Teachers. $^In the rest of India, where
0680J38 the national movement started later than in Bengal and Maharashtra,
0690J38 the teachers, by and large, kept aloof from active civic life.
0700J38 ^When Gandhiji started a chain of parallel national institutions,
0710J38 as a sequel to the boycott of the Government educational institutions,
0720J38 some selfless intellectuals did come forward to_ run such institutions.
0730J38 ^They later formed a coterie of educationists and statesmen including
0740J38 Acharya Narendra Deo and Lal Bahadur Shastri. $^But, in the background
0750J38 of the growth of College Education, a number of private
0760J38 institutions were founded from endowments although they looked up to
0770J38 Government for maintenance grants. ^The Government Colleges and
0780J38 Universities, of course, stood out as isolated elements in the wider
0790J38 sweep of national movement. $*<\0*3IAS*0 or \0*3INS*0*> $^Without
0800J38 going into the merits of the case for the generalist administrator,
0820J38 one must admit that the Indian scene today is invaded by a sweeping
0830J38 discontent against this administrative elite which has pre-empted
0840J38 to itself the authority in the spheres in which, in terms of departmental
0850J38 knowledge, it has no moorings. ^Such an intrusion, which is inherent
0860J38 in the very essence of things, sometimes results in the creation
0870J38 of a tendency to mental reservations, because the administrator has
0880J38 to_ have the air of one who knows well how every ground lies. $^Nevertheless,
0890J38 the burden of the day-to-day running of the Government must
0900J38 rest on broad shoulders of an administrative elite. ^The teaching
0910J38 elite should also be allowed to_ be formed by combining the administrative,
0920J38 teaching and technological cadres into one single cadre-- the
0930J38 Indian National Service, (\0INS) (inclusive of the \0IAS,)
0940J38 to which civil servants should be recruited on the same terms of
0950J38 competition and emoluments as the \0IAS today. ^The Teacher or
0960J38 the Engineer or the Doctor, who enters the \0INS as a civil servant
0970J38 along with the generalist administrator, must receive a different
0980J38 sort of training in certain respects. ^So that the Teacher, recruited
0990J38 in the \0INS, eventually becomes Education Secretary, the Doctor
1000J38 Health Secretary, and the Engineer the \0PWD Secretary
1010J38 to Government. $^Unless these different cadres are combined into
1020J38 one cadre-- the \0INS there will continue, in the sphere of the
1030J38 governmental elite, a good deal of bickering and complaints of favoured
1040J38 treatment meted out to only one set of generalist civil servants. $^This
1050J38 does not, however, apply to those who wish to_ keep out of Government
1060J38 departments and to_ devote themselves to independent teaching
1070J38 or research. ^Their avocation is a higher one because it entails
1080J38 acceptance of a life of dedicated service to the pursuit of truth.
1090J38 $^The real dignity and stature of the University or College Teacher will
1100J38 be ensured, when he is able to_ become that_ point of confluence
1110J38 of cultures where the foreign impact on indiginous culture is not
1120J38 able to_ uproot it, but to_ bring to it the fruition of a Catalytic
1130J38 reaction. $*<*3The Founding of a School of Indian Civilisation
1140J38 & Culture*> $^It is one of the major weaknesses of the Indian
1150J38 University curricula that it does not allow for the study of the various
1160J38 streams that_ flow into the vast tradition of Indian civilisation
1170J38 and culture. ^This is, indeed, the real poverty of cultural knowledge,
1180J38 today. ^No doubt, there are a number of Oriental schools, institutes,
1190J38 and departments of research, but they only delve into the past,
1200J38 and make you think of the nation of yesterday. $^The present day languages
1220J38 of India, having their origin in one or the other great classical
1230J38 languages represent that_ constellation of regional cultures
1240J38 which, in fact, is the national culture of India. ^Whether in the
1250J38 medieval times or today, these languages had common frontiers of experience,
1260J38 thought and sensibility. ^To_ continue to_ be out off from **[sic**]
1270J38 this great nourishment of the mind is to_ invite the invasion of
1280J38 ideas which reflect alien traditions. ^In the absence of it if foreign
1290J38 institutions are transplanted we cannot stand up to the invasion
1300J38 because we have no scale of values of our own. $*<*3The University,
1310J38 the elite, and the rural masses*> $^In the modern age, it is
1320J38 one of the distinguishing features of the University to_ let different
1330J38 groups of elites crystallise in a developing mass society; but
1340J38 its real power lies in seeing to their proper flowering in an integrated
1350J38 pattern. ^If the inherent strength of an elite subsists merely
1360J38 in its supposed higher \0IQ to the exclusion of acquired or transmitted
1370J38 culture, and if exigencies of a political system place such an
1380J38 elite on a higher pedestal and closest to pulsations of political power,
1390J38 that_ elite preempts to itself a place which it must, in fairness,
1400J38 yield to another elite which does not concern itself with the contingent
1410J38 and the fleeting. $^A University cannot be indifferent to the
1420J38 health of the culture of a society, nor to the stamina of its intellectual
1430J38 groups however, isolated. ^Indeed, it is the central idea of
1440J38 a University to_ fortify intellectual powers and to_ help sustain
1450J38 those layers of culture that_ have thought and research as its other
1460J38 ingredients. ^However, it may be an expectation never to_ be realised,
1470J38 if we think of the University as a vital liaison between one
1480J38 elite and another. ^And it is here that we are forced to the conclusion
1490J38 that education in the modern age is not total, nor perhaps can it
1500J38 be so. $^When the craft was the hub of productive activity it created
1510J38 those mores of feeling and behaviour which fused into a 'culture'--
1520J38 a way of life. ^The producer, the craftsman and his associates got
1530J38 steeped in that_ way of life which, in fact, became their education.
1540J38 ^It came to them in an indirect way, through the craft. ^A spinner
1550J38 was found fully educated and so was the weaver when it came to testing
1560J38 their knowledge-- their feeling for design, their sense of the
1570J38 buyer being a personal factor in the constricted personal market. $^The
1580J38 religious elite in those remote times, on the other hand, showed
1590J38 a contempt for productive labour, but derived its education from inherited
1600J38 wisdom which was the wisdom of the race. ^Although magic entered
1610J38 such an acquired education in a limited way, the elite was able to_
1620J38 break the monotony, the boredom of life whose shuffled footsteps one
1630J38 heard in a rotund hall. ^The education that_ it betrayed was neither
1640J38 craft centered nor institutional; it was a whole world of beliefs,
1650J38 finally supported by chanted words. ^The elite did not function like
1660J38 a committee of specialists which meets for limited purpose. ^It wielded
1670J38 an unquestioned power on the mind and spirit. $^Education,
1680J38 down the centuries, has grown institutional and departmentalised.
1690J38 ^One of the terms of abuse in social intercourse today is "half-educated",
1700J38 perhaps such an abuse was unthinkable in times indicated above. ^Everyone
1710J38 who belonged to one group or the other of individuals, gifted
1720J38 to_ perform a certain task and to_ fulfil a certain purpose, was
1730J38 'educated' to that_ end. $^Today gifted individuals, forming into
1740J38 groups are rarely from 'uneducated' or 'half-educated' sectors of
1750J38 society. ^They are products of a training, a school of instruction,
1760J38 and wear a school tie or a university crest. ^These groups of specially
1770J38 talented individuals have not, all of them, become elite. ^Their
1780J38 distinctly urban background, the privileges of birth and upbringing and
1790J38 their easy sailing into University education are the common bond amongst
1800J38 them. ^It is rare that a talented rural youngman, with a high
1810J38 \0IQ has been able to_ cross beyond the fences of higher secondary education.
1820J38 ^If at all he is able to_ join such institutions of higher
1830J38 education as give him professional knowledge, his rural upbringing,
1840J38 totally laughable in sophisticated circles, will render him unacceptable.
1850J38 $^The Education Commission Report, 1966, (\0P. 119) gives
1860J38 the following table of students from rural areas studying in different
1870J38 technical and professional institutions. **[table**] $^But in terms
1880J38 of occupation of parents, the following break up of students, in those
1890J38 institutions, is a useful key to an understanding of the sociological
1900J38 pattern of education.*#
        **[no. of worrds = 02004**]

        **[txt. j39**]
0010J39 **<*3A TENTATIVE PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF LEADERS*0**> $*3^WE*0 have seen
0020J39 in the previous pages of this book that from the earliest times
0030J39 of human history, enlightened thinkers have advocated the desirability
0040J39 of an education for a ruler. ^We are certainly not constrained to_
0050J39 accept their views. ^But the way in which modern governments are behaving
0060J39 over the world, and the danger of devastation and annihilation
0070J39 that_ has been posed by the \0H-bombs, Atom-bombs and such other
0080J39 weapons of modern warfare, makes us think over the problem afresh
0090J39 and compels us to_ devise some system of education for rulers in the
0100J39 interests of humanity. ^Most modern states today have accepted the
0110J39 democratic form of goverment. ^In a democratic set-up the people elect
0120J39 representatives to the Houses of Parliament. ^These parliaments
0130J39 can act as the best checks to the wilfulness or corruption of the
0140J39 rulers. ^But in reality these parliaments fail to_ provide any effective
0150J39 checks. ^The government is first of all run on a party basis.
0160J39 ^The people belonging to a certain party always support the action
0170J39 of their party leaders rather blindly or prompted by certain motives.
0180J39 ^The party which forms the opposition, on the other hand, is biased
0190J39 and is pledged to_ oppose the ruling party in every circumstance
0200J39 without caring at all for justice and fairness. ^Secondly, a powerful
0210J39 leader finds it easy to_ grab absolute power. ^Human weakness in
0220J39 the form of selfishness, cowardice and unwillingness on the part of
0230J39 the public fail to_ check effectively any unjust act of the ruler.
0240J39 ^Thirdly, the modern technique of propaganda has been so perfected
0250J39 that it has become very easy to_ convince the common man about the
0260J39 desirability of certain actions. ^The ruler who has absolute command
0270J39 over the state can utilize the radio, the film, the newspaper, the
0280J39 loudspeaker, the stage, and such other media to_ proclaim the desirability
0290J39 and justness of the steps he takes. $^The fact that_ emerges
0300J39 from these considerations is that a democratic constitution is no
0310J39 guarantee for a fair and just ruler or rulers. ^It is always possible
0320J39 to_ bypass, to_ distort or to_ hoodwink the constitution and
0330J39 the people. ^Let us not forget that Napoleon was born out of the revolution
0340J39 of the French people, Ayub was born out of Pakistani democracy,
0350J39 Sukarno was born out of the Indonesian democratic set-up. ^Even
0360J39 in nations which do not profess any allegiance to democracy and declare
0370J39 their adherence to Communism, things are not better. ^The rise
0380J39 of Stalin and Mao proves this fact. ^Let us not forget that it
0390J39 is not the labels of Democracy or Communism that_ give any solace or
0400J39 satisfaction to the people. ^What counts is the actual, efficient,
0410J39 and honest administration; "for otherwise what difference does it make
0420J39 to a poor man whether he is devoured by a lion or by a hundred rats?"
0430J39 ^To_ quote the words of Voltaire. ^Catchwords and slogans, programmes
0440J39 and pamphlets, constitutions and manifestos, have no intrinsic
0450J39 and practical value unless the mind of the ruler is untainted by
0460J39 selfishness. ^And then who does not know the corruptibility of human
0470J39 nature? ^They say that power corrupts man, and absolute power corrupts
0480J39 absolutely. ^This statement is full of wisdom and truth. ^Let
0490J39 us not forget that even the devil can quote Scripture. ^Lofty statement
0500J39 and fine speeches may yet hide a vicious and unworthy heart.
0510J39 ^What can be done to_ reduce to the minimum the chances of this corruption
0520J39 of human nature which play havoc with the peace and prosperity,
0530J39 life and happiness of the society? ^The only answer to this is
0540J39 education. ^Education is the only medium through which the possibility
0550J39 of corruption can be dispelled to a very great extent. ^Education
0560J39 can serve in two ways. ^First, it would equip a prospective ruler
0570J39 with the necessary information that_ is so necessary for administering
0580J39 a human society. ^A ruler needs to_ have a knowledge of human
0590J39 history, society and the thoughts of wise people to_ help him in his
0600J39 task. ^He must be aware of the tradition and culture that_ mark that_
0610J39 particular society with a specific colour. ^And secondly, it would make
0620J39 a person cultured. ^It would transform his life. ^It would teach him
0630J39 to_ subjugate his sensual selfish urges that_ limit his mental horizon.
0640J39 ^It would socialize his personality. ^The word education has come
0650J39 from the root 'educare' which means 'to_ produce'. ^Etymologically,
0660J39 education is a process of producing a social outlook in man. ^Therefore
0670J39 it is not knowledge that_ is so important in education. ^It
0680J39 is the growth of mental horizons which help a man to_ transcend his
0690J39 personal selfish considerations and identify himself with something
0700J39 much bigger-- society and humanity. ^*Whitehead has clearly stated:
0710J39 "A merely well-informed man is the most useless bore on God*'s earth.
0720J39 ^What we should aim at producing is men who possess both culture
0730J39 and expert knowledge in some special direction." (*3The Aims of
0740J39 Education and Other Essays*0, \0p. 1) $^*Gandhiji says the same thing.
0750J39 "^By education I mean an allround drawing out of the best in child
0760J39 and man-- body, mind and spirit. ^Literacy is not the end of education
0770J39 nor even the beginning. ^It is only one of the means whereby man
0780J39 and woman can be educated. ^Literacy in itself is no education."
0790J39 (*3Harijan*0 31.7.1937). $^Any education that_ aims at merely giving
0791J39 book knowledge is a wasteful labour that_ profits neither the
0800J39 one educated nor the society. ^We must therefore try to_ transform
0810J39 the life of an individual. ^Though a person is born with certain
0820J39 peculiar traits or talents, yet it is always possible to_ mould him
0830J39 in a desirable manner. ^Strength that_ is not directed by education
0840J39 can go to_ make a dacoit but when transformed through education can arm
0850J39 a man to_ defy the might of an evil empire like **[sic**] Gandhiji,
0860J39 for example. ^None of the human tendencies and potentialities are evil
0870J39 or bad. ^What is wrong is only the use thereof. ^Even poison can
0880J39 prove a boon to life if used wisely. ^But if used foolishly it can
0890J39 put an end to life. ^Education gives this wisdom whereby everything
0900J39 is put to its proper use, whereby a person is prompted to_ adopt the
0910J39 path of human reconstruction, and not destruction as pursued by Hitler
0920J39 and Mussolini. $^It has been stated in the Indian Smriti Literature
0930J39 that man is born a *4Shudra by birth, but becomes changed
0940J39 because of the *4Sanskaras. ^These *4Sanskaras are in fact the
0950J39 processes of perfection or refinement and constitute the essence of
0960J39 education. ^Education brings into being what is popularly called character,
0970J39 and character is the core of human conduct. ^Conduct, as everybody
0980J39 knows, makes and unmakes an individual as well as a society.
0990J39 ^Mere talk cannot make any nation great, nor can it bring any loftiness
1000J39 to any individual life. ^It is the real conduct and concrete actions
1010J39 that_ weave the destiny of an individual as well as a community.
1020J39 ^And this conduct is the result of a good character. ^Our human
1030J39 society is at present facing a real crisis in character. ^Individual
1040J39 life has become so debased and demoralized that humanity is slowly
1050J39 but steadily being led to the brink of destruction and annihilation.
1060J39 $^Let us look at the daily life of individuals to_ test the veracity
1070J39 of this statement. ^Everyday we hear of adulteration of foodstuffs,
1080J39 oil, ghee, medicines, cement, \0etc. ^In business it has become
1090J39 a common practice to_ adopt unfair means of earning money. ^In political
1100J39 life deceit, cheating, falsehood, \0etc., have become so deep-rooted
1110J39 that we accept the fact with complacency by coining a popular
1120J39 adage that politics is the last resort of a scoundrel. ^In our social
1130J39 life we find that this very corruption is eating away at social health.
1140J39 ^Leaders are prepared to_ go to any extent to_ serve their own
1150J39 selfish ends. ^But the worst effect of this corruption is felt in
1160J39 the political domain. ^In fact our political life should be the cleanest,
1170J39 because its impact is felt in every nook and corner of the society
1180J39 and every aspect of individual life. ^They say that the people
1190J39 imitate their rulers (*3*5yatha raja, tatha praja*6*0). ^We have forgotten
1200J39 the basic principle of political life, \0i.e., honesty and
1210J39 integrity of the individuals who make and unmake a government. ^To_
1220J39 rule a community is not the objective of political life. ^To_ rule
1230J39 honestly and wisely, sincerely and efficiently is the end all and
1240J39 be all of human politics. ^The *3Mahabharata*0 has wisely reminded
1250J39 humanity about the ultimate goal of government. ^It states that a good
1260J39 government is not constituted by the number of people ruled by it;
1270J39 nor is it constituted by force or a law-giver. ^It is constituted
1280J39 really speaking, by the extent to which dutifulness pervades the government
1290J39 and the rulers, and the spirit of mutual cooperation found in
1300J39 them. **[quotation in sanskrit**] $^If we peruse the history of the
1310J39 world, we shall find that its pages are red with human blood that_
1320J39 has been shed due to the intransigence, selfishness and foolhardiness
1330J39 of rulers. ^Because of those foolish wars not only many wise and
1340J39 promising human lives have been lost to humanity but even much loss
1350J39 in terms of the mundane and the spiritual was caused. ^We have destroyed
1360J39 countless books of wisdom; we have burnt many creations of human
1370J39 wisdom in the process of that_ conflict and wanton destruction.
1380J39 ^It is said that the Mohammedan rulers destroyed in the rashness of
1390J39 their impulsive acts many books that_ could have otherwise given
1400J39 new breadth of vision to humanity. $^A still worse loss to humanity
1410J39 has been the fact that whatever human society learnt by the inspiration
1420J39 of the *4Vedas and *4Upanishads, Buddha and Mahavira,
1430J39 Muhammad and Christ, the countless saints, and noble sages,
1440J39 was lost due to the fury of foolish destruction. ^The lessons of peace
1450J39 were lost and the situation became so pitiable that the majority of
1460J39 the people has come to_ be believed **[sic**] that to_ destroy and grab,
1470J39 to_ loot and plunder is the object of a government. ^Things have
1480J39 come to such a pass that if anybody reminds human society about its
1490J39 ultimate objective, \0i.e., the establishment of peace and human prosperity,
1500J39 he is branded as a utopian. ^They do not want to_ rectify
1510J39 their mistakes but continue to_ indulge in a very crude, unreflective
1520J39 and unproductive rationalization that_ makes the work of human
1530J39 reconstruction all the more difficult. ^Let us imagine the case of a
1540J39 patient suffering from a chronic disease. ^When he is advised by a
1550J39 sensible doctor to_ mend his habits which have been responsible for
1560J39 that_ disease, the patient instead of accepting the advice of the
1570J39 doctor, tells him: 'You are totally unpractical. ^You do not know
1580J39 human life.' ^We all know that despite this foolish talk of the patient,
1590J39 the doctor does not stop giving him the right advice. ^It is his
1600J39 duty, which he feels obliged to_ discharge with the hope that the
1610J39 patient will ultimately hear the voice of reason and rationality,
1620J39 and try to_ regain his health and well being. ^*I would like to_ invite
1630J39 the attention of my readers to the following statement of Gandhiji:
1640J39 $"^*I may be taunted with the retort that this is all Utopian
1650J39 and, therefore, not worth a single thought. ^If Euclid*'s point, though
1660J39 incapable of being drawn by human agency, has an imperishable value,
1670J39 my picture has its own for mankind to_ live" (*3Harijan*0, 28-7-1946).
1680J39 $^It should be remembered that ultimately the objective of
1690J39 education is to_ inculcate social values in an individual. ^Love,
1700J39 understanding, emotional integrity, \0etc., are to_ be imparted to
1710J39 a child with a view to enlarging his personality and making him socially
1720J39 acceptable. ^Society is essential for the growth of a child. ^Food,
1730J39 medicines, clothing and affection are provided by society alone.
1740J39 ^Without such social help a child may find it difficult even to_
1750J39 survive. ^And since the existence of society is so necessary for human
1760J39 welfare, the individual must strengthen this social health, this
1770J39 structure of society. ^Education alone can make a person society-oriented.*#
        **[no. of words = 02006**]

        **[*Txt. j40**]
0010J40 **<*3Neutralism: Theory and Practice*0**> $^Thus, the new trend that_
0020J40 developed in this period in Indo American relations were mostly connected
0030J40 with the internal developments of the United States. ^It helped
0040J40 Nehru to_ overcome his economic crisis no doubt, yet, beside extending
0050J40 economic co-operations with the United States and her associates,
0060J40 he did nothing substantially to_ insert pro-Western attitude into
0070J40 Indian neutralism. ^Because, in the field of external relations Nehru
0080J40 had expressed his distaste for belligerent methods and since 1957 he
0090J40 had been emphasizing always on the adoption of peaceful means for the
0100J40 settlement of the disputes and economic freedom for the Afro-Asian
0110J40 countries. ^In adition to that_ the American Government did not
0120J40 change its former attitude to the international problems on which
0130J40 the Indian government had so long differed. ^Therefore, the contention
0140J40 that Nehru did not adopt active attitude during the Cuban crisis
0150J40 was definitely an attempt to_ disregard this truth. ^Furthermore, it
0160J40 was a complicated issue of the cold war, and hence, Nehru had to_
0170J40 determine the policy cautiously. ^*Indian neutralism, thus, carried
0180J40 some qualities of negative approach to a crisis that_ precipitated
0190J40 out of the complicated issues of the cold war in the areas outside Asia.
0200J40 $^With the addition of few African nations in the United Nations,
0210J40 as sovereign states in 1960, the number of the Afro-Asian group
0220J40 swelled to fortysix. ^But, it could not act as a unifying force. ^Some
0230J40 states could not discard altogether the former tie with the colonial
0240J40 powers only because it had some relative importance in the context
0250J40 of their security and national interests. ^So, Nehru did not see any
0260J40 valid reason for a neutral summit. ^Early in 1959, Tito had suggested
0270J40 such a conference and the idea was subsequently appreciated when
0280J40 the Casablanca Powers met in January, 1961. ^In March 1961, President
0290J40 Soekarno took some interest and convinced some nations about the
0300J40 importance of a Bandung type Conference. ^His idea was welcomed by
0310J40 Marshall Chen Yi when he had been in Indonesia in April 1961. ^Even
0320J40 then, Nehru was less enthusiastic because, in his opinion, such a
0330J40 conference would simply manifest disunity rather than unity. ^Later on,
0340J40 Nehru*'s idea was thought to_ be unreasonable when President Nasser
0350J40 and Tito reconsidered the proposal and ultimatly a decision was
0360J40 taken for convening a conference by the nations who basically followed
0370J40 neutralism in foreign relations. $^The Cairo Preparatory meeting
0380J40 under Indian persuasion adopted a flexible approach towards defining
0390J40 neutralism. ^The arguments behind the flexible definition were the
0400J40 following: (1) a broadbased definition would help materially its growth;
0410J40 (2) the vacillating countries would be easily accommodated in the conference;
0420J40 (3) it would accommodate some hard-pressed aligned countries
0430J40 who were the potential force of neutralism; (4) it would give an opportunity
0440J40 to some countries who could not sever their ties with colonial
0450J40 powers, but essentially followed neutralism in foreign relations; (5)
0460J40 it would not stand in the way if some countries would participate
0470J40 in the conference who had to_ keep foreign bases under compulsion;
0480J40 (6) it would accommodate the peculiar conditions which prevailed in
0490J40 some Latin American countries and in some European countries. ^This
0500J40 flexible approach to neutralism was adopted simply to_ accommodate
0510J40 large number of countries> ^*Indian neutralism favoured this flexible
0520J40 approach to_ arrest the forces of alliance. $^Nevertheless, in the context
0530J40 of the Goa liberation issue, criticisms were levelled against
0540J40 Nehruvian concept of neutralism. ^*Nehru*'s previous categorical and
0550J40 unreserved statements against the application of force for the settlement
0560J40 of international disputes invited critics. ^His belated statements
0570J40 cleared up the circumstances in which some amount of force could
0580J40 be justifiably applied; but this did not succeed very well in removing
0590J40 the punch of the criticism that there was a marked disparity between
0600J40 his ideas and actions. $*<*3The Fourth Phase (1962-65)*0*> $^As
0610J40 regards the territorial security, it has primarily four co-efficients
0620J40 \0i.e. diplomatic abilities, geographical position, internal defence-capabilities
0630J40 and external defence-capabilities. ^Among the four coefficients,
0640J40 only the external defence capabilities are mainly connected
0650J40 with the concept of neutralism. ^The external defence-capabilities
0660J40 also have three coefficients \0viz., the participation in the \0UN,
0670J40 the acceptance of arms from the foreign countries without any obligations,
0680J40 and the participation in the military alliance. ^Leaving aside
0690J40 the question of participation in the \0UN among other two coefficients,
0700J40 the former is optional and ensures flexibility and independence:
0710J40 and the latter is obligatory and rigid in nature and limits the periphery
0720J40 of action in the external fields. ^*Nehru had so long emphasized
0730J40 the type of security which had only three coefficients \0viz., diplomatic
0740J40 abilities, geographical position and internal detence-capabilities.
0750J40 ^Prior to the occurrence of the Sino-Indian border dispute, beside
0760J40 participation in the \0UN he put absolutely no importance on the
0770J40 other two coefficients of the external defence-capabilities. ^Obviously,
0780J40 while giving up the idea of participation in the military alliance
0790J40 he also dismissed altogether the policy of accepting arms from
0800J40 the two giants. ^Before the dispute with China, his concept of neutralism
0810J40 had been kept completely aloof from the factors which might
0820J40 ensure attachment towards the two coefficients of the external defence-capabilities.
0830J40 ^With the Chinese massive attack on India, an attachment
0840J40 was made towards one of the two coefficients \0i.e. acceptance
0850J40 of arms from the foreign powers. ^At the altar of reality he had
0860J40 to_ accept this, although it created much apprehension and doubt about
0870J40 the future of neutralism in general. $^The possible opportunities
0880J40 of negotiations failed ultimately and the long-standing tension between
0890J40 India and China over the issue of the Himalayan frontiers ultimately
0900J40 crystalized into conflict on October 20, 1962. ^With the Chinese
0910J40 massive offensive, both in Ladhak and \0NEFA, the Sino-Indian
0920J40 relations passed out of the sphere of negotiated settlement. ^In Ladhak
0930J40 the Chinese advance was limited to the area which China claimed
0940J40 as a part of her territory; but at the eastern end of the Himalayan
0950J40 border the Chinese forces made a 100-mile advance into the \0NEFA
0960J40 which covered the plain lands of Assam. ^Heavy casualties were suffered
0970J40 by both sides during the fighting. $^Under such circumstances, Nehru
0980J40 saw that mere exchanging of notes would not bring any effective
0990J40 result unless some positive measures were adopted to_ counter the
1000J40 attack. ^So long the Chinese troops did not enter into the Indian
1010J40 territory he believed that China might desist from a major attack in
1020J40 anticipation of its repercussion on world public opinion. ^So, he
1030J40 intended to_ avoid any "adventurist action." ^He thought that it would
1040J40 be unwise if extraordinary measures were taken which might discard
1050J40 the character of neutralism. ^But when all the facts of the Chinese
1060J40 menace became crystal clear Nehru told the *5Lok Sabha*6: "For
1070J40 five years we have been victims of Chinese aggression... Occasionally,
1080J40 there were some incidents and conflicts. ^These conflicts might
1090J40 well be termed frontier incidents. ^To-day, we have seen a regular
1100J40 and massive invasion of our territory by very large forces." ^Therefore,
1110J40 he sent appeals to all the nations of the world to_ send arms
1120J40 for meeting the Chinese attack. ^Nearly a dozen nations (the \0US,
1130J40 the \0UK, the \0USSR, Australia, Canada, France, Italy, New
1140J40 Zealand, Rhodesia, West Germany and Yugoslavia) came forward
1150J40 with military assitance, but substantial assistance came from the West.
1160J40 ^He identified the Chinese action with the policies of the imperialist
1170J40 powers of Europe, and this explains the reasons of his less
1180J40 sensitiveness towards military assistance. ^Prior to the Sino-Indian
1190J40 dispute, Nehru had altogether dismissed the idea of having military
1200J40 aid from the United States on the ground of maintaining India*'s
1210J40 sovereignty. ^But this time, he could not but send appeals for
1220J40 military aid to sovereign powers for defending his country*'s independence.
1230J40 ^In order to_ avoid unpleasant implications that_ might arise
1240J40 from receiving arms from some states he sent appeals to all the
1250J40 states of the world without any reservations. ^On the 27th October
1260J40 he intimated this decision of his Government at a party meeting.
1270J40 ^Acceptance of arms once meant loss of independence. ^But now, it meant
1280J40 one of the safeguards for India. ^Furthermore, despite his universal
1290J40 appeal substantial assistance came only from the \0USA, the
1300J40 \0U.K., and Canada. ^To the Soviet Government, the Moscow-Peking
1310J40 relations were of greater importance, and, as such, New Delhi*'s
1320J40 appeal was taken in a formal way. ^Obviously, Nehru had to_ meet
1330J40 the Chinese challenge with the western arms. ^This necessitated
1340J40 increasing collaboration with the western countries which some critics were
1350J40 quick to_ characterize as a pro-Western attitude. ^This demanded
1360J40 some clarification. ^On 5th November 1962, *(0J. K.*) Galbraith,
1370J40 the \0U.S. Ambassador to India, clarifying India*'s position,
1380J40 made a public statement in New Delhi. ^He categorically said that
1390J40 the \0U.S. military aid to India was simply an assistance. ^He
1400J40 clearly endorsed India*'s neutralism and said that the Government
1410J40 of the United States did not want to_ change its former stand. $^However,
1420J40 the Sino-Indian dispute made Nehru a realist. ^The sudden
1430J40 enlargement of India*'s armed forces, and mushrooming of expenditure
1440J40 on weapons soon gave Indian neutralism a pragmatic colour. ^The
1450J40 belated initiative of the few "non-aligned" nations for arresting
1460J40 the conflict and their mere passing of resolutions to that_ effect,
1470J40 created much indignation and doubt about the future of neutralism.
1480J40 ^Really, its impact was so grave and Nehru*'s attitude was so perplexed
1490J40 that Indian neutralism seemed to_ have come to the stage of self-liquidation.
1500J40 ^The inadequacy of Nehru*'s idea became very prominent.
1510J40 $^After Nehru*'s death in May, 1964, Lal Bahadur Sastri could
1520J40 not initiate any attempt for bringing a radical change to Indian
1530J40 neutralism. ^He honestly followed Nehru*'s policy. ^During the Sastri-era,
1540J40 besides East-West *3detente, polycentricism had made considerable
1550J40 progress within each of the two blocs, and it further complicated
1560J40 the nature of international politics. ^Under such circumstances,
1570J40 the Heads of States gathered in Cairo University*'s auditorium
1580J40 could do little progress concerning Sino-Indian dispute and the
1590J40 problems connected with Chinese recent atomic blast. ^Therefore,
1600J40 Sastri emphatically told President Nasser that the Colombo proposals
1610J40 had been the things of the past and could produce no effective
1620J40 result. ^He also argued that despite President Nasser*'s assurance
1630J40 for the consideration of the Sino-Indian problem at the Conference,
1640J40 the matter was somehow avoided by the sponsors. ^However, Prime
1650J40 Minister Sastri declared forcefully that India was in a position
1660J40 to_ make atom bombs within a year or so. ^At the same time, he hastened
1670J40 to_ add that India "did not intend to_ go down this trail." ^This
1680J40 policy of moderation and restraint was something new in India*'s
1690J40 neutralism which was gladly appreciated by all the Heads of the
1700J40 States. $^During the tenth anniversary celebration of the Bandung Conference
1710J40 Soekarno again proposed Afro-Asian solidarity to_ resolve
1720J40 the causes of conflicts and, in his opinion, these were mostly due
1730J40 to national interests rather than benevolent neocolonialism. ^Naturally,
1740J40 the Afro-Asian solidarity was an idea of the past. ^But, it
1750J40 was considered that a bitterly divided meeting would substantiate
1760J40 the forecasts and perhaps frustrate Communist China*'s effort to_
1770J40 build up a wide base in world politics with Afro-Asian support. ^Therefore,
1780J40 India participated in the conference with a view to_ foil
1790J40 all attempts of China and her associates. ^So long she had no design
1800J40 for counteracting any action of communist China which was not directly
1810J40 connected with India*'s interest. ^But during the Sastri-era,
1820J40 much emphasis was given on the "realities" of international politics.
1830J40 ^In short, Indian neutralism was realistically oriented, having
1840J40 lesser emphasis on idealism and morals than before and this brought
1850J40 a distinct change in style. ^*Sastri*'s visit to the \0UK particularly
1860J40 when the Cairo summit Conference failed to_ soften the strenuous
1870J40 Sino-Indian relations, his strong protest about the signing
1880J40 of the China-Pakistani boundary protocol, his visits to Moscow,
1890J40 Canada and Yugoslavia, his prompt response to the soviet Government*'s
1900J40 offer of good wishes towards the ending of the Indo-Pakistani
1910J40 war, his strenuous efforts at Tashkent, were the attempts which made
1920J40 Indian neutralism a realistic and coherent approach to world politics.
1930J40 $*<*3Fifth Phase (1966-70)*> $^In the Cairo Summit of
1940J40 the non-aligned nations, india rather vaguely emphasized the point that
1950J40 a common economic tie should be developed amongst the nations for
1960J40 augmenting their economic programmes. ^While justifying its necessity
1970J40 she could not place any effective plan through which the idea would
1980J40 be put into practice.*#
        **[no. of words = 02015**]

        **[txt. j41**]
0010J41 **<*3NATURE OF CLASS CONFLICT IN THE INDIAN SOCIETY*0**> $^*I have been
0020J41 asked to_ speak on a difficult subject. ^*I accepted the invitation
0030J41 not because I feel equal to the task but because I believe that
0040J41 for a proper appreciation of the several problems that_ the Indian
0050J41 society is presently facing, we must understand the nature of
0060J41 the underlying class confict. ^This sounds very Marxian. ^*I do not
0070J41 at all mind. ^Indeed, I shall feel proud if I am ever recognized
0080J41 as one belonging to that_ great school of social analysis. ^As I see
0090J41 it, is not a single, inviolable, unchanging doctrine but a method
0100J41 of analysing social change, founded on unsparing examination of social
0110J41 facts and merciless pursuit of logical anaylsis. ^As late \0Prof.
0120J41 *(0D. D.*) Kosambi said Marxism is a method of thinking and not
0130J41 a substitute for thought. $^Unfortunately, Marxism has been altogether
0140J41 too often taken as a substitute for thinking. ^*Baran and Sweezy,
0150J41 the renowned American Marxists, rightly complain that "Marxists
0160J41 have too often been content to_ repeat familiar formulations, as
0170J41 though nothing really new had happened since the days of Marx and
0180J41 Engels-- or of Lenin at the latest. ^As a result, Marxists have
0190J41 failed to_ explain important developments, or sometimes even to_
0200J41 recognize their existence." ^This has led to stagnation of Marxian
0210J41 social science with lagging vitality and fruitfulness. $^*I shall
0220J41 approach my subject with the Marxian method because it emphasises
0230J41 the importance of studying the society as a whole, how it works and
0240J41 where it is going. ^But I shall take into account new facts and developments
0250J41 that_ have occurred since Marx wrote and also the particular
0260J41 circumstances of the Indian society and, in the light of these,
0270J41 I shall be willing to_ modify Marx*'s conclusions wherever necessary.
0280J41 $^It will be useful to_ begin by examining Marx*'s concept of
0290J41 Social Class and of Class Struggle. ^In his historical writings,
0300J41 Marx referred to several social classes. ^For instance, in his work
0310J41 *3The Class Struggles in France*0, 1848-1850, Marx distinguished
0320J41 six classes: financial bourgeoisie, industrial bourgeoisie, petty
0330J41 bourgeoisie, peasants, proletariat and Lumpenproletariat. ^In this,
0340J41 Marx was merely adopting the concept of social class which was
0350J41 widely used by historians and social theorists of that_ time. $^But
0360J41 social classes meant much more to Marx. ^As Lenin said, anything
0370J41 which Marx wrote was in some way concerned with the question of class.
0380J41 ^Nevertheless, Marx never defined the basic concept of Social class.
0381J41 ^*Lenin gave the following definition: "^Social classes are large
0390J41 groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy
0400J41 in a historically determined system of social production, by their
0410J41 relation (in most cases fixed and formulated in law) to the means
0420J41 of production, by their role in the social organization of labour,
0430J41 and, consequently, by the dimensions of the share of social wealth
0440J41 of which they dispose and the mode of acquiring it." ^This definition
0450J41 is commonly accepted as an adequate and faithful summary of Marx*'s
0460J41 views in the matter. ^But, it must be mentioned, it is nowhere found
0470J41 in Marx*'s writings. $^It was only towards the end of his prodigious
0480J41 scholarship that, it seems, Marx decided to_ put down a systematic
0490J41 exposition of his concept of social class and his theory of
0500J41 social struggle. ^The evidence is in the last chapter of the Third
0510J41 Volume of *3Capital*0. ^Unfortunately, it remained unfinished and
0520J41 incomplete. ^He wrote barely a page in which he set out mainly the
0530J41 difficulties which he saw confronting his own concept of social class.
0540J41 ^*Marx wrote: $"^We have seen that this continual tendency and law
0550J41 of development of the capitalist mode of production is more and more
0560J41 to_ divorce the means of production
0570J41 from labour, and more and more to_ concentrate
0580J41 the scattered means of production into large groups, thereby transforming
0590J41 labour into wage-labour and the means of production into capital.
0600J41 ^And to this tendency, on the other hand, corresponds the independent
0610J41 separation of landed property from capital and labour, or
0620J41 the transformation of all landed property into the form of landed property
0630J41 corresponding to the capitalist mode of production. ^The owners
0640J41 merely of labour-power, owners of capital, and land-owners, whose
0650J41 respective sources of income are wages, profits, and ground-rent,
0660J41 in other words, wage-labourers, capitalists, and land-owners, constitute
0670J41 then three big classes of modern society based upon the capitalist
0680J41 mode or production." $^Because of this, it is commonly supposed
0690J41 that, for Marx, the social classes are distinguished by the source
0700J41 of their income. ^But, this is precisely what, it seems, Marx wanted
0710J41 to_ refute. ^In the above, Marx continues: $"^The first question
0720J41 to_ be answered is this: '^What' constitutes a class?-- and the
0730J41 reply to this follows naturally from the reply to another question,
0740J41 namely: What makes wage-labourers, capitalists and landlords constitute
0750J41 the three great social classes? $"^At first glance-- the identity
0760J41 of revenues and sources of revenue. ^There are three great social
0770J41 groups whose members, the individuals forming them, live on wages,
0780J41 profit and ground-rent respectively, on the realization of their
0790J41 labour-power, their capital, and their landed property. $^However,
0800J41 from this standpoint, physicians and officials, for instance, would
0810J41 also constitute two classes, for they belong to two distinct social
0820J41 groups, the members of each of these groups receiving their revenue
0830J41 from one and the same source. ^The same would also be true of the infinite
0840J41 fragmentation of interest and rank into which the division of
0850J41 social labour splits labourers as well as capitalists and landlords--
0860J41 the latter, for instance, into owners of vineyards, farm owners,
0870J41 owners of forests, mine owners and owners of fisheries." $^There Marx
0880J41 laid his pen aside for the last time and even the preliminary question
0890J41 he raised: "What constitutes a social class" remained unanswered.
0900J41 $^We must therefore make do with what we can lay our hands on.
0910J41 ^*I suggest that we should turn to the *3Manifesto*0 of the *3Communist
0920J41 Party*0. ^It was published in 1848 and thus is one of the early
0930J41 writings of Marx. ^It is jointly authored by Marx and Angels. ^But,
0940J41 in the Preface to the English edition, Engels makes it clear that
0950J41 the fundamental proposition which forms its nucleus belongs to Marx.
0960J41 ^The *3Manifesto*0 is a little booklet of less than 50 pages and
0970J41 offers a concise and cogent statement, not so much of a theory but,
0980J41 of Marx*'s vision of the development and future of the capitalist
0990J41 society which remained the basis for all his later theoretical work.
1000J41 ^Whatever your personal conviction or persuasion in the matter, you
1010J41 will not fail to_ be impressed by the grandeur and prophetic quality
1020J41 of his vision, particularly when you note that it was written in
1030J41 1848 which is more than 125 years ago. ^To_ make my points, I may
1040J41 have to_ quote from it rather extensively. ^It will also give you
1050J41 a sample of the flavour, flair and power of Marx*'s writings. $^The
1060J41 Manifesto opens with that_ historic statement: "^The history of
1070J41 all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" and
1080J41 proceeds thus: "^In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost
1090J41 everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders,
1100J41 a manifold gradation of social rank... ^The modern bourgeois society
1110J41 that_ has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society, has not done
1120J41 away with class antagonisms. ^It has but established new classes,
1130J41 new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the
1140J41 old ones... ^Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however,
1150J41 this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms.
1160J41 ^Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great
1170J41 hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other--
1180J41 bourgeoisie and proletariat." $^*Marx did not define these two
1190J41 social classes. ^But, Engels in a footnote in the English edition,
1200J41 gives the following definitions: $"^By bourgeoisie is meant the class
1210J41 of modern capitalists, owners of the means of production and employers
1220J41 of wage-labour. ^By proletariat, the class of modern wage-labourers
1230J41 who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced
1240J41 to selling their labour power in order to_ live." $^Let me first take
1250J41 the bourgeoisie. ^What distinguishes this class? ^Of course, the
1260J41 fact that they are owners of the means of production and employers
1270J41 of wage-labour. ^How did the class emerge? ^*Marx explains: "...the
1280J41 modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development,
1290J41 or a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of
1300J41 exchange... the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation
1310J41 the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society.
1320J41 ^At a certain stage of development of these means of production
1330J41 and of exchange, the conditions under which the feudal society produced
1340J41 and exchanged, the feudal organization of agriculture and manufacturing
1350J41 industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property
1360J41 became no longer compatible with the already developed productive
1370J41 forces; they became so many fetters... ^Into their place stepped
1380J41 free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution
1390J41 adapted to it, and by the economical and political sway of the bourgeoisie
1400J41 class." $^Thus what distinguishes bourgeoisie epoch from feudal
1410J41 epoch is *3free competition*0 in place of feudal relations. ^Again
1420J41 it is worth quoting Marx: "^The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got
1430J41 the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic
1440J41 relations. ^It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that_
1450J41 bound man to his 'natural superiors', and has left no other nexus
1460J41 between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous 'cash
1470J41 payment'. ^It has drowned the most heavenly ecstasies of religious
1480J41 fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in
1490J41 the icy water of egotistical calculation. ^It has resolved personal
1500J41 worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless indefeasible
1510J41 chartered freedoms, has set up that_ single, unconscionable freedom--
1520J41 Free Trade. ^In one word, for exploitation veiled by religious
1530J41 and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct,
1540J41 brutal exploitation." $^But mistake not. ^In two pages, Marx pays
1550J41 the most glowing tribute to what the bourgeoisie, by means of free
1560J41 competition and free trade, has achieved. ^*I shall quote only a brief
1570J41 passage. ^*Marx says: $"^The bourgeoisie, historically, has playeed
1580J41 a most revolutionary part... ^It has been the first to_ show what
1590J41 man*'s activity can bring about... ^The bourgeoisie, during its
1600J41 rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more
1610J41 colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together.
1620J41 ^Subjection of nature*'s forces to man, machinery, application
1630J41 of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways,
1640J41 electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation,
1650J41 canalisation of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground--
1660J41 what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive
1670J41 forces slumbered in the lap of social labour?" $^What was then wrong?
1680J41 ^Nothing except that_ Marx believed that this could not go on for
1690J41 long. ^The reasons? ^*Marx says: "Modern bourgeois, society with
1700J41 its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society
1710J41 that_ has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange,
1720J41 is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to_ control the powers
1730J41 of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. ^For
1740J41 many a decade past, the history of industry and commerce is but the
1750J41 history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions
1760J41 of production, against the property relations that_ are the
1770J41 conditions for the existence of the bourgeoisie and of its rule. ^It
1780J41 is enough to_ mention the commercial crises that_ by their periodical
1790J41 return put the existence of the entire bourgeois society on its
1800J41 trial, each time more threateningly. ^In these crises, a great part
1810J41 not only of the existing products, but also of the previously created
1820J41 productive forces, are periodically destroyed... ^The conditions
1830J41 of bourgeois society are too narrow to_ comprise the wealth created
1840J41 by them... ^The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism
1850J41 to the ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself."
1860J41 *3^*Marx meant the weapons of free competition and free trade*0.
1870J41 $^In point of fact, the bourgeois capitalist society has survived many
1880J41 a crisis since Marx wrote.*#
        **[no. of words = 02003**]

        **[txt. j42**]
0010J42 **<*=2**> $**<"*3HEADS I WIN TAILS YOU LOSE"*0"**> $^The first contract
0020J42 for the construction of railway line by the East Indian Railway
0030J42 Company was made in 1849. ^This line was to_ be only experimental
0040J42 and connect Calcutta with Rajamahal which was 100 miles away on
0050J42 the way to Mirzapur at an estimated cost of *+ 1,000,000. ^A similar
0060J42 contract was entered into with the Great Indian Peninsula Railway
0070J42 Company for a line from Bombay to Kalyan at an estimated cost
0080J42 of *+ 500,000. ^But an explicit railway policy as such did not emerge
0090J42 till Dalhousie prepared his celebrated Minute dated 20th April
0100J42 1853. ^*Dalhousie was convinced that state construction of railways
0110J42 would bring the desired results but he was in principle against it.
0120J42 ^The officially declared reasons against State enterprise were many.
0130J42 ^If the stated causes were to_ be really believed, Dalhousie viewed
0140J42 the dependence of Indians on Government as one of the great drawbacks
0150J42 to the advance of the country. ^*India would benefit by the introduction
0160J42 of English energy and English capital for railway purposes.
0170J42 ^Besides, the withdrawal of a large number of officers from other duties
0180J42 would be detrimental to the public interest. ^Above all, the conduct
0190J42 of commercial undertakings did not fall within the framework
0200J42 of governmental functions. ^Hence, he preferred to_ entrust the work
0210J42 to the private companies. ^We shall comment upon these objections later.
0220J42 $*<*3The terms of contract*0*> $^*Dalhousie*'s proposals were
0230J42 accepted and contracts were drawn accordingly between the railway companies,
0240J42 the East India Company and the Secretary of State of India.
0250J42 ^Under these contracts the state agreed to_ provide land free
0260J42 of cost and a guaranteed interest on the capital *3right from the
0270J42 day of deposit*0 of money and not from the date of opening of lines!
0280J42 ^The guaranteed rate varied from 4 1/2 per cent to 5 per cent. ^The
0290J42 rate of exchange for remittance of interest charges was reckoned at
0300J42 22 \0d: to the rupee. ^Half of any surplus earned was to_ be used
0310J42 towards repaying to the government the guaranteed interest received.
0320J42 ^The contracts were tenable for 99 years, at the end of which, a fair
0330J42 value of the rolling stock, machinery and plant should be paid to
0340J42 them. ^Government however, retained the option to_ purchase the lines
0350J42 after 25 or 50 years. ^Further, it had the final say on routes,
0360J42 gauge, construction and gradients. $*<'*3Semi-public' or 'Semi-private'
0370J42 enterprises*0*> $^Much has already been stated by scholars about
0380J42 the evils of the Guarantee System. ^That the Railway Companies
0390J42 could not earn 5 per cent return on the capital invested and hence
0400J42 the Government of India had to_ pay considerable amounts of money
0410J42 from its revenues and thus the losses of the so-called private enterprise
0420J42 were borne by the State to the tune of *+ 56.71 millions (see
0430J42 Appendix 1), that the fixed rate of exchange made a considerable
0440J42 drain on Indian exchequer, that capital expenditure was artificially
0450J42 inflated, that a guaranteed interest resulted in poor management and
0460J42 reckless expenditure, \0etc., are all familiar allegations made on
0470J42 the system which hardly need to_ be elaborated. ^Stated briefly, the
0480J42 terms of the first contracts totally altered the functioning of the
0490J42 largest private enterprise of modern India. ^They were so framed to_ favour
0500J42 the English investors that a hundred years later \0Prof. Daniel
0510J42 Thorner was provoked to_ call them '*3semi-public*0' or '*3semi-private*0'
0520J42 enterprises. ^With a single stroke of pen 'risk and uncertainty'
0530J42 the basic traits of private enterprise were removed. ^Irrespective
0540J42 of the performance of the lines, the investors were assured of 5
0550J42 per cent rate of interest on their capital. ^In other words, the Indian
0560J42 subjects through taxation were compelled to_ pay this guaranteed
0570J42 interest to the British companies, whose operations would primarily
0580J42 result in providing raw materials to the British industries and enable
0590J42 them to_ tap the market for their manufactures in India. $*<*3The
0600J42 questions*0*> $^Why did the East India Company agree to
0610J42 such contracts? ^Did they fail to_ properly visualise their implications?
0620J42 ^Or, did they find it unavoidable in the given circumstances?
0630J42 ^Was the East India Company aware of an alternative policy by adopting
0640J42 which it could have avoided the evils of the Guarantee System?
0650J42 ^These are some of the pertinent questions that_ bother any student
0660J42 of Indian economic history. $*<*3British capital and enterprise
0670J42 to_ be welcomed*0*> $^The East India Company was not unaware of the
0680J42 implications of these Railway contracts. ^Conscientious servants
0690J42 of the Company had themselves protested against the provisions of
0700J42 these contracts. ^For instance \0Col. Pears of the Madras Engineers
0710J42 deplored them as early as in 1851. ^He warned: $"^The risk of ultimate
0720J42 failure falls on the country; while on the other hand should it prove
0730J42 successful, a tax amounting to 5 to 6 per cent on the capital invested
0740J42 will be levied in favour of shareholders in the shape of tolls,
0750J42 beyond that_ which is required to_ meet the ordinary interest of capital."
0760J42 $\0^*Col. Pears also feared that the exercise of government supervision
0770J42 and control would become almost inoperative. ^After carrying
0780J42 out a thorough investigation into the different projects of Madras
0790J42 Presidency, he advocated a system of railways with purely government
0800J42 ownership and construction. ^The Madras government had endorsed
0810J42 \0Col. Pears*' proposals in toto. ^But the Board of Control in England,
0820J42 thoroughly disapproved the scheme. ^The grounds of their objection
0830J42 might throw some light on the factors influencing the decision-making
0840J42 process in a colonial framework. ^The Board observed: $"^It must
0850J42 be an object of very high importance *3to_ attract investment of
0860J42 British capital, skill and enterprise to undertakings for the improvement
0870J42 of our empire*0." (emphasis added) $^Thus what was more important
0880J42 to the Board of Control was not the safeguard of Indian interests,
0890J42 but a convenient provision for the application of British capital
0900J42 and skill in the Indian sub-continent. ^When the interests of the Indian
0910J42 economy and those of the British investors did not coincide, the
0920J42 Board of Control went out of their way to_ subjugate the former to
0930J42 the latter. $\0^*Mr. Juland Danvers testifying before the Select
0940J42 Committee on East India (Railways) observed: $"...(^I)t became
0950J42 a question whether the government itself should not construct the railroad
0960J42 without the intervention of private Companies; *3so strong, however,
0970J42 was the desire to_ introduce British capital and enterprise
0980J42 into India that it was decided to_ employ the agencies*0" (emphasis
0990J42 added). $*<*3Were the 'incentives' warranted?*0*> $\0^*Prof. *(0M. D.*)
1000J42 Morris sidetracks the whole issue when he searches for alternative
1010J42 possibilities of *3entirely indigenous financing*0 of railways in India.
1020J42 ^The real issue is whether the so-called "incentives" provided to the
1030J42 British Companies under the terms of the Railway Contracts were
1040J42 really warranted by the situation. ^In other words, would the railway
1050J42 ventures have failed to_ attract British capital without a guaranteed
1060J42 interest? '^The Admirers' school would have us believe so. ^But
1070J42 evidence from the contemporary people connected with the railroad construction
1080J42 leads to a different conclusion. ^For instance David Innes
1090J42 Noad, Secretary of the East Indian Railway Company was asked
1100J42 by the Select Committee (1858) to_ say if there was any particular
1110J42 pressure exerted upon the Board of Control to_ expedite the railway
1120J42 contracts. \0^*Mr. Noad conceded, $"A very important deputation
1130J42 from Manchester waited upon the Board of Control and pressed the
1140J42 subject very closely upon his attention; and *3I have no doubt that
1150J42 the terms which were accorded were the result, in a great measure
1160J42 of that_ deputation*0" (emphasis added). $*<*3Unguaranteed capital
1170J42 would have flowed in*0*> $^Thus the unfavourable terms of the railway
1180J42 contracts-- unfavourable to India-- were agreed upon more as a result
1190J42 of pressure from the Manchester interests than the compulsions of
1200J42 the times. ^Does it mean that unguaranteed capital would have flowed
1210J42 into India for the railway ventures? ^Again, evidence from contemporary
1220J42 people suggests so. $^*Thornton an important witness before a Parliamentary
1230J42 Committee of 1871 observed: $"I do believe that unguaranteed
1240J42 capital would have gone into India for the construction of railways
1250J42 had it not been for the guarantee. ^Considering how this country
1260J42 is always growing in wealth, and that an immense amount of capital in
1270J42 seeking investment which it cannot find in England and goes to South
1280J42 America and other countries, I cannot conceive that it would persistently
1290J42 have neglected India." $^Another related question is whether
1300J42 East India Company themselves could have borrowed money on more
1310J42 advantageous terms. ^Even John Strachey who was not a Critic of the
1320J42 British *4Raj had to_ admit that the East India Company had an
1330J42 alternative before them. ^He stated: $"There is no evidence that
1340J42 they could not (have borrowed)... *3they thought it was better they
1350J42 should not*0... ^The probability is, in fact, it is almost a certainty,
1360J42 that *3they could have borrowed the money on better terms than the
1370J42 (railway) company*0" (emphasis added). $*<*3Two alternatives before
1380J42 the East India Company*0*> $^Thus the East India Company had
1390J42 two alternatives before them. ^First, they could have stood their ground
1400J42 for some more time in the bargain, which would have impressed upon
1410J42 the railway-promoters about the Company*'s strong stand protecting
1420J42 the interests of the Indian economy. ^Obviously, the Company dare
1430J42 not take this stand for the Cotton or Railway lobby was very powerful
1440J42 and vociferous in the British Parliament. ^Second, at least
1450J42 the Company could have ushered in State railways in places where
1460J42 leases were not given to the railway companies. ^This would have at
1470J42 least minimised the outflow of dividends from India. ^Did the East
1480J42 India Company lack the organizational experience for such a course?
1490J42 ^*Lord Dalhousie would have us believe so. ^But by the middle
1500J42 of the 19th century Britain herself gained a rich experience in railway
1510J42 construction at home, for over a quarter century. ^Hence managerial
1520J42 skills and technology could have been borrowed from Britain,
1530J42 at least by the post-1857 Government under the Crown. ^As a matter
1540J42 of fact, the East India Company themselves were not strangers to
1550J42 public works programme in their territories. ^For instance, the construction
1560J42 of huge *4anicuts (dams) across the rivers Godavari and Krishna
1570J42 in the Northern part of the Madras Presidency (present-day Coastal
1580J42 Andhra) between 1846 and 1855 involved considerable skills in organizing
1590J42 men and materials. ^*North India witnessed major irrigational
1600J42 works prior to 1859. ^Upper Bari Doab Canal in the Punjab, the magnificent
1610J42 Ganges Canal, the two Jamuna Canals-- Eastern and Western--
1620J42 were all constructed by the East India Company. ^Was it then financial
1630J42 prudency that_ deterred the Company and the latter government
1640J42 under the Crown from assuming direct responsibility of railways and putting
1650J42 an end to the scandalous railway contracts that_ made even the
1660J42 ardent champions of British imperialism ashamed of? ^Finance was no problem
1670J42 for the governments in raising huge armies especially after the
1680J42 1857-Upheaval. ^The supposed '*4Ma-Bap' government went all out
1690J42 to_ strengthen its military apparatus to_ ensure the security of the
1700J42 Empire and consequently advance the 'welfare' of Indians. $^As Jenks
1710J42 pointed out vividly, $"In the early sixties a military establishment
1720J42 was developed (in India) which cost more than the entire army of
1730J42 the British empire outside of India. ^And this despite the fact that
1740J42 the introduction of railways was expected to_ enable one regiment
1750J42 to the work of ten." $^Thus, faced with a situation of excess British
1760J42 capital seeking outlets abroad, unable to_ resist the political pressures
1770J42 from Cotton-lobby in the Parliament for the speedy construction
1780J42 of railways in India and hesitant to_ shoulder the job of state
1790J42 construction, the East India Company developed cold feet and surrendered
1800J42 the Indian situation at the altar of British interests.
1810J42 ^The latter government under the Crown remained a mute spectator for
1820J42 a decade from 1858 onwards before being compelled by its troubled conscience
1830J42 to_ interfere and check the blatantly unjust method of fattening
1840J42 the British investors at the expense of the voiceless Sub-continent.
1850J42 $**<*=3**> $**<*3LOP-SIDED INVESTMENT PATTERN*0**> $*<*3Railways
1860J42 expand under three systems of managements*0*> $^Railway expansion
1870J42 was carried out solely under the old Guaranteed Railway system till
1880J42 the year 1868. ^The defects of the Guranteed System soon manifested
1890J42 themselves. ^The East India Company and later the Crown had thoroughly
1900J42 failed to_ check the tendency of the railway companies to_
1910J42 indulge in extravagance.*#
        **[no. of words = 02007**]

        **[txt. j43**]
0010J43 **<*3ORGANISATION AND ORGANIZING ABILITY: THE ACHELES **[SIC**] HEEL OF
0020J43 INDIAN DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING*0**> $^The *3Economic Survey*0,
0030J43 1976-77, of the Janata Government observed that an orientation towards
0040J43 employment generation "of investment, however, needs a tremendous
0050J43 amount of organization... ^It is to_ be emphasised, however, that
0060J43 organizing ability is an extremely scarce commodity in a developing
0070J43 economy. ^Nevertheless, if sympathetic approaches are made to the problem
0080J43 it should not be difficult to_ combine productivity, employment
0090J43 and efficiency." ^The recognition of this serious lacuna in India*'s
0100J43 ability to_ progress was not new nor was the immediately following
0110J43 inane dismissal of it by pronouncing it as curable by a mere "sympathetic
0120J43 approach". ^The problem has constantly made itself felt in the
0130J43 past because it is too all pervading to_ be completely ignored but
0140J43 there has been a continuous refusal to_ face it squarely or to_ understand
0150J43 it thoroughly in order to_ handle it successfully. ^The way
0160J43 the Janata Government*'s official document handles it, as noted
0180J43 above, makes it obvious that it is not likely to_ get out of the groove
0190J43 that_ has been worn by its predecessors. ^However one may give
0200J43 them the benefit of doubt and entertain the hope that they may be still
0210J43 educable in this regard. ^Basing myself on such a hope I intend to_
0220J43 discuss here why India suffers from the lack of organization and
0230J43 organizing ability and whether this lack is remediable? ^It is necessary
0240J43 to_ do this because it is generally not appreciated that the causes
0250J43 of this malaise are socially and culturally deeprooted in the Indian
0260J43 society and that it is not remediable by superficial measure or measures
0270J43 that_ are usually thought of in that_ regard. ^The need is first
0280J43 to_ understand the problem and then, in the light of that_ understanding,
0290J43 to_ think of the remedies. $^We must begin by discussing
0300J43 organization and organizing ability, theoretically and empirically,
0310J43 to_ be able to_ give structure to our thoughts so that we may be able
0320J43 to_ examine the problem in relation to the Indian society. ^Theoretically
0330J43 organization is an inherent character of the universe and all
0340J43 its constituents and as such is a universal characteristic. **[sic**] ^We
0350J43 are, however, concerned here with organization as a human category, a
0360J43 human structure. ^As a human structure an organization is the co-ordinated
0370J43 activities or forces of two or more persons which have an objective,
0380J43 a way of achieving it and the arrangement by which the activities
0390J43 of persons in them are co-ordinated to that_ end by authority, delegation,
0400J43 \0etc. ^Formally, an organization is a structure divided into
0410J43 parts and sub-parts which are related to one another. ^These structures
0420J43 can be of different kinds such as agglutinative, adjunctive, participative
0430J43 \0etc. according to the degree of integrality of the parts
0440J43 and the whole. ^From the dynamic point of view, "every actual organization
0450J43 is in constant change or motion of two sorts. ^The environment
0460J43 changes the organization and the organization changes the environment.
0470J43 ^There is an action and a reaction effective in every instance
0480J43 of change. ^The kinds of this interaction can be analysed in terms of
0490J43 the dynamic sequence of stimulus-response-effect as it operates in
0500J43 the relations between organization and environment". ^While the stimulus
0510J43 from the environment are **[sic**] negligible, effective or destructive,
0520J43 "the nature of the response of organization is dependent
0530J43 upon the character of organization itself". ^The response of the organization
0540J43 from an effective stimulus in the environment is either tenacious,
0550J43 elastic or self-determinative. ^A tenacious response is one which
0560J43 is marked in the organization by a tendency to_ preserve its original
0570J43 available environment, and thus by fending off external intrusions
0580J43 and resists any change whatsoever.... ^An elastic response is one
0590J43 which is marked in the organization by a tendency to_ give and take
0600J43 with its original available environment, and thus by working with external
0610J43 instrusions, it resists change..... ^A self-determinative response
0620J43 is one which is marked in the organization by a tendency to_
0630J43 change with its available environment and yet to_ remain itself by
0640J43 taking elements from the available environment and transforming them
0650J43 to_ suit itself". ^The effect on environment of the response of the
0660J43 organization is either conservative or extensive. ^A tenacious response
0670J43 produces a conservative effect on the environment; that_ is to_
0680J43 say it affects it as little as possible and makes no alteration in
0690J43 its conditions. ^An elastic response produces an adjustive effect.
0700J43 ^It affects it somewhat and makes some alteration in its conditions.
0710J43 ^A self-determinative response produces an extensive effect. ^It affects
0720J43 it considerably and makes large alterations in its conditions.
0730J43 $^The formal framework of organization as that_ of a goal-seeking
0740J43 human structure is the structural expression of rational action. ^In
075OJ43 a way it reflects the feedom of ideal or technical choice. ^The performance
0760J43 of an organization, however, is almost never completely in consonance
0770J43 with that_ expected from the formal structure for the human
0780J43 factor that_ is its other side as a human structure does not perform
0790J43 as effectively as the formal rational structure envisages. ^The formal
0800J43 aspect of organizations expect or define for the persons constituting
0810J43 it their formal roles within that_ organizational system. ^For
0820J43 example, a bureaucracy formally requires its members to_ perform their
0830J43 allotted tasks purely as public servants, forgetting their own personal
0840J43 likes and dislikes, friends and foes, advantages and disadvantages.
0850J43 ^But human beings as individuals act as *3wholes*0 and not as split
0860J43 personalities, not as civil servants for a number of hours during
0870J43 the day and as ordinary human beings during the remaining hours. ^Naturally
0880J43 the performance of an organization formally envisaged becomes
0890J43 qualified by the limitation of the human beings manning it. $^Secondly,
0900J43 even the formal structures are never totally rational and there
0910J43 are loopholes and gaps in the formal structure. ^The requirement
0920J43 of human beings running the organizations for acting as *3wholes*0
0930J43 rather than purely as "organization men", and the imperfectly rational
0940J43 formal structures of organizations increase the non-rational elements
0950J43 in their working. ^This is often represented by the informal structures
0960J43 that_ develop within the formal structures. ^Organizations, as
0970J43 they develop and function, are never able to_ succeed in conquering the
0980J43 non-rational dimensions of its organizational behaviour. ^This is the
0990J43 gap between promise and performance and it arises from formal organizations
1000J43 as co-operative systems on the one hand and individual personalities
1010J43 manning them on the other. ^This leads to the creation of deviations
1020J43 from the formal system leading to the setting up of informal systems,
1030J43 unwritten laws, \0etc. ^In large organizations such deviations tend
1040J43 to_ be institutionalized removing it from the realm of personality
1050J43 differences and becoming permanent structural aspects of formal organizations.
1060J43 ^The cycle of deviation and transformation then can begin
1070J43 again at the new level. ^In the process there is a modification of formal
1080J43 goals of the organization. (Selznick.) $^Before we go on to_ analyse
1090J43 society as an organization we must note the difference between
1100J43 institutions and organizations and the relation between the two because
1110J43 they play such an important role in social dynamics. ^Both institutions
1120J43 and organizations are very similar entities which are characterised
1130J43 by goal seeking co-ordinated activities, a way of achieving
1140J43 the goals and an arrangement of the co-ordination. ^Both of them represent
1150J43 stable and recurring patterns of behaviour. ^But institutions
1160J43 have one more dimension than organizations. ^That_ dimension is that
1170J43 the pattern of behaviour of an institution is valued, that_ of an organization
1180J43 is not. ^This is a fact of crucial importance in social transformation.
1190J43 ^Institution-building is a process of establishing and transforming
1200J43 an organization into an integrated and organic part of the community
1210J43 in a way that_ will help the organization to_ play an active role
1220J43 in projecting new values and becoming an agent of change in the
1230J43 community. ^Changing value systems play a critical role in the continuous
1240J43 interaction between an organization and society. $^A society is
1250J43 an organization for its functioning and continuation and is made up
1260J43 of several innumerable sub-organizations that_ are interrelated. ^Such
1270J43 sub-organizations may be broadly classified, for convenience as
1280J43 social, economic, political, educational, \0etc. and each of these again
1290J43 are a set of sub-sub-organizations that_ are interrelated. ^This
1300J43 interrelated totality of interrelated sub and sub-sub-organizations
1310J43 functions severally and totally as a social organization or society.
1320J43 ^The performance of the whole human structure depends upon the successful
1330J43 functioning of each of the sub-organizations. ^Not only is their
1340J43 individual performance important but the place of each of them in
1350J43 the interrelated structure is also of crucial importance. ^The performance
1360J43 of the whole is something more than the summation of the performances
1370J43 of each of the sub-organizations, a point emphasized by the new
1380J43 discipline of systems analysis. $^The performance of a society as an
1390J43 organization depends upon the relationship between its cultural ethos and
1400J43 the organizations and institutions that_ constitute it. ^It is articulated
1410J43 through the general ethos of the culture and the modal personality
1420J43 type that_ is produced and nurtured by the culture to_ perpetuate
1430J43 and transmit it from generation to generation. ^The distinction between
1440J43 the culture and the personality type is notional because they are inextricably
1450J43 bound together. ^In separating them for analytical convenience
1460J43 we are really considering personality in culture and culture in personality.
1470J43 ^But more of this at a later stage of the argument. $^This
1480J43 relationship between the cultural ethos of a society and the functioning
1490J43 of its institutions and organizations is intimately related to
1500J43 the social dynamics of that_ society and is the very heart of change
1510J43 in *3it*0. ^There also lies the core of what is described usually
1520J43 as modernization. ^This is well illustrated by the history of the development
1530J43 of Western societies from the Protestant Reformation to
1540J43 modern times. ^The enunciation of the Weberian thesis regarding
1550J43 Protestant ethic and the rise of capitalism in West Europe and its
1560J43 subsequent criticism and modification are very enlightening in this
1570J43 connexion. ^The social transformation in West European countries
1580J43 was not due to any direct causal links between Protestantism and capitalism
1590J43 but was brought about by the transformative capacities of the
1600J43 Protestant Reformation in regard to the values and work ethics of
1610J43 that_ society and their crystallization by institution-building. ^The
1620J43 most important transformation in regard to values and work ethics was
1630J43 the orientation to "this worldliness" or secularism. ^In regard
1640J43 to institutions not only did it change the central institutions
1650J43 and symbols of society but also developed new types of roles, role
1660J43 structures and role sets and the motivations to_ undertake and perform
1670J43 these roles. ^This latter was in three directions "first, in theuous
1680J43 working; and last, in the development of new types of new types
1690J43 definition of specific new roles with new type of goals, defined in
1700J43 autonomous terms and not tied to existing frameworks; second, in the development
1710J43 of broader institutional, organizational and legal normative settings
1720J43 which could both legitimize such new roles and provide them with
1730J43 the necessary resources and frameworks to_ facilitate their continuous
1731J43 working; and last in the development of new types
1740J43 of motivation, of motivations for the understanding of such roles and
1750J43 for identifying them." ^These did not develop only in the economic
1760J43 sphere but in a much greater variety of institutional spheres. "^They
1770J43 could indeed develop in the political sphere proper, giving rise
1780J43 to new types of active political participation and organizations in
1790J43 the form of parties, community organizations and public service. ^They
1800J43 could also develop in the cultural and especially in the scientific
1810J43 and educational sphere. ^In the economic sphere proper they could
1820J43 develop in other ways distinct from capitalist mercantile or industrial
1830J43 entrepreneurship proper as for instance, in the transformation
1840J43 of the economic activities of the gentry". $^In the light of considerations
1850J43 set down upto now we can now proceed to_ analyse Indian society,
1860J43 its performance as an organization and the dynamics of social
1870J43 change in it. ^In examining the operational performance of the Indian
1880J43 society we must undertake a two-pronged inquiry; one going into
1890J43 the organizations and their interrelations constituting the Indian
1900J43 social organization as a whole and the other into the cultural ethos
1910J43 and the personality structure common to Indian people. ^We shall
1920J43 do it in that_ order.*#
        **[no. of words = 02001**]

        **[txt. j44**]
0010J44 **<*3ECONOMICS OF DEVELOPMENT*0**> $*<*3Social Over-Heads and Econ0mic
0020J44 Development*0*> $^Attempts to_ economically develop our country,
0030J44 in the planning so far, were based on two fundamental theorems.
0040J44 ^Firstly, take-off in the economy caused by availability of economic
0050J44 infrastructure, will bring accelerated growth rate and, secondly,
0060J44 consequent increased production, will automatically trickle down to
0070J44 the poor and poverty will be removed. ^A number of basic heavy capital
0080J44 intensive industries, of too long gestation periods, related with
0090J44 the economic infrastructure, were started in the past. ^They forced
0100J44 us to_ bear the burden of persistent inflation and we had to_ wait
0110J44 for long to_ fully utilise their capacities. ^In the recent past though,
0120J44 it may be said that, we have completed the economic infrastructure
0130J44 up to a reasonable extent, we are yet to_ bring a considerable
0140J44 reduction in poverty. ^The present paper proposes to_ establish,
0150J44 that the reason for such a state of affair is the non-availability of
0160J44 social overheads in our economy, and discuss the ways in which social
0170J44 overheads can help accelerate economic development. $^By economic overheads
0180J44 or economic infrastructure, we mean such facilities, like transport
0190J44 and power \0etc., which any entrepreneur can utilise for his
0200J44 production interests at minimal costs. ^Similarly by social overheads
0210J44 we mean such facilities, like **[sic**] education, medical care
0220J44 \0etc., which a common man can purchase at minimal prices for his economic
0230J44 and social betterment. ^Social overheads, like economic overheads,
0240J44 possess long durability. ^More clearly, any particular item of social
0250J44 overheads can serve a number of individuals. ^For example, the same
0260J44 hospital bed will be used by a number of individuals over a long period.
0270J44 ^In case of social overheads gestation periods are not too long,
0280J44 investments, though have a lumpy nature, **[sic**] are not too heavy
0290J44 and chances of direct returns are fairer and hence, unlike economic
0300J44 overheads, social overheads can be made available by private sector
0310J44 also. $^In our case, a clear bias towards growth aspect of economic
0320J44 development is noticeable during planning period so far. ^The fundamental
0330J44 thinking can best be expressed in the words of \0*4Pt Nehru "^Production
0340J44 comes first and I am prepared to_ say that everything we should
0350J44 do be judged from the point of view of production". ^Table-2 shows
0360J44 the percentage distribution of public sector outlays. ^The first four
0370J44 heads of development are directly related with economic growth and
0380J44 economic overheads and, except first plan, they have consumed more
0390J44 than 80 per cent of the total outlays of plans. ^The share of social
0400J44 services and miscellaneous, which may be said to_ be related with social
0410J44 overheads, was below 20 per cent in general. ^In three annual plans
0420J44 it was as low as 14.73 per cent and it was nearly 17 per cent in third
0430J44 and fifth plan (revised). ^Second and fourth heads of development,
0440J44 which are related with economic overheads, have got too large share
0450J44 during different plans. ^As a result of this bias for growth aspect,
0460J44 we could achieve not too poor results, so far as quantitative growth
0470J44 of economy is concerned. ^Except the poor performance of agriculture in
0480J44 third plan, due mainly to acute droughts in that_ period, rest all
0490J44 figures show a satisfactory performance. ^Particularly in the industrial
0500J44 sector our performance was note-worthy. ^Agriculture too showed considerable
0510J44 improvement during annual plans which balanced its poor performance
0520J44 in third plan upto extent. ^We have continuous progress in industrial
0530J44 sector due to which we are among top ten industrialised countries
0540J44 of world. ^However uncertainty prevails on agriculture sector and
0550J44 we have failed to_ maintain our remarkable performances of certain
0560J44 years like 73-74, 75-76 and 77-78. ^So far as \0GNP and \0NNP
0570J44 are concerned, advancement is quite satisfactory, considering violent
0580J44 movements in the agriculture sector. ^On the average India made nearly
0590J44 4% increase in \0N.N.P. which compares favourably with 4.3% in
0600J44 *(0U S A*) (1878-1909), 3.8% in Canada (1870-1910), 4.6% in Japan
0610J44 (1878-1907), 3.8% in Germany (1860-1899) and 2.6% in \0U.K. (1860-1899).
0620J44 ^No doubt that increase in percapita income shows a flattening
0630J44 curve giving an average of about 1.5% increase, but then in India
0640J44 the average growth rate of population was 2.5% as compared to
0650J44 1 per cent in advanced countries in those years. ^But even after such achievements
0660J44 regarding growth of the economy, we are still facing acute problem
0670J44 of poverty. ^A number of studies, with difference in the concept
0680J44 of poverty, were conducted for quantitative assessment of the
0690J44 number of people living below poverty line. ^Estimated numbers are
0700J44 given as 52 millions Urban and 86 millions rural (67-68) Dandekar
0710J44 and Rath, 289 millions (67-68) \0R.B.I., 190 millions (67-68) *(0P.D.*)
0720J44 Ojha, 366 millions (73-74) *(0B S*) Minhas, 220 millions (73-74)
0730J44 Fifth Plan approach. ^By any measurement these figures draw
0740J44 our attention to the existing problem. $^A vicious circle of poverty
0750J44 may be given as-- poverty is due to cultural and environmental obstacles
0760J44 which lead to poor health and inadequate education and low mobility--
0770J44 which in turn cause limited earning opportunities and limited
0780J44 income is main cause of poverty. **[sic**] ^Key points of this circle are
0790J44 poor health, inadequate education facilities \0etc., which are related
0800J44 with non-availability of social overheads. ^If this vicious circle is
0810J44 to_ be broken and result of the growth in any economy is to_ reach
0820J44 to its lower classes, social overheads should be built up. ^The benefits
0830J44 of economic development must accrue more and more to the relatively
0840J44 less privileged classes of society, and there should be a progressive
0850J44 reduction of the concentration of incomes, wealth and economic power.
0860J44 ^The problem is to_ create a milieu in which the small man, who has
0870J44 so far had little opportunity of perceiving and participating in the
0880J44 immense possibilities of growth organised effort, is enabled to_ put
0890J44 in his best in the interests of a higher standard of life for himself
0900J44 and increased prosperity for the country. ^In this context building
0910J44 up of social overheads assumes immense importance. $^The \0W.H.O.
0920J44 has defined health as not merely absence of disease or prevention of
0930J44 it, but a positive state of physical, emotional and social well-being.
0940J44 ^According to this definition, health is fundamental to the productive
0950J44 capacity and it has been argued by a number of scholars that investment
0960J44 in health sector has a direct relationship with process of economic
0970J44 development. ^The broad objectives of public health programme
0980J44 in the past have been to_ control and eradicate communicable diseases,
0990J44 to_ provide curative and preventive health services in rural areas,
1000J44 through the establishment of an infrastructure of primary health
1010J44 centres supported by a chain of sub-centres at the base and linked
1020J44 with an articulate plan of referral hospitals and to_ augment the
1030J44 training programmes of medical and para-medical personnel. ^However,
1040J44 when we see the low percentages of total outlays allocated to health,
1050J44 it becomes clear that serious efforts to_ fulfil the objectives
1060J44 were lacking. ^Table 2 shows that health could draw only 1.2, 3.2,
1070J44 0.6, 0.9 and 6.1 per cents of total centre*'s outlays during First,
1080J44 Second, Third, Annuals and Fourth Plan respectively. ^The share
1090J44 was 2.79 and 3.02 per cents in Fifth and Sixth (78-83) plans respectively.
1100J44 ^These figures clearly show the paucity of funds for this vital
1110J44 sector. ^However, in states*' outlays health acquired a bit prestigious
1120J44 position and its share stood above 6 per cent, generally, of total
1130J44 states*' outlays. ^One can easily see, the lack of State*'s coordination
1140J44 between Centre*'s and efforts as states*' share went as low
1150J44 as 2.8 per cent when centres*' share reached a peak of 6.1 per cent
1160J44 during Fourth plan. ^While increases in number of nurses registered
1170J44 were impressive the same is not true for doctors practising. ^Increases
1180J44 in number of hospitals and hospital beds were not too impressive.
1190J44 ^Increase in number of primary health centres, too, slowed down after
1200J44 Third plan. $^Medical research and medical attention in India
1210J44 has been concentrated more on diseases, like cancer, heart conditions,
1220J44 which are prevalent in the West, as compared to those ailments and
1230J44 diseases which are generally afflicting the Indian population. ^According
1240J44 to the estimates presented by the \0CSO, 17.2 per cent of
1250J44 morbidity and 20.8 per cent of mortality in 1970 in India, were caused
1260J44 by environmentally caused or promoted diseases like tuberculosis,
1270J44 malaria, gastro-intestinal diseases \0etc. ^Even then the great decline
1280J44 in the rate of mortality since independence, control and eradication
1290J44 of diseases like small pox, are matters of great satisfaction. ^The
1300J44 Indian rural people have shown a remarkable preference for purchase
1310J44 of health facilities to education facilities. ^However, the existing
1320J44 public health system does not respond to the marked preferences
1330J44 of rural people. ^This is partly due to meagre expenditure on health
1340J44 and misallocation of existing funds. ^Secondly, medical professionals
1350J44 whose training was highly costly were not prepared to_ move to
1360J44 rural areas. ^Schemes of rural health, are difficult to_ come by, are
1370J44 not pressed for when funds are available and are sometimes opposed when
1380J44 formulated. ^Thus, the felt need of health facilities in rural areas
1390J44 has not been given the priority and the emphasis that_ it deserves.
1400J44 ^For this, not only additional resources are required but the priority
1410J44 in the allocation of available resources to the sectors both in
1420J44 financial and physical terms becomes important. $^The environmental
1430J44 obstacles related with health are mainly caused by polluted water and
1440J44 poor sanitation in slum areas of cities and rural areas. ^As bulk
1450J44 of labour force comes from areas, improved water supply and sanitation
1460J44 could lead to increased productivity besides improvement in the health
1470J44 and hygiene situation. ^In 1954, a central public health & Environmental
1480J44 Engineering Organisation (\0CPHEEO), was set up to_ provide
1490J44 help to state \0Govt. for executing their scheme of water supply
1500J44 and sanitation. ^Later in 1973, the organisation was transferred
1510J44 to Union Ministry of Works and Housing. ^By March 1975, 1685 towns
1520J44 having 9.25 *4crores population were benefited by the supply of
1530J44 drinking water. ^About 195 towns with a population of four *4crores
1540J44 (36% of the total urban population) had been covered by partial sewerage
1550J44 system of the 5.76 *4lakhs villages about 49,000 with a total
1560J44 population of 2.60 *4crores had been provided with pipe water supply
1570J44 and hand pump tube wells upto March 75. ^Of the remaining villages
1580J44 about 4.24 *4lakhs have some kind of water supply like conserved
1590J44 wells and springs, but in about 1.03 *4lakhs villages water is not
1600J44 available within a depth of 15 metres or a distance of 1.6 \0Kms. ^Thus
1610J44 we see that on this vital point, too, situation in rural sector
1620J44 is worse. ^The Fifth plan had proposed an allocation of \0*4Rs. 564.23
1630J44 *4crores for this sector under minimum needs programme in addition
1640J44 to \0*4Rs. 440 *4crores earmarked for urban water supply and sewarage.
1650J44 $^A closely related problem with health is family planning
1660J44 which has been renamed as family welfare in our country. ^As already
1670J44 established in this paper we have made apparently slow growth due to decrease
1680J44 in mortality and consequent rapid increase in population. ^In
1690J44 this context, a control over rising population through family planning
1700J44 becomes essential. ^However, it must be added that, the decision
1710J44 to_ plan a family ultimately comes from individuals in their private
1720J44 capacity and a force in this regard from Government*'s side may cause
1730J44 disastrous results as we have witnessed in the recent past. ^Such forced
1740J44 actions may give short-lived success. ^*Family Planning programme,
1750J44 if it is to_ be successful in the long run, needs availability of
1760J44 social overheads, as it has been established that educated couples
1770J44 or couples enjoying higher standard of living are more likely to_ take
1780J44 decisions in favour of small family size. $^Education brings broader
1790J44 outlook into masses, so that they may base their decisions on a
1800J44 realistic and economic approach, which is very vital from the viewpoint
1810J44 of removal of poverty and economic development. ^For this not only literacy
1820J44 (by which we mean power of reading and writing) will be sufficient,
1830J44 but we will have to_ provide our masses with the facility of a
1840J44 minimum standard of education which will bring in them the decision
1850J44 making power. ^For cooperation of our masses in the developmental efforts
1860J44 of government, we don*'4t need highly educated university persons,
1870J44 instead the stress should be on secondary and technical education.*#
        **[no. of words = 02018**]

        **[txt. j45**]
0010J45 **<*3Affluents still block the way**> $^THIS year*'s annual Fund-Bank
0020J45 meetings once more took place in an atmosphere of uncertainty
0030J45 regarding prospects of growth in international trade. ^The prospects
0040J45 for nearly 600 million people in the developing countries who, according
0050J45 to the World Development Report, are likely to_ remain
0060J45 trapped in absolute poverty at the end of the century, continue to_
0070J45 be as bleak as ever. ^As \0Mr Robert McNamara, President of the
0080J45 World Bank, has pointed out, even this most shocking situation,
0090J45 intolerable as it is, has been forecast on the basis of optimistic projections
0100J45 of economic growth rates in the developing countries and on the
0110J45 assumption of an expansion in international trade and availability
0120J45 of commercial and concessional finance. ^Recent developments in the
0130J45 international field make one despondent regarding the realisation of these
0140J45 hopes, and one can well imagine the world in 2000 \0A.D. if the
0150J45 richer countries went on pursuing their narrow nationalistic objectives
0160J45 in the dream of living in isolated patches of prosperity in the midst
0170J45 of ever expanding oceans of poverty. ^While pious sentiments were expressed
0180J45 during deliberations in Washington, any concrete results flowing
0190J45 from them have yet to_ materialise. ^It seems every nation knows
0200J45 what is necessary and accepts the desirability of taking radical
0210J45 steps to_ get out of the impossible situation, but there is no will
0220J45 to_ move in the right direction. ^The international institutions largely
0230J45 reflecting the dominance of the affluent world seem to_ be equally
0240J45 paralysed and confined to routine business. ^They too express
0250J45 pious hopes and intentions; they underline what needs to_ be done;
0260J45 but there they stop. $^As India*'s Finance Minister, \0Mr *(0H.
0270J45 M.*) Patel, pointed out at the joint meeting of the \0IMF and
0280J45 World Bank, during the year there did appear prospects for some corrective
0290J45 action out of generalised stagnation. ^But these hopes have
0300J45 not materialised. "^The continued sluggishness in economic activity
0310J45 in the developing world, the low rates of expansion in world trade
0320J45 and the instability in exchange markets observed since the last annual
0330J45 meeting have had, and will have, a number of adverse restrictions
0340J45 on the developing world." ^One would resign oneself to such a situation
0350J45 if there was no way out; but this is not so. ^The affluent nations
0360J45 in their own interest could show a greater sense of realism and
0370J45 through greater co-operation and co-ordination could help at least in arresting
0380J45 further deterioration. ^But as \0Mr Patel pointed out, though
0390J45 some efforts were no doubt made in this direction, they have failed
0400J45 to_ yield the desired results because of inadequate and halting implementation
0410J45 which again was the result of excessive caution and conservatism.
0420J45 ^The result is continuing instability of exchange rates, periodic
0430J45 slumps in the \0US dollar, continued inflation in the industrial
0440J45 world and above all growing restrictive tendencies on the trade front.
0450J45 $^As \0Mr McNamara said at the meeting, "excessive protectionism
0460J45 is not only unfair, it is self-defeating. ^If the developing countries
0470J45 are to_ import even more from the developed nations-- and they
0480J45 want to_-- they must be allowed to_ export more so that they can earn
0490J45 the foreign exchange necessary to_ pay for them." ^Figures show
0500J45 that the developing countries today supply less than 2 per cent of the
0510J45 manufactured goods consumed in developed countries. ^Any protection against
0520J45 these goods could at most save jobs for only a fraction of those
0530J45 displaced by shifts in technology and demand in the industrialised
0540J45 countries themselves. ^And even this loss of jobs would be temporary
0550J45 because had the developing countries increased their purchases in
0560J45 the affluent markets there would be more jobs created by that_ demand,
0570J45 thus outweighing the loss. ^If the industrialised countries failed
0580J45 to_ respond rationally to these facts it is only because they are
0590J45 not ready to_ restructure their economies in the interests of their
0600J45 own growth. $^The hold of the affluent nations on the international
0610J45 organisations makes it difficult for them to_ discharge their responsibilities
0620J45 towards the developing countries. ^Under the Articles of
0630J45 the International Monetary Fund general reviews have to_ be undertaken
0640J45 to_ determine members*' quotas in the Fund. ^As of September
0650J45 13 sixth review quotas are in effect for 131 members of the \0IMF.
0660J45 ^These now total up to \0SDR 39 billion and the seventh general
0670J45 review of quotas is in progress. ^While these deliberations are welcome
0680J45 and reflect the anxiety of all the members for providing funds
0690J45 to_ meet the members*' needs arising from growth in international transactions
0700J45 and the disequilibria emanating therefrom, India rightly
0710J45 drew the attention of the meeting to the disappointment of the developing
0720J45 countries at the size of the allocations. ^The Interim Committee
0730J45 has reached an agreement regarding allocation of \0SDRs in
0740J45 each of the years 1979 to 1981 which falls short of the genuine needs
0750J45 of the international monetary system. $^The other point of complaint
0760J45 is the stiffness of conditionality attaching to the Fund*'s drawings
0770J45 and discrimination against developing countries in this respect.
0780J45 ^Under the present circumstances member countries expect from the
0790J45 \0IMF a more encouraging approach in helping them in their difficult
0800J45 problem of reconciling the various pressures under which they have
0810J45 to_ operate. ^As \0Mr Patel pointed out, "the conditionality of
0820J45 Fund drawings must take adequate account of economic, social and political
0830J45 constraints. ^Our objective should be to_ ensure that the Fund*'s
0840J45 assistance is not in the nature of 'last resort'. ^On the contrary,
0850J45 members really should be encouraged to_ knock at the doors of the
0860J45 Fund first." $^As regards the World Bank, no less an authority
0870J45 than its President himself has pointedly drawn attention to the responsibility
0880J45 of the affluent nations to_ understand the internal dynamics
0890J45 of poverty more clearly and to_ design practical anti-poverty strategies
0900J45 that_ will work. ^He specifically mentioned the need to_ assist
0910J45 the poor to_ become more productive. ^The time has now come to_
0920J45 spell out the measures necessary for this purpose in greater detail.
0930J45 ^For instance, the World Bank should seriously consider the question
0940J45 of opening a third window for middle term loans that_ could
0950J45 meet the needs of those countries which are now in a position to_
0960J45 consolidate the gains of industrial expansion and diversification levels
0970J45 they have already reached. ^In the modern world no country can
0980J45 be completely self-sufficient and there is a constant need for transfer
0990J45 of technology and even resources. ^Unfortunately, this function
1000J45 has been monopolised by the multinational corporations today with the
1010J45 result that there is always a conflict between the internal policies
1020J45 of the developing nations and the interests of the multinationals.
1030J45 ^It is clear that the World Bank could play a more effective role.
1040J45 ^It should cease to_ be just a sales organisation for the multinationals.
1050J45 ^It should appoint a committee of experts to_ consider the
1060J45 complex problems of technology transfer and to_ suggest ways and
1070J45 means that_ could help the developing nations to_ raise their productivity
1080J45 without increasing the dependence on developed economies. ^It
1090J45 is only through breaking such new grounds in the functioning of both
1100J45 the \0IMF and the World Bank that the objectives for which these
1101J45 organisations were established would be achieved and a genuine
1110J45 international trade among equals would develop serving the interests
1120J45 of the affluent as much as the poor countries in the world today. $**<*3Towards
1130J45 unacceptable trade deficit**> $^GOING by the provisional
1140J45 figure of exports during the first four months of 1978-79 it might
1150J45 seem that India*'s export performance is sliding further downhill.
1160J45 ^At about \0*4Rs 1,634 *4crores they were 1.5 per cent lower than
1170J45 the exports in the corresponding period of the last financial year.
1180J45 ^But experience has shown that provisional trade figures err often
1190J45 too much on the side of the minimum and therefore, any comparison
1200J45 on the basis of these figures can be misleading. ^Take, for instance,
1210J45 the first provisional figure of exports in 1977-78. ^It was around
1220J45 \0*4Rs 5,253 *4crores, which meant a growth rate of only 2.1 per cent
1230J45 over the previous year. ^Subsequently, the figure was revised upwards
1240J45 to \0*4Rs 5,375 *4crores, which works out to an increase of 4.7
1250J45 per cent. ^But even this is not final and by the time the process of
1260J45 finalisation is completed-- it is indeed a sad commentary on the existing
1270J45 machinery for data collection that this is not yet over although
1280J45 six months have passed since the last financial year was over-- the
1290J45 export growth rate might go up to 5 per cent. $^This, however, is
1300J45 poor consolation, not so much because India*'s exports during the
1310J45 four-year period 1973-74 to 1976-77 registered an average annual growth
1320J45 of 27 per cent, but because they were nowhere near even the lowest
1330J45 two digit growth rate in 1977-78. ^In the preceding four years fortuitous
1340J45 factors no doubt had helped to_ boost exports, as, for instance,
1350J45 the windfall gains from the skyrocketing of sugar prices in the international
1360J45 market. ^The Government*'s ill-considered policy of exporting
1370J45 at any cost also contributed to the dizzy heights the growth rate
1380J45 reached. ^Happily, last year this policy, by and large, was given the
1390J45 go by; the ban on or regulation of exports of essential items like
1400J45 oilseeds, vegetable oils, fresh vegetables, onions, potatoes, pulses
1410J45 and cement resulted in a conspicuous drop in the value of exports,
1420J45 from about \0*4Rs 600 *4crores in 1976-77 to \0*4Rs 160 *4crores in
1430J45 1977-78. ^This, however, helped to_ bring down the prices of most
1440J45 of these products and afforded some measure of relief to the vast mass
1450J45 of people who consumed them. $^Apart from these, certain factors
1460J45 beyond the control of the Government have no doubt been responsible
1470J45 for the deceleration in the growth of exports. ^The most important
1480J45 of these is the prevalence of rather acute recessionary conditions in
1490J45 some industrialised countries. ^This led to revival of the tendency
1500J45 towards protectionism and created a situation in which our exports
1510J45 suffered substantial losses in terms of volume as well as value. ^Cotton
1520J45 textiles, ready-made garments, leather and leather manufactures
1530J45 were particularly affected. ^Besides, the depreciation in the external
1540J45 value of the American dollar told on the export earnings. ^Compared
1550J45 with the exchange rate in 1976-77, the *4rupee appreciated *7vis-a-vis
1560J45 the dollar by more than 10 per cent in 1977-78, which meant
1570J45 that exports expressed in terms of *4rupees were less. ^According to
1580J45 official sources, the growth rate might have been reduced by 1.5 to 2
1590J45 per cent because of the appreciation of *4rupee in relation to dollar.
1600J45 $^Even allowing for all this, a growth rate of 5 per cent is a matter
1610J45 for concern and indicates that things have also gone wrong with
1620J45 regard to factors which are well within the Government*'s control.
1630J45 ^It seems the export effort has suffered because of the uncertainties
1640J45 created by the Government*'s policies. ^For instance, the moment
1650J45 it found that cement and steel were in excess of domestic requirements,
1660J45 it decided to_ export them in a big way, hardly realising that
1670J45 these surpluses were ephemeral. ^And, indeed, when domestic demand
1680J45 started picking up, the Government was constrained to_ impose restrictions
1690J45 on their export. ^In the case of sugar, however, there was no fear
1700J45 of domestic shortage, for there was such an abundance of production,
1710J45 but the Government was reluctant to_ export the commodity because
1720J45 of the steep fall in its price in the world market. ^All this has
1730J45 earned for the country the unenviable reputation of being an inconsistent
1740J45 exporter, which seems to_ have contributed to the decline
1750J45 in the growth rate. $^It follows from this that the Government should
1760J45 adopt a selective approach to exports, the objective being that the
1770J45 export effort is concentrated on certain areas so that exports are made
1780J45 in the most dependable and efficient manner possible. ^In other words,
1790J45 adequate and the most modern production facilities should be established
1800J45 for manufacturing such items as have considerable export potential
1810J45 and are capable of achieving high growth rates, as for example,
1820J45 engineering goods, gems and jewellery, handcrafts, apparel, electronic
1830J45 goods and marine products. ^Besides, the Government which is
1840J45 playing an important role in the promotion of exports should help build
1850J45 a sound organisational framework for providing various services
1860J45 to the export sector in a co-ordinated manner.*#
        **[no. of words = 02014**]

        **[txt. j46**]
0010J46 **<*3Planning export strategy**> $^THE Government, industry
0020J46 and trade are equally concerned with the recent disturbing trends in
0030J46 exports and the need for stepping up the rate of growth in exports.
0040J46 ^*India*'s overall exports during 1977-78 showed an increase of 4.5
0050J46 per cent only as against 27.4 per cent in 1976-77. ^In the first half
0060J46 of the current year, exports are reported to_ have actually declined
0070J46 from the level of the corresponding period last year. ^This shortfall
0080J46 in export performance calls for immediate remedial action. ^At
0090J46 the same time, we need not get panicky over the deceleration of the
0100J46 export growth rate for one or two years, for we may either face dull
0110J46 or protectionist markets abroad or deliberately trim exports of essential
0120J46 items as was done during the current year. ^However, the present
0130J46 situation presents us with an opportunity to_ review the strategy
0140J46 for a qualitative improvement without which no export strategy
0150J46 will ever succeed. $^Exports acted as an engine of growth in small countries
0160J46 like Korea, Hongkong, Singapore and Taiwan. ^In the case
0170J46 of a vastly populated country like India, however, where the bulk of
0180J46 the requirements of domestic demand for consumption and growth have to_
0190J46 be taken care of from within the country*'s production, it is not
0200J46 suitable to_ adopt export-led growth model as a strategy of development.
0210J46 ^Factors like recession and uncertainty of demand abroad, adverse
0220J46 terms of trade and protectionist policies pursued by the developed
0230J46 countries also render export-led growth model unsuitable for our
0240J46 country. ^Nevertheless, there may be sectors, for example, engineering
0250J46 whose growth may considerably depend upon the export factor. ^These
0260J46 sectors must be carefully identified and their problems and planning
0270J46 should be considered separately. ^Given our overall strategy of growth,
0280J46 we have to_ aim at the expansion of exports to the maximum extent
0290J46 possible as growth in exports is an essential precondition for the
0300J46 achievement of the object of self-reliance. ^In other words, if we
0310J46 do not want to_ have our growth strategy to_ be constrained by exports,
0320J46 and instead aim at having an autonomous model of growth, we cannot
0330J46 but also aim at the maximisation of exports for reason of achieving
0340J46 a cushion for self-reliance, without which there can be no autonomous
0350J46 model of growth. ^This rather paradoxical approach would require
0360J46 a much more extensive and rigorous planning of exports and very
0370J46 close co-ordination between the Government, the producers and the exporters.
0380J46 $^We have practically completed the phase of import-substitution
0390J46 industrialisation strategy. ^Now we have to_ go in for independent
0400J46 industrialisation for which we would have to_ evolve largely
0410J46 those technologies that_ are relevant to our resource endowments.
0420J46 ^Even where import of technologies is necessary, foreign collaboration
0430J46 should be avoided as far as possible; in its place outright purchase
0440J46 of technology should be resorted to. ^There can be no genuine export
0450J46 planning for the long term through foreign collaboration unless
0460J46 you are thinking of opening the country to multinationals which in
0470J46 my opinion will be totally disastrous. $*<*3*8Ad hocism*9 in exports*>
0480J46 $^Increase in exports also leads to increase in imports in a variety
0490J46 of ways. ^Part of this increase in imports is the result of deliberate
0500J46 policy of import entitlements to_ encourage exports. ^But besides
0510J46 this unplanned imports take place because of other factors. ^We
0520J46 have yet to_ prepare a systematic planning mechanism by which production,
0530J46 imports and exports are linked. ^Import content of economic development
0540J46 and development content of export cannot be left to_ follow
0550J46 their own respective paths. ^Nor can we ignore the fact that in our
0560J46 attempts to_ improve the export intensity of our production we invariably
0570J46 allow ourselves to_ be trapped in producing those luxury consumer
0580J46 goods which turn out to_ have a large import-intensity. ^Licences given
0590J46 for setting up of production units with the clear stipulation that
0600J46 their products will largely be exported ultimately end up in inducing
0610J46 domestic consumption. ^This is clearly an unacceptable position
0620J46 and has arisen because of faulty export planning and licensing. $^Unfortunately,
0630J46 there is a large element of *8ad hocism*9 in our export
0640J46 strategy. ^For example, in the years when our exports increased by
0650J46 extremely high proportions it was not realised that that_ phenomenon was
0660J46 more a result of the cluster of *8ad hoc*9 developments than of any
0670J46 significant improvement in export and production planning. ^There
0680J46 is no need to_ count these developments or commodities involved. ^But
0690J46 let me take one typical example, namely, sugar. ^The sugar boom
0700J46 gave us large earnings once but that_ windfall was not followed by
0710J46 a serious planning of sugar export and production. ^The point I want
0720J46 to_ stress is that *8ad hocism*9 in our exports is dangerous not
0730J46 only for export promotion but also for planning domestic production.
0740J46 $^Exports are primarily a function of production and its efficiency which
0750J46 in turn depend upon the strength and vigour of the domestic economy.
0760J46 ^In the long run, the growth of exports is contingent upon the rate
0770J46 of growth in agriculture and industry, and upon the adequacy of supporting
0780J46 infrastructure. ^The increase in production, therefore, through
0790J46 fuller utilisation of capacities and creation of additional capacities
0800J46 wherever possible and necessary has to_ be accorded the priority
0810J46 it deserves. ^With a drive for increased production, it should be
0820J46 possible to_ generate exportable surpluses for items for which there
0830J46 is demand potential abroad and increase their exports without creating
0840J46 any adverse impact on domestic availability and domestic prices.
0850J46 ^It is also to_ be remembered that in the ultimate analysis marketing
0860J46 of exports depends upon our ability to_ supply goods of requisite
0870J46 quality and specifications at competitive prices and in accordance
0880J46 with delivery schedules. ^From the point of view of bringing down
0890J46 costs and prices of exportable commodities, studies in cost reduction,
0900J46 increase in productivity and modern management methods are useful
0910J46 and necessary devices. ^The price stability that_ we have witnessed
0920J46 during the recent past will have to_ be maintained to_ give our exports
0930J46 a competitive edge of lasting nature. $^In view of the importance
0940J46 of export sector in our economy and the need for its sustained
0950J46 growth, we have accepted export planning the main elements of which
0960J46 are as follows: $(**=1) ^To_ dovetail requirements of exports with
0970J46 the parameters of the process of growth, generation of employment and
0980J46 increasing supply of wage-goods, and to_ formulate long-term export
0990J46 policies on the basis of suitable supporting investment policy. $(**=2)
1000J46 ^To_ generate and sustain exportable surpluses after meeting the
1010J46 internal needs. $(**=3) ^To_ increase productivity and diversify the
1020J46 commodity mix in case of traditional exports like jute manufactures,
1030J46 cotton piece-goods, tea, coffee, \0etc., so that the domestic value
1040J46 added is maximised. $(**=4) ^To_ develop exports of labour intensive
1050J46 products and items with higher value added element, such as precious
1060J46 stones, jewellery, various items of handicrafts, garments, electronics,
1070J46 \0etc. \(**=5) ^To_ diversify the commodity composition by raising
1080J46 production and exports of dynamic sectors in which India has
1090J46 long-term comparative advantage, for instance, certain engineering
1100J46 goods, chemical products, garments, leather manufactures, handicrafts,
1110J46 marine products, \0etc. $(**=6) ^To_ move increasingly towards exports
1120J46 of services and technology. $(**=7) ^To_ minimise social costs
1130J46 of our exports by regulating exports of essential mass consumption
1140J46 items. $(**=8) ^To_ strengthen the bargaining power of exporters
1150J46 through the support of State trading organisations and other infrastructural
1160J46 support in terms of uptodate international marketing and information
1170J46 system. $^Our export projections-- aggregate and commoditywise-- represent
1180J46 feasible limits of foreign exchange earnings which may be achieved
1190J46 from exports in the light of the perspective of overall growth
1200J46 projected for the Plan period and production planning according to
1210J46 major sector/ commodities during the Plan period. ^These projections
1220J46 take into account the demand and supply elasticity and the country*'s
1230J46 dynamic comparative advantage. ^It may be mentioned that these projections
1240J46 are different from forecasts. ^The target element is, however,
1250J46 considered in certain products with export potential. $^For the Plan
1260J46 1978-83, the export projections were made after taking into account
1270J46 the overall growth of the economy at 4.7 per cent (compound) per
1280J46 annum and the sectoral growth rates as indicated in the draft Plan.
1290J46 ^There were certain immediate considerations which constrained the
1300J46 export targets during the Plan period. ^One such constraint was the
1310J46 protectionist policies of the industrialised countries in the lower limits
1320J46 of the available quotas of certain products. ^The second constraint
1330J46 was Government*'s policy of restraining the export of essential
1340J46 items of domestic demand, particularly agricultural and food products.
1350J46 ^There were other constraints but I need not go into them. $^The
1360J46 export projections for 1978-83 have been made at 1976-77 prices. ^Therefore,
1370J46 any realisation of unit value higher than what was realised
1380J46 in 1976-77 in case of certain products, as a result of higher processing
1390J46 and diversification, may result in export earnings higher than
1400J46 now projected. ^Commoditywise export projections so arrived are at
1410J46 a given rate of growth of 7 per cent (compound) annually for the Plan
1420J46 period. ^This gives growth elasticity of exports with regard to
1430J46 national product at around 1.5 which is lower than the elasticity of
1440J46 over 2 per cent during the period 1970-71. ^The reasons for the lower
1450J46 elasticity, apart from those already mentioned, are the expected
1460J46 arrivals of demand for various industrial goods in the country as the Plan
1470J46 implementation gains momentum. $*<*3Vacatable areas*> $^Various
1480J46 input studies have gone into the exercise of export projection. ^These
1490J46 include review of long term and short term performance and prospects
1500J46 of exports, analysis of growth of India*'s exports in comparison
1510J46 with various other countries and the world, and India*'s export
1520J46 profile by 2000 \0AD. ^The studies also include sectorwise net foreign
1530J46 exchange earnings, inventory of elasticity of world demand and \0ERP/DRC
1540J46 studies. ^Analysis of export incentives has also been
1550J46 done. ^The results available in regard to the complementarity of India*'s
1560J46 trade pattern with that_ of the developing countries have been
1570J46 taken into account. ^Various recommendations of the recent committees
1580J46 appointed by the Government and the reports of the Working Groups
1590J46 have been looked into. $^It is a part of export planning and strategy
1600J46 to_ face the imponderables, remove the bottlenecks and review past
1610J46 policies. ^We need more and not less planning if the exogenous
1620J46 factors keep pressing against our exports. ^If protectionism is raising
1630J46 its head we must do two things: (1) build an international effort
1640J46 against it and (2) resort to more rigorous and intensified planning
1650J46 of exports. ^In this respect I may mention here that the developed
1660J46 capitalist countries are now caught in a serious crisis of prolonged
1670J46 inflation and unemployment. ^Some of them are looking for short-term
1680J46 solutions in raising tariff barriers against products from the developing
1690J46 countries. ^But this is not going to_ help them, for their problems
1700J46 are structural. ^They cannot afford to_ continue with industries
1710J46 of intermediate technology. ^They will have to_ vacate these areas.
1720J46 ^Our export planning must aim at capturing these potentially vacatable
1730J46 areas. ^This would require a very detailed study and analysis of
1740J46 the economic transformation going on in those countries and correspondingly
1750J46 of our building up technologies which will help in the improvement
1760J46 of domestic production and long-term export prospects. $^There
1770J46 are countries which do not have planning for internal economy but
1780J46 have developed the most sophisticated and most aggressive export planning
1790J46 mechanism. ^*Japan is one such country. ^This has been made possible
1800J46 because of very close co-ordination between the government,
1810J46 the industry, the export houses and the financial institutions. ^They
1820J46 jointly formulate their fiscal policies, subsidies, investment
1830J46 concessions, price fixation, credit, all as part of one plan. ^Exports
1840J46 are backed by schemes of short and long term planning. ^We know to our
1850J46 cost how the developed countries are able to_ destroy our export
1860J46 potential by offering credit to third world countries from whom we can
1870J46 get contracts on global tenders. ^We may not be able to_ match them
1880J46 in this game but we must substitute a new system of export planning
1890J46 for the prevailing system of export assistance and link the latter
1900J46 with cost reduction and improvement in productivity. ^If we succeed
1910J46 in this substitution we would have added a powerful dimension to our
1920J46 export planning.*#
        **[no. of words = 02001**]

        **[txt. j47**]
0010J47 **<*3PARLIAMENT IN THE INDIAN POLITY*0**> $^The Preamble to the Constitution
0020J47 lays down the guidelines under which the legislature, the administration
0030J47 and our society should function. ^The Surpreme Court*'s interpretation
0040J47 of the Constitution is based not merely on the language of
0050J47 the provisions of the Constitution but also on the scheme underlying
0060J47 the objectives of the Constitution. $*3Social Justice*0: ^The
0070J47 Preamble promises to_ secure Justice-- social, economic and political--
0080J47 to all citizens of this country. ^In Indian society, unfortunately,
0090J47 social barriers exist. ^There still exist differences between religion
0100J47 and religion, caste and caste and above all there are what are known
0110J47 as *4Harijans and the backward classes. ^These were also in existence
0120J47 when the founding fathers prepared the Constitution. ^They,
0130J47 therefore, made social justice one of the important objectives of
0140J47 the Constitution, as without social justice no other type of justice
0150J47 can be rendered to the people. ^There are now numerous laws intended
0160J47 to_ render social justice to the various sections of the people,
0170J47 particularly the backward classes and the *4Harijans. ^Today these classes
0180J47 are conscious of their rights. ^They are asserting their rights--
0190J47 and rightly too. ^They have been treated badly for centuries but
0200J47 that_ condition will be tolerated no more. ^That_ being so, it has
0210J47 to_ be ensured that the laws enacted for rendering social justice
0220J47 to these classes are faithfully implemented. ^Good laws may be enacted
0230J47 but their purpose can be perverted during implementation. ^It is,
0240J47 therefore, necessary that the laws enacted for bringing about an integration
0250J47 of the society, for bridging the gulf between the rich and the
0260J47 poor and also for reducing the gap between the different sections of
0270J47 the people are implemented properly and that social justice is extended
0280J47 to all classes. $*3Economic Justice*0: ^No social justice is
0290J47 possible without economic justice. ^Social differences or gradations
0300J47 mainly flow out of economic differences. ^There is always a difference
0310J47 between a rich man and a poor man. ^A rich man to whichever class of
0320J47 society he may belong still commands respect which may not be available
0330J47 to a poor man. $^The goal of the Constitution is to_ build up
0340J47 an egalitarian society. ^Since absolute equality is not possible of
0350J47 achievement, we want to_ build a society where everyone is nearly
0360J47 equal. ^This is expressed in article 38 of the Constitution which
0370J47 lays down that the machinery of the Government should be so utilised
0380J47 as to_ bring about the distribution of the national wealth in an
0390J47 equitable manner and to_ see that there is no concentration of wealth.
0400J47 ^For fulfilling this task, the responsibility of the administrative
0410J47 machinery of the Government is very great. ^Several laws like those
0420J47 relating to land reforms, debt relief \0etc. have already been
0430J47 enacted and will continue to_ be enacted in future as well, in order
0440J47 to_ build up an egalitarian society and a social order where democracy
0450J47 can really prevail. ^But the complaint is that these laws have
0460J47 not been given full effect to without which they would be only a dead
0470J47 letter. ^In a truly democratic society there can be no great economic
0480J47 gulf between one individual and another. ^A democratic society
0490J47 presupposes economic equality amongst the people to the extent possible.
0500J47 ^It is possible to_ build up a really good society where the difference
0510J47 between the rich and the poor is minimal. $*3Political equality*0:
0520J47 ^Last but by no means the least is political equality. ^In a democratic
0530J47 society, every individual has certain rights. ^An individual is
0540J47 not a mere brick or stone on which the society is built. ^Besides
0550J47 the social rights and social obligations, the individual rights and
0560J47 individual obligations are also of utmost importance. ^This egalitarian
0570J47 doctrine has been enshrined in our Constitution, which incorporates
0580J47 in Part *=3 the various human or individual rights. ^This part as
0590J47 well as Part *=4 which lays down the Directive Principles of State
0600J47 Policy should be borne in mind while discussing the individual rights.
0610J47 $*3Untouchability*0: ^Article 17 of the Constitution has abolished
0620J47 untouchability. ^This is one of the facets of the doctrine of
0630J47 equality. ^Untouchability and political equality cannot subsist together.
0640J47 ^It is, therefore, the duty of the administrators to_ see that
0650J47 untouchability is not practised. ^There are laws which lay down
0660J47 stringently that untouchability is an offence, but these laws do not
0670J47 seem to_ be observed in letter and spirit. $*3Equality of opportunity*0:
0680J47 ^After the Second World War, under the aegis of the United Nations,
0690J47 an *3impromptu*0 conference was held in Paris under the Chairmanship
0700J47 of \0Mrs. Roosevelt. ^That_ conference decided to_ guarantee
0710J47 certain rights to every individual in any part of the world. ^*India
0720J47 was an original party to that_ convention under which it was agreed
0730J47 that every citizen in a country should be equal before the law and
0740J47 should have equal protection of the law. ^No individual, however rich
0750J47 he may be, or to whichever community he may belong, will have superior
0760J47 rights over other individuals. $^In a feudalist society, certain
0770J47 classes and certain communities have only obligations and no privileges.
0780J47 ^In our society, we know what is the position of *4Harijans
0790J47 or the other weaker sections of the people. ^To_ ameliorate their
0800J47 condition and afford them equal opportunity, article 14 of our Constitution
0810J47 provides that all Indians shall be equal before the law and have
0820J47 equal protection of the laws. $^In the olden days the administrative
0830J47 personnel had a privilege of their own. ^They could not be touched
0840J47 even if they transgressed the law. ^That_ is not the condition
0850J47 today. ^Now the position of the administrator and the ordinary citizen
0860J47 is more or less equal. ^The administrators have greater duties and
0870J47 corresponding to those duties they may have a little more right in
0880J47 certain spheres, but in all other matters their position is equal to
0890J47 that_ of any other person. ^This doctrine appears to_ have been completely
0900J47 forgotten during the Emergency. ^It will be a matter for
0910J47 research how some of the administrators behaved during that_ period.
0920J47 ^They completely forgot their responsibility. ^Their only aim was to_
0930J47 curry favour with some high placed individuals and they were prepared
0940J47 to_ commit any crime for the sake of avoiding a transfer or getting
0950J47 a promotion. ^We know from history that such benefits are momentary
0960J47 and will not last long. ^The people of this country are mature and they
0970J47 know what their rights are. ^They threw out a powerful, tyrannical
0980J47 administration. ^Many of the administrators who did not play their role
0990J47 properly have to_ pay the penalty for that_ today. $^This country
1000J47 is not ruled by an individual-- man or woman. ^It is under the rule
1010J47 of law and each one of us is subject to law; nobody is above law.
1020J47 ^Under all circumstances we must obey the law; we should not obey an
1030J47 individual. ^If anybody transgresses the law, he will be guilty and punishment
1040J47 is likely to_ come. ^There are no doubt occasions when temptations
1050J47 may be offered to the administrators by the people in power to_
1060J47 transgress the limits of law. ^The acceptance of such invitations
1070J47 may, however, prove to_ be dangerous in the long run. $*3Right to
1080J47 freedom*0: ^Besides guaranteeing certain rights to every individual,
1090J47 the Constitution also guarantees some rights to religious groups.
1100J47 ^Rights such as freedom of the individual, freedom of movement, of
1110J47 trade, of forming associations \0etc. are incorporated in article 19.
1120J47 ^Even Parliament cannot enact a law to_ abridge those rights except
1130J47 under conditions provided in the Constitution itself. ^Of course,
1140J47 at one stage Parliament did transgress its limits; today those
1150J47 mistakes are being rectified. ^It is now everybody*'s duty to_ see
1160J47 that such transgressions do not take place again. $^There are many turns
1170J47 in the life of an individual and in the history of a nation. ^There
1180J47 may be dark days. ^Occasions may arise when some people may be
1190J47 tempted to_ transgress the limits of law, as they did in the recent
1200J47 past. ^But such occasions should not be allowed to_ recur. $*3Forms
1210J47 of Government*0: ^When we framed our Constitution there was a great
1220J47 deal of debate as to whether we should have a presidential or a parliamentary
1230J47 form of Government. ^There are advantages and disadvantages
1240J47 in both these systems. ^In our democratic form of Government, there
1250J47 is a certain amount of separation of powers between the Judiciary,
1260J47 the Executive and the Legislature, and each has got its own separate
1270J47 sphere. ^But in the presidential type, the separation is more
1280J47 or less delineated and the spheres are rigid. ^The Legislature cannot
1290J47 encroach upon the field reserved for the Executive, and the Executive
1300J47 and the Legislature cannot encroach upon the field reserved for
1310J47 the Judiciary. ^But in the parliamentary system of Government, although
1320J47 broadly speaking, there is a certain amount of separation of
1330J47 powers they are nevertheless interlinked and the separation is not absolute.
1340J47 ^After a great deal of debate and consideration and particularly
1350J47 taking into consideration our experience of the Westminster model
1360J47 of Government from about the year 1918 onwards, our founding fathers
1370J47 came to the conclusion that we should have the parliamentary form
1380J47 of Government. ^In this form, under a written constitution, legal
1390J47 supremacy lies with the Constitution while popular sovereignty lies
1400J47 with the people. $^So far as the Legislature is concerned, it has a
1410J47 bigger say than the other two organs under the Constitution. ^The Executive
1420J47 under our system of Government must always command the confidence
1430J47 of the elected people. ^If there are two Houses, it should
1440J47 have the confidence of the Lower House. ^The moment the Executive
1450J47 loses this confidence it must resign. ^It cannot continue in power.
1460J47 ^But in the presidential form of Government, the Executive is independent
1470J47 of the Legislature. ^The President of the United States is
1480J47 elected for a four-year term. ^He will continue to_ be the Executive
1490J47 authority for the full term of four years, even if he has no support in
1500J47 the two Houses of the Congress. ^In the parliamentary system, the
1510J47 Ministers generally-- not invariably-- are members of either the Lower
1520J47 House or the Upper House. ^But in the presidential form, they are
1530J47 generally not members of the Legislature. ^In the United States
1540J47 no Minister or Secretary, as they call him, can be a member of either
1550J47 House and if he is, he must resign immediately. ^But under our
1560J47 Constitution, if a person is appointed a Minister and if he is not
1570J47 a member of either House, he must become one within six months from
1580J47 the date of assuming office as Minister. ^If he does not acquire
1590J47 that_ qualification within that_ period, he automatically ceases to_
1600J47 be Minister. ^Thus there is an interlinking of the Legislature
1610J47 and the Executive in our system. $^The importance of a form of government
1620J47 like ours lies in the fact that it is always expected to_ be
1630J47 responsive to public opinion, whereas the impact of public opinion
1640J47 in a presidential system is not so direct. ^There is, however, a disadvantage
1650J47 also. ^In the presidential form, the President is in a position
1660J47 to_ get the services of the ablest men available in the country.
1670J47 ^In the United States the President looks to eminent professors,
1680J47 economists, scientists and such other people to_ fill the important
1690J47 ministerial posts. ^But that_ is not possible under our Constitution.
1700J47 $*3Parliament under the Constitution*0: ^Our constitution has
1710J47 provided that there shall be two Houses of Parliament-- *5Lok Sabha*6
1720J47 or the House of the People and *5Rajya Sabha*6 or the Council
1730J47 of States. ^The members of the Council of States are elected by
1740J47 the State Legislatures for a period of six years. ^One-third of
1750J47 the members of that_ House retire once in two years. ^When the *5Rajya
1760J47 Sabha*6 was first constituted in 1952, I happened to_ be a
1770J47 member. ^At that_ time, the problem arose as to how to_ make people
1780J47 retire. ^Therefore, lots had to_ be taken and some got two years, some
1790J47 four years and some the full term of six years. ^*I had the misfortune
1800J47 of getting only two years, but that_ was not a big misfortune
1810J47 because I was re-elected for a full term of six years, though before
1820J47 I could complete the full term, I was drafted into the Judiciary.*#
        **[no. of words = 02020**]

        **[txt. j48**]
0010J48 **<*3Abolition of Capital Punishment in India*0**> $^Whatever view one
0020J48 holds about the criminal law, no one will question its importance
0030J48 in society. ^This is the law on which men place their ultimate reliance
0040J48 for protection against the deepest injuries that_ human conduct
0050J48 can inflict on individuals and society. ^By the same token criminal
0060J48 law governs the greatest force that_ permits officials to_ bear
0070J48 on individuals. ^If criminal law is weak and ineffective, basic
0080J48 human interests are in jeopardy. ^If it is harsh and arbitrary in its
0090J48 impact, it works gross injustice on those caught within its toils.
0100J48 ^The law that_ carries such heavy responsibilities should surely be
0110J48 as rational as law can be. $^Criminal law has, quite rightly been
0120J48 called by Mannheim as "One of the most faithful mirrors of a given
0130J48 civilisation, reflecting the fundamental values on which the latter
0140J48 rests." ^Far reaching changes have occurred as regards political ideology,
0150J48 social values, economic policy in general and criminology, penology
0160J48 and social sciences in particular. ^Since these values have changed
0170J48 criminal law must also be changed. ^But it is distressing to_
0180J48 find that criminal laws of most countries are irrational, unscientific,
0190J48 unjust, inhuman and outmoded. ^The Indian Penal Code, which was
0200J48 enacted more than a century ago (1860) also falls into this category
0210J48 of laws. ^No other field of the Code has become more out of date
0220J48 than its treatment content \0i.e. the scheme of punishment. ^It is
0230J48 a standing complaint against the Code that it is Draconian in its
0240J48 severity as regards punishment. ^The Code still retains one of the most
0250J48 inhuman form **[sic**] of punishment-- the sentence of death or what
0260J48 is aptly described as capital punishment. $^Capital punishment is the practice
0270J48 of deliberately putting to death an offender, as a measure of social
0280J48 policy imposed by the Governing Authority. ^Death penalty has
0290J48 existed from the most ancient times and, in all parts of the world.
0300J48 ^It is not safe to_ generalise about the pre-historic laws and customs
0310J48 from which this practice originated, for like all laws, and customs,
0320J48 they are wrapped in obscurity and must have varied most widely in
0330J48 different ages and in different types of communities. ^In the more advanced
0340J48 civilisation represented by the City States or Empires from Babylon
0350J48 of Hummurabi in the twenty first century \0B.C. to the Isselitish
0360J48 Kingdom in the sixth century, we find death the invariable penalty
0370J48 for wilful homicide as well as for a variety of sexual and other
0380J48 religious and quasi-religious offences, with the rule of exact retribution
0390J48 such as "an eye for an eye" governing other types of offences.
0400J48 ^Early Roman Law as contained in Twelve Tables, and the customary
0410J48 laws of the German tribes, regard all offences against the individual
0420J48 including homicide, as the private concern of the injured. ^The
0430J48 relations of the injured were satisfied with nothing short of death.
0440J48 ^In the primitive societies the only offences punishable by the State
0450J48 were those against the State as treason or the violation of certain
0460J48 religious sanctions and the State had but one punishment \0i.e.
0470J48 death. ^Thus when the theory of retribution was in vogue, death
0480J48 penalty was the commonest form of punishment. ^In India the penalty
0490J48 of death was inflicted for serious offences. ^As Vishnu ordained "great
0500J48 criminal-- should be punished to death." ^In the Pre-Buddhist
0501J48 and Post-Buddhist period
0510J48 the death sentence was carried **[sic**] in the most terrible manner.
0520J48 ^In Greece, as Plato has observed, "When a man is never innocent
0530J48 but in sleep it is better that he should die than live." $^Capital
0540J48 punishment for murder and other secular offences may be said to_ have
0550J48 come into existence with the modern state and its growing recognition
0560J48 of the obligation to_ maintain peace and order at any cost. ^The
0570J48 practice was most unrestrained in the medieval period, when it was thought
0580J48 that the most effective way of suppressing crime was to_ make punishment
0590J48 more severe and thus to_ deter criminals. ^In this way, when
0600J48 the deterrent theory entered into the scheme of punishment, mere death
0610J48 was often found insufficient, it being so common. ^Hence peculiar
0620J48 forms of death attended with torture of infamy, were improvised.
0630J48 ^The practice of imposing death penalty was extensively resorted to
0640J48 in Europe and England as an effort to_ suppress crimes of every description.
0650J48 ^This state of affairs lasted upto the end of the 17th century.
0660J48 $^An abuse of this form of punishment led to a reaction against
0670J48 it. ^Since the intellectual renaissance of the eighteenth century,
0680J48 there has been a trend towards limiting the use of capital punishment
0690J48 and the adopting of human methods of execution. ^The intellectual
0700J48 renaissance inspired a new humanitarian sentiment, which on the side of
0710J48 penology found its effective expression in the writings of Beccaria.
0720J48 ^He condemned this brutality and urged the abolition of this punishment.
0730J48 ^His work did much to_ stimulate the growing sentiment against
0740J48 the death penalty. ^He was supported in his endeavour by all the
0750J48 enlightened thinkers of his time. ^While this amelioration of this policy
0760J48 was due primarily to the increase of humanitarian sentiment, it was
0770J48 also in part an outgrowth of the contemporaneous secularisation of thought,
0780J48 with the elimination of the idea of sin and retribution and the
0790J48 increasing acceptance of the utilitarian principle laid down by Beccaria
0800J48 and embodied in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man
0810J48 that "the right to_ punish is limited by the law of necessity."
0820J48 ^As a result of this movement treason and wilful murder were, as a
0830J48 general rule, the only offences punishable with death. $^The Penal
0840J48 Code enacted as it was in 1860, was based upon Neo-classical theory
0850J48 of Crimes. ^The whole scheme of the Code is essentially built upon
0860J48 the theory of 'free will.' ^It postulates a free agent confronted
0870J48 with a choice between doing right and wrong and choosing freely to_
0880J48 do wrong. ^To_ counteract that_ free will it objectively lays down
0890J48 precise doses of punishment to_ strike terror in the minds of prospective
0900J48 offenders and to_ deter them by show of force. ^The fact that offences
0910J48 are classified and divided with respect to gradations in gravity
0920J48 and the fact that the severity of punishment in proportionate to the
0930J48 gravity of the offence, shows that it belongs to an era when punishment
0940J48 based upon the degree of 'vicious will' was thought to_ be the
0950J48 only or the best means of coping with anti-social behaviour. ^The
0960J48 First Law Commission of which \0Mr. (afterward Lord) Macaulay
0970J48 was the President who drafted the Indian Penal Code, were giving
0980J48 expression to the contemporary conceptions and practices when they
0990J48 recommended death penalty as a mode of punishment. ^And the \0I.P.C.
1000J48 in keeping with the same practice, prescribes capital punishment
1010J48 only for offences arising out of treason or murder. ^The authors of
1020J48 the Code observed "We are convinced that it ought to_ be very sparingly
1030J48 inflicted, and we propose to_ employ it only in cases where
1040J48 either murder or the highest offence against the State has been committed..."
1050J48 $^The \0I.P.C. provides it as a punishment for the following
1060J48 offences-- Death penalty is the punishment which must be awarded
1070J48 for the offence of murder or its attempt by a person who is undergoing
1080J48 a sentence of imprisonment for life (Sections 303 and 307
1090J48 \0I.P.C.). ^Sentence of death may also be awarded in the following
1100J48 offences as an alternative with imprisonment for life: $(**=1) ^Waging
1110J48 or attempting to_ wage war against the Government of India (\0Sec.
1120J48 121 \0I.P.C.). $(**=2) ^Abetting mutiny by an officer, soldier,
1130J48 sailor or airman in the Army, Navy or Air Force of the Union of
1140J48 India if the mutiny is actually committed in consequence thereof
1150J48 (\0Sec. 132 \0I.P.C.). $(**=3) ^Giving or fabricating false evidence
1160J48 upon which an innocent person suffers death (\0Sec. 194 \0I.P.C.).
1170J48 $(**=4) ^Abetment of suicide of a minor, insane or intoxicated person
1180J48 (\0Sec. 305 \0I.P.C.). $(**=5) ^Murder (\0Sec. 302 \0I.P.C.).
1190J48 $(**=6) ^Attempt to_ murder by a person under sentence of imprisonment
1200J48 for life, if hurt is caused to any person by such act (\0Sec.
1210J48 307 second \0para). $(**=7) ^Dacoity accompanied with murder
1220J48 (\0sec. 396 \0I.P.C.). $^Credit is no doubt due to the framers of
1230J48 the \0I.P.C. for their successful attempt to_ restrict the scope
1240J48 of capital punishment in accordance with contemporary penological
1250J48 thought and practice. ^But almost contemporaneously with the passing
1260J48 of the \0I.P.C. a vigorous movement for the total abolition of death
1270J48 penalty gained ground throughout the world. $^Though the retention
1280J48 as well as the abolition of capital punishment has been advocated
1290J48 from the earliest times; it was only since the last century that
1300J48 the wisdom has been hotly debated. ^Yet it has continued and opinion
1310J48 is still divided on its expediency or justifiability. ^The question
1320J48 whether the State has the right to_ take away a man*'s life has
1330J48 often been agitated, but it is a question upon which the moralist and
1340J48 the jurists are never likely to_ agree. ^All the same the tendency
1350J48 of modern times has been to_ abolish capital punishment. ^The gradual
1360J48 enlightenment of succeeding generations, the crusading by various
1370J48 groups against it and its abolition in various countries, have all assisted
1380J48 in the gradual loss of support for this vestige of a crude and
1390J48 more retributive past. $^It is proposed that capital punishment should
1400J48 be abolished. ^For substantiating this contention, the theories by
1410J48 which this form of punishment is justified have to_ be examined,
1420J48 its consistency with modern humanitarian movement has to_ be appraised
1430J48 and the undesirable consequences of this punishment explained. $^Capital
1440J48 punishment has been justified from the earliest times with
1450J48 reference to the Retributive and the Deterrent theories of punishment.
1460J48 ^It has been argued that the end of criminal law should be retribution;
1470J48 \0i.e. infliction of pain upon criminals as retaliation for their
1480J48 crimes, the punishment being proportionate to their offences. ^Since
1490J48 the formulation of Hammurabi*'s Code (1875 \0B.C.) "an eye for
1500J48 an eye and a tooth for a tooth" was accepted by the general public
1510J48 as the ultimate end of criminal law. ^Conception of retributive justice
1520J48 still retains a prominent place in popular thought. ^It flourishes
1530J48 also in the writings of theologians and even among the philosophers
1540J48 it does not lack advocates. ^Its first systematic development is
1550J48 to_ be found in the ethical writings of Kant, Hegel and their followers,
1560J48 such as Stammler and Kohber. ^*Kant, for example, expresses
1570J48 the opinion that punishment cannot rightly be inflicted for the sake
1580J48 of any benefit to_ be derived from it either by the criminal himself
1590J48 or by the society and that the sole and sufficient reason and justification
1600J48 of it lies in the fact that evil has been done by him who
1610J48 suffers it. ^*Stephen observes "The Criminal Law stands to the passion
1620J48 of revenge in much the same relation as marriage to the sexual appetite."
1630J48 ^The retributive theory is an ancient one cannot be denied, **[sic**]
1640J48 and it may be that, as Broadly has said, it represents the unstudied
1650J48 belief of most men. ^We may also agree with Bentham that "there can
1660J48 be no doubt that revenge is sweet even to modern man... ^The pleasure
1670J48 of vengeance calls to my mind sermon*'s riddle... it is sweet coming
1680J48 out of the terrible, it is the honey dropping from the lion*'s mouth.
1690J48 $^The adherents of this theory are few in number, and it has been
1700J48 severely criticised as being inhuman and out of date. ^It has been
1710J48 criticised by Sheldon Glueck who maintains that we naturally hate
1720J48 criminals but to_ base a policy of social protection upon the hatred of
1730J48 those who commit such act is both uneconomical and unjust. \0^*Dr.
1740J48 White is also of the same view. $^The critics of the retributive theory
1750J48 deny that it is self-evident that retribution is just. ^It is said
1760J48 what necessity there is, apart from a concern of social consequences,
1770J48 that evil be repaid with punishment rather than ignored. ^The criminal
1780J48 law, like any other body of law, having a political sanction, is
1790J48 an instrument of the State. ^Throughout the history of human thought,
1800J48 it has been argued that the ultimate end of the State should be the
1810J48 welfare of its members, and that both law and punishment should serve
1820J48 the same end, and they are just if they serve this end.*#
        **[no. of words = 02030**]

        **[txt. j49**]
0010J49 **<*3ANTIQUATED MARRIAGE LAWS*0**> $"*3*4^TALAQ*0, *4Talaq, *4Talaq",
0020J49 Ghiyassudin Ahmed, piqued for some reason with his beautiful young
0030J49 wife Anisa Khatun, decided to_ divorce her during the course
0040J49 a conversation with two friends. ^The fact that she was absent at the
0050J49 time of the triple repudiation made little difference to its validity--
0060J49 he didn*'4t owe her an explanation under the law. ^Four days
0070J49 later he executed a deed of divorce verifying the oral pronouncement.
0080J49 ^Time passed but neither spouse remarried-- their mutual attachment
0090J49 for each other had survived the bad marital spat. ^*Anisa moved
0100J49 back into her husband*'s house and five children were born out of the
0110J49 union. ^Trouble began however, when Ghiyassudin*'s relatives decided
0120J49 they had a stake in his property by casting aspersions on the legitimacy
0130J49 of his children. ^*Ghiyassudin decided to_ settle the escalating
0140J49 feud by taking the matter to court-- where it was held that since
0150J49 the words of the divorce were "clear and effectual", an irrevocable
0160J49 divorce had, in fact, taken place. ^In order to_ have legalised her
0170J49 subsequent cohabitation with her husband, Anisa should have conformed
0180J49 with the basic tenets of the Muslim law: married a second man and
0190J49 after the consummation of that_ marriage sought a divorce or alternatively,
0200J49 waited for his death, before remarrying her first husband.
0210J49 ^Since such an intermediate marriage had not taken place the court
0220J49 held that the five children were illegitimate despite an acknowledgement
0230J49 of paternity by their father. $^Fantastic as it may sound, that
0240J49 law had originally been designed to_ protect women against temporary
0250J49 repudiation by an irate husband. ^But like several anachronistic
0260J49 marriage laws tolerated in this country, its preservation long after
0270J49 its historical justification had ceased to_ exist, made it a potent
0280J49 deterrent to a happy marriage. ^This law, for example, had its antecedents
0290J49 in the infamous Pre-Isalamic Arab practice of keeping wives in
0300J49 perpetual bondage by pretending to_ take them back after repeated divorces
0310J49 merely to_ prevent them from remarrying and seeking the much-needed
0320J49 protection of a husband. ^In modern times however, the same law
0330J49 can inflict unnecessary suffering, as illustrated by the case of
0340J49 Rashid Ahmed \0vs. Anisa Khatun. $^Although 30 years have elapsed
0350J49 since Independence, little effort has been made to_ bring the personal
0360J49 laws of different communities-- woefully at variance with one
0370J49 another-- on par. ^Thus, a Muslim man alone can take four wives and
0380J49 a Muslim woman is the only one who can get a divorce if her husband
0390J49 has been sentenced to imprisonment for seven years. ^A Christian
0400J49 woman on the other hand, is the only one who cannot obtain a divorce
0410J49 on the grounds of adultry alone, she has to_ prove a second offense
0420J49 such as bigamy incest or abnormal cruelty. ^Again, the Parsis are
0430J49 the only community where insanity of one spouse after marriage does
0440J49 not entitle the other to a divorce. ^Although a number of eminent
0450J49 lawyers have demanded a uniformity in the laws that_ govern different
0460J49 communities in this country, little effort has been made by the legislature
0470J49 to_ treat all Indians as equal. ^One excuse is the political
0480J49 exploitation of religious sentiment. ^Having declared India a secular
0490J49 state where freedom of worship is a fundamental right most community
0500J49 leaders hesitate to_ introduce legislation which will antagonise
0510J49 the more arthodox-- and cost them votes in the next election. ^The
0520J49 result: a number of Indian women continue to_ be held in subjugation
0530J49 by laws which, anywhere else in the world, would be considered
0540J49 outmoded. ^Take, for instance, the Muslim law. $^*Iran, Turkey,
0550J49 Syria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Iraq, Pakistan and Bangladesh-- all
0560J49 these Muslim states have introduced legislation of varying degrees
0570J49 to_ correct the abuse of polygamy. ^In India however, partisan politics
0580J49 make any such legislative effort impossible. ^Yet a social system
0590J49 which allows a man to_ take four wives (but sues a woman with bigamy
0600J49 if she takes a second husband), is hardly conducive to equality
0610J49 between the sexes. ^Not surprisingly, we find the Muslim woman has
0620J49 fewer rights than any other in this country. $^Take for instance, divorce.
0630J49 ^A Muslim man, says the law, still continues to_ enjoy a complete,
0640J49 unilateral right to_ divorce-- he may exercise this right "whenever
0650J49 he desires without assigning any cause"-- whereas a woman can only
0660J49 do so on certain grounds. ^Thus a delicate situation arises with the
0670J49 taking of a second wife. ^One woman who filed a divorce suit against
0680J49 her husband on the ground that his second marriage amounted to cruelty,
0690J49 was summarily told by the court that so long as he treated both
0700J49 wives "equally" she had no cause for complaint-- bringing us to another
0710J49 archaic custom. $^A dower (*4mahr) is the sum of money fixed upon a
0720J49 woman by her husband or his family, at the time of her betrothal, for
0730J49 a Muslim marriage is considered a "purely civil contract and not
0740J49 a sacrament." ^A woman*'s dower therefore is usually commensurate with
0750J49 her "age, beauty, fortune and virtue." ^Whether it is as low as \0*4Rs.
0760J49 40 (the Bohras consider it a point of honour not to_ demand more)
0770J49 or as high as a *4lakh (certain families in \0U.P., Hyderabad and
0780J49 the Deccan measure a husband*'s ability to_ earn by his *4mahr) it
0790J49 is a woman*'s only economic security in the event of a divorce. (^There
0800J49 is no recognition of alimony in Muslim law.) ^Even this right is
0810J49 lost to a woman who refuses to_ "obey the reasonable commands of her
0820J49 husband." $^Further, a woman whose marriage has not been consummated for
0830J49 some reason (including impotency of the husband), is only entitled
0840J49 to half her dower. ^In case the terms of the dower have not been
0850J49 specified earlier, the husband can actually get away by making his wife
0860J49 a "gift of three articles of clothing". ^It is astonishing, to_ say
0870J49 the least, that such is the law in this day and age. ^Yet it was as late
0880J49 as 1973 before a woman was able to_ win maintenance rights for herself
0890J49 and her minor children under another law, namely section 125 of
0900J49 the Criminal Procedure Code. $^With a divorce comes further discriminatory
0910J49 legislation. ^To_ begin with, a woman is prohibited from
0920J49 remarrying within three months of the dissolution of her previous
0930J49 marriage. ^This term is called the *4iddat and is a period of continence
0940J49 imposed on a woman to_ ascertain the interests of paternity.
0950J49 ^A marriage with a woman before the completion of her *4iddat is "irregular"--
0960J49 in that her marriage is invalid but her children are legitimate.
0970J49 $^Should a woman wish to_ remarry, she can only do so within the
0980J49 community. ^For the law declares any marriage between a Muslim woman
0990J49 and an infidel to_ be *4batii or void. ^A Muslim man, on the oher
1000J49 hand, may marry a Jewess or a Christian but not an idolatress or a
1010J49 fire worshipper unless he does so under the Special Marriage Act
1020J49 of 1954. ^This law, which has its antecedents in political safety (Moghul
1030J49 emperors of India married Hindu Rajput ladies) is no longer
1040J49 relevant in a secular India where all religions are tolerated. $^What
1050J49 happens in the case of a married Muslim who goes abroad and there
1060J49 decides to_ marry an English Christian woman according to the law?
1070J49 ^Is such a union valid? ^The question is specially relevant in view
1080J49 of the large number of Asians migrating to England, America and
1090J49 Canada. ^In an old case, the Nawab Nizam of Bengal, who had two
1100J49 living wives, went to England and married an English woman in Muslim
1110J49 fashion. ^Later, he acknowledged the marriage and the children
1120J49 born of it. ^Still later, he married a second English wife. ^The first
1130J49 one refused to_ live with him. ^When the matter came to court, the
1140J49 magistrate decided that since the Muslim form of marriage was not
1150J49 recognised in England it was not binding on any spouse of English
1160J49 domicile. ^But since the father had recognised the children as legitimate
1170J49 (and they were legitimate under Muslim law) they could not
1180J49 be considered otherwise. ^The curious result was that the marriage itself
1190J49 was held to_ be invalid but the children legitimate. ^Later legislations
1200J49 have removed the anomaly by stating that any marriage between
1210J49 an Englishwoman and a previously married Hindu or Muslim male would
1220J49 be declared a nullity. $^The law however, has not been so enlightened
1230J49 about other injustices. ^Take, for instance, the position of a mother
1240J49 *8vis a vis*9 her children. ^The right to_ contract a minor child
1250J49 in marriage belongs successively to the father, paternal grandfather,
1260J49 brothers and other relatives on the father*'s side. ^A marriage
1270J49 brought about by any other person is wholly ineffective unless it is
1280J49 ratified by the minor on attaining puberty. ^Only when there are no
1290J49 paternal relations answering to the above description does a mother
1300J49 have the right to_ give her child in marriage. ^Such discrimination
1310J49 between parents on the grounds of their sex, can lead to an unhappy
1320J49 situation in the case of say, a window who may be forced by her husband*'s
1330J49 relatives to_ contract her daughter in a marriage she may not
1340J49 approve of. ^In the case of divorced or separated parents, the woman*'s
1350J49 position is even more tenuous: she is entitled to the custody
1360J49 of a male child up to the age of seven years and a female child until
1370J49 she attains puberty. ^But a woman who has been divorced and has married
1380J49 a second time, "is not a better person suited to_ have the
1390J49 custody of a minor," than the father, "however unsuitable the father
1400J49 may be." $*<*3THE PARSIS*0*> $^The Parsi Law of Marriage and Divorce
1410J49 of 1936 is one of the earliest of all marriage laws in India. ^It
1420J49 came into existence at a time when there was no Hindu law for divorce
1430J49 and Muslims were governed by their personal law (which did not
1440J49 recognise a woman*'s right to_ divorce). ^For the first time in 1947,
1450J49 the state of Bombay, as it was then called, recognised Hindu divorce
1460J49 and made bigamy a crime. ^In 1955 came the All India Act for Dissolution
1470J49 of Marriage which, by a subsequent amendment in 1976, made divorce
1480J49 still easier: a single act of extra-marital sex or desertion
1490J49 for two years was recognised as a ground for divorce. ^The Special
1500J49 Marriage Act, 1954, even made divorce by mutual consent legal. ^Although
1510J49 the laws of divorce applicable to Hindus and under the Special
1520J49 Marriage Act have undergone tremendous change, says eminent lawyer
1530J49 Feroze Vakil, the Parsi matrimonial laws, which were one of the
1540J49 earliest, remain unchanged. $^As things stand, spouses bent on dissolving
1550J49 a marriage can only do so by collusion-- a hypocritical state
1560J49 of affairs that_ is confirmed by a survey of the last five years
1570J49 which proves that few divorce cases were ever contested and even fewer
1580J49 fought to the bitter end. ^The most popular ground for divorce today,
1590J49 is "constructive desertion" which means that a couple claims to
1600J49 live under the same roof but have had no marital relationship for the
1610J49 last three years. ^Although it is widely suspected that a large number
1620J49 of desertion charges are false, helplessness forces many couples
1630J49 to put up a false case since cruelty and incompatibility are not
1640J49 recognised by Parsi law as a sufficient ground for divorce. (^A similar
1650J49 parallel can be seen in the case of the Hindus who resorted to
1660J49 impotency charges as a ground for dissolving unhappy marriages prior to
1670J49 the amendments of 1976.) $^Perhaps the most glaring example of inequality
1680J49 in Parsi personal laws can be seen in the case of insanity.
1690J49 ^If a spouse becomes insane after marriage, or the other spouse knew
1700J49 of the insanity at the time of marriage and waited three years before
1710J49 filing a suit, the aggrieved party is not entitled to a divorce.
1720J49 ^Thus, if one spouse goes insane after marriage, the other has no choice
1730J49 but to_ bear it. ^Since bigamy is punishable under the law, the
1740J49 only other option open to a spouse is an illicit relationship. ^Yet
1750J49 all other communities allow divorce in cases where the husband or
1760J49 wife has been insane for three years before filing the suit and it
1770J49 is unfair for an aggrieved party, who is blameless, to_ be tied to
1780J49 a miserable marriage.*#
        **[no. of words = 02031**]

        **[txt. j50**]
0010J50 **<*3Limitations on Constitutional Amendment*0**> $*<*3Basic Structure
0020J50 Principle Re-examined*0*> $*3^THE SUPREME COURT*'S DECISION*0
0030J50 in *3Kesavananda Bharati*0 \0v. *3State of Kerala*0 has shown
0040J50 us new horizons of judicial review. ^In *3Kesavananda Bharati*0
0050J50 the majority justices held that Parliament did not have the power to_
0060J50 tamper with the basic structure of the Constitution. ^This decision
0070J50 circumscribed the power of Parliament to_ amend the Constitution
0080J50 and since what the basic structure is has not been defined, the
0090J50 basic structure is that_ which the Court will define from time to time.
0091J50 ^In India, for quite some time,
0100J50 we debated whether the Court should have the power to_ review a
0110J50 constitutional amendment. ^Theoretically, there cannot be any doubt that
0120J50 Parliament being the representative of the people, must be in a position
0130J50 to_ have the Constitution changed to_ suit the needs of the
0140J50 community. ^Between the Court and Parliament the latter must be the
0150J50 final determiner of what the Constitution must contain. ^When therefore
0160J50 the Supreme Court held in *3Golak Nath*0 \0v. *3State of
0170J50 Punjab*0 that Parliament did not have the power to_ take away or
0180J50 abridge the fundamental rights through constitutional amendment, juristic
0190J50 opinion was almost unanimously against the decision. ^It is significant
0200J50 that ten out of thirteen Judges who heard *3Kesavananda*0
0210J50 also opined that *3Golak Nath*0 had been wrongly decided. ^The fundamental
0220J50 difference between *3Golak Nath*0 and *3Kesavananda*0 was
0230J50 that in the former, only fundamental rights were excluded from the reach
0240J50 of constitutional amendment, whereas in the latter a more nebulous
0250J50 restriction in the nature of unspecific "basic structure" was imposed
0260J50 on Parliament*'s power of constitutional amendment. *3^*Kesavananda*0
0270J50 gave to the Court even wider powers than it had claimed in *3Golak
0280J50 Nath*0. ^In terms of Parliament-Court relationship, one cannot
0290J50 defend *3Kesavananda*0 if one did not defend *3Golak Nath*0.
0300J50 ^Both have to_ be criticised from the same standpoint, and yet one finds
0310J50 that *3Kesavananda*0 has been accepted by juristic opinion which
0320J50 had rejected *3Golak Nath*0. ^The most notable example is *(0H.
0330J50 M.*) Seervai who in the first edition of his monumental work, *3Constitutional
0340J50 Law of India*0 had severely criticised *3Golak Nath*0 and
0350J50 had observed: "For reasons already given, it is submitted that the
0360J50 majority judgment is clearly wrong, is productive of the greatest
0370J50 public mischief and should be overruled at the earliest opportunity."
0380J50 ^*Seervai does not react in the same way to *3Kesavananda*0. ^Actually
0390J50 his writings immediately after *3Kesavananda*0 were consistent
0400J50 with his previous stand. ^He himself had argued in *3Kesavananda*0
0410J50 that Parliament*'s power to_ amend the Constitution extended to
0420J50 every provision of the Constitution and short of total abrogation or
0430J50 repeal, was unlimited. ^In the second edition of *3Constitutional
0440J50 Law*0 he observes that the decision of the Supreme Court in *3Indira
0450J50 Gandhi*0 \0v. *3Raj Narain*0 (which we shall call the Election
0460J50 Case) had thrown new light on *3Kesavananda*0. ^He says that "a critical
0470J50 discussion of *3Kesavananda*'s*0 Case, taken by itself, would be
0480J50 inaccurate and misleading without a discussion of the deeper analysis
0490J50 of the amending power in the Election Case." ^He further warns
0500J50 that "no one can now write on the amending power without taking into
0510J50 account the effect of the Election Case." ^He observes that when
0520J50 in the past (*3Golak Nath*0), Parliament*'s unlimited power of constitutional
0530J50 amendment was questioned, it was done on the fear that such
0540J50 power might be abused. ^Even in *3Kesavananda*0, this was the basis
0550J50 of the attack. ^But in the *3Election Case*0, the abuse of power
0560J50 was no longer a hypothetical possibility. ^It was no longer possible
0570J50 to_ speak of the air of unreality, "for Article 329(4) supplied
0580J50 the reality". ^*Seervai therefore rightly focusses our attention on
0590J50 the main problem. $*3^*Golak Nath*0 tended to_ make one part of
0600J50 the Constitution absolutely unamendable. ^In countering the argument
0610J50 of the majority, it had to_ be contended that Parliament had the power
0620J50 to_ amend each and every provision of the Constitution. ^It is
0630J50 true that a Constitution should not be unamendable, but the opposite
0640J50 of unamendability is not total and absolute amendability, ^*Seervai
0650J50 has given many examples of how various constitutions have imposed
0660J50 limitations on the power of constitutional amendment. ^This has been
0670J50 done to_ show that a Constitution does not become static and lifeless
0680J50 if some of its provisions are entrenched. ^The *3Kesavananda*0
0690J50 decision entrenches the basic structure of the Constitution. ^But
0700J50 the main objection against *3Kesavananda*0 is that the text of the
0710J50 Constitution nowhere mentions any such limitation. ^In the absence
0720J50 of a specific limitation in the Constitution, can the Court find it?
0730J50 ^And if the Court could find it in *3Kesavananda*0 what was wrong
0740J50 if it found a similar limitation in *3Golak Nath?*0 ^It will be
0750J50 pointed out in this paper that it is wrong to_ say that the Constitution
0760J50 does not mention any limitation regarding its basic structure.
0770J50 ^The constitutional interpretation adopted in *3Kesavananda*0 does
0780J50 not suffer from the infirmities which were inherent in Chief Justice
0790J50 Subba Rao*'s interpretation regarding articles 13(2) and 368
0800J50 in *3Golak Nath*0. ^Further, and more importantly, it will be shown
0810J50 that the *3Kesavananda*0 decision acquired legitimacy because of
0820J50 the subsequent developments. $^*I suggest that in spite of various
0830J50 cogent and sound arguments put forward by Seervai in support of the
0840J50 basic structure doctrine, he and many others came to_ favour that_
0850J50 doctrine mainly because of the experience during the Emergency. ^At
0860J50 least this writer is not shy of saying so, because he firmly believes
0870J50 that "the life of the law has not been logic, it has been experience".
0880J50 ^The way the Constitution was changed during this period showed
0890J50 us the dangers of vesting unlimited power of constitutional amendment
0900J50 in Parliament. ^If Parliament had not enacted measures such as
0910J50 the thirty-ninth and the forty-second amendments, one wonders whether
0920J50 the *3Kesavananda*0 decision would have received such support. ^We
0930J50 pointed out earlier that the premise in *3Kesavananda*0 is almost
0940J50 identical with that_ in *3Golak Nath*0. ^Both decisions sought to_ restrain
0950J50 Parliament from amending the Constitution; only, whereas *3Golak
0960J50 Nath*0 entrenched only the fundamental rights *3Kesavananda*0
0970J50 entrenched "the Basic Structure". ^In *3Golak Nath*0, Chief Justice
0980J50 Subba Rao had promised that in spite of their unamendability,
0990J50 the fundamental rights would expand or contract according to the needs
1000J50 of society and that this would be achieved through judicial interpretation.
1010J50 ^*Chief Justice Subba Rao did not say that fundamental rights
1020J50 could not be amended. ^He only said that they could not be "taken away"
1030J50 or "abridged". ^*Parliament*'s amendment would be subject to the
1040J50 Court*'s scrutiny, and would stand cancelled only if in the opinion of
1050J50 the Court it took away or abridged the fundamental rights. $*3^*Golak
1060J50 Nath*0 came under attack mainly because (**=1) it was interpreted
1070J50 as an attempt to_ save the right to property from further contraction
1080J50 through constitutional amendment; and (**=2) nobody seriously entertained
1090J50 the argument of fear that if Parliament possessed such power,
1100J50 it would abuse it. ^This writer had argued that Nath Pai*'s
1110J50 bill, which sought to_ undo *3Golak Nath*0, should be stayed until
1120J50 all the implications of that_ decision became obvious. ^It was hoped
1130J50 that if the Court really fulfilled its promise, the unamendability
1140J50 of fundamental rights canvassed by *3Golak Nath*0 might not come
1150J50 in the way of distributive justice. ^But later experience belied this
1160J50 hope and the decisions in *3*(0R. C.*) Cooper*0 \0v. *3Union
1170J50 of India*0 (The Bank Nationalisation Case) and *3Madhavrao Scindia*0
1180J50 \0v. *3Union of India*0 (the Privy Purse Case) showed that
1190J50 *3Golak Nath*0 could really be dangerous. ^One may or may not agree
1200J50 with the measures involved in these two cases but democracy demands
1210J50 that Parliament must have the freedom to_ make a choice between alternatives
1220J50 which are available. ^The range of such alternatives should
1230J50 be the widest possible and any judicial decision which tends to_ restrict
1240J50 it ultimately does harm not only to the political but also to the
1250J50 judicial process. $^It is against such judicial adventurism that the
1260J50 former Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi sought the mandate of the
1270J50 people in the general election held in 1971 to_ make "basic changes in
1280J50 the Constitution". ^The excessive judicial interference had made her
1290J50 case strong. ^She could convince the people that the Supreme Court
1300J50 and decisions like *3Golak Nath*0 were holding up the country*'s
1310J50 progress. ^It was no wonder that she won a landslide victory. ^The Constitution
1320J50 (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, which was enacted immediately
1330J50 after the election by the fifth *5Lok Sabha*6, sought to_ restore
1340J50 to Parliament the unlimited power of constitutional amendment.
1350J50 ^The validity of the twenty-fourth amendment was examined by the Supreme
1360J50 Court in *3Kesavananda*0 and although it upheld the amendment,
1370J50 it held that the basic structure of the Constitution could not be destroyed.
1380J50 ^In 1973, the decision appeared to_ be a sophisticated version
1390J50 of *3Golak Nath*0. ^From the policy standpoint, it was as questionable
1400J50 as *3Golak Nath*0. ^It meant that the Court would sit in judgement
1410J50 over the wisdom of Parliament and decide whether a constitutional
1420J50 amendment was valid. $*3^KESAVANANDA DID NOT ENJOY*0 legitimacy
1430J50 in 1973 because it was seen as an extension of Golak Nath. ^The
1440J50 very reasons which had impelled juristic opinion to_ oppose *3Golak
1450J50 Nath*0 also impelled it to_ oppose *3Kesavananda*0. ^It was rightly
1460J50 felt that Parliament must have the last word regarding the content
1470J50 of the Constitution. ^It was the Election Case that earned legitimacy
1480J50 for *3Kesavananda*0. ^While her appeal was pending, Parliament
1490J50 passed the thirty-ninth amendment, whose purpose was to_ withdraw election
1500J50 disputes involving the Prime Minister, the President, the
1510J50 Vice-President and the Speaker from the purview of the courts and to_
1520J50 provide separate machinery for their adjudication. ^The Attorney-General
1530J50 argued that the Court could not entertain the appeal in view
1540J50 of the thirty-ninth amendment, since it had declared that the election
1550J50 of the Prime Minister would continue to_ be valid and any decision
1560J50 of any court to the contrary would be void. \0^*Mr Shanti Bhushan,
1570J50 Counsel for Raj Narain, argued that the thirty-ninth amendment
1580J50 was void, as it destroyed the basic structure. $^The Attorney-General
1590J50 had the following options: (**=1) he could have argued that the
1600J50 Court should reconsider *4Kesavananda; (**=2) he could have argued that
1610J50 in fact the ratio of *3Kesavananda*0 was not that the basic structure
1620J50 could not be altered and that there was no ratio regarding Parliament*'s
1630J50 power of constitutional amendment in that_ case; or (**=3)
1640J50 he could have accepted *3Kesavananda*0 as binding and argued that
1650J50 the impugned amendment did not hit the basic structure. ^The Attorney-General
1660J50 adopted the third option. ^This was the first opportunity
1670J50 since *3Kesavananda*0 to_ raise objection against that_ decision.
1680J50 ^Why did the Attorney-General not raise it? ^Why did he accept the
1690J50 decision as binding? ^We surmise that had the issue been of an impersonal
1700J50 nature like the right to property, the Attorney-General would
1710J50 have seized this opportunity to_ get *3Kesavananda*0 overruled
1720J50 but the impugned amendment being morally indefensible, the Attorney-General
1730J50 thought it wise not to_ re-open the question of amendability
1740J50 and confined his argument to the validity of the thirty-ninth
1750J50 amendment. ^Without overruling *3Kesavananda*0 also the Court could
1760J50 uphold the amendment. ^The Attorney-General decided to_ take a chance
1770J50 but I am of the view that this amounted to acquiescence in the
1780J50 validity of *3Kesavananda*0. $*3^THE SUPREME COURT DECISION*0 in the
1790J50 Election Case achieved two things. (**=1) it gave legitimacy to Indira
1800J50 Gandhi*'s continuance as Prime Minister, and (**=2) it gave legitimacy
1810J50 to the *3Kesavananda*0 decision. ^True, since the decisions of
1820J50 the four judges (Ray *(0C.J.*), Khanna, Mathew and Chandrachud
1830J50 *(0JJ*).) were based on the retroactive amendment of the Election
1840J50 law, it may be argued that the decision did not make Indira Gandhi*'s
1850J50 continuance legitimate. ^This is debatable, because if we accept
1860J50 the assumption that the Allahabad judgement deprived her of legitimacy,
1870J50 then we have to_ agree that the Supreme Court decision restored
1880J50 her legitimacy. ^Ordinary people do not understand the intricacies
1890J50 of the law; they only know that whereas the Allahabad High Court
1900J50 held against her, the Supreme Court decided in her favour. ^Further,
1910J50 it may be argued that as one judge of the Allahabad High Court
1920J50 held her election void, one judge of the Supreme Court, Beg *(0J.*)
1930J50 (as he then was) upheld her election even independently of the retroactive
1940J50 amendments.*#
        **[no. of words = 02005**]

        **[txt. j51**]
0010J51 **<*3*4Tamas Rajas-Satva*0**> $^The Professor was musing on a problem.
0020J51 ^There was a knock at the door. ^His old student was standing
0030J51 outside. ^The Professor immediately recognised him, and was happy to_
0040J51 meet him. ^And so was the student. $^The student told the Professor,
0050J51 that after leaving the college, he had to_ wander a lot.
0051J51 ^He tried to_ have a good job which
0060J51 satisfied his views, but he found himself driven from place to place.
0070J51 ^He wasted quite a bit of his precious time, often becoming dejected
0080J51 to a maddening point. ^Then one day he decided to_ accept the
0090J51 next available job, and work for it with his maximum ability and without
0100J51 remorse. ^The job he had now was not bad. ^It was in a colliery.
0110J51 ^At first he did not like it, but resolved to_ work properly and
0120J51 diligently and make a success of his assignment whatever it be. ^The
0130J51 result was marvellous. ^He had found some success and he liked the
0140J51 job very much. $^He further told the Professor that this was not
0150J51 enough, and that his interest in life did not end with his job. ^The
0160J51 student told him that he had joined an underground organisation which
0170J51 gave him an opportunity to_ muse on the distribution of forces,
0180J51 their changing attributes, the behaviour of an ordinary man as against
0190J51 a highly intelligent and courageous man, and also the relation between
0200J51 body and mind of an individual. ^The student told him, though
0210J51 he had come to_ meet him as many years had gone by, he would now utilise
0220J51 the time to_ ask him many questions pertaining to body and mind,
0230J51 their relation with each other and also with *4Tamasi, *4Rajsi
0240J51 and *4Satvi forces or states. $^The Professor was glad to_ find
0250J51 his old pupil so much interested in philosophical and analytical ways
0260J51 of life. ^He asked the student whether he had any chance of discussing
0270J51 these questions with any one else before. $^The student replied,
0280J51 "I had met some *4Swamis, who had been instrumental in telling me
0290J51 a little about the 3 words-- *4Tamas *4Rajas *4Satva-- but that their
0300J51 interpretation was vague, and when asked for further explanation,
0310J51 they would cleverly twist their reply and pose that they knew but
0320J51 failed to_ satisfy me. ^They excelled in quoting any number of lines
0330J51 or even full pages from old scriptures. ^For any question I would ask
0340J51 them, they would quickly recite parrot-like, many quotations from
0350J51 'Geeta', just to_ impress me though these references would have no
0360J51 connection with my question. ^They seemed to_ have very little knowledge
0370J51 about what they were saying." $^The Professor was not surprised.
0380J51 ^He knew the limitations of the common *4Pandit and *4Swami.
0390J51 ^He also knew that this type of *4Pandit or *4Swami, looked upon religion
0400J51 as a profession and as a source of livelihood, and accordingly
0410J51 could not think deeply-- his basic function being how to_ console
0420J51 his disciples and win over more people to_ become his disciples. $^The
0430J51 Professor then said, "I am glad that you are here today. ^*I will tell
0440J51 you what you want. ^The word "*4Tamasi" is the adjective of the word
0450J51 "*4Tamas" which means gross energy or mass or body. ^Likewise, the
0460J51 word "*4Rajsi" is the adjective of the word "*4Raja" or "King". ^In
0470J51 any country the King rules over his people or his subjects, in other
0480J51 words *4Raja rules or controls his *4Praja. ^The relationship
0490J51 between the two is called *4Praja-Raja relationship, or *4Raja-Praja
0500J51 Effect. ^This relationship is found throughout the nature everywhere.
0510J51 *4^*Tamas is another word to_ represent *4Praja or the Body of a
0520J51 nation *4^*Raja is the controlling part of the nation and *4Praja
0530J51 the controlled part. ^In other words, *4Rajsi part of the nation \0i.e.
0540J51 *4Raja controls the *4Tamasi part of the nation which is *4Praja.
0550J51 ^In order that you understand this basic principle properly, think
0560J51 as many examples as possible. $"^Think of a word, in any language.
0570J51 ^You will find a consonant and a vowel making up every word even the
0580J51 smallest word. ^Without a vowel no consonant can be pronounced or written.
0590J51 ^Likewise, without a consonant no vowel can be pronounced or
0600J51 written. ^Do you have any doubt in what I say? ^The consonant is the
0610J51 body or *4Praja part or *4Tamasi part of the word and the vowel
0620J51 is the controlling part or *4Rajsi part. ^The *4Tamasi part is sometimes
0630J51 called the gross part and the *4Rajsi part is then called the
0640J51 subtle part. ^Now think of your own self. ^Your body is the *4Tamasi
0650J51 or gross part and your mind is the *4Rajsi or subtle part which
0660J51 controls the body. $"^Now suppose you go to a barber to_ have your
0670J51 hair cut or dressed. ^The hair which have been cut have their body,
0680J51 which get a separate name after being cut. ^Your body remains to_
0690J51 be called body but now has less hair. ^That_ means your body has been
0700J51 changed. ^The hair which have been cut have their own *4Tamasi part
0710J51 which is the body or the gross part of the hair, while the mind of
0720J51 the hair or subtle part of the hair keeps on controlling the hair. ^Your
0730J51 body goes on changing every instant and so does your mind. ^Under
0740J51 all changed conditions, the changing *4Rajsi part or the mind, keeps
0750J51 on controlling, the changing body or the *4Tamasi part or the
0760J51 gross part. ^Likewise there are thousands and millions of examples where
0770J51 the gross body or the gross energy or the *4Tamasi part of the
0780J51 energy can be easily seen being controlled and guided by the subtle
0790J51 mind or *4Rajsi part of the energy. $"^You must be wondering why
0800J51 I have not told you, anything about the *4Satvi part. ^The reason
0810J51 is simple. *4^*Satvi part is the *4Atma or the Spirit of every material
0820J51 or every person. ^It is a constant unfathomable energy, or a universal
0830J51 energy, which forms the basis of all creation or all matter.
0840J51 ^It is not divisible. ^So, while analysing, whether you keep this
0850J51 word "*4Satvi" before you or not, your analysis does not change. $"^This
0860J51 analysis can be applied to every one. ^Most people are ordinary
0870J51 gullible and easy going. ^They have many desires and they wish that
0880J51 their desires be fulfilled quickly and without much effort on their
0890J51 part. ^They are easily influenced and swayed by any crafty person.
0900J51 ^They become an easy prey to ceremonies and rituals, specially when
0910J51 told to_ do so, by their *4Pandits or *4Swamis, or *4Gurus. ^These
0920J51 people can be controlled by others, and are classified under the
0930J51 category of disciples or *4Praja or *4Bhaktas who would always need
0940J51 protection and shelter of their *4Guru or Master. ^However, when
0950J51 they get shelter it is but certain that they will also get the shadow
0960J51 of their protector. ^In other words, they are dependent on others
0970J51 but not on self. ^Accordingly, they are *4Tamasi persons, and the
0980J51 degree of their being *4Tamasi is according to the degree of their
0990J51 dependence on others and according to the degree of their being controlled
1000J51 by others. ^Simultaneously those few who extend their control
1010J51 on the above *4Tamasi persons are *4Rajsi to the extent of their
1020J51 control exercised on *4Tamasi Persons. $"^Every one in his childhood
1030J51 is a *4Tamasi person. ^If while growing up, he amasses strength,
1040J51 intelligence, education and experience, he begins to_ know his mind
1050J51 and then if he is able to_ understand his fear and is able to_
1060J51 control it, he will be able to_ control his body also. ^He will have
1070J51 to_ face danger to_ know fear, he will have to_ appear for a test
1080J51 to_ know the fear attached to_ failure, and likewise if he tests
1090J51 his ability to_ control fear, he will be called a *4Rajsi person.
1100J51 ^He will then have the capability to_ control others, who will follow
1110J51 his dictates or his advice and work under him. ^These fellows will
1120J51 be *4Tamasi persons under control of the *4Rajsi leader. $"^You
1130J51 must know that a *4Rajsi person must necessarily guide his followers
1140J51 towards a path which he himself follows. ^You may wish to_ be a leader
1150J51 to_ lead others, but over your wish, you must put your wisdom
1160J51 and find out whether you are a leader to_ lead yourself first. ^There
1170J51 are innumerable deceivers who often show a wrong path to their guillible
1180J51 followers and still call themselves leaders or *4Rajsi persons.
1190J51 ^You must be careful and remain away from these deceivers. $"^You must
1200J51 also know here that no person is a *4Satvi person. ^Perfect fearlessness
1210J51 or "*4Abhayam" is the proof of *4Satvi state. ^But as long
1220J51 as you or anyone else has this body and mind, there will be some
1230J51 fear. ^You can reach a *4Satvi State, if you can become perfectly
1240J51 fearless even for a fraction of a second in front of danger. ^Then in
1250J51 that_ case you are a *4Satvi person for that_ fraction of a second
1260J51 only. ^If there is no danger or if you are not tested, the question
1270J51 of your being *4Satvi does not arise. ^Accordingly, if anyone tells
1280J51 you that he is a *4Satvi person because he is a *4Swami or *4Guru
1290J51 or a *4Brahmin, then take him for granted to_ be a cheat." $^The
1300J51 Professor continued after a little pause, "^No one is 100% *4Tamasi
1310J51 and no one 100% *4Rajsi. *4^*Tamasi state to *4Rajsi state, is a
1320J51 process, through which all persons have to_ pass. ^At any stage, every
1330J51 person, is therefore, partly *4Tamasi and partly *4Rajsi. ^But
1340J51 in general most people, most of the time have *4Tamasi qualities.
1350J51 ^Take one example of a chair, having 4 legs or 3 legs or 2 legs or
1360J51 only 1 leg. ^A chair with 4 legs gives complete protection from falling.
1370J51 ^A chair with 3 legs is also safe with very slight chance of tilting
1380J51 and falling. ^But a chair with 2 legs will topple and the person
1390J51 on it will fall, unless he has the art of balancing accurately. ^Lastly,
1400J51 a chair with one leg, is sure to_ topple, unless the person
1410J51 sitting on it is highly intellectual, highly alert, and highly expert
1420J51 to_ balance it and save it from falling. ^Now analyse this example
1430J51 and tell me the correct significance of every chair and then which
1440J51 of these 4 chairs would you like to occupy?" $"^Sir, the example of
1450J51 4 chairs is a very good example. ^It clarifies to a great extent, the
1460J51 relative position of a *4Tamasi and a *4Rajsi person. ^The chair
1470J51 with 4 legs is extremely stable and no effort is required to_ keep
1480J51 it safe from falling. ^Anyone who sits on this chair is a 100% *4Tamasi
1490J51 person as long as he occupies it. ^This chair is good for a lazy
1500J51 person who does not have any responsibility. ^It is to_ be understood
1510J51 that this chair is a visionary chair just for explaining the *4Tamasi
1520J51 state of a person having no responsibility. ^This person is a
1530J51 lazy person, doing only such jobs which do not require any effort or
1540J51 which he does for the sake of whiling away his time. ^This person is
1550J51 a timid and dull person, afraid at every step and is devoid of any
1560J51 intellect. ^He is an easy prey to ceremonies, specially superstitious ceremonies.
1570J51 ^This person depends fully upon the advice of others. ^The
1580J51 chair with 3 legs is not so stable. ^The person who occupies this
1590J51 visionary chair is a *4Tamasi person to a great extent, but is not
1600J51 a 100% *4Tamasi person. ^He has a tendency to_ while away most of
1610J51 his time and is ease loving but takes up small responsible jobs which
1620J51 require some intelligence. ^He is however, classified lazy and easily
1630J51 takes to superstitious ceremonies. $"^The chair with 2 legs is quite
1640J51 unstable, and will topple unless held under control. ^The person
1650J51 who sits on this visionary chair is a good *4Rajsi person as long
1660J51 as he sits on it and prevents it from toppling. ^He is not 100% *4Rajsi.
1670J51 ^He is sufficiently intelligent and brave to_ control this quite
1680J51 unstable chair or quite unstable situation.*#
        **[no. of words = 02009**]

        **[txt. j52**]
0010J52 **<*3Nature, Man, and God in the *4Vedas*0**> $*<*31. THE PROBLEM
0020J52 OF CAUSATION*> $*3^MAN IS*0 most concerned with his environment;
0030J52 the world in space and time. ^Hence, it is natural that when he becomes
0040J52 reflective, he wants to_ understand the nature of this world. ^The
0050J52 physical world seems to him the part and parcel of his life. ^When
0060J52 he tries to_ understand the nature of the physical world, the questions
0070J52 that_ come up are-- who has created this world; what are the
0080J52 constituent elements out of which it is created and how it is created?
0090J52 ^In other words, we want to_ know its efficient cause, the material
0100J52 cause, and the process of creation. $^Thus the problem of causation
0110J52 is the primary question in the understanding of the physical world--
0120J52 or what we call Nature. ^The *4Vedas, as is known, are more
0130J52 poetic in their content than logical. ^Still one can trace certain important
0140J52 ideas regarding causation behind the poetic imaginations. $^The
0150J52 principle of causation in the *4Vedas, the earliest literature
0160J52 of the Hindus, seems to_ appear in the concept of *4Rta. *4^*Rta represents
0170J52 the law, unity or rightness, underlying the orderliness we observe
0180J52 in the world. *4^*Rta, literally means the 'course of things'.
0190J52 ^This conception seems to_ have been originally derived from the
0200J52 regularity of the movements of the heavenly bodies like the sun, the
0210J52 moon, and the stars, the alternations of day and night and of the
0220J52 seasons. $^In the *4Vedas, there are no hymns addressed specifically
0230J52 to *4Rta, but brief references to the important concepts are found
0240J52 repeatedly in the hymns to *4Varuna (who maintains the physical order),
0250J52 *4Agni, *4Visvedevas \0etc. ^The following hymn will illustrate
0260J52 the point: **[verse**] $^Gradually the concept of *4Rta takes
0270J52 a new meaning-- from external physical order or uniformity of nature--
0280J52 it acquires the significance of a moral order. ^The whole world was
0290J52 thought to_ be governed by some universal principles and these were
0300J52 included under *4Rta. ^Thus the whole universe is controlled by
0310J52 *4Varuna who is not only the upholder of the physical order but also
0320J52 the custodian of moral order-- '*4Rtasyagopa' and who punishes the
0330J52 sinner. ^The following hymn is an example: **[verses**] $^In *4Rta,
0340J52 two fundamental concepts of equal importance, that_ of causality
0350J52 and that_ of morality, are rooted. ^As the principle of moral order
0360J52 of the world, it is the anticipation of the doctrine of *4Karma,
0370J52 one of the distinguishing features of Indian thought. ^Sacrifice
0380J52 was regarded as almost the only kind of duty, or *4karma. ^The creation
0390J52 of the world itself was even regarded as the fruit of sacrifice
0400J52 performed by the Supreme Being. ^So *4Rta furnishes us with the
0410J52 original idea of causality which is not only a physical principle
0420J52 but also a moral principle. ^It has been said: "The principle of
0430J52 *4Karman is the counterpart in the moral realm of the physical law
0440J52 of causality". $*<*32. THE CREATION OF THE WORLD*> $^It was
0450J52 but natural that in the beginning the human mind liked to_ divide
0460J52 the universe into two regions-- the Heaven and the Earth. ^The Heaven
0470J52 is above and the Earth is below. ^The Heaven and the Earth
0480J52 have been mentioned as the Father and the Mother of the world. ^They
0490J52 have also been mentioned as the twin sisters. **[verses**] $^The
0500J52 world is not merely what is encompassed by the two regions of the Heaven
0510J52 and the Earth, forming an inseparable pair like Father and
0520J52 Mother. ^The *4Vedic poets also sing about the third world; the
0530J52 atmospheric region between the Heaven and the Earth. ^It is mentioned
0540J52 as the middle sky or *4Antariksa. **[verses**] $^We also find further
0550J52 subdivision of each of them into three. ^The *4vedic poets speak
0560J52 of the three Earths, three Heavens and three *4Antariksas. **[verses**]
0570J52 $^It is difficult to_ work out the theory of the five elements,
0580J52 which seems to_ be a later development of philosophy in India,
0590J52 on the basis of the three divisions of the world into Earth, Air
0600J52 and Heaven. ^But \0Prof. *(0C.*) Kunhan Raja suggests this
0610J52 division to_ be equated with the Five Elements of a later stage.
0620J52 ^He observes: $^*I am inclined to_ equate this division of the world
0630J52 with 'Five Elements' of a later stage in the development of philosophy
0640J52 in India, the Elements being the Earth, the Water, the
0650J52 Fire, the Air, and the Ether (*4Akasa). ^The close relation of the
0660J52 first three of the Five Elements with the three worlds of the *4Veda,
0670J52 cannot escape the attention of even the most casual reader of the
0680J52 *4Vedas. ^The references to the sound, to language and to songs and
0690J52 the mysteries related to them, may be equated with the fifth Element,
0700J52 *4Akasa (Ether) which, according to later philosophy, is connected
0710J52 with sound, ^There are prayers to *4Vayu and *4Vata, both
0720J52 meaming Air. ^One may be tempted to connect this *4Vayu or *4Vata
0730J52 with the fourth Element. $^The question as to how this universe
0740J52 came into being seems to_ have been raised in the following statements:
0750J52 $^What was the place on which he gained a footing? $^Where found
0760J52 he anything, or how to_ hold by, $What time, the earth creating,
0770J52 *4Visvakarman $All seeing, with his might disclosed the heavens?
0780J52 $^What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, $from which they
0790J52 fashioned out the earth and heaven? $^Ye thoughtful men inquire
0800J52 within your spirit where on $he stood when he established all things.
0810J52 $^In the earlier stage, every god was looked upon as the creator
0820J52 of the universe. ^Every god that_ was considered as the supreme at
0830J52 one time or other must necessarily have made heaven and earth. ^Sometimes,
0840J52 the world is presented as a great architectural art. ^In the
0850J52 *4Rgveda, God Visnu is shown as having measured out the three worlds
0860J52 with his three steps: **[verses**] $^There are places where gods
0870J52 like Visvedevas, Indra, Agni, Maruts, and Trastar are spoken
0880J52 of as having made firm the earthly and the heavenly regions. **[verse**]
0890J52 $^But behind the plurality of the *4Vedic gods, there was something
0900J52 Real of which Agni, Indra, Varuna, \0etc. were only the forms.
0910J52 ^*Max Muller observes: $^So, it was with these names of the *4Vedic
0920J52 gods. ^They were all meant to_ express the Beyond, the Invisible
0930J52 behind the Visible, the Infinite within the Finite, the Supernatural
0940J52 above the Natural, the Divine, Omniprsent and Omnipotent.
0950J52 $^The oft-quoted lines in this connection are as follows: **[verse**]
0960J52 $^Among the *3architects of the universe *4Visvakarman, *4Hiranyagarbha
0970J52 and the Person are important. ^The *4Visvakarman is the
0980J52 maker of all. ^There are two hymns about him in the available text
0990J52 of the *4Rgveda. ^These hymns describe the process of the formation of
1000J52 the world with *4Visvakarman as the active agent in giving the form
1010J52 to the world. $^The question is raised as to which abode could he have
1020J52 been in when he created the world. ^He has eyes all round, he has
1030J52 his face turned in all directions. ^He, the one god, created the Heaven
1040J52 and the Earth, and in so doing he blew out with both his arms,
1050J52 with wings. ^What could have been the wood and the timber when he
1060J52 constructed the Heaven and the Earth? ^Wise man can ask this question
1070J52 as to what abode he had been in when he created the world. ^What
1080J52 were his highest abodes, intermediate abodes and the lowest ones? *4^*Visvakarman
1090J52 is asked to_ give instruction about oblations and
1091J52 also to_ perform the sacrifice with his own body.
1100J52 ^Through oblations, *4Visvakarman expands. ^He is asked to_ perform
1110J52 a sacrifice with the Heaven and the Earth. $^In the second poem,
1120J52 the different qualities of *4Visvakarman have been mentioned. ^He
1130J52 is the creator and the author of the diversifications in the world.
1140J52 ^He sees all, knows all the worlds, bearing the one name of the gods.
1150J52 ^The waters are spoken of as bearing the first 'Law' where all
1160J52 the gods had the vision. $^We find some clear information regarding
1170J52 the formation of the world in the hymn attributed to *4Hiranyagarbha.
1180J52 ^The hymn starts with a glorification of *4Hiranyagarbha, as
1190J52 the one who existed in the beginning at the head of all, the one lord
1200J52 of all that_ have come into existence. ^The hymn contains ten verses,
1210J52 and in the first nine of them there is refrain at the end, 'To
1220J52 which god may we make offerings?' ^He is described as supporting the
1230J52 Heaven and the Earth, as the giver of soul and strength, as one whose
1240J52 commands the gods adore, whose shadow both immortality and death
1250J52 are, as the king of all that_ breathe and that_ keep their eyes
1260J52 open, as the overlord of the bipeds and the quadrupeds, as the one
1270J52 to whom belong the snow-clad mountain and the oceans and the cardinal
1280J52 points. ^He made the Heaven and the Earth firm, he established the
1290J52 heaven, he measured out the space in the atmospheric regions. ^The
1300J52 Heaven and the Earth look upon him. ^The whole of immense waters
1310J52 went to him, bearing pregnancy creating the Fire. ^The life of gods
1320J52 was produced from him. ^He viewed the waters in his greatness, when
1330J52 the waters bore dexterity, when they produced the Sacrifice. ^He was
1340J52 the one God above all the gods. $^When we come to the '*4Sukta',
1350J52 attributed to '*4Purusa' as the source of the universe, we find a
1360J52 significant change. ^In the case of the *4Visvakarman and the *4Hiranyagarbha,
1370J52 they are only the active agents and the material cause
1380J52 is external. ^In the 'Supreme Person' we see, for the first time
1390J52 a monistic principle in which the efficient and material cause got united.
1400J52 ^The description appears in a Sukta of sixteen verses. ^Here
1410J52 we find the self-transformation of the Infinite one into the finite
1420J52 many. $^First there is a glorification of the '*4Purusa' as having
1430J52 a thousand heads, a thousand eyes and a thousand feet. ^He encompasses
1440J52 the whole world and stands out ten fingers beyond that. ^It is
1450J52 to_ be noted that *4Purusa is not wholly one with the world but beyond
1460J52 it. ^The idea of transcendence is suggested by the statement that
1470J52 he is ten fingers beyond the cosmos. ^This all is the *4Purusa, whatever
1480J52 had been and whatever will be. ^He lords over immortality. ^Such is his
1490J:2 greatness, and the '*4Purusa' is greater than what the whole world is
1500J52 just one quarter of His and the three quarters of His, the immortal,
1510J52 is in the Heaven. $^It is here that what is termed as *4Virat is
1520J52 said to_ have come out from the 'Supreme Person'. ^And another
1530J52 person, was produced out of it. ^This person, being born, surpassed
1540J52 the world both before and behind. ^When this person sacrificed (*4yajna),
1550J52 all the beings in the air, in the woods and in the villages were
1560J52 born. ^The *4Vedas arose out of this sacrifice. ^The various animals
1570J52 like the horses and the cows and the goats and sheep were also
1580J52 produced in this sacrifice. ^Here the entire process of creation is
1590J52 spoken of as a sacrifice (*4yajna). ^Here a question is raised about
1600J52 this *4Purusa that_ was transformed into material at the sacrifice
1610J52 by the gods as to what became of his face, arms, thighs, and feet.
1620J52 ^The reply that_ is given is that the wise people were his face, the
1630J52 warriors were his arms, the thighs became the traders and out of
1640J52 his feet were produced the manual labourers. ^The moon was born out
1650J52 of his mind and the sun from his two eyes. ^*Indra and the Fire were
1660J52 born from his face and the air came out of his breath. ^The atmosphere
1670J52 was produced out of his navel, and the heaven from his head.
1680J52 ^The earth was born from his two feet and the cardinal points came out
1690J52 of his ears. ^In this sacrifice, The Spring Season became the
1700J52 *4ghee, the Summer Season became the fuel and the Autumn became
1710J52 the oblation. ^The whole world was produced in this way. ^This is
1720J52 what happened when the gods performed the sacrifice with the *4Purusa.
1730J52 $^The Sukta concludes with a verse in which it is mentioned that
1740J52 this sacrifice performed by the gods became the first process of
1750J52 law. ^It is also said that in this sacrifice, the demi-gods (*4Sadhyas)
1760J52 and the poet-sages (*4Rsis) also participated.*#
        **[no. of words = 02027**]

        **[txt. j53**]
0010J53 **<*3TURN..? WHITHER...? TO....?*0**> $^Mysticism implies-- "The immediate
0020J53 experience of oneness with the Ultimate Reality." ^This is to_
0030J53 say that the mystic gets so acquainted with that_ Reality as to_
0040J53 be fully one with it, forgetting the distinction between 'I' and 'Thou'
0050J53 for ever. ^And this too without any media. ^Ultimate Reality means
0060J53 beyond which nothing remains to_ be known **[sic**] and from which there
0070J53 is no return. ^Another definition: "Mysticism denotes that_ attitude
0080J53 of mind which involves a direct, immediate, first-hand, intuitive apprehension
0090J53 of God." ^A Third one: "Mysticism is the science of *3ultimates*0...
0100J53 the science of self-evident Reality, which cannot be 'reasoned
0110J53 about', because it is the object of pure reason or perception.
0120J53 ^This means it is a science based on direct recognition of the
0130J53 Reality." ^Further, "Mysticism is the passionate longing of the soul
0140J53 for God, the Unseen Reality, loved, sought and adored in Himself
0150J53 for Himself alone." ^It is "the science of the love of God." "^*Bhagavad
0160J53 Gita specially refers to the vision of the Self by the
0170J53 Self" in *=6, 20 and so do the other scriptures. ^This vision actualized
0180J53 in the case of Arjuna (*=11-45.)" $*<*3Mysticism, a Science:*0*>
0190J53 $^The conception of Reality is a faked imagination, it may be
0200J53 argued. ^The reply of the mystics is: "Ours is an experimental science....
0210J53 ^We come to you not as thinkers, but as doers." ^They say, as in
0230J53 natural sciences you take something as hypothesis, work on it and
0240J53 prove its credibility, similarly, in this science of the Reality, take
0250J53 Its essence, the Being, who pervades the whole Universe including
0260J53 yourself in the form of a 'spark', as hypothesis: go by the way the
0270J53 saints have gone and realise yourself as Reality. ^The way may
0280J53 be arduous but the reward is priceless. ^There is a parable in the Chhandogya
0290J53 Upanishad (*=6-4). ^A man is robbed and taken away to a
0300J53 lonely place. ^His eyes are blindfolded and he is left in the wilderness.
0310J53 ^He cries piteously for help. ^After some time, someone removes
0320J53 the fold and points out the way to his village. ^Lone he walks in the
0330J53 dark inquiring the whereabouts on the way, but ultimately reaches
0340J53 home. ^So, to_ apprehend Reality is a journey homewards. ^This 'homing'
0350J53 instinct is born with man. "^There is something in man which longs
0360J53 for the perfect and the unchanging, and he is sure, in spite of the
0370J53 confusions, the evils, the rough and tumble of life, that the perfect
0380J53 and the unchanging is the Real." ^He is not satisfied with his lot,
0390J53 neither with that_ of others. ^Pain and death, uncertainty of life
0400J53 and fortune, stand stark naked before him. ^Even if he is well-off,
0410J53 he feels something is wanting. ^If he turns towards the path that_
0420J53 the saints have trodden, he gradually gets satisfaction, peace of mind
0430J53 and ultimately, bliss in the highest sense, when he is united with
0440J53 the only One. ^As Kant says: "I, as man, am myself this Being."
0450J53 $*<*3Historical Aspect:*0*> $^Mysticism has unfolded itself from
0460J53 ages past. "^More perhaps than any other religious system Hinduism
0470J53 is naturally predisposed to mystical interpretation." ^*Buddha has
0480J53 emphasized *4Nirvana-- enlightenment. ^In Christianity again, there is
0490J53 a chain of mystics. *7^*Sufi-- a sect of Islam-- can claim many a mystic.
0500J53 ^Even to this day mysticism continues in spite of scientific
0510J53 development and naturalism. "^Thus mysticism has demonstrated both its
0520J53 durability and adaptability as it has survived both the end of paganism
0530J53 and the rise of secularism." $*<*3Mysticism Distinguished from
0540J53 Secularism, Magic, Philosophy:*0*> $^Secularism is a doctrine
0550J53 that morality should be based solely on regard for the well-being of
0560J53 mankind in the present life, to the exclusion of all considerations
0570J53 drawn from belief in God or in a future state. ^Traditions, dogmas,
0580J53 and superstitions apart, whether mere morality without acknowledging
0590J53 Almighty can preserve social fabric, need not be discussed further.
0600J53 ^That the scientists have felt the necessity of faith in the super
0610J53 Power for restoring social balance has been pointed out in the
0620J53 last chapter. ^Moreover, Spinoza (1612-77) may be cited as the one
0630J53 who by-passed religious traditions but upheld mysticism in cosmos.
0640J53 $^Mysticism and magic, otherwise known as occultism or *4Tantrism, are
0650J53 poles apart. ^As Underhill puts it, "The fundamental difference between
0660J53 the two is this: Magic wants to_ get, mysticism wants to_ give--
0670J53 immortal and antagonistic attitudes, which turn up under one disguise
0690J53 or another in every age of thought." ^The sacrifice of self,-- body,
0700J53 mind and ego--, loving and utter surrender to Him are the steps
0710J53 to_ achieve the ultimate goal of mysticism. ^As distinguished from
0720J53 magic, all the great religions owe their origin to a supreme authority
0730J53 as we have already seen. ^The mystics accept the formal creed but
0740J53 go beyond it. ^They infuse new blood into it from their own spiritual
0750J53 experiences and thus revitalise the current religious beliefs and usages.
0760J53 ^Did not Sankaracharya (788-820) give new vigour to '*4Brahminism',
0770J53 after its near-uprooting by Buddhism? ^Did not Jnanesvara (1275-1296)
0780J53 render the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit
0790J53 into local tongue, which was forbidden in those days, thus making the
0800J53 mystical philosophy of Gita available to everyone? ^Did not \0St.
0810J53 Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) or Martin Luther (1483-1546) revitalize
0820J53 Christianity? ^Neither mysticism has any quarrel with philosophy.
0830J53 ^Philosophy speculates about the Reality, while mysticism is an
0840J53 actual flight,-- an adventure to_ reach it. $*<*3Illustrations:*0*>
0850J53 $^Far from this theoretical explanation, brief sketches of a few mystics
0860J53 will throw clearer light on the present topic. ^The six mystics
0870J53 chosen over here belong to different times and nations, leaving aside
0880J53 the founders of the religions and also those by whom and on whom lot
0890J53 of material is available in the form of appreciation, \0etc. ^They
0900J53 are selected with an eye on the number of members as per world population.
0910J53 ^*Christianity preponderates among the living religions with Roman
0920J53 Catholics forming 63 per cent of the total Christians. ^The choice
0930J53 of selected mystics is arbitrary no doubt, but the selection is
0940J53 arranged chronologically and with special emphasis on the social impact
0950J53 they had on the people in general. ^This choice may reflect that some
0960J53 prominent personalities are missing. ^But it is next to an impossibility
0970J53 even to_ list all the mystics in a small coverage like this. ^Besides,
0980J53 there are temperamental differences even amongst the mystics...
0990J53 "The greatest men in the world have passed away unknown... Silently
1000J53 they live, and silently they pass away,"-- as Swami Vivekananda
1010J53 has put it. ^Those picked up here are as follows:-- $(**=1) ^*Yajnavalkya--
1020J53 about 1200 \0B.C. $(**=2) \0^*St. Paul-- \0B.C. 3 to \0A.D.
1030J   64 or 67. $(**=3) ^*Jalal-uddin Rumi-- 1207 to 1273. $(**=4) ^*Guru
1040J53 Nanak-- 1469 to 1539. $(**=5) \0^*St. Teresa of Avila-- 1515
1050J53 to 1582. $(**=6) ^*Gurudev Ranade-- 1886 to 1957. $^These mystics have
1060J53 climbed the toughest ladder and gained the highest award of which
1070J53 the humans are capable. ^Not that the award tempted them but their
1080J53 inward yearning drove them irresistibly towards the goal. ^Some of
1090J53 them are intellectual giants too. ^To_ do full justice to them in this
1100J53 brief composition is out of question. ^If the readers are convinced
1110J53 about the genuineness of their message and if a few feel inclined
1120J53 towards their path, the writer will feel more than rewarded. ^Mysticism
1130J53 is not a panacea for all ills, least for wordly gains, neither is
1140J53 it an utopia. **[sic**] ^It is a state of pure Self-consciousness, which
1150J53 is full of bliss-- '*5Anandam Brahma*6'. $*<*3The Path:*0*> $^It,
1160J53 therefore, follows that it would be advisable to_ trace the path
1170J53 that_ led the mystics to_ attain this highest award. ^All the selected
1180J53 mystics and many more start their life as ordinary common beings with
1190J53 one or two favourable factors, perhaps. ^Some incidents or certain
1200J53 circumstances arise in their day-to-day lives which force them to_ turn
1210J53 towards spiritual pathway. ^It may be frustration as in the case of
1220J53 Yajnavalkya or human suffering and perishable nature of the universe
1230J53 as in the case of Buddha or even an irresistible urge to_ know
1240J53 the *3ultimate truth*0 in nature as in the case of Sanatkumara asking
1250J53 Narada about the Life-Force or sub-stratum of the cosmos. ^Some
1260J53 shades of this last type of awakening we have noted in the responding
1270J53 scientists too. ^These incentives lead to the conversion of self.
1280J53 ^This is the first stage. $^The second stage is one of preparation
1290J53 or self-purification. ^This may perhaps last throughout life in the
1300J53 case of common aspirants or it may lead to a 'new birth'. ^At the
1310J53 beginning of this state the aspirant may search for a guide-cum-teacher
1320J53 who has realised his oneness with the Supreme Reality. ^If he
1330J53 succeeds in finding such a teacher and not pseudo '*4Gurus' and '*4Bhagwans',
1340J53 his progress is assured to that_ extent. ^*Rumi and Ranade
1350J53 were fortunate enough in getting acquainted with such teachers. ^Then
1360J53 begins the preparation in the form of disciplines-- *4Yogic exercises
1370J53 may be included-- meditation/ contemplation and self-purification.
1380J53 ^All these go hand-in-hand. ^While struggling his utmost to_ proceed
1390J53 on this arduous and perhaps for the time-being, unrewarding task
1400J53 he may, by the grace of God, get some transcendental experiences...
1410J53 such as visualizing 'the Center of the Universe everywhere with circumference
1420J53 nowhere', within himself and without. ^Another experience may
1430J53 be in the form of audition. ^As the pilgrim proceeds with selfless
1440J53 love and detachment, remaking one*'s character, his experiences grow
1450J53 more and more like an organism. ^A word of precaution, however,
1460J53 is necessary over here. ^These mystical experiences must be clearly
1470J53 distinguished and must not be confounded with imaginary, occult or hysterical
1480J53 illusions, as \0St. Teresa warns. ^The main criterion of the
1490J53 genuineness of the former is that they enhance life. $^The mind tends more
1500J53 from flux to rest, and to greater equanimity in the face of odds
1510J53 and gains, sharpened intellect and memory, more energy in daily routine,
1520J53 \0etc. ^This is bound to_ be the case because the aspirant after
1530J53 all touches at times the very source, the nucleus of all energy. $^Wordly
1540J53 life is beset with set-backs, greater or briefer. ^So is the spiritual
1550J53 life. ^Mortal life ultimately comes to an end-- death. ^Mystical
1560J53 path leads to eternal, abundant life, "lose to_ gain and die to_
1570J53 live". ^The set-backs on the way to perfection are usually termed, "Dark
1580J53 night of the soul". ^The aspirant misses the track and feels lost.
1590J53 ^Whatever experiences he used to_ have, come to a standstill.
1600J53 ^He may at the same time have to_ face deprivations like the loss of
1610J53 kith and kin as in the case of Tukaram, in addition to loss of all
1620J53 his worldly possessions. ^He may be put to_ shame even like Suso--
1630J53 a German ascetic of 14th century. ^This is a very trying period
1640J53 indeed and every mystic has to_ go through it for shorter or longer
1650J53 time. ^Utter surrender like Arjuna, "*5shishyasteham, shadhi mam
1660J53 twam prapannam*6-- I am your devotee, guide me, who has **[sic**] surrendered
1670J53 himself unto Thee." ^*I, me and mine, are Thine." ^Such heart-rending
1680J53 appeal brings forth the grace of God. ^The aspirant and the
1690J53 Almighty are united for ever! $*<*3Results:*0*> $^This fruition results
1700J53 in Divine fecundity. ^The mystic lives hereafter, not for himself
1710J53 but to_ carry on God*'s work. ^*Samarth Ramadas in 17th century,
1720J53 established centers in Maharashtra in order to_ revive the spirit
1730J53 and morale of the masses. ^In 15th century, Mahatma Kabir (1455-1515)
1740J53 established a sect and tried to_ bring together the Hindus
1750J53 and the Muslims. ^Even to this day there are about one *4lakh disciples
1760J53 of Kabir Panth in India. ^His works are purely spiritual and
1770J53 they were composed after he had realized himself (1182-1226). ^So too
1780J53 Francis of Assissi-- an Italian spiritual genius-- "left his mark upon
1790J53 the history, art and literature of Western Europe, and the influence
1800J53 of his spirit, still lives." ^So the all-embracing effects of
1810J53 God-realisation are not only to_ be seen on the individual himself,
1820J53 but on society at large. ^He himself finds fulfilment in this life,
1830J53 'here and now' and his fragrance spreads like musk which attracts
1840J53 people to him. ^He accepts them and turns them towards the pathway to
1850J53 God. "^The mystic who is not of supreme service to the society, is
1860J53 not a mystic at all." ^Thus tracing the mystic way briefly, let us
1870J53 ponder over the lives and the messages of the selected mystics.*#
        **[no. of words = 02001**]

        **[txt. j54**]
0010J54 **<*3Naturalistic Ethical Theory*0**> $^We, however, give reasons for
0020J54 it only because these reasons are the conditions of the performance of
0030J54 the action; and it is only by way of these conditions that the agent*'s
0040J54 action, his future action, can be controlled and directed by persuasion.
0050J54 ^*Perry says: $^It is absurd to_ suppose that when challenged
0060J54 to_ explain one*'s action one is supposed to _ give an historical
0070J54 account of its condition. ^The point of the question ['What reasons
0080J54 can you now find for doing the action *3A*0?'] is to_ render
0090J54 the actions susceptible to the influence of opinion and discussion.
0100J54 ^The agent is called upon to_ give reasons for his action, because
0110J54 these are the conditions of performance by which it is subject
0120J54 to_ control by persuasion. $^*Perry*'s usage of 'reasoning' in this
0130J54 case also clearly shows that to_ give reasons for an action is to_ describe
0140J54 its causes. ^The relation between reasons and action, here again,
0150J54 must be causal. ^In no case can it be said to_ be logical. ^In
0160J54 fact, nowhere does logic enter in Perry*'s account of ethical reasoning.
0170J54 ^To my mind he is talking psychology and not logic. $*<*3Perry*'s
0180J54 Theory of 'Proof' of Moral Knowledge:--*0*> $^Above I have
0190J54 discussed what Perry*'s theory of reasoning in moral matters is.
0200J54 ^There I tried to_ show that his theory of 'reasoning' is no more
0210J54 than an empirical exercise in the field of cause-effect relations,
0220J54 Juxtaposed to this theory, he offers another theory of ethical reasoning
0230J54 which essentially is the same as the one given by *(0J. S.*)
0240J54 Mill in his *3Utilitarianism*0, or the one given by Jeremy Bentham
0250J54 in his *3Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation*0.
0260J54 ^*I propose to_ discuss this second theory now.
0270J54 $^*Perry begins by accepting as the first principle of his ethical
0280J54 theory the statement that the moral good is the harmonious happiness.
0290J54 ^This principle works as the criterion or standard for judging
0300J54 objects and actions as good or bad. ^Furthermore, it is this necessary
0310J54 premiss from which in conjunction with certain other premisses,
0320J54 the judgements of right, duty, and virtue are derived. ^The question is
0330J54 'How are we going to_ justify this first principle?' ^To_ answer
0340J54 this, Perry reasserts his basic position that moral knowledge differs
0350J54 from other kinds of knowledge not *3*7qua*0 knowledge but in its
0360J54 subject-matter, such that an ethical judgement can be said to_ be true
0370J54 or false on the basis of empirical evidence. ^However, he distinguishes
0380J54 two kinds of moral knowledge: derivative from basic. (a)^The
0390J54 *3derivative*0 moral knowledge is one in which a moral judgement
0400J54 is logically derived or deduced from one statement or a set of statements
0410J54 in conjunction with the first principle of morality, \0viz.,
0420J54 the principle of harmonious happiness. ^Take, for example, the act
0430J54 of homicide." ^When an act of homicide is judged to_ be wrong it
0440J54 is ordinarily sufficient to_ call it 'murder'. ^That_ is deemed sufficient
0450J54 since it is assumed that murder is wrong [wrong by the standard
0460J54 of harmonious happiness]". ^Reasoning in this case and the other
0470J54 cases of derivative moral knowledge follows the usual pattern of
0480J54 syllogistic argument or the application of a general rule or principle
0490J54 to a certain specific case. ^Again, the logical relation between
0500J54 the reasons cited and the conclusion deduced will be the relation of
0510J54 analyticity. ^Finally, this sort of reasoning goes from ethical premisses
0520J54 to ethical conclusion, not from factual premisses to ethical
0530J54 conclusion, such that the argument is homogeneous and not hetrogeneous
0540J54 ethically. $^Two remarks are in order. ^In the *3first*0 place, the
0550J54 concept of *3reason*0 here is not identified but is sharply distinguished
0560J54 from the concept of *3cause*0. ^The justification of an ethical
0570J54 judgement thus is logical which shows truth of the judgement, and
0580J54 not psychological the aim of which is to_ persuade the disagreeing
0590J54 party by altering his attitudes to_ accept it. ^In the *3second*0
0600J54 place, this theory of reasoning works only within the framework of
0610J54 some accepted ethical principles. ^It works only where the disagreeing
0620J54 parties share the same ethical principles and also the order of
0630J54 precedence in them, such that if there arises any dispute with regard
0640J54 to the morality of any specific case they can refer it to the highest
0650J54 court of their commonly shared ethical principles. ^This theory
0660J54 fails to_ work where there is disagreement on the ethical principles
0670J54 themselves. $(b) ^The derivative moral knowledge presupposes basic
0680J54 moral knowledge. ^The *3basic*0 moral knowledge is the knowledge
0690J54 of the moral principles or the first principles of ethical theory.
0700J54 ^In Perry*'s case, it is knowledge of the principle of harmonious
0710J54 happiness. ^In defence of individual ethical judgements (including
0720J54 the ethical rules of lesser generality) we cite the principle of harmonious
0730J54 happiness; for, on his view, "things are morally right and
0740J54 wrong, good and bad, obligatory and forbidden, judged by the standard
0750J54 of harmonious happiness". ^But how do we know the principle of harmonious
0760J54 happiness itself? ^This is a question of basic moral knowledge.
0770J54 ^To_ answer it, Perry makes a distinction between *3adopting*0
0780J54 the standard of harmonious happiness, and *3applying*0 this standard.
0790J54 ^The whole of derivative moral knowledge is no more than an application
0800J54 of the standard of harmonious happiness to certain specific
0810J54 cases or classes of cases, while it is the knowledge of the conditions
0820J54 of adopting the principle of harmonious happiness that constitutes
0830J54 the basic knowledge of morality. ^He says: $^There are two judgements,
0840J54 the judgement which adopts the standard, and the judgement which
0850J54 applies it. ^The fundamental question of moral knowledge is the question
0860J54 of the proof of the first or basic judgement. ^It is a judgement
0870J54 about a standard, and to the effect that a specific standard, such
0880J54 as harmonious happiness, occupies a peculiar place among standards,
0890J54 and is entitled to_ be designated as "the moral standard". ^Thiis
0900J54 is not a moral judgement in the sense of assigning such predicates
0910J54 as "good", "right", and "ought". ^*Moral theory, whether it asserts
0920J54 that the ultimate moral standard is happiness, or that the moral right
0930J54 or good is indefinable, or that duty is obedience to God, or that
0940J54 the right is the reasonable, stands outside the whole circle of such
0950J54 judgement, and makes non-moral statements about them. $^The point
0960J54 that_ he is making is that basic moral knowledge *3is*0 possible, that
0970J54 it is possible for us to_ *3know*0 the first principle of his ethical
0980J54 theory, \0viz., the principle of harmonious happiness, and that
0990J54 this knowledge consists in giving non-moral reasons for *3adopting*0
1000J54 the principle. ^We cannot give moral reasons for the truth of the
1010J54 principle; for, all moral reasons whatever must derive from the principle
1020J54 of harmonious happiness itself which alone is the ultimate moral
1030J54 good. ^And the reasons that_ we give for the principle of harmonious
1040J54 happiness cannot be the reasons derived from the principle itself.
1050J54 ^Therefore, no moral reasons can be given in justification of it.
1060J54 ^Whatever reasons can be given in justification of it must be non-moral
1070J54 reasons. ^Such non-moral reasons go only to_ show why we adopt
1080J54 the principle: in no way do they prove the truth of the principle
1090J54 itself. $^It is apparent that Perry*'s argument for adopting the principle
1100J54 of harmonious happiness or his 'proof' of the standard of harmonious
1110J54 happiness is similar in structure to the one given by *(0J. S.*)
1120J54 Mill in the *3Utilitarianism*0. ^He divides his argument into
1130J54 two parts: (**=1) ^First, he shows that the harmonious happiness should
1140J54 in fact be a standard or qualified to_ be a standard; (**=2) secondly
1150J54 he shows that the harmonious happiness is *3the*0 moral standard
1160J54 excluding all others for which a similar claim is made. ^He emphasizes
1170J54 upon **[sic**] the fact that both these conditions (**=1) and (**=2)
1180J54 are required in order to_ show why we should adopt the principle of harmonious
1190J54 happiness. ^For, if the first condition is not satisfied,
1200J54 then we have no reason to_ say that the principle of harmonious happiness
1210J54 is in fact the standard. ^And, if the second condition is not
1220J54 satisfied, then "there should be no ground of persuasion by which the
1230J54 adherent of another standard could be converted to this standard
1240J54 of harmonious happiness". $^Although Perry calls his argument to_
1250J54 be a 'proof' of moral knowledge, he does not mean to_ give a rigorous,
1260J54 deductive proof. ^What he means to_ do so **[sic**] is to_ advance arguments
1270J54 (reasons or considerations) in support of the principle of harmonious
1280J54 happiness, "arguments which, though they may not satisfy everybody,
1290J54 at least have the merit of being appropriate to the thesis
1300J54 which is to_ be proved". ^To_ satisfy the first condition he offers
1310J54 two considerations: *3one*0, theoretical, and *3two*0, practical.
1320J54 ^Both the considerations go to_ show that "the standard of harmonious
1330J54 happiness is capable of being agreed on-- both theoretically and
1340J54 practicaliy". *3^Theoretically*0, because it "satisfies the requirement
1350J54 of cognitive universality and objectivity; that_ is, it is the same
1360J54 for all knowers who address themselves to the subject". *3^Practically*0,
1370J54 because "the good of harmonious happiness, since it embraces
1380J54 all interests, is to some extent to everybody*'s interest, and thereby
1390J54 obtains a breadth of support exceeding that_ of any other good.
1400J54 ^Every person, including the person to whom the argument is addressed,
1410J54 has some stake in it". ^Concluding the first part of his argument
1420J54 for moral knowledge, he says: $^Hence, the norm of harmonious happiness
1430J54 is doubly universal. ^It is universal in the theoretical sense:
1440J54 its nature and its implications are objective, and the judgements
1450J54 in which it is employed are equally true for all judges; and being
1460J54 abstracted from particular interests, it is applicable to all human
1470J54 situations. ^It is also universal in the social sense; its promised
1480J54 benefits accrue to all men, and to all men collectively. ^It is a norm
1490J54 on which all men can unite and agree-- both theoretically and practically.
1500J54 $^Thus, the first condition is satisfied.
1510J54 ^The second condition also is satisfied. ^For,
1520J54 the standard of harmonious happiness is *3presupposed*0 by all our
1530J54 value judgements and estimates. ^For instance, it is embodied in the
1540J54 Golden Rule. ^Furthermore, disagreements as to the specific applications
1550J54 of moral opinion are settled by a reference to the principle
1560J54 of harmonious happiness. ^He says: $^Equally significant is the
1570J54 fact that when men differ as to the specific applications of moral opinion
1580J54 it is to the standard of harmonious happiness that they look for
1590J54 common good. ^And it is by this standard that men criticise and justify
1600J54 their major social institutions-conscience itself, polity, law, economy--
1610J54 by which they define the places in human society that_ are to_ be allotted
1620J54 to art, science, education, and religion. $^*Perry claims that
1630J54 his 'proof' of the principle of harmonious happiness is 'empirical'
1640J54 in the full sense of the term; for it is based on "a system of concepts
1650J54 verified by the data of human life". $^Two comments are in order
1660J54 here: *3One:*0 ^As I have said earlier, Perry*'s 'proof' of moral
1670J54 knowledge is not a deductive proof. ^Nor do the set of reasons and
1680J54 arguments which he has put forth go in any way to_ prove the truth
1690J54 of the principle of harmonious happiness. ^These reasons aim only at
1700J54 showing why the principle of harmonious happiness should be adopted
1710J54 or accepted to_ be true: they only show why, after all Perry *3holds*0
1720J54 the principle to_ be true: but in no way do they tend to_ show
1730J54 that the principle istelf is true. ^The sort of reasons which he
1740J54 has offered in support of the principle constitute a pragmatic justification
1750J54 of the principle of harmonious happiness: they do not constitute
1760J54 its logical or cognitive justification. $*3Two:*0 ^The seccond
1770J54 comment that_ I wish to_ make is concerning the following \0para:
1780J54 $^If harmonious happiness can be truly affirmed to_ be the moral
1790J54 standard it must so agree with human nature and the circumstances of
1800J54 human life that men can adopt it by education, persuasion, and choice;
1810J54 and, having adopted it, can govern their conduct in accordance
1820J54 with its requirements. ^It must be qualified to_ serve as a criterion
1830J54 by which human interests, acts, characters, and organisations can be
1840J54 classified and ranked. ^The evidence that it satisfies these requirements
1850J54 will be found in the fact that it is so adopted and employed.*#
        **[no. of words = 02018**]


        **[txt. j55**]
0010J55 **<*3Philosophy of Death*0**> $^Life by itself can have no meaning. ^According
0020J55 to the first teaching we should understand that we are overwhelmingly
0030J55 in debt to others, to those who lived before us, to those
0040J55 who are now living with us and to those who will live and to those who
0050J55 will be source of all things. ^*Jesus by his life proved the necessity
0060J55 of cultivation of moral virtues for preparation of life to_
0070J55 come. ^*God will occupy the throne of justice and everyone will be sent
0080J55 either to salvation \0i.e. Heaven or Hell. ^In the gospels written
0090J55 after Jesus Christ, we find the concepts about the last day \0i.e.
0100J55 the Day of Judgement. ^The kingdom of God will be in the form of
0110J55 good and it establishes the reign of justice, liberty of soul which
0120J55 is analogous to the Buddhist '*4Nirwan'. $^Repentence is a catchword
0130J55 of Christianity. ^*Jesus faced death willingly. ^He conquered
0140J55 'death'. ^This shows that death is just a passing phase on the way of
0150J55 the kingdom of God. ^In Christianity celibacy was prescribed for
0160J55 those who wanted to_ follow it. ^The world brotherhood was the aim
0170J55 of Christianity. ^Let us not mention the faults committed by the followers
0180J55 of Christianity in subsequent centuries. ^What we need is
0190J55 to_ know the optimistic message given by Jesus so far as the salvation
0200J55 of man is concerned. $*<*36.Mystical Concept of Liberation.*0*>
0210J55 $^Mysticism is an attempt to_ penetrate behind the appearances of the
0220J55 nature of reality with a direct vision. ^Mystics are seekers of truth
0230J55 hankering for the knowledge of reality, God and immortality. ^In short
0240J55 mystics may be said to_ be the ardent seekers of solutions to the
0250J55 riddles before mankind. ^The word 'mysticism' has been wrongly associated
0260J55 with or sometimes identified with spiritualism, of the evocations
0270J55 of the 'seances' or with the various brands of occultism or with
0280J55 the variegated forms of psychism such as clairvoyance clairaudience,
0290J55 psychometry and the like. ^The essential characteristics of mysticism
0300J55 centre round the main thread \0i.e. immediate realisation of the
0310J55 deity, God or reality. ^There are the following main characteristics
0320J55 of mysticism the understanding of which will help us in knowing
0330J55 the mystical concept of liberation. ^The mystical experiences have
0340J55 (1) immediacy (2) ineffability (3) passivity (4) self surrendering attitude
0350J55 (5) absence of reason. ^Mysticism is not the privilege of any particular
0360J55 religion. ^In fact mystics are found in all the religions without
0380J55 any differentiation of caste, creed, colour or sex. ^Mystics cross
0390J55 all the barriers and all the limitations. ^They claim that they
0400J55 alone understand the significance of human life, the universe around
0410J55 us and the reality with their inter-relations. $^The aim of mysticism
0420J55 is liberation and nothing short of it. ^There is no doubt that this
0430J55 is a subjective realisation of the reality by a mystic. ^But most
0440J55 of the mystics have admitted that they cannot convey their experiences
0450J55 through the poor means of reason. ^They say that they have to_
0460J55 transcend reason in order to_ achieve that_, which is beyond reason.
0470J55 ^Therefore, intuition, plays a very prominent role in mysticism. ^Mystics
0480J55 know the truth intuitively. ^Most of the mystics have realised
0490J55 the nature of human conditions on this earth and they are dissatisfied
0500J55 with the worldly appearances, they want to_ probe into the unknown
0510J55 to_ find out the truth, God or reality. ^The mystics have to_
0520J55 prepare themselves to_ realise the acute and most agonising pain
0530J55 before they reach the ultimate *5summum bonum*6. ^Their path is most difficult.
0540J55 ^They have to_ fight with themselves every moment in order
0550J55 to_ understand the riddles. ^It is said that almost every mystic, has
0560J55 to_ pass through a dark night of the soul but once the mystics achieve
0570J55 their goal they become peaceful, calm, quiet and serene. ^To_ begin
0580J55 with, mystics are as common as we are but their intense desire for
0590J55 freedom or liberation makes a lot of difference between the common
0600J55 man and the mystic. ^This difference is widened more and more when
0610J55 mystical experiences are uttered in a somewhat mysterious language due to
0620J55 the ineffability of the experiences. ^Mystics follow various types
0630J55 of penances (**[word in devnagari**]) and during the course of the
0640J55 *4Sadhana they get illumination. $^After getting the final experience,
0650J55 a mystic looks upon the body as a mere vehicle of the soul which
0660J55 is one with God, truth or reality. ^Sometimes some mystics claim,
0670J55 that there remains an individuality of the soul, a sort of co-existence
0680J55 with God with the only difference the God has the power to procreate
0690J55 which the liberated soul does not have. ^After the realisation
0700J55 the mystic does not remain a man of worldly affairs but becomes a man
0710J55 who has transcended worldly barriers. ^His vision broadens. ^His heart
0720J55 becomes kinder, his emotions and passions are pacified. ^He experiences
0730J55 liberation here and now. ^This is the most original contribution
0740J55 of the mystics to mankind, in which they have shown that mystical
0750J55 experiences result in the feeling of immediate liberation from the
0760J55 bondage, here and now in this world. ^In various religions different
0770J55 types of liberation have been explained but we are not concerned
0780J55 here with differences among the mystics about the nature of liberation.
0790J55 ^What we want to_ know is the common mystical concept of liberation
0800J55 in general. ^Most of the people do not consider the nature of human
0810J55 conditions and this very fact creates barriers and a source of misunderstanding
0820J55 about the mystics. ^The common people either believe in the
0830J55 mystics blindly or doubt the validity of the mystical experience.
0840J55 ^Even to this day, Materialists are trying to_ describe 'ecstasy'
0850J55 as due to pathological perturbations of normal mental processes. ^They
0860J55 insist in making no distinction between religious experience and
0870J55 hallucinations. ^Mystical ecstasies usually result in an increase of
0880J55 the wisdom of the mystic and often of his executive ability as is
0890J55 proved by the many mystics who founded religious orders. ^*Freudian
0900J55 attempts at representing ecstasies as erotomania substitutes for repressed
0910J55 sexual urges, is the limit to which doubt about mystical experiences
0920J55 can go. ^Though it is very difficult to_ prove the claims of
0930J55 mysticism on the base of reason, to_ discard them lightly as the
0940J55 Freudians do is equally unreasonable. ^No doubt there is a sort of symbolism
0950J55 in the language of the mystics. ^Mystical experiences are of two
0960J55 types one dealing with objective perception and the other of a purely
0970J55 subjective nature. ^The highest flights of mystical experiences
0980J55 prove clearly that these two processes are not mutually exclusive but
0990J55 complementary. $^*Greeks, Hebrews and Christians describe seven
1000J55 storeys of successively denser and more concrete realms from the divine
1010J55 unity to our earthly world. ^*Hinduism also believes in *4saptaloka.
1020J55 ^Some schools of mystics have compressed these seven realms into
1030J55 five, and even three generic cosmic planes. ^In our days we see Whitehead
1040J55 taking into account, three transcendent active realities \0i.e.
1050J55 God, the process and the eternal forms of possibilities of existence.
1060J55 $\0^*Prof. Royce in his book "The world and the Individual" begins
1070J55 by paying mystics the pragmatic compliment of declaring that they
1080J55 are the only thorough going empiricists in the history of philosophy.
1090J55 ^He adds "mysticism has been the ferment and the faith of the liberty,
1100J55 the inaccessible refuge of the noble, the inspirer through poetry
1110J55 of countless youths, who know no metaphysics, the comforter of
1120J55 those who are weary of finitude, the mystic asserts that the 'real'
1130J55 cannot be wholly independent from knowledge". $^It is not known whether
1140J55 the mystics could give objective certainty to their experiences.
1150J55 ^At the same time, it is true that there can hardly be any objective
1160J55 proof of a subjective certainty in one*'s mind. ^Therefore even though
1170J55 we cannot accept the claims of mysticism in a rational way, at
1180J55 the same time we have to_ remember that it is very difficult to_ discard
1190J55 completely the claims of mysticism. ^The claims of mysticism are
1200J55 in a way the claims of liberation. ^Such liberation is not a thing
1210J55 of the future, but an experience of the present. ^It is not an ordinary
1220J55 experience, wherein we are moved in a duality but it is an experience
1230J55 of oneness. ^Once this knowledge is attained nothing remains
1240J55 to_ be known. ^The mystic is fully satiated, nothing can disturb him.
1250J55 ^He experiences a calmness of the mind forever. $*(0^*J. D.*) Marquette
1260J55 has observed: "Mysticism also brings its contribution to
1270J55 the problem of the universality of grace and of the call to divine union.
1280J55 ^All mystics describe at the highest peak of the soul, *4Paramatma
1290J55 of the Hindus, *4Atta of Buddhists, the *4Sirr of Islam,
1300J55 the highest mention and a spark of the Christians, the presence of
1310J55 an emergence of the divine essence. ^The first immediate result of mysticism
1320J55 is, to_ free the mind from the fetters of an existence restricted
1330J55 by the illusory nature of the ordinary perceptions." $*<*37.The
1340J55 Existentialist Concept of Freedom*0*> $^Out of the systems of
1350J55 philosophy, no other system except existentialism has thought profoundly
1360J55 over the phenomenon of death, an analysis of human conditions
1370J55 reveals, the meaninglessness of human life which in turn produces nothingness,
1380J55 and death is the only phenomenon, which makes human beings realise
1390J55 the contingent and absurd nature of human life. ^Existentialist
1400J55 thinkers are theists as well as atheists. ^According to most of the
1410J55 existentialist writers man*'s life is divided into authentic and
1420J55 inauthentic existence. ^According to \0Dr. *(0G.*) Srinivasan "Freedom
1430J55 constitutes man*'s basic nature; but he has lost it, he must regain
1440J55 it. ^This is existentialism in its essence. ^Freedom is the
1450J55 central concept around which existential enquiry revolves. ^It can be
1460J55 said that the existentialist concept of freedom is not a transcendental
1470J55 ideal or a mere abstract concept but it is the basic and inherent
1480J55 condition of human existence and it is to_ be lived through responsible
1490J55 decisions and actions or otherwise it becomes obscured in the
1500J55 inauthentic mode of fallenness. ^Man becomes aware of his freedom
1510J55 only when he becomes aware of his inherent nothingness and refuses to_
1520J55 indentify himself with any of his achievements or realisations. ^To_
1530J55 be free is to_ act according to existentialism and in the absence
1540J55 of activity there can be no freedom. ^Therefore existentialism can
1550J55 be said to_ develop an essentially activistic concept of freedom.
1560J55 ^Freedom is present not only in the authentic mode of existence but
1570J55 also in the inauthentic mode of existence. ^In the inauthentic mode
1580J55 of existence it is concealed or obscured. ^The search for freedom is
1590J55 thus central or basic and common to all systems of existentialism.
1600J55 \0^*Dr. *(0G.*) Srinivasan has brilliantly compared the existentialist
1610J55 concept of freedom with the Hindu philosophical systems. ^He observes,
1620J55 "The Hindu existential choice, is also closely connected with the
1630J55 phenomenon of death, the inevitablity of death will have to_ be accepted
1640J55 and the fear of death should not be permitted to_ prevent one from
1650J55 making right choice at the time of crisis. ^The practice of freedom
1660J55 is man*'s authentic existence, in which he seeks to_ liberate himself
1670J55 from the state of his fallenness and directs it towards the realisation
1680J55 of his highest potentialities-of-being which is the truth
1690J55 of his existence and freedom towards the authentic existence. ^The
1700J55 distinction between authentic and inauthentic existence is common to
1710J55 both existentialism and the systems of Hindu philosophy." ^Inauthentic
1720J55 existence is essentially the life of pleasure seeking, and bondage.
1730J55 ^The existentialist concept of freedom is also closely related
1740J55 to the concepts of dread and death. ^Dread reveals man*'s inherent nothingness,
1750J55 which is of the nature of freedom and failure to_ face dread,
1760J55 results in the fallenness of human existence. ^Dread can be faced
1770J55 only by accepting the inherent nothingness of man. ^The individual*'s
1780J55 attitude to death has also an important bearing on his life of freedom.
1790J55 "^He can lead the life of freedom only when he accepts death in its
1800J55 proper perspective either as the inherent capital possibility of
1810J55 his human existence in the Heideggerian sense or as the external inevitable
1820J55 end of human existence in the Sartrian sense. ^In either case
1830J55 death reduces his human existence to nothingness, and it must be accepted
1840J55 as such, if the individual is to_ attain freedom within his human
1850J55 conditions the anticipatory concept of death frees the individual from
1860J55 his delusion of the false permanence of the world, from his total
1870J55 absorption in his everyday preoccupations and from the subordination
1880J55 of his decisions and actions to public opinion and frees him towards
1890J55 the realisation of his potentiality of being."*#
        **[no. of words = 02060**]

        **[txt. j56**]
0010J56 **<*3READING THE MIND OF THE HARAPPANS*0**> $*3^WITH*0 the discovery
0020J56 55 years ago of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, India came to_ be regarded
0030J56 as one of the earliest centres of civilisation, like Crete, Egypt
0040J56 and Mesopotamia. ^Like these, not only had India achieved a
0050J56 high degree of perfection in arts and crafts, but it could boast of
0060J56 a high quality of life for *3all*0 its citizens. ^Probably, there were
0070J56 no slums or hovels. $^More important, Harappa and Mohenjodaro
0080J56 were literate centres, like the other three. ^And this literacy was
0090J56 shared by a larger number of people, as the distribution of so-called
0100J56 seals at Mohenjodaro and Harappa shows; the seals also occur in
0110J56 almost all the sites so far found in the unbelievably vast area of
0120J56 nearly 260,000 \0sq \0km (see map on \0p. 32). ^In spite of all this,
0130J56 the authors of this civilisation remain unknown. ^We do not know
0140J56 their mind. $^Naturally, attempts have been made to_ decipher the
0150J56 so-called seals. ^Such attempts could be divided into early speculative
0160J56 and late speculative. ^The earliest was *(0L. A.*) Waddel. ^Thinking
0170J56 that the Indus script was akin to the Sumerian, and the authors
0180J56 Aryans, he claimed that he had found names of *4Vedic gods and
0190J56 Epic heroes of India in the seals. \0^*Prof. *(0S.*) Langdon of Oxford
0200J56 and *(0C. J*) Gadd of the British Museum thought that the
0210J56 pictographic writings on the seals were *(proto-Brahmi*) (or that
0220J56 the early Indian alphabet known as the *4Brahmi, named after *4Brahma,
0230J56 the Creator, was derived from the ancient Indus script) and that
0240J56 the Indus signs were full words (see box on \0p. 29). ^*Sir Flinders
0250J56 Petrie, with his vast experience of Egypt and knowledge of the
0260J56 picture-writing known as hieroglyphs, interpreted the Indus pictographs
0270J56 and postulated that the seals were used by officials. \0^*Dr.
0280J56 Pran Nath of Banaras Hindu University developed Waddel*'s idea
0290J56 further and said that what had been regarded as pictographs or ideographs
0300J56 were letters or characters (*4aksaras) closely connected with
0310J56 the *4Brahmi script; he even published a short sign-list of the alphabetic
0320J56 values of these pictographs. $^*Swami Sankarananda of the
0330J56 Ramakrishna Mission, a student of *4Tantra, a magico-religious cult
0340J56 which became prominent in India after the 7th century \0AD, on
0350J56 the other hand, sought to_ connect the *4Tantric symbols and monosyllables
0360J56 with the signs of the Indus script. ^This was an intuitive
0370J56 approach, but it did create a stir when he published his views in
0380J56 *3The Rigvedic Culture of the Prehistoric Indus*0 in 1943. ^And
0390J56 even a scholar like \0Prof. *(0B. M.*) Barua, of Calcutta University,
0400J56 thought that the key to the Indus Valley inscriptions
0410J56 lay in the *4Tantric texts. ^However, this approach was quite unsystematic,
0420J56 marked by anachronism, for *4Tantrism came centuries later than
0430J56 the Indus civilisation. $^Among these wild speculations, *(0G. R.*)
0440J56 Hunter, of Oxford, came forward with the first systematic study--
0450J56 a sign-list of pictographs. ^After copying 750 inscribed objects,
0460J56 he compared signs with signs, combinations with combinations, inscriptions
0470J56 with inscriptions and script with script. ^He opined that
0480J56 the script was mainly phonetic and not alphabetic, and was related
0490J56 to the *4Brahmi. ^Like the latter, the Indus script was syllabary.
0500J56 $^This probably was his failing. ^For, a period of over 2000 years
0510J56 separated the two scripts, and while *4Brahmi was syllabary, its pictographic
0520J56 ancestor need not be. ^And much would depend upon the original
0530J56 nature of the Indus script and its authors. ^Were they Aryan
0540J56 or Dravidian? $^Since neither the language nor the script was known,
0550J56 nothing further could be done. ^The late \0Rev. Father Heras,
0560J56 of \0St. Xavier*'s College, Bombay, embarked on a major study,
0570J56 acting upon the suggestion of Sir John Marshall that the Indus
0580J56 people were probably Dravidian or proto-Dravidian, because amongst
0590J56 the loose finds from Harappa and Mohenjodaro, there were a few which
0600J56 definitely looked like *4lingas or phallus, while a few others seemed
0610J56 to_ be copies of *4yoni or pudenda. ^If these were worshipped,
0620J56 certainly the HarappaJ5 were not Aryans. ^The Aryans looked down
0630J56 upon the worshippers of *4Sisnadevatas (phallic gods). $^*Heras*'s
0640J56 work lasted for more than 20 years. ^His *8magnum opus*9, *3Studies
0650J56 in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture*0, was based upon an exhaustive
0660J56 study of Indian, Mesopotamian, Hittite, Egyptian, Minoan
0670J56 and other less known prehistoric-- or proto-historic, as he preferred
0680J56 to_ call them-- religions of Western Asia. $^*Heras*'s interpretation
0690J56 stressed primarily the cultural or the religious aspect of
0700J56 the Indus and Sumerian civilisations. ^For instance, he identified
0710J56 a figure seated cross-legged, and surrounded by various animals as
0720J56 *3*4An*0, the Supreme God of the people of the Indus Valley. ^He
0730J56 read the inscription that runs above the figure as: *3*5an, nand
0740J56 valkei kuda min adu An*6*0. ^Which means: "The Lord of the Water-Jar
0750J56 and of the Fish is weakening and strengthening of the Lord". ^*Heras
0760J56 said that this was a healthy interpretation of the effects of the
0770J56 seasons, which are attributed to the Lord. ^He further concluded
0780J56 that this god *4An was originally Dravidian and his myth had spred
0790J56 to Sumer and the Mediterranean countires. ^Hence he called his work
0800J56 *3Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture*0. $^No doubt,
0810J56 the results of the study were simply stupendous. ^But these could
0820J56 be accepted in part only, for many of his views and theories ran counter
0830J56 to the accepted views, particularly regarding the priority of
0840J56 the Mesopotamian and other cultures. $*<*3New approach necessary*0*>
0850J56 $^*Father Heras*'s work thus needed a radically new approach. ^Some
0860J56 assumption had to_ be made. *(0^*S. R.*) Rao has taken the help
0870J56 of the Semitic and tried to_ arrive at the *(proto-Brahmi*). ^His
0880J56 view seems to_ be that the Indus Culture is not non-Aryan. $^During
0890J56 the last 100 years, and particularly after the excavations of Sir
0900J56 Leonard Woolley at Ur, the German excavations at Warka, and
0910J56 \0Prof. Seton Lloyd*'s excavations at Hassuna, all in Iran or
0920J56 Mesopotamia, it has now been conclusively shown that the beginnings
0930J56 of civilisation may be traced back step by step to about 5000 \0BC.
0940J56 ^However, according to Heras, these cultures were derived from
0950J56 South India because he believed that Dravidians had gone there.
0960J56 ^But 25 years after the book was published, nothing has so far been
0970J56 found in India to_ substantiate his theory. ^On the other hand, the
0980J56 beginnings of civilisation in Western Asia continues to_ march
0990J56 backwards in time, with the astounding discoveries of the city of Catal
1000J56 Huyak in Turkey dated by the carbon-14 technique to 6000 \0BC.
1010J56 $^While Heras*'s assumption that the authors of the Indus civilisation
1020J56 were Dravidians or their ancestors might be correct, it was
1030J56 not possible to_ accept that these proto Dravidians were South
1040J56 Indian in origin. ^The possibility was, as held by several scholars,
1050J56 that these proto-Dravidians were not Indian in origin, but possibly
1060J56 earlier residents of South Iran and parts of Europe. ^So the
1070J56 assumption that the Indus civilisation was proto-Dravidian might
1080J56 stand, but the way how this culture reached South India needed to_
1090J56 be explained. $*<*3Computers*0*> $^If human efforts had so far
1100J56 failed to_ probe the mind of the Indus citizen, could the computer--
1110J56 the mechanical-electronic brain help? ^This unique machine can be
1120J56 used, provided the data on which it is to_ be fed is processed in a
1130J56 particular way. ^First the Russians and then the Finns, therefore,
1140J56 sought the help of the computer. ^A series of publications followed
1150J56 during 1970-72. ^All these will be useful once we know what the pictographs
1160J56 stand for. $^For instance, does the sign **[pictograph**]
1170J56 which appears at the end of the line if we read the seal from left
1180J56 to right mean "possession"? ^Or does it stand for something else? ^Thus,
1190J56 the question to_ be decided is, "Is the Indus script syllabic
1200J56 or is it ideographic? ^That is, is each pictograph (picture-sign),
1210J56 as in our modern languages, a unit of pronunciation forming a word,
1220J56 containing one vowel sound and often a consonant either before or after
1230J56 it?" $^These questions cannot be answered by the computer. ^At
1240J56 the most it might help in telling us, as has been done by *(0I.*) Mahadevan,
1250J56 whether the script should be read from left to right or vice
1260J56 versa, or both. $^He had also prepared a concordance by consulting
1270J56 all the available seals in India and abroad. ^Thus, his is the latest
1280J56 computerised catalogue of the Indus seal pictographs. ^Yet, this
1290J56 excellent catalogue does not venture to_ read the mind of the Indus
1300J56 seal engraver or his patrons. $^In this attempt, as \0Dr. Walter
1310J56 Fairservis (\0Jr.) of the American Museum of Natural History,
1320J56 New York, says, a computer is more a hindrance than an aid. ^Why?
1330J56 ^Says he, " a computer rather than placing a potential decipherer
1340J56 in direct contact with his material, moves him often steps away from
1350J56 it". $*<*3Graffiti*0*> $*3^*What*0 should one do then? ^One alternative
1360J56 would be to_ "try to_ decipher the script in the context of the
1370J56 Harappan civilisation itself". ^For instance, on the Indus pottery,
1380J56 as well as on the pottery of the later Chalcolithic Cultures
1390J56 (about 2500 to 1000 \0BC when stone and copper were used and the
1400J56 existence of iron was not known) unearthed during the last 30 years,
1410J56 there are at times marks of various sorts-- lines, as well as figures--
1420J56 incised or scratched after the pot is completed and even fired.
1430J56 ^Hence, these are called "graffiti". $^The first such culture was discovered
1440J56 at Brahmagiri in Karnataka in 1945. ^Soon after, it was
1450J56 also found at Jorwe, Nasik, Nevasa and other sites in Maharashtra,
1460J56 Maheshwar, Navdatoli and several others in Madhya Pradesh, and
1470J56 Somnath or Prabhas in Gujarat. ^Their period is well dated stratigraphically
1480J56 and by several \0C*:14**: determinations (Sankalia, *3Prehistory
1490J56 and Proto History of India and Pakistan*0, 1974). $^Some
1500J56 of these graffiti seem to_ have been derived, as *(0B. B.*) Lal
1510J56 had shown by an exhaustive study, from the Indus script. ^Can one
1520J56 then work back from these graffiti to the reading or understanding
1530J56 of the Indus script? $^*Fairservis perhaps thinks that one can, though
1540J56 he very modestly says "this is not a claim that the author has
1550J56 deciphered the Harappan script". ^And once again, he has had recourse
1560J56 to the Dravidian to_ unravel the mystery, both of the graffiti
1570J56 and the Indus pictographs. $^When there is a renewed or a fresh attempt
1580J56 to_ go back to the suggestion that the Indus civilisation was
1590J56 Dravidian or "Proto-Drayidian", one must take into account Heras*'s
1600J56 contribution. ^*Heras did not have the benefit of the *3Dictionary
1610J56 of Etymological Dravidian (\0OED)*0 which \0profs. *(0C.*) burrow
1620J56 and *(0M. B.*) Emaneau published in 1961, several years after his
1630J56 death. $^However, Heras was fully conscious of the fundamental weakness
1640J56 of his attempt, but not the assumption. ^For, a gap of 2,000
1650J56 years separated the earliest Dravidian-- the Tamil inscriptions and
1660J56 the Sangam-Tamil-- from the pictographs on the Indus seals. ^No
1670J56 language is expected to_ remain static for this long a period. ^So it
1680J56 was indeed risky, even foolish, as some scholars thought, to_ use
1690J56 the existing Dravidian languages. $^His assumptions about the Indus
1700J56 script, which were valid then, would be valid even now. "^The people
1710J56 of Mohenjodaro, being probably Dravidians, spoke a Dravidian
1720J56 language. ^Language and race are two things totally different." ^Further,
1730J56 "the language spoken by the Mohenjodarians was not any of the
1740J56 modern Dravidian languages, but an older language, which may be styled
1750J56 Proto-Dravidian". "^The morphology (make-up) of the Proto-Dravidian
1760J56 language will be determined by the roots of the words, in
1770J56 their original meaning or by those words immediately formed by determining
1780J56 the root, in derivative meanings. ^*Dravidian languages are
1790J56 agglutinative, that is, generally forming words by the addition of
1800J56 suffixes or by the prefixing of initial intensive consonants." ^*Heras
1810J56 wrote this on the authority of \0Rev. Gnana Prakasar*'s *3Etymological
1820J56 and Comparative Lexicon of the Tamil Language*0. ^He
1830J56 added, "if those suffixes or consonants are properly removed, we shall
1840J56 easily arrive at the root of the word, which has always remained
1850J56 unchanged". $*<The meaning of pictographs*> $*3^*Heras*0 went on
1851J56 to_ study systematically all the words
1860J56 used in *3all*0 the modern Dravidian languages, not excluding
1870J56 Tulu, Brahui, Kudagu, Uraon and Kui (all Dravidian dialects--
1880J56 Brahui is spoken by a few people known as Brahuis in Baluchistan,
1890J56 Kudagu, Kui and Tulu in parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and
1900J56 Uraon in parts of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Orissa).*#
        **[no. of words = 02026**]

        **[txt. j57**]
0010J57 **<*3A CONTEMPORARY ACCOUNT OF THE BATTLE OF JAJAU*0**> $^The absence
0020J57 of a definite and accepted law of succession being a feature of
0030J57 monarchy in medieval India, the struggle for succession became an
0040J57 inevitable bane of contemporary polity. ^During the Mughal period,
0050J57 with the rise of well aligned parties of supporters of different princes,
0060J57 these contests became all the more grim. ^*Aurangzeb, who came
0070J57 to the throne wading through the blood of his brothers, endeavoured
0080J57 to_ abate such a war by providing for the partition of his empire among
0090J57 his three surviving sons by his will. ^However, his death at Ahmadnagar,
0100J57 on March 3, 1707, gave the signal to his sons to_ march
0110J57 to_ capture the capital, Agra, with the accumulated treasure of generations
0120J57 and assume sovereignty; for, as one of them contended, two
0130J57 kings could not have ruled in one kingdom. ^The issue was decided at
0140J57 Jajau on June 18, 1707. ^Of this battle, besides the Persian accounts,
0150J57 there exists a contemporary account in Hindi verse, which the present
0160J57 paper intends to_ study. $^The work in question is the *3Satya
0170J57 Sarup Rupak*0, composed by the poet Vrindra. ^It comprises 362
0180J57 verses and deals with the participation in this battle of Raja Raj
0190J57 Singh Rathore of Kishangarh on the side of Prince Muazzam, a
0200J57 fact which has not been recounted by the Persian historians. ^The most
0210J57 probable reason for this may be discerned from the fact that Raj
0220J57 Singh was assigned the duty of standing in the reserve assisting
0230J57 any of the hard pressed sections of Muazzam*'s army. ^Yet this may
0240J57 well raise the question of the authenticity and veracity of the work,
0250J57 which shall be examined presently. $^*Vrinda was a tutor of Raj Singh.
0260J57 ^But before joining the court of Kishangarh, he had been with
0270J57 Raja Jaswant Singh, the Mughal governor of Ajmer, and in the
0280J57 courts of Aurangzeb and Prince Azimushshan. ^These positions had
0290J57 come to him in recognition of his efficiency as a teacher, his ready
0300J57 wit and poetic qualities. ^So far as the battle of Jajau is concerned,
0310J57 he was an eye-witness, being present in the camp with his patron
0320J57 Prince Azimushshan. ^Moreover, his account is in conformity with
0330J57 contemporary Persian accounts. ^All this should account for the authenticity
0340J57 of the work and the poet*'s concern for truth and reality
0350J57 should establish its veracity. ^He may not be giving a connected account
0360J57 of the battle, yet he supplies some additional information about
0370J57 it. $^The poem opens as usual, with invocatory verses for Saraswati
0380J57 and Ganesh and proceeds to_ emphasise the virtue of devotion to
0390J57 God and loyalty to the master, thus forming a fitting introduction
0400J57 to Raj Singh*'s exertions in the battle for the success of Muazzam
0410J57 and Azimushshan. ^*Valour, courage and generosity of Raj Singh
0420J57 are then praised. ^The story begins with the delineation of Aurangzeb*'s
0430J57 anxiety, towards his end, to_ do something for abating the conflict
0440J57 among his sons, while he was in the Deccan, having conquered Bijapur,
0450J57 Golkonda and Sambhaji. ^For this he asked Azam to_ rule
0460J57 in the Deccan. ^*Azam, however, did not like it and out of pride gave
0470J57 no response. ^*Kambokhsh was made the chief of Bijapur and Bhagnagar,
0480J57 and he reached there soon. ^The emperor, then, ordered Azam
0490J57 to_ go to Ujjain. ^After Azam had marched to Ujjain, Aurangzeb
0500J57 died, in the fifty-first year of his reign, on *4Amavsya of *4Falgun,
0510J57 *4Samvat 1763 (March 3, 1707). ^*Asad Khan kept the news secret
0520J57 and recalled Azam Muazzam, on learning about the death of Aurangzeb,
0530J57 started from the north for capturing Delhi. $^At Ahmadnagar,
0540J57 Azam ascended the throne, captured the treasure of the emperor, issued
0550J57 commemorative coins, proclaimed his sovereignty in the Deccan and
0560J57 started for the north. ^The great noble and *4Wazir of Alamgir,
0570J57 Asad Khan, who was famous for his skill in fighting, and was very cautious
0580J57 and had carried out successfully many assignments from the emperor,
0590J57 joined him. ^His son, Nasrat Jang Zulfiqar Khan, *4mansabdar
0600J57 of 6000 who had many conquests, including that_ of Jinji, to his
0610J57 credit, and had never turned away from the field, came with him. ^Others
0620J57 who accompanied Azam included Dalpat Bundela. ^*Ram Singh
0630J57 Hada, Amanulla Khan, Sulaiman Khan, Sagaile Khan and his brother
0640J57 Munawwar Khan. ^Numerous Mughal Pathan and *4Deccani youth were
0650J57 recruited by Azam for the fierce battle. ^*Azam marched fearlessly
0660J57 boasting that he did not need the sword for Muazzam for he would
0670J57 be prostrated with a stroke of a staff, forgetting that God strikes
0680J57 down pride. $^Sons of the two princes started for Akbarabad. ^*Azimushshan
0690J57 from the east first reached Agra and occupied it, subduing
0700J57 its governor Mukhtiar Khan. ^He proclaimed the authority of Bahadur
0710J57 Shah and began preparations for war. ^Son of Azam started from
0720J57 Gujarat for occupying Agra, but on learning about Azim*'s authority
0730J57 there stayed at Ujjain. ^*Azim, when informed of the crossing
0740J57 of the Narmada by Azam, advanced and camped at Samugarh, and apprised
0750J57 Raj Singh of the difficult time of war. ^*Raj Singh submitted
0760J57 that he would attain empire defeating Azam, whose powerful army
0770J57 from the Deccan would be of no consequence. ^At this Azimushshan made
0780J57 a reference to the services rendered to the emperors by the predecessors
0790J57 of Raj Singh and told him that victory in the impending "*5Saltani
0800J57 Jang*6"-- the war of succession, was in his hands. ^In the
0810J57 meanwhile, Muazzam from the north and Azam from the south reached near
0820J57 Agra with their varied armies, composed of the Mughals, Pathans,
0830J57 Qipchaqs, Abyssinians, Rajputs, Bundelas and the *4Deccanis,
0840J57 with their "*4rahkalas" and guns, aspiring to_ attain the throne of Delhi
0850J57 and empire. $^*Muazzam sent a message to Azam proposing to_
0860J57 let him take Malwa in addition to the Deccan provinces and to_ give
0870J57 up war, victory in which was uncertain. ^*Azam conveyed his determination
0880J57 either to_ attain sovereignty through victory or to_ lie
0890J57 down in the coffin. ^Thus both prepared for the battle. $^The day the
0900J57 battle took place, Muazzam went out hunting, while Azimushshan advanced
0910J57 his forces. ^*Raj Singh mounted his horse and went to_ see
0920J57 the emperor. ^Seeing Shah Alam, he left his horse and bowed to him
0930J57 in the customary manner. ^*Shah Alam inquired from him about the
0940J57 attitude of the Alamgiri nobles accompanying Azam. ^*Raj Singh informed
0950J57 him that they wished to_ join Shah Alam. ^At this Shah Alam
0960J57 gave him a *4farman and asked him to_ approach Zulfiqar and Ram
0970J57 Singh so that they might be assured. ^After salutations, Raj Singh
0980J57 rode back to his army, where he received the message of Azimushshan.
0990J57 ^In the meanwhile, Azam*'s advancing forces engaged the advance
1000J57 force of Azimushshan, who entered into the battle, sending messages
1010J57 for reinforcements to Bahadur Shah. ^He summoned Raj Singh
1020J57 and ordered him to_ march for helping Azimushshan. ^*Raj Singh marched
1030J57 quickly and saluted Azimushshan within a short period of time.
1040J57 ^*Azimushshan greatly appreciated Raj Singh*'s exertion and asked him
1050J57 to_ stand in the reserve to_ give ready help to that_ section which
1060J57 being hard pressed needed reinforcement. ^*Raj Singh accepted the order
1070J57 and stood in readiness at the place where instructed. ^He helped
1080J57 Baz Khan against Zulfiqar Khan, who had to_ turn back owing to
1090J57 Raj Singh*'s attack. ^Then he fought against Ram Singh Hada and
1100J57 Dalpat Bundela, both of whom were killed in the battle. ^Then he fought
1110J57 fiercely with Amanulla Khan, who inflicted wounds on him, but
1120J57 was ultimately killed by the arrows shot by Raj Singh. ^Then he killed
1130J57 Hamiruddin Khan and then again engaged Zulfiqar Khan who,
1140J57 being beaten, took the road to Gwalior. ^*Shamsher Khan and Nizamuddin
1150J57 Khan surrendered and were allowed to_ go by Raj Singh. ^The
1160J57 other Umra of Azam, who fought Raj Singh, were either killed or
1170J57 followed the way of Zulfiqar. $^In the meantime, the day took a turn
1180J57 against Azam and the wind became contrary to him so that the arrows
1190J57 shot by his soldiers began to_ hit them back. ^However, a fierce
1200J57 engagement took place between Azimushshan and Munawwar Khan, who
1210J57 was, in the end, killed by Azim with the help of Raj Singh. ^In
1220J57 the end, Azam was killed with his son Bedar Bakht. ^*Bahadur Shah
1230J57 appreciated the valour of Raj Singh on the battle-field. ^On returning
1240J57 to the camp, he, again, commended the king, conferred on him
1250J57 the sword, *4naubat, elephant, ornaments, and status of king and the
1260J57 title of "Raja Bahadur". ^*Bahadur Shah gave the credit for victory
1270J57 to Azimushshan, who, in turn, gave it to Raj Singh. $^Thus
1280J57 Vrinda*'s account of the battle is neither complete nor connected and
1290J57 much of his account regarding actual fighting is traditional. ^But,
1300J57 in the main, it tallies with that_ of contemporary Persian histories.
1310J57 ^It, at the same time, supplements them with regard to the participation
1320J57 of Raj Singh Rathore of Kishangarh in the battle of Jajau,
1330J57 and gives a few further details like Bahadur Shah*'s attempt
1340J57 to_ win over some of the Amirs on Azam*'s side. $**<*3A NOTE ON
1350J57 THE DESCENDANTS OF RAJA BIRBAL*0**> $^*Raja Birbal was really one
1360J57 of the most intimate personal friends of Emperor Akbar, his closest
1370J57 courtier and constant companion. ^Born in 1528 in a village, Tikawapur
1380J57 in the Kalpi Sarkar, he lost his life in the Yusufzai campaign
1390J57 in 1586. $^While working on the biographical details of Birbal*'s
1400J57 life, I have come across important and interesting details about his
1410J57 descendants, which have now become almost obscure in history. $^We
1420J57 find mention of two of the sons of Raja Birbal Lala and Har Har
1430J57 Rai. ^*Abul Fazal, writing about the retirement into private life
1440J57 by the eldest (Lala), says, "He was the eldest son of Raja Birbal.
1450J57 ^From violent passions and self-will, he was extravagant and formed
1460J57 wile desires. ^Failure led him further astray." $^But we read in
1470J57 the *3Iqbal Nama*0 that he ostensibly left in order to_ retire
1480J57 from the world, but in reality, he went to Allahabad and entered the
1490J57 service of Prince Salim. ^He was a Commander of 200. ^He had been
1500J57 employed as a *4mansabdar in the forty-eight years of Akbar*'s reign.
1510J57 $^We find the name of another son of Birbal, mentioned in the Forty-Eighth
1520J57 year of Akbar*'s reign. ^*Abul Fazal writes "Har Har
1530J57 Rai, the son of Raja Birbal, brought the petition of prince Danial."
1540J57 $^Besides Lala and Har Har Rai, we find mention of two more
1550J57 of Birbal*'s sons, Kalyanmal and Dhirabal in contemporary literary
1560J57 sources. ^*Shesh Krishna, who flourished in the reign of Akbar,
1570J57 wrote a learned commentary on the famous Sanskrit, Grammar, *3Prakriya
1580J57 Kaumudi*0 of Ram Chandra. ^*Shesh Krishna*'s commentary
1590J57 contains 46 introductry Verses and in these he gives an account of
1600J57 how he undertook to_ write his commentary on Prakriya Kaumudi "it
1610J57 was", he wrote "undertaken to_ teach Kalyanmal, son of Birbal, son
1620J57 of Ganga Das, son of Rupadher \0etc." $^Another contemporary Hindi
1630J57 poet, Keshava Das, gives the name of another son of Birbal as
1640J57 Dhirabal in his famous historical epic work, *3Jahangir Yasha Chandrika*0.
1650J57 $^Thus Birbal can be said to_ have had four sons, \0viz,
1660J57 Lala, Har Har Rai, Kalyanmal and Dhirabal. ^It is true, that none
1670J57 of them could attain very high rank and position like their famous
1680J57 father. ^But the first two find mention in contemporary historical
1690J57 works and the remaining two were distinguished enough to_ attract
1700J57 the attention of poets and scholars. $^Besides the four sons, we get
1710J57 the mention of a distinguished daughter of Birbal in the contemporary
1720J57 Vaishnava literature, popularly knowns as *5Varta Sahitya*6.
1730J57 ^Both in the '*3Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta Do Sau Bawan Vaishnavan
1740J57 ki Varta*0', we read about Birbal*'s daughter, who was closely
1750J57 attached to Gosain Vithalnathjee and frequented his place
1760J57 to_ hear his religious discourses. ^She is said to_ have been very
1770J57 wise and intensely devoted to the Vaishnava teacher. ^She used to_
1780J57 discuss religious problems with her father too, and once, it was on
1790J57 her advice, that Birbal arranged a meeting between the emperor and
1800J57 the Vaishnava saint. ^It was not only Birbal*'s daughter but Birbal
1810J57 himself, who was closely attached to this Vaishnava sect, and through
1820J57 his influence the Emperor also visited Swami Vaithalnath at
1830J57 Gokul.*#
        **[no. of words = 02006**]

        **[txt. j58**]
0010J58 **<*3INDIA AND THE 1954 GENEVA CONFERENCE*0**> $^The Geneva Conference
0020J58 marked the victory of nationalism over colonialism and imperialism.
0030J58 ^The agreement at Geneva demonstrated that lasting peace could be
0040J58 achieved only through negotiations and not through war. ^*India decided
0050J58 to_ play an active role in the wake of Chinese military assistance
0060J58 to the Vietminh and American determination to_ step up military
0070J58 aid to the French, threatening the escalation of a conflict in
0080J58 Asia. ^The Indo-China negotiations gave an opportunity to Nehru
0090J58 to_ experiment with the newly enunciated principles of peaceful co-existence.
0100J58 ^Though uninvited and sought to_ be excluded by the \0USA,
0110J58 India managed to_ influence the negotiations "from outside"
0120J58 and was eventually chosen as the Chairman of the International Supervisory
0130J58 Commission. ^Thus India*'s diplomacy at Geneva was a master
0140J58 stroke and forms a watershed in the evolution of India*'s foreign
0150J58 policy. $^The basic promises of India*'s foreign policy were--
0160J58 support to the anti-colonialist struggles, vehement opposition to racialism
0170J58 and the pursuit of peace by reducing international tensions.
0180J58 ^In a world divided into two aggressive power blocs, India decided
0190J58 to_ pursue the policy of non-alignment. ^As Nehru said: $^It has
0200J58 been our desire, both for ourselves as well as for the sake of the
0210J58 world because of the wider aspect of the problem to_ keep apart from
0220J58 this conflict. $^Realising that peace is the prerequisite for the progress
0230J58 and prosperity of the country and that peace is indivisible in
0240J58 this world, India made the pursuit of peace the corner stone of her
0250J58 foreign policy. ^To_ quote Nehru again "peace to us is not just a fervent
0260J58 hope; it is an emergent necessity." $^*India*'s interest in the
0270J58 struggle of Asian nations for freedom can be traced to the mid-twenties
0280J58 of this century. ^The Indian nationalists, more especially
0290J58 Nehru and Gandhi, believed that the struggle for India*'s freedom
0300J58 was part and parcel of the wider struggles of the Asiatic peoples for
0310J58 freedom from colonialism. ^*India, thus, repeatedly expressed her
0320J58 solidarity with Vietnamese nationalists struggling for their independence.
0330J58 ^At the Brussels congress held in 1927 Nehru met Vietnamese
0340J58 nationalist, Duong Van Gieu, who later attended the Indian National
0350J58 Congress session at Calcutta in 1928. ^*Indian leaders welcomed
0360J58 the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (\0DRVN)
0370J58 in 1945. ^*Nehru condemned British military action of using Indian
0380J58 troops for re-imposing colonial rule in Indo-China after the
0390J58 Second World War. $^It is interesting to_ note some changes in
0400J58 India*'s Indo-China policy. ^After assuming office in the Interim
0410J58 Government in 1946, neither the repeated appeals of the Vietminh
0420J58 leaders at the Asian Relations Conference of March-April, 1947
0430J58 nor the vociferous support extended by Indian nationalist leaders
0440J58 like Sarat Chandra Bose and Acharya Kripalani could persuade Nehru
0450J58 to_ give up the policy of non-involvement in Indo-China. ^He
0460J58 underscored India*'s policy towards Indo-China as one "of watching
0470J58 events there" and "not jumping into the fray". ^In sharp contrast
0480J58 was India*'s policy towards Indonesia which was also struggling for
0490J58 Independence. ^Unlike in Indonesia, the situation in Vietnam was more
0500J58 complicated as two Governments, one led by Ho Chi Minh and the
0510J58 other led by Bao Dai, were claiming to_ be the spokesmen of Vietnamese
0520J58 nationalism. ^Under such circumstances, intervention would
0530J58 lead to supporting one group or the other which would not be in conformity
0540J58 with India*'s policy of non-alignment. $^*India began to_ take
0550J58 an active interest in the developments in Indo-China from early
0560J58 1954. ^There were indications of direct \0U.S. intervention in Indo-China
0570J58 and the internationalisation of war in the closing months
0580J58 of 1953 and early 1954. ^This was a serious matter for India, as
0590J58 peace in an area so close to her, was running dog," "a stooge of Anglo-American
0600J58 bloc" and "the Chiang Kai-Shek of India", and Nehru*'s
0601J58 policy of neutrality as a camouflage." ^But India*'s successful
0610J58 mediation in the Korean dispute further confirmed the view of
0620J58 both Soviet Union and China that non-aligned countries had a positive
0630J58 role to_ play in world affairs. ^Friendly relations between India
0640J58 and China reached a high water mark with the signing of the Pancha
0650J58 Shila Agreement in April 1954. ^*Russia, under the leadership
0660J58 of Malenkov, shed off some of her aggresive postures and pursued
0670J58 a policy of peraceful co-existence and adopted new policies towards
0680J58 India, Burma, Indonesia and other countries. ^The longing for peace
0690J58 was not confined to the communists. ^It was noticed also in the
0700J58 west. ^If France considered an honourable settlement of the Indo-China
0710J58 issue the minimum requisite to_ satisfy the French public,
0720J58 so did Britain fear of being dragged into the Indo-China
0730J58 war, and for promoting trade with the communist world. ^But the \0U.S.
0740J58 wanted the war to_ continue with the ultimate objective of
0750J58 nipping communism in southeast Asia in the bud. $^The general
0760J58 desire for peace manifested itself in the Berlin conference, (January
0770J58 25 to February 18, 1954). ^Attended by the "Big Four", it decided
0780J58 to_ call the Geneva conference to_ resolve Indo-China (also
0790J58 Korean) issue. ^*Nehru welcomed the Berlin declaration as an attempt
0800J58 to_ solve international problems through negotiations rather
0810J58 than by military means. $^*Nehru felt that the time was ripe for
0820J58 India*'s "involvement in some way" and suggested "some kind of cease-fire"
0830J58 as a first step. $^The \0U.S. attitude to the Indo-Chinese
0840J58 dispute at this time was an obstacle to India*'s diplomatic initiatives.
0850J58 ^*John Foster Dulles, the \0U.S. Secretary of State proclaimed
0860J58 the doctrine of massive and instant retaliation on January
0870J58 12, 1954. ^Shortly afterwards he warned the Chinese that communist
0880J58 intervention would have "grave consequences which might not be confined
0890J58 to Indo-China." ^Again on March 29, Dulles said that the
0900J58 imposition of the communist political system on Southeast Asia "should
0910J58 not be passively accepted but shall be met by United action."
0920J58 ^To_ render the situation more difficult, military aid was stepped
0930J58 up by the \0USA to the French and China to the \0DRVN. ^There
0940J58 were reports in the western press that the \0USA was contemplating
0950J58 the use of hydrogen bomb in case China participated directly
0960J58 in the Indo-China war. ^*Nehru immediately reacted to these developments
0970J58 and said: $the Government of India deeply regret and are much
0980J58 concerned, that a conference of such momentous character, obviously
0990J58 called together because negotiation was considered both feasible
1000J58 and necessary, should be preceded by a proclamation of what amounts
1010J58 to lack of faith in it and of alternatives involving threats of Sanctions.
1020J58 $^*Nehru considered this an acid test for India*'s foreign
1030J58 policy and put forward the Six-point peace plan on April 24, 1954
1040J58 in the parliament "to_ help resolve some of the difficulties and
1050J58 the deadlocks" in the negotiations. ^The suggestions included the promotion
1060J58 of a climate of peace and negotiation" for the realisation
1070J58 of which he appealed to all concerned to_ discard threats top; priority
1080J58 for ceasefire in the Geneva deliberations; granting of independence
1090J58 to the Indo-China states by France; direct negotiations between
1100J58 the actual belligerents; bringing about a solemn agreement among
1110J58 the \0USA, the \0USSR, the \0UK and people*'s Republic of
1120J58 China "denying all direct and indirect" aid to the formulation of
1130J58 a convention by the \0U.N., and seeking \0U.N.*'s good offices
1140J58 for purposes of conciliation. $^There was generally a positive reaction
1150J58 to Nehru*'s peace move. ^The *3Economist wrote that the Churchill
1160J58 Government "was not opposed to Nehru*'s proposals and on the
1170J58 other hand appeared to_ agree with most of them." ^The \0U.S., as
1180J58 was to_ be expected, opposed India*'s move as "untenable and unacceptable."
1190J58 ^*Hoang Van Haan, member of Vietminh delegation to the
1200J58 Geneva Conference, on the other hand, welcomed Nehru*'s proposals.
1210J58 ^Encouraged by the favourable response, Nehru took further measures.
1220J58 ^A meeting was convened in Colombo where five Asian Prime Ministers,
1230J58 those from Burma, Ceylon, India, Indonesia and Pakistan,
1240J58 met on April 28, 1954. $^The Geneva Conference, which commenced
1250J58 on April 26, 1954 devoted the first few days to the Korean issue.
1260J58 ^As the situation in Indo-China was deteriorating day by day, the
1270J58 Conference (with the \0USA, \0U.K. \0U.S.S.R *FRANCE, \0*P.*R.*C.
1280J58 THREE *ASSOCIATED *STATES OF *INDO-*CHINA AND THE \0*2DRVN
1290J58 as members) took up the Indo-China issue the day after the fall of
1300J58 Dien Bien Phu to the Vietminh. $^*India was not invited. ^Even
1310J58 the fact that India*'s security was linked with that_ of Indo-China did
1320J58 not help her to_ participate in the crucial talks. ^*Menon Said:
1330J58 $^We were not taken into the conference because the Americans would
1340J58 not have us. ^Everbody would have welcomed us including Canada. ^The
1350J58 British would not take initiative. $^*Nehru was naturally piqued.
1360J58 ^He gave expression to his anger by highlighting the non-Asian character
1370J58 of the principal participants (with the exception of China) and
1380J58 the non-Asian venue of the conference. ^He resolved to_ involve India
1390J58 in the negotiations at Geneva in some form. ^*Nehru*'s choice
1400J58 for the crucial role to_ be played at Geneva fell on *(0V.K.*) Krishna
1410J58 Menon, who, as India*'s representative at the \0U.N. had an
1420J58 intimate knowledge of Asian problems. ^He had already associated
1430J58 himself with the Korean armistice talks, with the Colombo Conference
1440J58 and with the drafting of the six-point plan. ^In fact Britain desired
1450J58 India*'s participation in the talks behind the scenes. $^*Menon
1460J58 arrived in Geneva at a time when Geneva talks had deadlocked. ^He
1470J58 directed all his energy towards promoting an east-west understanding.
1480J58 ^This endeavour was facilitated by the private talks in hotel room
1490J58 and villas which outnumbered the talks at the conference table and
1500J58 which at times turned out to_ be even more important than the talks
1510J58 at the restricted sessions. ^*Menon turned this peculiar situation to
1520J58 advantage and "just stood on the doorstep and tried to_ be helpful."
1530J58 ^*Menon maintained close and cordial relations with the participants.
1540J58 ^*Chou-En-Lai, on whom all the eyes were concentrated at Geneva,
1550J58 was very kind to Menon. ^Of Britain and India, who played mediatory
1560J58 roles at Geneva, it was India that_ was fully taken into confidence
1570J58 by China and not Britain who was in the ultimate analysis a
1580J58 partner in the western alliance. ^*Menon held the Vietminh as the
1590J58 "real parties to_ negotiate with" and he "appeared to_ strike upon
1600J58 a good friendship with Pham Van Dong, leader of the Vietminh delegation
1610J58 at Geneva". ^In view of the hostile relations in the past,
1620J58 Chinese and the Vietminh were not so close as they appeared to_ be.
1630J58 ^Therefore the Vietminh took Menon, representative of truly neutral
1640J58 country, more into confidence. ^*Mendes-France, an opponent of
1650J58 "old-fashioned Colonialism" who got elected on June 18, 1954 as
1660J58 the Prime Minister of France as a sequal to the fall of Dien Bien
1670J58 Phu to the Vietminh on a promise "peace in one month or I quit",
1680J58 was so cordial to Menon that Menon advised Mendes-France to_
1690J58 fix a time limit for arriving at a peace settlement on the model of the
1700J58 Mountbatten plan for India. ^As the representative of India, "a
1710J58 a key member of the Commonwealth", Menon had no difficulty in
1720J58 influencing Britain. ^*Menon found Molatov,
1730J58 Russian Chief delegate, "easier to_ handle than even the Brritish.
1740J58 ^This was possible because of the changed attitude of Russia
1750J58 towards India. ^*Menon*'s diplomatic efforts were such that soon
1760J58 the whole complexion of the Conference changed and Mendes-France
1770J58 was so much impressed that he considered the Geneva Conference as
1780J58 the "ten-power conference-- the nine at the table and India." $^The
1790J58 *3Hindu wrote that it was mainly due to Menon*'s efforts that
1800J58 the communists accepted, at a time when they were militarily on top,
1810J58 an agreement which the French could consider honourable. ^A French
1820J58 spokesman told \0PTI that India*'s contribution was specially
1830J58 reflected in the personal activities of India*'s unofficial representative
1840J58 \0Mr. Menon, "who played the useful role of a connecting
1850J58 link among the various delegations." $^An analysis of the terms
1860J58 of the Geneva agreement would enable us to_ appreciate better India*'s
1870J58 services to the cause of world peace. ^The Conference not only
1880J58 agreed on the cease-fire but also took steps for its effective implementation
1890J58 by creating a machinery called the International Supervisory
1900J58 Commission (\0ISC). ^*Eden was the first to_ give serious
1910J58 thought to the question of guaranteeing the settlement that_ might
1920J58 be reached at Geneva. ^He wanted the supervisory body to_ be composed
1930J58 of Colombo powers and had ascertained their views even before the
1940J58 Conference took up the Indo-China issue.*#
        **[no. of words = 02023**]

        **[txt. j59**]
0010J59 ^Having thus, discussed the positions of Upendra and Vakpatiraja *=1
0020J59 in the genealogy of the Paramara rulers of Malwa, as referred to in
0030J59 the Udayapur Prasasti, we now proceed to_ consider the historicity
0040J59 of the other two rulers namely Vairisimha *=1 and Siyaka *=1, who
0050J59 come between Upendra and Vakpati *=1 in the same epigraphic record.
0060J59 ^The mere fact, that they stand between the two historical personages
0070J59 goes a long way to_ disprove the view that they are imaginary
0080J59 kings. ^It is true that their descriptions in the Udayapur Prasasti
0090J59 are conventional and devoid of any definite historical fact but we
0100J59 fail to_ understand how this evidence can help those, who emphasise
0110J59 their fictitious character. ^To my mind, the only natural and logical
0120J59 inference, that_ can be drawn is that they were unimportant rulers
0130J59 of the dynasty and that_ is why Padmagupta did not mention them
0140J59 expressly by names but summarily disposed them of by stating that between
0150J59 Upendra and Vakpati *=1 there came a number of rulers. $^We
0160J59 have stated earlier, that both the Navasahasanka-Carita and the Udayapur
0170J59 Prasasti testify to the fact that Upendra was the first king
0180J59 of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa. ^Giving an account of his Padmagupta
0190J59 says, "this sacrificer, (before whom Indra was afraid lest
0200J59 by performing hundred *4yajnas, Upendra should usurp Indra*'s throne),
0210J59 whose body was rendered holy by (many *4avabhrta) baths \0i.e.
0220J59 those taken at the end of sacrifices, decked the earth with golden
0230J59 Yupas." ^The Udayapur Prasasti describes him as, "Upendraraja,
0240J59 whose fame was proclaimed by the immortals, satisfied by the multitude
0250J59 of all sacrifices, who was a jewel among the twice-born and gained
0260J59 high honour of kingship (Knighthood, according to Buhler) by his
0270J59 own valour". ^An important fact, which can be gleaned from this evidence
0280J59 is that Upendra performed a number of sacrifices, as we find
0290J59 this information in two different records, which were written at different
0300J59 periods and by different writers. ^On coming to the throne,
0310J59 it appears, that Upendra, in order to_ stablize his position, realised
0320J59 the prime necessity and importance to_ canvass support, among
0330J59 the indigenous population of his realm, for an alien rule. ^He ensured
0340J59 the cooperation of the *4Brahmana hierarchy to the new monarchy
0350J59 by performing a 'multitude of sacrifices' and thus proved himself
0360J59 as the champion of that_ sacred institution. ^But as he was equally
0370J59 anxious to_ secure the cooperation of the masses, he reduced
0380J59 the burden of taxes borne by his subjects. ^He was a singular warrior
0390J59 and also a patron of the learned. ^It appears that he extended his
0400J59 patronage to one poetess Sita, who, as can be inferred from a verse
0410J59 of the Navasahasanka-Carita, composed a certain eulogy in honour
0420J59 of him. ^But the *3Prabandhas, namely the Prabandhacintamani
0430J59 and the Bhojaprabandha, both of which contain the same verses by her,
0440J59 refer to a poetess named Sita, who had the privilege of seeking
0450J59 the audience of king Bhoja. ^Out of these two, the evidence of Padmagupta
0460J59 deserves more credence than that_ of the Prabandhas and there
0470J59 is a possibility that the two ladies would have been identical.
0480J59 ^Following *(0D. C.*) Ganguly the period of reign, which we may provisionally
0490J59 allot to Upendra, would be from \0A.D. 809-810 to 837.
0500J59 $^Before we proceed further with an account of Vairisimha *=1, the
0510J59 immediate successor of Upendra we propose to_ discuss an event
0520J59 of resounding importance, which in years to_ come not only changed
0530J59 the political status and affinities of the Paramara kingdom of Malwa
0540J59 but also contributed much to_ draw a new political map of northern
0550J59 India. ^That_ event was the accession of Mihira Bhoja to the
0560J59 Pratihara throne of Kanauj in or shortly before \0A.D. 836 (=
0570J59 \0V.S. 893), which almost synchronised with the death of Upendra,
0580J59 the founder for the Paramara dynasty of Malwa. ^As we are primarily
0590J59 concerned with the history of Malwa, we will mainly devote our
0600J59 attention to that_ aspect of Mihira-Bhoja*'s reign. ^In the early
0610J59 part of his reign, Bhoja faced no threat or danger from the Rastrakutas,
0620J59 either of the Manyakheta or of the Gujarat. ^On the contrary,
0630J59 their distracted condition offered him a golden opportunity for
0640J59 the westward expansion of his empire. ^The Rastrakuta emperor Amoghavarsha
0650J59 had already too many irons in the fire and being preoccupied
0660J59 with problems or difficulties nearer home, he had no time to_ thwart
0670J59 the imperialistic designs of his Northern adversary. ^In fact,
0680J59 it was during a long period of thirty years from \0A.D. 830 to \0A.D.
0690J59 860 that he struggled hard to_ put down rebellions and other
0700J59 disruptive or disintegrating forces in different parts of his empire.
0710J59 ^His life and death struggle with the Eastern Calukyas, which
0720J59 commenced in \0A.D. 817, proved to_ be a protracted one and the
0730J59 Vengi ruler Vijayaditya *=2 suffered a crushing defeat at his hands
0740J59 in \0A.D. 830. ^But this reverse did not break the backbone of
0750J59 the East-Calukyan resistance, with the result that the victor,
0760J59 in order to_ maintain his authority over there, had to_ station an
0770J59 army of occupation at their capital for no less than about fifteen
0780J59 years to_ come. ^Even these drastic measures proved of no avail to_
0790J59 suppress an insurrection which had possibly touched hearts of the
0800J59 people, and shortly before \0A.D. 845, Panduranga, a general of
0810J59 the deposed ruler Vijayaditya *=2 liberated the city of Vengi from
0820J59 the Rastrakutas. ^Almost simultaneously, during the first two decades
0830J59 of his reign, Amoghavarsha conducted a continuous war against
0840J59 the Gangas, which eventually went almost in favour of the latter
0850J59 and in desperation the Rastrakuta emperor abandoned any further serious
0860J59 effort to_ bring back that_ province under his supremacy. ^The
0870J59 feud continued for a long time and it was only in 860 \0A.D., that
0880J59 it was terminated by a matrimonial alliance between the two houses.
0890J59 ^There is also evidence to_ show that with the death of Karkka
0900J59 in \0A.D. 830 the cordial relations between the Rastrakutas of Manyakheta
0910J59 and Gujarat came to an end and with the accession of his
0920J59 son and successor Dhruva *=1 to the throne of Gujarat, an era of
0930J59 hostility was inaugurated between him and his cousin Amoghvarsha,
0940J59 the Rastrakuta emperor. ^The struggle was both protracted and a bloody
0950J59 one, in which Dhruva *=1 ultimately perished and which lasted
0960J59 for about twenty five years. ^The supreme sacrifice of his father to
0970J59 his cause inspired Akalavarsha, who succeeded Dhruva *=1 in \0A.D.
0980J59 845 to_ carry on the tragic war to the end of his life and which
0990J59 only came to an end in \0A.D. 860, when he was succeeded by his son
1000J59 Dhruva *=2. ^The Rastrakutas of Gujarat, whose kingdom lay contiguous
1010J59 to that_ of the Paramaras of Malwa, had naturally, almost
1020J59 completely exhausted themseives in their long-drawn struggle with Amoghavarsha
1030J59 and were also not in a position to_ prevent Mihira-Bhoja
1040J59 from his conquest of Malwa and Saurastra. ^Moreover as their
1050J59 relations with their kinsmen at Manyakheta continued to_ be enemical,
1060J59 they possibly, now had no desire to_ fight for the integrity of
1070J59 the Rastrakuta empire and to_ bear the brunt of the attack of the
1080J59 Pratihara arms. ^In view of these circumstances, it can reasonably
1090J59 be presumed that sometime between \0A.D. 836 and \0A.D. 860 the
1100J59 kingdom of Malwa slipped out from the suzerainty of the Rastrakuta
1110J59 emperor Amoghavarsha and accepted the Paramountcy of the Pratihara
1120J59 ruler of Kanauj, Mihira Bhoja. ^*Amghavarsha remained a silent
1130J59 spectator to the dissolution of the northern provinces of his empire,
1140J59 as none of his records suggests that he undertook any campaign
1150J59 in the north. ^It was not only Malwa, which laid prostrate before
1160J59 the advancing armies of Bhoja but it is clear from the evidence of
1170J59 the Una Copper plates that Cutch and Kathiawar were also included
1180J59 within his empire. *(0^*H.C.*) Raychaudhari has tried to_ infer
1190J59 from a passage in the Vastrapathamahatmya of the Skandapurana that
1200J59 Bhoja*'s authority extended upto Saurastra, a piece of literary
1210J59 evidence, which is in conformity with facts known from the above epigraphic
1220J59 records. ^*Sulaiman, an arab, whose account of India was
1230J59 composed in \0A.D. 851 describes Bhoja*'s empire as 'a tongue of
1240J59 land,' an expression, which allows us to_ draw an inference as to the
1250J59 inclusion of Saurastra within his realm. ^It appears, that Mihira
1260J59 Bhoja, following the traditions of a 'Dharmavijaya' allowed the
1270J59 Paramara rulers of Malwa to_ rule the country as his feudatories,
1280J59 as there is not the slightest evidence to_ suggest any other conclusion
1290J59 to the contrary. ^If there had been any break in their continuous
1300J59 rule, as a result of the Pratihara conquest of Malwa, it would
1310J59 not have been possible to_ get a complete genealogy of the Paramara
1320J59 rulers in the Udayapur Prasasti. ^The political significance
1330J59 of the extension of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire in the west, may
1340J59 be understood in this light that it not only immensely increased the
1341J59 power of Bhoja *=1, but also contributed much to_ disturb the
1350J59 balance of power in the North after the death of the Pala emperor
1360J59 Devapala in \0A.D. 850. ^The tripartite struggle for power ended,
1370J59 giving place to a direct dual contest, between the Gurjara-Pratihara
1380J59 and the Rastrakuta empires, which ultimately paved the way for
1390J59 the destruction of the both. **[sic**] $*(0^*D. C.*) Ganguly does not
1400J59 ascribe to our view and holds that in no case Malwa was annexed to the
1410J59 kingdom of Kanauj before \0A.D. 914. ^The Sirur inscription refers
1420J59 to the kings of Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malava and Vengi, who
1430J59 worshipped Amoghavarsha. ^As far the reference to Vengi is concerned,
1440J59 it is easily intelligible. ^The first three countries in the list,
1450J59 which lay farther east in the direction of Bengal, were included
1460J59 in the Pala empire and as such the above assertion may be treated
1470J59 merely as a poetic hyperbole. ^It is true that Malava was a bone
1480J59 of contention between the Rastrakutas and the Pratiharas, but its
1490J59 reference too in this epigraphic record is surpising and may not be
1500J59 relied upon, if we compare the rising power of Mihira Bhoja on one
1510J59 hand with the declining fortunes of Amoghavarsha on the other. ^It
1520J59 further appears that Bhoja consolidated his conquests of western
1530J59 India by \0A.D. 860, which alone could enable him to_ interfere
1540J59 into a war for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva *=2 and his younger
1550J59 brother sometime before 867 \0A.D. ^It is on the basis of the
1560J59 evidence of verses 37 and 38 of the Broach inscription of Dhruva
1570J59 *=2 that Dasharatha Sharma has drawn the inference of a war of
1580J59 succession in which Bhoja interfered on behalf of the younger brother
1590J59 of Dhruva *=2 and led a cavalry raid into Gujarat. ^It may be
1600J59 pointed out that Bhoja*'s interference into the Gujarat affairs was
1610J59 entirely due to political motives and his subtle diplomatic move to_
1620J59 bring that_ kingdom under his supremacy is understandable in view
1630J59 of the brilliant success, which his policy of aggrandisement had
1640J59 already achieved in Malwa and Saurastra. ^On this occasion Amoghavarsa
1650J59 perhaps came to the rescue of his clansmen against the Northern
1660J59 invader. ^This piece of information is an important one as it helps
1670J59 us to_ determine the approximate period of this conflict. ^The
1680J59 cordial relations between the two houses of the Rastrakutas of Manyakheta
1690J59 and Gujarat were only restored back in \0A.D. 860, with
1700J59 e accession of Dhruva *=2 to the throne of the latter, and as such
1710J59 Amoghavarsha*'s help would have come only after that_ date. ^We are,
1720J59 therefore, inclined to_ suggest that_ Bhoja invaded Gujarat
1730J59 sometime between \0A.D. 860 and \0A.D. 867 and not between \0A.D.
1740J59 845 and 860 as believed by *(0R. C.*) Majumdar. ^The event
1750J59 is mentioned for the first time in the Bagumra grant dated \0A.D.
1760J59 867 and the relevant verses have been quoted by scholars, as referring
1770J59 to dhruva *=2. ^It is evident from this grant that Bhoja, whom
1780J59 it refers to by his *4biruda 'Mihira' suffered a defeat at the hands
1790J59 of Dhruva *=2. ^It can not be denied that it was a splendid achievement
1800J59 of the Rastrakuta arms and the verse 41 of the inscription
1810J59 compares that_ achievement, to that_ of a cloud which overcasts
1820J59 the sky and darkens the midday sun.*#
        **[no. of words = 02016**]

        **[txt. j60**]
0010J60 **<IMAGERY IN ELIOT*'S EARLY POETRY**> *=1 $^INTUITION IS the
0020J60 key to all artistic creations. ^By an act of intuition the artist is
0030J60 required to_ place himself within his subject to_ unravel the mystery
0040J60 of the unique and the inexpressible or what can be better described
0050J60 as the very intention of life itself. ^*Bergson contends that
0060J60 human language is incapable of expressing this intuition. ^For this,
0070J60 however, the poet can very well rely upon the suggestive power of
0080J60 his images and compelling power of rhythm. $^He is unable to_ communicate
0090J60 his experience directly, since the knowledge attained through
0100J60 intuition is hardly precise and does not properly lend itself to
0110J60 intelligence. ^Only by an association of certain selected images out
0120J60 of a landscape the poet is able to_ suggest or evoke the emotional
0130J60 state he himself experiences. ^Indeed the problem of communication
0140J60 is the greatest hurdle to any artistic process. ^*Bergson has tried
0150J60 to_ solve this problem in terms of imagery or analogy. ^Though he
0160J60 does not believe that images can express reality fully or largely, though
0170J60 he does not admit that the image is any substitute for intuition,
0180J60 he is convinced that images can approximate language to reality or
0190J60 provide the only means to it. ^In 'An Introduction to Metaphysics'
0200J60 Bergson says: "No image can replace the intuition of duration,
0210J60 but many diverse images, borrowed from very different orders of things,
0220J60 may, by the convergence of their action, direct consciousness to
0230J60 the precise point where there is a certain intuition to_ be seized."
0240J60 $*(0^*T. E.*) Hulme emphasizes the importance of the purely physical
0250J60 aspects of the image and the desired effect upon the reader*'s
0260J60 feelings. ^Though his arguments are in favour of sensuous verse, his
0270J60 theory holds no brief for poetry that_ is commonly understood as
0280J60 sensuous. ^He is more inclined to_ treat poetry as a visual and concrete
0290J60 language than as 'counter words'. ^He believes that the 'imaging
0300J60 process' is inherent in any good writing and visual signification
0310J60 must precede its execution. ^To him imagery is the only plausible
0320J60 language of poetry, since the poet is called upon to_ express the
0330J60 individuality and freshness of things. ^In his famous essay Bergson*'s
0340J60 theory of Art he says: "Ordinary language communicates nothing
0350J60 of the individuality and freshness of things. ^As far as that_ quality
0360J60 goes we live separated from each other. ^The excitement of art
0370J60 comes from this rare and unique communication. ^Creation of imagery
0380J60 is needed to_ force language to_ convey over this freshness of impression."
0390J60 $^The image, visualised as the representation of a physical
0400J60 object, creates in the reader an emotion which he feels as his own
0410J60 with pleasure. ^In fact Hulme wants to_ create through poetry a
0420J60 new world of reality, set apart from the humdrum life and its reasonable
0430J60 attitudes of existence. ^So he feels constrained to_ say that
0440J60 poetry "must have analogies, which make another-world-through-the-glass
0450J60 effect, which is what I want." $^Both Bergson and Hulme, in their
0460J60 eagerness to_ solve the problem of communication through imagery
0470J60 have left the issue of internality and externality of images out
0480J60 of their theories. ^In 1915, Ezra Pound, the leader of the Imagist
0490J60 movement in poetry, while arguing that emotion or energy, the material
0500J60 of all art, has quite often to_ present itself to the mind in
0510J60 the form of an image, considered for the first time the two-fold aspects
0520J60 of imagery-- the subjective and the objective. ^Shaped by the mind,
0530J60 an image may either develop into something that_ has no equivalent
0540J60 in the physical world and thus be entirely subjective, or it may
0550J60 be clearly recognizable as an external object stripped of everything
0560J60 but its dramatic or dominant qualities. $^*Pound defines image as
0570J60 'an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time.' ^This
0580J60 theory serves to_ indicate a sense of sudden liberation which the
0590J60 nature of the modern man*'s experience affects in poetry. ^The fast
0600J60 moving life in this era offers a series of disparate experiences,
0610J60 that_ can be only emotionally reconstructed and intellectually patterned
0620J60 into a scheme of imagery. ^Quite often this pattern of imagery
0630J60 incorporates much that_ is symbolic, since concrete and external
0640J60 images fall short of the requirement of proper communication. ^In a
0650J60 sense, the 'Imagistic' principle of poetry betrays a short-sightedness,
0660J60 as it stresses too much the physical aspect of poetic experience
0670J60 and leaves out all that_ is introspective and metaphysical. ^Though
0680J60 Eliot has a great deal in common with the Imagists, his poetry
0690J60 takes stock of the internality and externality of the 'imaging process'
0700J60 and presents an almost comprehensive vision of reality. ^While
0710J60 communicating the meaning to the reader, he sets the tone of a poem
0720J60 through a succession of images, carefully selected and arranged into
0730J60 a pattern that_ assumes a symbolic range. ^Unlike much of Imagist
0740J60 poetry, his poems are evocative rather than descriptive. $^In the
0750J60 absence of a common bond of faith and centrality of human experience,
0760J60 life is bound to_ grow complex, and hence difficult for artistic
0770J60 communication. ^Perhaps, in no time in history did poets ever feel
0780J60 so insecure in their grasp of artistic material, more so in their
0790J60 attempts at direct communication. ^Intuition, the *8sine qua non*9
0800J60 of all artistic creations, is more than ever importunately pressed
0810J60 upon him today to_ serve as his only refuge in a world of conflicting
0820J60 experiences. ^*Bergson*'s attempts at resolving the problem of
0830J60 communication through images has only partially helped the poet to_
0840J60 be convincing to the reader. ^To_ communicate his meaning, the modern
0850J60 poet has either to_ create his personal myth and rely solely on
0860J60 symbols, or evolve a pattern of images which would evoke the requisite
0870J60 emotion in the people. ^*Eliot has chosen the golden mean, and
0880J60 his poetry is a perfect combination of images that_ are also sufficiently
0890J60 symbolic. ^To_ be more precise, there is a marked tendency
0900J60 in his poetry to_ drift towards an imaginative awareness of the vague
0910J60 and shadowy life that_ lies beyond the external reality. ^In the
0920J60 earlier phase, his poetry almost adheres to Imagist aesthetics
0930J60 and makes use of the precise and concrete images that_ concur with the
0940J60 objective world. ^*Eliot*'s poetry gradually incorporates various
0950J60 symbols chosen from diverse fields of knowledge, and in the latter
0960J60 phase his metaphors become more subjective than objective, more symmbolic
0970J60 than descriptive. $^As Eliot*'s imagination is essentially dramatic,
0980J60 he believes in the objectification of the emotional contents
0990J60 of the multiplicity of experiences. ^Since the present generation has
1000J60 very little to_ share on the emotional plane directly, the poet
1010J60 must find the proper equivalents for poetic feelings. ^This idea owes
1020J60 its origin to Pound, who defines poetry as a "sort of inspired
1030J60 mathematics which gives us equations, not for abstract figures, triangles,
1040J60 spheres, and the like, but for the human emotions." ^*Eliot
1050J60 holds emotions as the only personal element in the poetic process.
1060J60 ^He, however, thinks that the artistic success or greatness of a poet
1070J60 very much depends on how he communicates these emotions 'impersonally'
1080J60 through equations-- a method he himself characterizes as 'objective
1090J60 correlative.' ^In presenting the equivalents for diverse emotions
1100J60 the artist has to_ undergo a process of 'continual self-sacrifice'
1110J60 or depersonalization. ^Almost like a dramatist the poet has to_
1120J60 choose a pattern of events, situations or objects which by their very
1130J60 association evoke the requisite emotions. ^In his essay, '*3Hamlet
1140J60 and His Problems', Eliot says, "The only way of expressing
1150J60 emotion in the form of art is by finding an 'objective correlative',
1160J60 in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events
1170J60 which shall be the formula for that_ particular emotion; so that when
1180J60 the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience,
1190J60 are given, the emotion is immediately evoked." $^Though the idea of
1200J60 the 'objective correlative' equates the poetic process to a geometrical
1210J60 pattern, there is much left to poetic intelligence to_ improve
1220J60 upon it. ^In his essay, *3Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca,
1230J60 Eliot admits the importance of intellectual power in shaping a
1240J60 work of art: "To express precise emotion requires as great intellectual
1250J60 power as to_ express precise thought." $^The 'objective correlative'
1260J60 of most of Eliot*'s poems is nothing short of a structure of
1270J60 images that_ indicates a fullness of the expression and
1280J60 comprehension of poetic feelings. ^Hence imagery in his poetry is
1290J60 no mere assortment of the intellectual and emotional complex that_
1300J60 serves as poetic decoration; it is an integral part of the total
1310J60 process. $*<*=2*> $^In *3Prufrock poems Eliot offers the most ironical
1320J60 sketches of urban life. ^Here we come across men and women mostly
1330J60 distracted by their overbearing passion for love and companionship,
1340J60 irritably disposed to_ find an opening for their inhibited selves.
1350J60 ^The claims of sophistication are inordinately pressing, and hold
1360J60 out little prospects for adjustment of the inner and outer compulsion.
1370J60 ^Hence the greatest dilemma for all these people is the difficulty
1380J60 of self-expression in the hopeless void created by their own
1390J60 conflicting desires. ^A sense of incapacity, boredom and loneliness
1400J60 overcomes their enthusiasm and vitiates their purpose. ^Hence the images
1410J60 mostly chosen for these poems are drawn from dreary evening scenes,
1420J60 vacant rooms, animal existence and wayside restaurants. ^Indeed,
1430J60 right through the scheme of these images, variously applied in the
1440J60 poems, an underlying note of irony is ever present. ^There is
1450J60 much that_ is Laforguian in the sharpness of irony that_
1460J60 outlines these images. ^The ruling principle of imagery in most
1470J60 of these poems is the contrast between the monotony of present life,
1480J60 its vacancy and indecision and the instinctive simplicity of primordial
1490J60 existence. ^Indeed, Eliot*'s idea of tradition which involves
1500J60 not only the pastness of the past but also its presence strikingly
1510J60 asserts itself in the pattern of images that_ sets the tone of *3Prufrock
1520J60 poems. $^Except for a few details, a number of these poems
1530J60 are, apparently imagist in their designs. ^The concreteness of outlines,
1540J60 freshness of novelty, that_ characterise the imagist verse are
1550J60 clearly present in most of the images. \0^*Mr. Stanley Coffman says:
1560J60 "The 'Preludes' especially are reminiscent of one aspect of Imagism:
1570J60 they treat their subjects directly by depending upon the image
1580J60 to_ communicate meaning to the reader who sees, feels, or even
1590J60 smells for himself." ^But \0Mr. Coffman admits the difficulty of identifying
1600J60 Eliot*'s poems with those of the Imagist School. ^Though
1610J60 'Preludes' and some other poems of the groups are descriptive,
1620J60 they contain a selection of images so careful and representative that
1630J60 they become analytical, almost symbolic. ^*Eliot took poetry more
1640J60 seriously as a mission than did Hulme, and hence \0Mr. Coffman contends
1650J60 that "even this verse cannot be too closely associated with
1660J60 Imagism or an Imagist aesthetic." $^In *3Preludes is exhibited
1670J60 the novel method of stringing together a number of disparate images
1680J60 which unfold like a film and produce upon the spectator the impact
1690J60 of a sequence of emotions. ^In this connection we are reminded of
1700J60 Eliot*'s essay on Dante where he refers to the great poet*'s 'visual
1710J60 imagination.' ^The ideas that_ take shape in the poet*'s mind have
1720J60 been properly visualized here as concrete and sensuous experiences.
1730J60 ^*Eliot*'s imagination adopts the primitive mode of thinking in
1740J60 terms of images. ^*Elizabeth Drew characterizes it as "that_ method
1750J60 of perceiving inner realities through their reflection in concrete
1760J60 images, and all the discipline which has to_ accompany its translation
1770J60 into language, was what Eliot was in particular 'battling to_
1780J60 recapture' in the practice of poetry." (*(0^*T. S.*) Eliot--
1790J60 *3The Design of his Poetry.) $^The different parts of *3Preludes
1800J60 present in close succession a sense of waste and boredom and
1810J60 a glimpse of horror, corruption and tragic yearning, for adjustment.
1820J60 ^The imagery in Part *=1 symbolically suggests a peculiar sense
1830J60 of waste through constant reference to such objects as have no immediate
1840J60 value in life. ^The striking imagery that_ comes almost at
1850J60 the beginning, "The burnt-out ends of smoky days", quite successfully
1860J60 translates an abstract idea into a quite decidedly mundane and
1870J60 commonplace experience. $^In the second part of *3Preludes images
1880J60 mostly culled from the pub-life in the city evoke a feeling of boredom.
1890J60 ^There is, however, an image that_ is richly suggestive of a sense
1900J60 of horror and disgust.*#
        **[no. of words = 02011**]

        **[txt. j61**]
0010J61 **<*3THE DOMESTIC DRAMA*0**> $^The agonising curse of the poor helpless
0020J61 sailor is the last straw. ^His boundless avarice could be an adequate
0030J61 poetic justification for his wretched death. ^All the sinners
0040J61 are punished and the author in his epilogue particularly draws our attention
0050J61 to the fact that: **[verses**] $^*Porter*'s *3The Two Angry
0060J61 Women of Abingdon*0, which may be called the first domestic comedy
0070J61 , deals with the efforts of Master Barnes and Master Goursey to_
0080J61 re-establish the 'neighbour amitie' and the broken friendship between
0090J61 their two families. ^The men are endowed with patience and good sense
0100J61 but their wives are cantankerous women governed by petty jealousies.
0110J61 ^The old happy relationship is restored by the marriage of Mall,
0120J61 the daughter of Barnes, with Frank Goursey. $^*Porter, 'the most
0130J61 truly English of all dramatists', took the village of Abingdon near
0140J61 Oxford as the setting of his play. ^The play is a faithful transcript
0150J61 of English rural life. ^The fun of the play has at once a Chaucerian
0160J61 shrewdness and something of the careless guffaw. ^Its realism
0170J61 throws back to *3Mak*0 and *3Johan, Tom Tylor*0 and *3Gammer
0180J61 Gurton*0. ^As a comedy of unadulterated native flavour, breathing rural
0190J61 life and manners and the modern spirit, constructed with knowledge
0200J61 of the stage and without affection or constraint, it has no foregoing
0210J61 analogue except perhaps *3The Pinner of Wakefield*0. ^No play
0220J61 preceding or contemporary yields an easier conversational prose, not
0230J61 even the *3Merry Wives*0. $^*Haughton*'s *3Englishmen for my Money*0
0240J61 is a comedy of London middle-class life very much resembling Porter*'s
0250J61 play in its style and technique. ^*Pisaro, a city merchant
0260J61 and usurer, wants to_ wed his three daughters to three rich foreigners,
0270J61 Delian, a Frenchman, Aluro, an Italian and Vandalle, a Dutchman.
0280J61 ^His daughters, already in love with three Englishmen who mortgaged
0290J61 their properties to Pisaro, join hands with their lovers in outwitting
0300J61 their father and the three foreigners, and get married to their
0310J61 native lovers. $^Certainly these plays mark the beginnings of the
0320J61 Domestic drama. ^But the presentation of the middle-class life and
0330J61 customs betray the authors*' lack of the complete mastery of the material.
0340J61 ^At best these plays may be said to_ be successful attempts.
0350J61 ^It is only in the domestic plays of Dekker and Heywood that we find
0360J61 a deeper and more acute understanding of the middle-class life, its
0370J61 *3milieu*0 and *3ethos*0 and a genuine attempt at "the expression of
0380J61 social problems and the portrayal of real characters". $^*Dekker*'s
0390J61 *3The Shoemakers*' Holiday*0 combines three important themes of the
0400J61 middle-class life: the material and social advancement of Eyre, the
0410J61 'unequal' marriage of Rose and Lacy and the separation and reunion
0420J61 of Jane and Rafe. ^All the three aspects, based on Deloney*'s *3The
0430J61 Gentle Craft*0, are closely connected with the house of Simon
0440J61 Eyre. ^The rise of Eyre from a shoemaker to the Lord Mayor is
0450J61 a dramatic presentation of a dream cherished by many a hardworking and
0460J61 ambitious apprentice, and such cases were quite common. ^*Eyre achieves
0470J61 nothing traditionally impossible for a man of his birth and nature.
0480J61 ^He owes his position, prosperity and power to his men and craft.
0490J61 ^Despite the occasional reproofs he gives to his men, he never ignores
0500J61 their advice and always readily considers their claims. ^He knows
0510J61 his mind and moves with uninhibited freedom and talks with his natural
0520J61 spirit of lighthearted gaiety. ^He is free with his sovereign but
0530J61 he never violates the traditional social hierarchy. ^He is careful enough
0540J61 not to_ allow his familiarity to_ exceed the limits of decency
0550J61 and social etiquette and his freedom does not blind him to his duties
0560J61 of loyalty and obedience: $...everie haire I assure thy maiestie that
0570J61 stickes in this beard, *3Sim Eyre*0 values at the king of Babilons
0580J61 ransome, *3Tamar Chams*0 beard was a rubbing brush toot: yet he
0590J61 shave it off, and stuffe tennis balls with it to_ please my bully king.
0600J61 $^The inter-class marriage of Rose and Lacy meets with the expected
0610J61 disapproval from all quarters. ^All the others in both the families
0620J61 try their level best to_ 'prevent' it. ^Even the king who pardons
0630J61 the lovers does not do so as an advocate of the best democratic
0640J61 social ideas, but as a champion of the laws of love and the sanctity
0650J61 of marriage. ^*Dekker approves the inter-class marriage based on love
0660J61 and understanding; for he says, 'where there is much love, all discord
0670J61 ends'. $^The separation of Jane and Rafe on account of wars
0680J61 of France gives an opportunity for Dekker to_ introduce the domestic
0690J61 virtues of conjugal chastity, obedience, patience and constancy. ^The
0700J61 picture of Jane working and managing her shop is an example of
0710J61 an ideal citizen wife for emulation, which recurs in the domestic plays.
0720J61 ^*Jane*'s reply to the pestering Hammond reminds us of the traditional
0730J61 constancy of citizen heroines like Greene*'s Beltris and
0740J61 Heywood*'s Bess. ^All these three strains are closely fused together
0750J61 and the play as a whole gives a true and accurate picture of the everyday
0760J61 life of London middle-class and this happy comedy is also a
0770J61 perfect domestic play, the best of its class. $^The constancy of Grissil
0780J61 had been a stock domestic theme from the beginning of the English
0790J61 drama, not to_ mention its popularity in other forms of literature.
0800J61 ^In *3Patient Grissil*0 Dekker and his collaborators, Chettle
0810J61 and Haughton, have not even attempted to_ reproduce the deep note
0820J61 of pathos of Chaucer; but in freshness and straightforwardness,
0830J61 in frankness and simplicity of treatment, the dramatic version is not
0840J61 generally unworthy to_ be compared with the narrative. $^The play
0850J61 is essentially English in its thought, sentiments and setting and
0860J61 there is nothing alien except the names of the characters and the places.
0870J61 ^The close-knit family of poor Janicola, the basket maker, assisted
0880J61 by his obedient children and the trusty servant, is a typical
0890J61 replica of an ideal family of a contemporary 'handicrafts man'. ^This
0900J61 self-sufficient family has a peculiar idyllic charm of its own. ^They
0910J61 lead an honest and contented life, singing and working, untainted
0920J61 by the cankerous thoughts of anxiety, jealousy or ambition. ^*Janicola
0930J61 consoles his frustrated son: **[verse**] $^The peace of the family
0940J61 is disturbed by Gwalter who marries Grissil incurring the displeasure
0950J61 of his courtiers and subjects. ^In order to_ silence them he puts
0960J61 her to extreme trials of patience and forbearance. ^The trials reach
0970J61 the climax when Grissil is separated from her young babes by force
0980J61 and is asked to_ make all the necessary preparations for her husband*'s
0990J61 second marriage. ^Obeying her husband*'s command she departs
1000J61 from her children, grief-stricken and tongue-tied. ^But the mother in
1010J61 her soon dominates; she enters stealthily and suckles her children.
1020J61 ^At her husband*'s order she decks his bride, puts the embroidered slippers
1030J61 on her feet and adorns her 'rival*'s' hand with her own wedding
1040J61 ring. ^She endures everything with a saint-like patience and her
1050J61 husband proudly reclaims her. $^The episode of Julia is presented as
1060J61 a contrast to Grissil*'s endurance of all the trials. ^*Julia*'s preference
1070J61 for monastic holiness appears more like a ruse to_ run away
1080J61 from the realities of married life than her wholehearted dedication
1090J61 for divine virginity. ^She takes an active part in the repartee with
1100J61 her three docile suitors-- too fawning for any woman to_ care for. ^None
1110J61 of them is as 'desperate an amarato' as Dekker*'s Orleans in *3Old
1120J61 Fortunatus*0 to_ win her. ^The entire episode looks like a parody
1130J61 of wooing. $^*Gwenthyan comes of a distinguished company of low
1140J61 comedy shrews starting with Noah*'s wife and culminating in Katherina
1150J61 in *3The Taming of the Shrew*0. Sir Owen*'s repeated attempts
1160J61 to_ tame her are doomed to perpetual failure. ^He is perplexed and
1170J61 unnerved for it would be "a shame eyther to_ run away from a woman
1180J61 or to_ strike her". ^The shrew herself, looking at the example of
1190J61 Grissil, volunteers to_ be obedient, and thus solves the puzzle.
1200J61 ^All the three situations have a relevance to the middle class life
1210J61 and the play was intended for an audience ready to_ believe Grissil*'s
1220J61 incredible patience. ^There is something mechanical about Grissil*'s
1230J61 patience and obedience, but this is something inherent in the theme
1240J61 itself. $*3^*The Honest Whore*0 as a whole can be called a four-fold
1250J61 domestic play concentrating on different types of private problems:
1260J61 the reciprocal love of Hippolito and Infelice thwarted by family
1270J61 feud, the varying fortunes of Bellafront in the hands of Hippolito
1280J61 and her gallant husband, the problem of Candido 'a patient man
1290J61 linkt with a waspish shrew' and the silent suffering of Orlando Friscobaldo,
1300J61 watching and protecting his daughter without her knowledge.
1310J61 $^For all purposes it would be better to_ take the two parts of *3The
1320J61 Honest Whore*0 together. ^Otherwise, the cycle of problems which
1330J61 each character faces and the experiences it undergoes will not be complete.
1340J61 ^*Hippolito, the idolatrous lover who reclaims Bellafront from
1350J61 her incorrigible ways of sin, turns in the second part, into an unfaithful
1360J61 husband and the arch tempter of the same woman whom he saved.
1370J61 ^His wife, whose problem was to_ overcome parental opposition, strives
1380J61 now to_ turn her husband*'s thoughts from adultery. ^*Bellafront,
1390J61 who succeeds in relinquishing her evil ways, has to_ withstand the
1400J61 rigours of poverty coupled with the luring temptations of luxurious
1410J61 life from Hippolito, 'a bait enough to_ choake a Nun'. ^*Candido*'s
1420J61 domestic troubles are renewed by a second marriage. ^It is in the
1430J61 second part of the play that the slow conversion of Orlando Friscobaldo,
1440J61 from a frustrated cynic to a loving father, is presented. ^Therefore,
1450J61 it is hardly possible to_ separate the two parts without doing
1460J61 much damage to the thematic unity of the play. $^The troubles of
1470J61 Bellafront before and after her conversion form the main part of
1480J61 the play. ^Her first seducer Matheo brings disappointed Hippolito
1490J61 to Bellafront to_ relieve his mind from the thoughts of his Infelice.
1500J61 ^Thus , for the first time, the courtesan *8par excellence*9 is brought
1510J61 face to face with a man who could scorn her and open her eyes
1520J61 to the horrifying sins and filth of her trade. ^The real feeling behind
1530J61 the 'offensively crowded speeches' between Hippolito and Bellafront
1540J61 is not mere derision and contempt against prostitution. ^It is Dekker*'s
1550J61 humane understanding of the problem, his compassionate realism
1560J61 and kindhearted concern to_ reform the fallen that_ gives the real
1570J61 strength for his speeches. ^*Bellafront had her moments of introspection,
1580J61 and she is not completely lost. ^There is some measure of inherent
1590J61 honesty in her. ^Therefore, her conversion after her encounter
1600J61 with Hippolito is quite expected and it need not puzzle us. $^*Dekker
1610J61 subjects Bellafront to a piece of persuasive oratory from Hippolito
1620J61 that_ turns her, as an audience would expect it to_, to repentance
1630J61 and reformation of life. $^*Dekker himself anticipated the common
1640J61 reaction to such a change and, perhaps, he meant these words as a kind
1650J61 of explanation: **[verse**] $^One of the reasons for his over-emphasis
1660J61 on the filth and horrors of whoredom may be to_ provide a strong
1670J61 ground for her conversion. $^The episode of Orlando Friscobaldo
1680J61 is another domestic incident of an affectionate father disillusioned
1690J61 by an indiscreet daughter on whom he cherished all his hopes. ^Being
1700J61 a 'respectable gentleman' he takes it to heart and acquires tinges
1710J61 of misanthropy. ^Again,it is Hippolito who rekindles the burnt wick
1720J61 of this aged father*'s hope. ^All his anger, accumulated shades of cynicism
1730J61 and misanthropy melt into silent tears when he listens to his
1740J61 daughter*'s spontaneous words of love at the mere mention of his
1750J61 name: **[verses**] $^He provokes her intentionally, perhaps, more to_
1760J61 derive a secret pleasure from her strong protests than to_ test her.
1770J61 ^The whole scene is an example of Dekker*'s superb constructive skill
1780J61 with which he telescopes a number of conflicting emotions and creates
1790J61 a domestic situation of unparalleled tenderness. ^He watches her
1800J61 in her poverty and heartrending miseries amidst constant temptations
1810J61 from Hippolito. ^After enduring everything with the resolution of a
1820J61 stoic, he throws off his disguise with an apparent harshness which
1830J61 gives way to an aside expressing his inner torture: **[verse**] $^The
1840J61 episode of Orlando is one of the happiest instances of the triumph
1850J61 of Dekker*'s art, his gifts of moral imagination and his subtle
1860J61 dramatic execution.*#
        **[no. of words = 02017**]

        **[txt. j62**]
0010J62 **[begin second marrgin**] $"^*I want ta look at her." ^The grain-fields
0020J62 golden in the morning, and the willow lines, the eucalyptus trees
0030J62 in rows. Pa sighed: "I never knowed there was anything like her."
0040J62 ^The peach trees and the walnut groves, and the dark green patches
0050J62 of oranges. ^And red roofs among the trees, and barns-- rich barns. ^*Al
0060J62 got out and stretched his legs. ^He called: "Ma-- come look. ^We*'3re
0070J62 there!" $^*Ruthie and Winfield scrambled down from the car, and
0080J62 then they stood, silent and awestruck, embarrassed before the great
0090J62 valley. ^The distance was thinned with haze, and the land grew softer
0100J62 and softer in the distance. ^A windmill flashed in the sun, and its
0110J62 turning blades were like a little heliograph, far away. Ruthie and Winfield
0120J62 looked at it and Ruthie whispered: "^It*'1s California."
0121J62 **[end second margin**] $^*Steinbeck
0130J62 confronts the Joads with a reality even harsher than that_ of
0140J62 being dusted off and tractored off: they are not welcome in this land
0150J62 of eternal fruitfulness. ^Yet these tribulations, which destroy the
0160J62 illusion of a promised land, liberate them, under the guidance of Jim
0170J62 Casy and Tom, from the shackles of a greater illusion, namely,
0180J62 that it is only what happens to their family that_ matters. ^Even at the
0190J62 moment of their first glorious sight of California, Ma Joad*'s
0200J62 statement is: "'^Thank God! ^The fambly*'1s here.'" ^And through this
0210J62 movement of the Joads towards a larger universe Steinbeck introduces
0220J62 modes of treating reality which correspond to the Oriental. $^The
0230J62 opposite of "reality" is "illusion" or "*4maya", but *4maya also means,
0240J62 in Hindu philosophy, energy. ^It is both the cause and the effect,
0250J62 the creative power and the cosmic flux. *4^Maya is the energy through
0260J62 which an artifact or appearance is produced. ^In Hindu myths and art,
0270J62 *4maya is symbolized by water since water is believed to_ be the
0280J62 source as well as the grave of all creation. ^To_ bathe in the waters
0290J62 of a river (the Christian counterpart is baptism) is to_ delve into
0300J62 the secret of *4maya. ^Water may symbolize death it may equally appropriately
0310J62 symbolize birth, and by extension meaning, spiritual birth.
0320J62 ^*Steinbeck significantly uses water as an ambiguous symbol in several
0330J62 of his novels: the old Chinaman who represents Vishnu and who symbolizes
0340J62 both death and birth (as I have pointed out in an earlier chapter)
0350J62 sleeps on the waters; it rains heavily at the moment of Joseph
0360J62 Wayne*'s death; but it is also the moment of self-realization. ^*Junius
0370J62 Maltby (*3The Pastures of Heaven*0) ruminates sitting on the
0380J62 branches of a sycamore tree with his feet dangling in water; and George
0390J62 (*3Of Mice and Men*0) shoots Lennie on the bank of a pool,
0400J62 an act which marks the end of all their dreams. ^*Steinbeck uses water
0410J62 as one of the controlling metaphors in *3The Grapes of Wrath*0.
0420J62 ^When the Joads start on their journey to California, Steinbeck
0430J62 makes them forget to_ take water with them, suggesting thereby that
0440J62 the Joads lack spiritual values, that their interests do not extend
0450J62 beyond the family. ^The first service-station they come to marks
0460J62 for them the initial step in their progressive disillusionment and spiritual
0470J62 evolution. ^The attendant looks at them with suspicion and
0480J62 invites them to_ make use of the water there only after he learns that
0490J62 they have cash with them with which to_ purchase gas. ^They meet
0500J62 the Wilsons shortly after and Grampa Joad dies in the tent of
0510J62 the Wilsons. ^But all this is not without some spiritual significance,
0520J62 for the Joads and the Wilsons begin to_ travel as one unit.
0530J62 ^At the next camp where they stay for the night and where there are
0540J62 water facilities, the Joads meet a man who is returning from California
0550J62 and who tells them that the migrants are not at all welcome there.
0560J62 ^This information is the first step in their progressive disillusionment
0570J62 about their dream of prospering in California. ^Later, at
0580J62 Needles the Joads have a whole river in which to_ bathe and they
0590J62 are only further disillusioned by another person who is returning
0600J62 from California. ^Later still, Casy is shot while wading a river,
0610J62 but Tom takes his place-- it is the physical death of one person and
0620J62 the spiritual birth of another. ^The most significant episode for this
0630J62 kind of ambiguous symbolism is the concluding part of the novel.
0640J62 ^It is highly significant that the scene of the rains and the flood
0650J62 precedes the scene of Rose of Sharon*'s breast-feeding an unknown
0660J62 starving old man, an act which is symbolic, as we have seen, of accepting
0670J62 the whole of humanity as one*'s family. $^Further Steinbeck protests
0680J62 against the illusion that material things are real and therefore
0690J62 indispensable. ^He directs his attacks against the absorption of man
0700J62 in material things to the exclusion of spiritual values. ^Here his
0710J62 thought is an echo of Transcendenal thought. ^*Emerson had warned against
0720J62 a preoccuption with material things: "I find men victims of illusion
0730J62 in all parts of life. ^Children, youths, adults and old men, all
0740J62 are led by one bawble or another." ("Illusions") ^So, too, had Thoreau:
0750J62 "^Most of the luxuries, and many of the so-called comforts of life,
0760J62 are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation
0770J62 of mankind." (Walden) $^Like the writers of the *4Upanishads
0780J62 and the Transcendentalists, Steinbeck posits that there are two
0790J62 kinds or levels of reality, one represented by the empirical objects
0800J62 which appear diversified and separate from each other, and the other
0810J62 by the reality which underlies these empirical objects. ^These two
0820J62 together form the universe. ^He writes: **[begin second margin**]
0821J62 $^The whole is necessarily everything,
0830J62 the whole world of fact and fancy, body and psyche, physical
0840J62 fact and spiritual truth, individual and collective, life and death,
0850J62 macrocosm and microcosm (the greatest quanta here, the greatest synapse
0860J62 between these two), conscious and unconscious, subject and object.
0870J62 ^The whole picture is portrayed by *3is*0, the deepest word of deep
0880J62 ultimate reality, not shallow or partial as reasons are, but deeper
0890J62 and participating, possibly encompassing the Oriental concept of *3being*0.
0900J62 **[end second margin**]
0901J62 $^Reality, Steinbeck appears to_ be saying, does not consist
0910J62 of matter alone; nor does it exclude matter as mere illusion. ^Physical
0920J62 facts and spiritual truths together make one whole and the purpose
0930J62 of religion is to_ make one comprehend the relationship of men to
0940J62 the whole. "^It is a strange thing that most of the feeling we call
0950J62 religious, most of the mystical outcrying which is one of the most prized
0960J62 and used and desired reactions of our species, is really the understanding
0970J62 and the attempt to_ say that man is related to the whole
0980J62 thing, related inextricably to all reality, known and unknowable."
0990J62 ^The man who has a glimpse of spiritual reality is not likely to_
1000J62 be deceived by, or satisfied with mere actuality, in the same way as
1010J62 the man who knows the desert is not likely to_ be deceived by a mirage.
1020J62 ^*Steinbeck describes such a situation in *3The Log:*0
1020J62 **[begin second margin**] $^*Tony
1030J62 [the skipper of the boat] grew restive when the mirage was working,
1040J62 for here right and wrong fought before his very eyes, and how could one
1050J62 tell which was error? ^It is very well to_ say, "The land is here
1060J62 and what blots it out is a curious illusion caused by light and air
1070J62 and moisture," but if one is steering a boat, he must sail by what
1080J62 he sees, and if air and light and moisture-- three realities-- plot together
1090J62 and perpetrate a lie, what is a realistic man to_ believe? ^*Tony
1100J62 did not like the mirage at all. **[end second margin**]
1101J62 $^*Steinbeck does not state explicitly
1110J62 that the reality of spiritual truths is of a higher order than
1120J62 the reality of empirical things, but that he appears to_ imply the
1130J62 higher reality of the former I shall shortly demonstrate from his
1140J62 novels. ^He sees more than one order of reality. ^The less substantial
1150J62 the reality, the more easily does it dissolve and fade at the touch
1160J62 of something relatively more real, though each level of reality has
1170J62 a certain validity. ^A dream, for example, is less real than life
1180J62 and life less real than absolute reality, but the validity of the dream
1190J62 is real on that level of reality. ^*Shark Wicks*' pleasure in his
1200J62 imaginary wealth is, as I have shown above, real. ^The difficulty
1210J62 is that his imaginary wealth cannot stand the test of empirical reality.
1220J62 ^When he is put under a ten thousand dollar bond by the deputy
1230J62 sheriff in the belief that he is rich, he cannot produce the amount.
1240J62 ^He is forced to_ give up the dream-reality he has been indulging
1250J62 himself in and face the empirical reality that he is a poor person.
1260J62 $^Empirical reality cannot stand the test of absolute Reality any
1270J62 better than dream reality can empirical reality. ^*Steinbeck demonstrates
1280J62 the idea of various levels of reality through the agency of
1290J62 the Munroes who act as a touchstone to_ test the depth of reality
1300J62 in each episode of *3The Pastures of Heaven*0. ^In a letter to his
1310J62 agents which he wrote when he was still writing *3The Pastures of
1320J62 Heaven*0, Steinbeck referred to the Munroes as having "a flavour
1330J62 of evil," but as the writing progressed, a change appears to_ have taken
1340J62 place in his conception of the Munroes. ^They cease to_ act as
1350J62 a curse on the people with whom they come into contact. ^In some of
1360J62 the stories, they come to_ be, as suggested above, a touchstone to_
1370J62 destroy the illusion of certain of the characters. ^The more insubstantial
1380J62 the reality, the less is the interference required on the part
1390J62 of the Munroes to_ destroy it. ^In the story of ^*Shark Wicks*'
1400J62 an adolescent kiss given by Bert Munroe*'s son to Wicks*' incredibly
1410J62 beautiful and incredibly stupid daughter is enough to_ set in motion
1420J62 the events that_ end in Shark*'s disillusionment. ^In the story
1430J62 of Molly Morgan discussed above, Bert*'s reference to his hired
1440J62 hand is enough to_ disillusion Molly. ^In both these cases, Steinbeck
1450J62 implies, the illusions are so airy that the merest touch of empirical
1460J62 reality is enough to_ destroy them. ^In the story of Richard
1470J62 Whiteside, Steinbeck makes it clear that the illusion to_ be destroyed
1480J62 is more substantial than dreams. ^*Richard believes that empirical
1490J62 things are ultimately Real and his building a magnificent house of
1500J62 redwood for his descendants is his way of assuring immortality for
1510J62 himself. ^He tells his wife about the new house, "'It*'1s the new soul,
1520J62 the first native of the new race.'" ^The house also becomes a status
1530J62 symbol: "^It embodied authority and culture and judgement and manners."
1540J62 ^*Richard begets one son, John, who "did not think of the house
1550J62 exactly as his father had. ^He loved it more. ^It was the outer shell
1560J62 of his body." ^*John, in turn, begets one son Bill, who marries Bert
1570J62 Munroe*'s daughter, Mae. ^*Bill and Mae leave the ancestral mansion
1580J62 and go to_ live in town. ^After Bill has left, Bert Munroe suggests
1590J62 to John that the brush around the house should be burnt and offers
1600J62 him help to_ do it. ^The fire, however, spreads from the brush
1610J62 to the house and it is burnt down to the ground. ^That the burning
1620J62 down of the house is meant to_ be more a ritualistic act of purification
1630J62 than an act of destruction, Steinbeck makes it clear. ^The house
1640J62 had been a body to John*'s soul and he says, "'I think I know how
1650J62 a soul feels when it sees its body buried in the ground and lost.'"
1660J62 ^He has seen through the illusion of empirical reality and hence has
1670J62 no regrets. ^As may be expected of any person who discards the flesh
1680J62 and retains only the spirit, he says, "'I don*'4t think I want to_
1690J62 save any of it [the house].'" $^The story is clear evidence that
1700J62 Steinbeck makes a distinction between the soul and the body and that
1710J62 he holds the soul to_ have the greater reality. ^Here Steinbeck*'s idea
1720J62 of the reality of the soul corresponds to that_ of the *4Upanishadic
1730J62 concept.*#
        **[no. of words = 02009**]

        **[txt. j63**]
0010J63 **<*3Theoretical and Practical Studies in Indo-English Literature
0020J63 *0**> $^We return the reader*'s attention to our earlier statement that
0030J63 Shakespeare*'s induction of complexity and unpredicability into
0040J63 human personality (which became a dominant characteristic of Renaissance
0050J63 Humanism, and set the model for all serious drama later) was more
0060J63 owing to Shakespeare*'s unconscious genius, and that his conscious
0070J63 effort could not but have been directed toward becoming a worthy part
0080J63 of the existing tradition. ^We have also stated that such a view
0090J63 may be a simplification but not an over-simplification. $^The main philosophical
0100J63 basis for a generalised classification of personality with predictable
0110J63 and cognizable outward traits, characteristic of the Medieval
0120J63 perception of personality, is to_ be found, strangely enough, in
0130J63 the theological faith that all personality is holy and therefore un-analysable.
0140J63 ^It is too much to_ say that subtle differentiated individualised
0150J63 minds did not exist at all during the Medieval age or any
0160J63 other age. ^No age can be without its maladjusted introverted men, shy
0170J63 and submissive. ^But their shyness, submissiveness, or other individualising
0180J63 traits were held not worth artistic attention. ^A living
0190J63 faith acting like a furnace for mass sublimation, and awaiting patiently
0200J63 near every human heart, permissive and yet available for any human
0210J63 need, was the more interesting subject for contemplation than the
0220J63 variety of human personality. ^In God all differences in human beings
0230J63 could be purified and sunk, and the soul so purified could hardly boast
0240J63 of individuality. ^The only worth of individuality was in its
0250J63 surrender. ^The Medieval age simply did not care for subtle shades,
0260J63 or any shades for that_ matter, because all shades would vanish before
0270J63 the luminous Body of Christ. ^This certainly does not mean that
0280J63 all Medieval men had a vision of the deity. ^But what it does mean
0290J63 is that the Medieval man valued this more than subtle variety of individuality.
0300J63 ^In other words, the aesthetic model was different. ^Greater
0310J63 aesthetic attention was paid to what made men saints than to what
0320J63 made men men. ^Therefore the age was able to_ group all human interests
0330J63 into generalised categories like virtue and sin, and men themselves
0340J63 into saints and sinners; the variety was given only a secondary
0350J63 attention. ^There is little in common between Mary Magdalena, \0St.
0360J63 Anthony and \0St George, or for that_ matter, \0St. Thomas Aquinas.
0370J63 ^Within a religious framework, the ability to_ generalise had
0380J63 been rendered so powerful that what unified them, \0viz. their loyalty
0390J63 to the Lord, was paid greater attention to than their individualities.
0400J63 ^The same perception (strictly aperception) marked the attitude
0410J63 to common people too. ^Even the aim of art could only be the preservation
0420J63 of this framework. ^Or else it had no special function. $^Thus,
0430J63 what, to us, from this distance, might appear an undifferentiated mass,
0440J63 out of which, we claim, the Renaissance released individuality,
0450J63 is actually an expression of an aperception, a deliberate overlooking,
0460J63 so as to_ render classification and generalisation possible. ^The
0470J63 Medieval man was so keen on perceiving the angel and the devil that
0480J63 he paid little attention to the details of the human landscape on which
0490J63 the two warred. ^He did not even bother about his own individuality
0500J63 because even that_ was only a setting for the war of the angel and
0510J63 the devil; Shakespeare*'s mockery of this in the speeches of Launcelot
0520J63 Gobbo in *3The Merchant of Venice*0 is a recognition of this
0530J63 widespread mental habit of considering one*'s good and bad thoughts
0540J63 as the work of the angel and the devil. ^In fact, Savonarola*'s writings
0550J63 are filled with this internal dialogue. ^Thus the Seven Deadly
0560J63 Sins which beleager men, and the virtues that come to their rescue,
0570J63 became themes for art expression more than their differentiation.
0580J63 ^Summatory 'over-sight' was the main insight. $^It is wrong to_ suppose
0590J63 that the Medieval age lacked tolerance and permissiveness. ^On
0600J63 the contrary, its pluralism in behavioural matters was more extensive
0610J63 than is realised. ^It was so extensive that little attention was paid
0620J63 to the socially deviant. ^It was only when its theological tenets were
0630J63 held in question that the entire machinery of the Church and the
0640J63 State came down upon the individual and destoryed him. ^The Medieval
0650J63 age punished the heretic intellectual, not the aberrant citizen. ^The
0660J63 Medieval age was quite tolerant of sin, for instance. ^*Dad Cenci*'s
0670J63 purchase of the Papal pardon shocks Shelley, but would not have
0680J63 shocked the Medieval man. ^It was only after the efficacy of the
0690J63 sacrament and the ritual began to_ be held in doubt that men began to_
0700J63 develop so pathological a fear of Sin as to_ attempt eliminating
0710J63 it from conduct altogether; and thus was born the dream of Puritanism,
0720J63 firm judgment of conduct in its various forms. ^The impossible norm
0730J63 of pure conduct in 17th century puritanism brought into the world
0740J63 terrible moral reactions in terms of secret licentiousness and open Satanism,
0750J63 periodically. ^During the Medieval age itself, people had
0760J63 a freer attitude to sin, because the efficacy of the pardon and unction
0770J63 was believed in, and they were readily available. ^The profession
0780J63 of a Pardoner could thrive only on the publicly tolerated sin. ^The
0790J63 medieval intolerance of witchcraft is irrelevant to this discussion.
0800J63 ^The more relevant fact that_ Man is made in the image of God
0810J63 and cannot be subjected to moral judment except by himself, seems to_
0820J63 be the basis of Allegory as art. ^Though personality was not individualised,
0830J63 all institutions, art and thought made man observant of his
0840J63 inner subjective conflict, and was encouraged to_ exercise his choice.
0850J63 $^The traditions of such impersonalised subjectivity has to_ be
0860J63 preserved at the collective level jealously and with great care.
0870J63 ^We have remarked that a Plato or a Savonarola always will spring
0880J63 up to_ raise an anti-Art movement at the right time, which need
0890J63 not therefore mean that they are insensitive to Art. ^The case of
0900J63 Kierkegaard, a man born too late, and too lonely to_ lead a movement
0910J63 is still more significant. $^*Kierkegaard, according to Sir Horbert
0920J63 Read (than whom there could be no better analyser of the romantic Existentialist,)
0930J63 became anti-Art precisely because of his susceptibility
0940J63 to Art, which brought him only spiritual death. (^See the last
0950J63 section of Read*'s *3The Contrary Image*0). ^To_ say that Plato
0960J63 himself was a poet is to_ evade the issue. ^The Greek individualism
0970J63 as seen in the Socratean circle was more an exception than a rule.
0980J63 ^The Greek collectivism expressed itself in bringing hemlock to Socrates;
0990J63 and Plato commends Socrates*'s nobility in his submission
1000J63 to law rather than in his individualist revolt. ^It was this Plato
1010J63 who condemned poets and rightly so. ^Since they worked upon people*'s
1020J63 emotions, the Greek orthodoxy did not even notice the decadence that_
1030J63 was soon to_ set into life, not through Socrates but through the
1040J63 tragedians. ^*Euripides brought to head a long and silent revolution,
1050J63 so unnoticeable as to_ be swallowed whole before knowing what had
1060J63 happened. ^If the Greek life could throw up a Plato*'s protest, one
1070J63 can easily understand the Age of Faith throwing up a Savonarola.
1080J63 (^*Savonarola was not only anti-Clergy and anti-Entertainment, but
1090J63 anti-Art also.) ^He has been described as a Medieval born in the
1100J63 Renaissance. ^He may also be described as the last mourner for the
1110J63 break-up of the Medieval pattern of life. ^We must clearly distinguish
1120J63 between the anti-Art thoughts of a Plato and Savonarola and the
1130J63 Reformationist revolt of a Luther and a Calvin. ^What the former were
1140J63 dreading was the loss of a carefully balanced collective state of
1150J63 mind, brought about by artistic individualism, which though had its
1160J63 valid appeal to individuals, could not form the basis for a collective
1170J63 existence. ^All the former cultivated sensibilities would vanish under
1180J63 the impact of an intellectual anarchy. ^The Bacchanalians did not
1190J63 question the existence of Zeus. ^They ceased to_ think of him in
1200J63 an orgy of tragic drunkenness. ^*Plato, within his frame of reference,
1210J63 was right. ^He suspected the break-up of a collective impersonal
1220J63 subjectivity and its replacement by an individualist anarchical subjectivity.
1230J63 ^*Aristotle tried to_ answer Plato by positing the idea of
1240J63 an individualist katharsis of emotion as the justification of poetry.
1250J63 ^This might have given the world its first psychological explanation
1260J63 of Tragedy*'s appeal. ^But the very irrelevancy of Aristotle*'s
1270J63 polemic shows that the battle had already been lost. ^How an individual
1280J63 can remain healthy in mind in spite of Tragic Art is no answer
1290J63 to the loss of the delicately held balance named an Age of Faith,
1300J63 which is a collective subjectivity. ^*Aristotle gave a right answer
1310J63 to a wrong question. ^What horrified either Plato or in his own way
1320J63 Savonarola was the replacement of a beautifully organised iife by
1330J63 the anarchical, individualist, divided consciousness promoted by the
1340J63 beauty of individualist art. $^For this reason, we notice that during
1350J63 the Medieval period, Art not only had to_ take second place but
1360J63 also serve a secondary function. ^Art was bound to_ become a servile
1370J63 profession followed for wages and not attracting the best intellects.
1380J63 ^Only a rare coincidence in which a great artist combined in himself
1390J63 the best thought which the collective faith could offer, could also
1400J63 become a real artist, say, some one like Dante. ^*Dante*'s greatness
1410J63 is also the greatness of the collective faith. ^This does mean that
1420J63 the professional drudge who scribbled a play for the Lent did not
1430J63 produce artistic emotion in his audience. ^The play may have been crude;
1440J63 but both the actor, himself a believer, and the audience full of
1450J63 believers, met half way to_ create a riot of thrills and tears. ^We
1460J63 may assert vehemently that what these simple people got was not art
1470J63 experience at all, because it was not Pure Poetry, but very much
1480J63 adulterated with religious feeling; but this assertion might also prove
1490J63 that we live in an age that_ has made us more familar with adulteration
1500J63 than art. ^We may say that their enjoyment of *3Abraham and Isaac*0
1510J63 was filled with 'stock responses' and therefore medieval men were
1520J63 unfit to_ sit in \0Dr. *(0L. A.*) Richards*'s Meaning of Meaning
1530J63 classes. ^Very true. ^But building up carefully cultivated stock
1540J63 responses itself was the main Art-Life of the Age of Faith. ^There
1550J63 cannot be a collective cultivation without stock responses. ^To
1560J63 what finesse, profundity and sincerity these 'stock' responses could
1570J63 reach is the main question to which our critical traditions have not
1580J63 paid much attention. ^The last scene in which little Isaac tells
1590J63 his father: **[verse**] $might have been heard with streaming eyes
1600J63 and a wild laughter suddenly bursting forth. (^Our more civilised 'laughter
1610J63 verging on tears', seen by the literary critics in insipid essayists
1620J63 like *(0A. G.*) Gardiner, *(0et al.*), and demonstrated by
1630J63 Charles Boyer in the final reel of a Hollywood tragedy, by gazing
1640J63 into the fireplace with a 'sad smile' does not seem to_ be known
1650J63 in the Medieval days when people were clear on what they did! $^And
1660J63 who knows how many penitents repeated these words themselves and what
1670J63 strength they gained to_ bear the cross of their self-imposed punishment:
1680J63 **[verse**] $^As for Abraham*'s solemn prayer which any
1690J63 priest could have uttered, still moves us with its dignity: **[verse**]
1700J63 $^These lines may be described as artistic or artless; solemn prayer
1710J63 or mere cliche. ^But both epithets are wrong. ^They do not move
1720J63 us merely at the literary level, but we have to_ meet them half way.
1730J63 ^So did the Medieval people too, and whenever they witnessed plays
1740J63 which were not so well-written, they went the whole hog and earned
1750J63 art experience entirely based upon shared cultivation of faith.
1760J63 ^We cannot dismiss this as piotistic hypocrisy; the tears that_ fell, the
1770J63 pulses that_ beat, were very real. $^On the contrary, those who know
1780J63 anything of pietism would agree that the purely man-centred tears provoked
1790J63 the Renaissance or post-Renaissance Tragedy lost something
1800J63 of the elevating quality of the earlier pietistic myth and allegory. ^The
1810J63 difference between a Miracle or a Morality play and a modern Tragedy
1820J63 is simply stated. ^The Tragedy requires two intervening conditions
1830J63 to_ communicate itself. ^First, a willing suspension of disbelief,
1840J63 (since all humanist Tragedy must necessarily portray 'life' and draw
1850J63 unncessary and self-defeating comparison with life in irrelevant
1860J63 details which cannot satisfactorily be avoided even with the most meticulous
1870J63 stage realism).*#
        **[no. of words = 02028**]

        **[txt. j64**]
0010J64 **<*3moving focus*0**> $^But the need for critical writing became larger
0020J64 when traditional situations broke down, and art forfeited its social
0030J64 sustenance forcing the artist to_ be on his own, self-dependent and
0040J64 individual, and there was an opening up of the global art spectrum.
0050J64 ^The great variety of artists and art audiences as constituted this
0060J64 spectrum called for intermediaries of a kind, who could lay channels
0070J64 of contact between them through studied exposition of each other*'s
0080J64 positions. ^This involved a many-sided effort comprising the identification
0090J64 of the functional components of works of art, the rationale of
0100J64 their articulation, their generic factors, their alignments in terms
0110J64 of style, history, psychology \0etc. ^The need became larger and more
0120J64 insistent as the scene proliferated and started to_ seethe with
0130J64 aggressive individualities, the artists vying with each other to_ break
0140J64 new ground, and the public unequal to_ receive their transformations
0150J64 with understanding and sympathy, while, ironically enough, it was this
0160J64 understanding that the new artist solely depended on. ^So the stage
0170J64 was set for a versatile intermediary combining the virtues of scholar,
0180J64 educator and promoter. ^Though the situation did not yield many
0190J64 super-individuals of their kind, it did produce a large number of smaller
0200J64 specialists-- art scholars, art historians, art grammarians, art researchers,
0210J64 art journalists, art promoters, art appraisers and salesmen,
0211J64 each with his own special kit
0220J64 of verbal and conceptual gadgetry or his own special techniques of
0230J64 encirclement or seduction. $^Consequently there are many categories
0240J64 of art criticism today, some painstaking and scholarly, some journalistic
0250J64 and volatile, some speculative or iconoclastic, some in the nature
0260J64 of blatant promotional copy, some watching the scene from a distant
0270J64 time perspective, some involved with it in immediate proximity, and
0280J64 their uses have to_ be studied and assessed within their purposes and
0290J64 contexts, if we want to_ avoid seeking in them what they are not
0300J64 designed to_ hold and thus doing them injustice. ^Unfortunately all
0310J64 these categories assume a uniform air of oracular profundity and invite
0320J64 similar consideration; though in most cases (especially in journalistic
0330J64 criticism) this is little more than an eye-catching device and its authors
0340J64 are quite prepared to_ retract or revise their statements without
0350J64 the slightest fuss if circumstances force them to_ do so. ^This is
0360J64 not as execrable as it seems if we realise that no art criticism, even
0370J64 that_ which is raised on meticulous scholarship, can aspire to perennial
0380J64 validity. ^A certain fragility is inherent in the nature of all
0390J64 art criticism, as it is a secondary activity, concerned with the bringing
0400J64 together of a specific public with a specific area of art; its value
0410J64 and quality are contained by the value and quality of this confrontation
0420J64 and however pressing such a confrontation might seem at one moment
0430J64 it is bound to_ change in emphasis through time. ^So the contextual
0440J64 features of any piece of art criticism are not likely to_ be of longstanding
0450J64 interest and if any piece of criticism continues to_ be provocative
0460J64 through time it is rarely because of these, but because of
0470J64 other peripheral insights. $^In one of his Bageswari lectures captioned
0480J64 '*5mat O Mantra*6' Abanindranath points to this fact. ^According
0490J64 to him most art writing presents two kinds of thoughts and ideas, one
0500J64 that he would characterise as '*4mat' (**[printed in devanagari**]) or
0510J64 dogma, time-bound formulations of limited import, the other which he
0520J64 would characterise as '*4mantra' (**[printed in devanagari**]) or timeless
0530J64 and fundamental insights. ^But how a certain piece of criticism
0540J64 can cultivate these insights is a matter for speculation and controversy.
0550J64 ^It certainly would depend on the stature and sensibilities of
0560J64 a critic but it would probably also depend on his sense of perspective.
0570J64 ^What this sense of perspective should be construed as is also controversial--
0580J64 whether as the focal clarity a critic gains on an art scene
0590J64 through the passage of time, or as a special psychological virtue
0600J64 by which he levitates himself to a position of objectivity with regard
0610J64 to artistic facts, irrespective of whether they are temporally near
0620J64 or distant. $^We would probably decide for the latter rather than
0630J64 the former. ^The question of the necessity of a time-perspective on a
0640J64 particular art scene has been debated amongst art critics often and
0650J64 some of them have held that it would be hard to_ write any valid criticism
0660J64 of the contemporary scene as it is moving and fluid, while others
0670J64 have argued that if any criticism is to_ be of value to the artist
0680J64 it has, perforce, to_ be contemporary; this has gone on. ^Although
0690J64 we should admit that it is hard to_ make a valid comment on an unstationary
0700J64 scene and that a time-perspective will allow us to_ see the
0710J64 various strata of a scene in clearer relationship, this cannot rush us
0720J64 into thinking that such a perspective will always result in critical
0730J64 formulations of permanent value, for generation to generation views
0740J64 and values change, and the existing facts reconstellate themselves
0750J64 on the mind*'s horizon leading to new readings and new interpretations.
0760J64 $^So the discovery of the absolute meaning of a work of art or an
0770J64 unalterable rationale of its function will be outside the reach of any
0780J64 kind of art criticism. ^Although a tentative hypothesis about the intentions
0790J64 of a work of art is an inescapable starting point for any critic,
0800J64 it will be hard to_ estabish finally the objectivity and authenticity
0810J64 of any hypotheses, even the one an artist confesses to. ^It
0820J64 should not be a matter of surprise to us if a work of art lends itself
0830J64 to various interpretations at the same time, and the artist himself
0840J64 enjoys, as William Faulkner the novelist is reported to_ have enjoyed,
0850J64 to_ encourage such interpretations by contradictory or unspecific
0860J64 statements on the subject, because even the most deliberate artist
0870J64 cannot claim to_ be the conscious author of a work*'s emergent qualities
0880J64 and formulates its rationale only post-facto, and may be willing,
0890J64 therefore, to_ concede other interpretations a parallel status.
0900J64 ^In any case it is undeniable that there are various critical interpretations
0910J64 of the same areas of art, coming from the same period, each
0920J64 with its special stress or emphasis. ^We have only to_ review the
0930J64 body of expository writing that_ has grown around a specific phase in
0940J64 art as Impressionism or Cubism, inclusive of the statements of
0950J64 artists, art historians, critics and promoters, to_ notice that they
0960J64 do not necessarily concur with each other or, together, have the same
0970J64 relevance and reasonableness to us as they had in their own time.
0980J64 ^Besides, even if we continue to_ react to any of these phases with
0990J64 undiminished enthusiasm, the terms of this enthusiasm are not exactly
1000J64 the same as theirs, although they are hardly a century behind us.
1010J64 $^Talking about Cubism, Picasso is supposed to_ have stated that
1020J64 he was primarily concerned with 'form', Braque that his preoccupation
1030J64 was with 'space', Gleizes and Metzinger that theirs was with the
1040J64 sense of 'infinite liberty' through which they could fashion the real
1050J64 in the image of the mind, while Apollinaire, their friend and spokesman,
1060J64 and various enthusiasts after him, had their own personal explanations
1070J64 and points of view. ^Their differences were so considerable
1080J64 that Picasso was provoked to_ declare later with some irritation,
1090J64 "Mathematics, trigonometry, chemistry, psychoanalysis, music and everything
1100J64 else that_ has been connected with Cubism in order to_ make
1110J64 it easier to_ explain are nothing but a literary explanation if not
1120J64 downright nonsense, and have done nothing but harm because people have
1130J64 been blinded by a lot of noisy theories... drawing, composition and
1140J64 colour were understood and treated in the same sense and the same
1150J64 manner in Cubism as in any other school of painting." ^Coming, as this
1160J64 does, from "the horse*'s mouth", this could as well be true. ^But
1170J64 for all that_, when we look back on the Cubist scene from where we are
1180J64 we probably are able to_ see certain tendencies in it that_ align it
1190J64 with other cultural facts of the age, which its illustrious progenitors
1200J64 were not able to_ see from their position inside it. ^So theirs
1210J64 is not necessarily the last word. ^This predicament is not peculiar
1220J64 to contemporary assessments alone; assessments of a historical scene
1230J64 can also suffer from the same limitation. ^*Ananda Coomaraswamy was
1240J64 without peer in his time for his learning and perspicacity, and his contribution
1250J64 to the clarification of the working premises of Medieval and
1260J64 Oriental art is monumental. ^But despite this we cannot fail to_
1270J64 notice today that a large part of his formulations are delimited by the
1280J64 nature of the questions as arose in his time and the then current concepts
1290J64 and terminology; he had to_ go to tiresome lengths to_ explain
1300J64 the symbology of ancient art to a public used to looking in art for
1310J64 mimetic correspondence to nature, and its functional multiplicity
1320J64 to people used to considering art in much simpler terms, which he
1330J64 would not have had to if he faced a different public at a different time,
1340J64 and could have in that_ case saved himself from certain doctrinal
1350J64 rigidities he ran into. ^So today we find certain of his arguments laboured
1360J64 and certain conclusions lopsided, though a large body of his
1370J64 writing still continues to_ be remarkably provocative, and rakes up
1380J64 many fundamental questions relating to the nature of art, its use
1390J64 and function, the nature of the society that_ nurtures it and so on,
1400J64 proving thereby that a piece of art criticism can have continuing value,
1410J64 even if its main arguments have lost edge and utility. $^So, if
1420J64 we do not want to_ pass by all criticism whose points of view have
1430J64 dated and lost their immediacy and overlook the valid peripheral insights
1440J64 they may have in spite of their main arguments going awry, we
1450J64 must not expect too much from a piece of art criticism. ^The most we
1460J64 should expect from it is to_ expound a work within the available facts
1470J64 and terminology of a time and, at a further step, to_ clarify
1480J64 the whole art situation. ^This clarification would need insight and
1490J64 a sense of history, not of history as a static immutable entity but
1500J64 as a continuous organic growth which with the addition of each novel
1510J64 artistic fact undergoes a configurational change, transmuting the meanings
1520J64 of its component stages in the process, in a genealogical work-back
1530J64 as it were. ^Such a piece of criticism would manage to_ forge
1540J64 a bridge (if only momentary) between the art work and the onlooker,
1550J64 and enlarge the latter*'s awareness and receptivity. ^Modest as this
1560J64 may sound, if a piece of art criticism is able to_ accomplish this
1570J64 much it is fairly close to what a work of art itself seeks to_ accomplish--
1580J64 namely a leavening of sensibility-- and lags behind the work
1590J64 only to the extent that it is its agent and accessory, and can, therefore,
1600J64 easily entitle its author to the status Gregory Battcock
1610J64 hints at. $^But there are very few pieces of art criticism of this order
1620J64 in our time. ^This is partly because the new art situation itself
1630J64 does not accomodate reflective writing due to its brisk pace of change,
1640J64 and our numerous art critics find themselves pushed into the
1650J64 fleeting world of journalistic and promotional writing instead. ^In a world
1660J64 where the artist is on his own and has to_ seek his public through
1670J64 gallery shows, it is not surprising that these are the two main
1680J64 prevalent modes of art criticism, one designed to_ enliven the passing
1690J64 day with wafer-snacks of culture, the other designed to_ project the
1700J64 art-work as a coveted commodity. ^The main purpose of such writing
1710J64 is to_ attract, not to_ educate, to_ spotlight the commodity traits
1720J64 of an art object rather than explain their presence, and sometimes
1730J64 a critic manages to_ fulfil this to an artist*'s satisfaction even
1740J64 with a piece of unfavourable writing. ^It is tied, besides-- as most
1750J64 things are today-- to a notion of irreversible progress and an attitude
1760J64 of rejection toward history, and has both its eyes fixed on
1770J64 the novelty of a development. ^So today*'s art critic lays greater store
1780J64 by his instinctive reaction to a work of art than its reasoned
1790J64 analysis and uses a language which has more picturesqueness than precision.*#
        **[no. of words = 02024**]

        **[txt. j65**]
0010J65 **<*32 Painted Pottery of the Indus Civilization*0**> $*3^ACCORDING*0
0011J65 to the revised carbon-14 dates, the Indus civilization did not
0020J65 start all at once, in about 2000 \0B.C., or even in 3000 \0B.C.
0030J65 ^There was a long period of gestation in Sind, Punjab, and the north-west
0040J65 frontier and perhaps also in northern Rajasthan, as indicated
0050J65 by the small excavations at Kot Diji, Harappa, Gumla and Kalibangan
0060J65 respectively, and the intensive explorations in Sind by \0Dr
0070J65 Rafique Moghul. $^As is becoming increasingly evident, one of
0080J65 the sources, if not the only source of this cultural development in
0090J65 northwest India, was Iran and the countries of western Asia. ^Cultural
0100J65 influences such as the tradition of painted pottery, spread
0110J65 from here through Afghanistan and Baluchistan to India. ^It is not
0120J65 a coincidence that this tradition still survives in an attenuated form
0130J65 in Sind, Punjab, and Rajasthan, and still less in Gujarat-Saurashtra
0140J65 and madhya Pradesh, Bengal, Orissa; and that it is almost absent
0150J65 in Maharashtra, Andhra and Karnataka. ^In the west, perhaps
0160J65 the best and one of the earliest productions of painted pottery was
0170J65 documented before 1939, at Tell Halaf in Syria, then at several
0180J65 places in Iraq and Sialk in Iran. ^Nearer home, besides painted
0190J65 sherds from Kill Gul Mohammed, the best specimen to my knowledge
0200J65 would be the goblet or cup from Rana Ghundai. ^Equally distinctive,
0210J65 though not very artistic is the buff ware from Nal and the Grey
0220J65 Ware from Shahi Tump. ^Both bear paintings in mauvish-black. $*<*3Harappan
0230J65 Pottery*0*> $^Compared to the later painted pottery from
0240J65 Navdatoli and sites in Madhya Pradesh, the Indus artist loved
0250J65 to_ cover up the entire surface of his object, whether it be a dish,
0260J65 bowl, a globular pot or an elongated vase. ^Since in all these, the
0270J65 surface of the pot was very large compared to the small cups, bowls
0280J65 and *4lotas from Navdatoli, the artist was obliged to_ fill up
0290J65 the surface with repetitive motifs, or such motifs as tree foliage
0300J65 which would enable him to_ achieve his purpose. $*<*3Story-telling
0310J65 Scenes*0*> $^More important, the availability of the large "canvas"
0320J65 induced or stimulated him to_ compose a picture or a narrative
0330J65 scene. ^This feature is later repeated in the Cemetery-H pottery,
0340J65 but it is completely absent in the much earlier Baluchi pottery.
0350J65 ^The effect of this is no doubt gorgeous, and it would certainly appeal
0360J65 to those who appreciate large pottery with overall patterns. ^When
0370J65 such a vase, as the one with a gentle profile and inter-laced palms
0380J65 painted over a dark red surface, is kept either in the centre of
0390J65 the large, brick-built drawing room, or even the kitchen at Harappa,
0400J65 Mohenjodaro, Lothal or Kalibangan, the effect produced on the visitor
0401J65 can be easily imagined. ^We really do not know whether each family
0410J65 possessed one or many of such large painted vessels, *3though this
0420J65 can still be ascertained by a very careful plotting of the sherds*0 and
0430J65 vessels found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. ^In comparison with
0440J65 Navdatoli, the amount of painted pottery at all sites of the Indus
0450J65 Civilization is said to_ be less, probably one-fourth or one-eighth
0460J65 of the entire collection at any one site. ^At Navdatoli, as will
0470J65 be noticed below, the painted pottery formed the bulk of the collection.
0480J65 $^This point can be taken up while studying the pottery from Kalibangan.
0490J65 ^How much painted pottery did each house possess, and what
0500J65 were the main forms, and where do these normally occur? ^This means
0510J65 where exactly or where approximately were the pots kept in the house.
0520J65 ^With regard to the nature of paintings, these are usually painted
0530J65 in monochrome, in black over a bright red surface; but there are examples
0540J65 of biochrome or even polychrome pottery. ^No percentages have
0550J65 been worked out, though this could be done perhaps at Kalibangan.
0560J65 ^It would appear that the geometric motifs dominate in number over the
0570J65 animal, and human motifs, the last indeed being negligible in number.
0580J65 $^As for the nature and quality of the paintings, as Marshall noted
0590J65 long ago, the designs were executed in black over a dark red slip.
0600J65 ^They consisted ordinarily of foliate and geometric designs, among
0610J65 which the most striking were the "interlocking circle," "vase,"
0620J65 "bangle," "comb" and "scale" motifs. ^Animal motifs are rare. ^As
0630J65 compared with Baluchistan, the dsign on the Indus ware are characterized
0640J65 by a certain boldness and careless freedom in the patterning.
0650J65 ^The former pottery from Baluchistan is said to_ betray "more precise
0660J65 and lighter" decoration. $^However neither Marshall nor Mackay
0670J65 thought much of the Indus potter*'s art, nor did Marshall deprecate
0680J65 it. ^He regarded it as traditional craft. ^Though it was not of
0690J65 great merit in respect of either form or decoration, behind it lay
0700J65 centuries of history. ^Unfortunately the motifs became stereotyped
0710J65 and lifeless by countless repetitions, which evidently went on century
0720J65 after century without any perceptible change. ^*Mackay has elaborated
0730J65 upon the brief reference to the design motifs in Indus pottery
0740J65 given by Marshall. ^He tells us that the colour most commonly
0750J65 used in decorating pottery was black, a manganiferous haematite. ^Most
0760J65 of the painted pottery is monochrome: excluding the slip, only one
0770J65 colour was used in painting the designs. ^This colour, though generally
0780J65 warm, dense black, sometimes has a brownish or distinctly purplish
0790J65 hue. ^The surface is always dull except in two cases, where a slight
0800J65 polish suggests the possible admixture of some medium. ^Rarely was
0810J65 the surface of the vessel rubbed down or polished after it had been
0820J65 painted. ^The lines of the designs are always flush with the surface,
0830J65 showing that the paint was applied in sufficiently liquid state to_
0840J65 permeate a little below the surface. $*<*3Monochrome Painting*0*>
0850J65 $^Monochrome painting was the rule, and biochrome and polychrome
0860J65 painting were exceptions. ^Of the former, one example is here cited.
0870J65 ^Here the ground colour of the vessel is cream, and on it the decoration
0880J65 was done in two colours. $^Another still rarer example is a very
0890J65 graceful jar, first coated with a thick, smooth slip. ^On this was
0900J65 painted a conventional floral design, the petals outlined black,
0910J65 with the body bearing the background of cream colour. ^The intervals
0920J65 were then filled with red paint. $^A minute pottery stand and an
0930J65 offering stand are also painted in this medium. $*<*3Polychrome Painting*0*>
0940J65 ^*Mackay thought that these two or three vessels also bore
0950J65 decorations in a green paint, which having become powdery, was easily
0960J65 rubbed off. ^At Harappa were found four vessels, all originally
0970J65 bearing a polychrome decoration. ^Only one now survives, which is
0980J65 described by Vats. $^The design consists of four highly conventionalized
0990J65 foliate plants each with leaves bifurcating obliquely on either
1000J65 side of the vertical stem. ^Interspersed between the leaves are triangular
1010J65 motifs pointing downwards. ^The leaves are all dark red, and
1020J65 the triangles green. ^*Vat*'s comment (*=1, \0p. 288) seems justified
1030J65 that this decoration, though simple, must have looked quite effective
1040J65 on the white background.
1050J65 $^These few specimens of polychrome pottery were found in deposits
1060J65 of the late level both at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. ^Hence we may
1070J65 conclude with Vats and Mackay that only during the end phase of
1080J65 this civilization, a stimulus was received or self-generated, to_
1090J65 attempt decorations in three or four colours on pottery. $*<*3Technique
1100J65 of Drawing*0*> $^There is some indication how these paintings
1110J65 were executed. ^A brush possibly made of donkey hair, as used in
1120J65 Sind today, was used. ^*Mackey later said that hair brushes might
1130J65 be of varying fineness. ^He also thought that, owing to the extreme
1140J65 regularity in width of the fine lines used to_ hatch the leaves,
1150J65 a reed-pen was used for certain details. ^This is clearly implied
1160J65 when the paint is applied on the natural surface of the pottery. ^The
1170J65 lines are thick at first owing to the fullness of the brush, and
1180J65 thin out later as it dried. $^*Mackay later adds that when a manganiferous
1190J65 paint is applied in "sufficiently fluid state to a slip and
1200J65 especially to a wash, it readily penetrates to and stains the surface
1210J65 of the pottery below. ^When so applied it has a thick opaque appearance,
1220J65 and is sometimes raised a little above the level of the slip."
1230J65 $^When compared to the large areas excavated the forms or types
1240J65 of vessels on which the painted motifs appear are so far few. ^Hence
1250J65 it appears that mostly shoulders of large jars were decorated; or
1260J65 occasionally the entire surface, as in the case of medium sized, elongated
1270J65 and globular vessels. ^The lower portions in the case of large
1280J65 jars were left plain, because these probably remained hidden from
1290J65 view, being buried in the ground or in pottery racks, as at Ahar
1300J65 in \0S.E. Rajasthan. $^It is also noticed by Mackay as well as
1310J65 Vats that the tendency of the Indus potter is to_ arrange the motifs
1320J65 in horizontal registers, rather than in the vertical panels as
1330J65 was so common in Iran and Mesopotamia. ^The common motifs consist
1340J65 of a few animal designs, still fewer plant designs, and mostly geometric
1350J65 designs. ^Among the few animals shown are the ibex, antelope,
1360J65 snake, lizard, and the dove, but never the bull, elephant, rhinoceros
1370J65 and the tiger so realistically portrayed as on the faience, steatite
1380J65 and copper seals. $^The bird most frequently depicted is the peacock,
1390J65 which is but natural as this forms and once formed a conspicuous
1400J65 feature of the shrubby sandy landscape of Sind, Rajasthan and
1410J65 Saurashtra. $^How are these animals drawn? ^Unlike the few later Chalcolithic
1420J65 specimens in the representation of the ibex, antelope and
1430J65 doe, some kind of natural environment is shown here. ^In the three examples
1440J65 cited by Mackay, bushes or trees are also represented. ^The remaining
1450J65 five specimens are fragmentary. $^Stylistically, one of these
1460J65 examples in my opinion does not belong to the Indus civilization or
1470J65 the Harappan culture complex. ^*Mackay had noted only the thickness
1480J65 of the ware, and its light red colour, but not the method of representing
1490J65 the animal. ^In fact both are unusual of the true Mohenjodaro
1500J65 pottery. ^Firstly, the ware is not Harappan in form, texture and
1510J65 colour. ^Secondly, the animal is shown in an impressionistic bough
1520J65 or trees, the latter just depicted by a column of horizontal lines
1530J65 before and above the animal. ^Thirdly, the body of the animal is thinly
1540J65 hatched. ^All these point to the non-Harappan character of the
1550J65 vessel, which is also indicated by the fact that it was found just
1560J65 four \0ft. below the surface. $^As far as the animal itself is concerned,
1570J65 it may be said to_ be drawn fairly accurately, but not quite
1580J65 realistically. ^No attempt is made to_ show the muscles, but the animal*'s
1590J65 body is shown just by oblique strokes, and the outline is
1600J65 not so well drawn. ^According to Mackay, two animals are depicted,
1610J65 the main one according to him being some kind of antelope with long
1620J65 curved horns, and the smaller one with a very long thick tail, perhaps
1630J65 a jackal. ^Whatever these might be, they are not works of art.
1640J65 $^A goat seems to_ have been depicted in an elaborately composed jungle
1650J65 or village scene where there are human beings, shown in one register.
1660J65 ^A cock or hen is shown seated on the back of the goat. ^The
1670J65 animal is well drawn, though no attempt is made to_ show the muscles.
1680J65 ^*Vats seems to_ infer that at Mohenjodaro the animal figures
1690J65 were hatched without exception, all belonging to the late period as
1700J65 later pointed out by Mackay. ^At Harappa he refers to examples
1710J65 where the bodies are completely blocked,
1720J65 whereas in others these are hatched. ^Now all these were found up to
1730J65 a depth of 17 \0ft. of the then prevailing method of stratification,
1740J65 and these belong to all the three periods-- early, middle and late.
1750J65 $^This fact requires much closer study than done in 1921-31 or
1760J65 in 1947-74. ^The collection of pottery should not be recorded merely
1770J65 as depthwise but housewise, at Kalibangan, Gumla, or Kot Diji.
1780J65 ^Only then could more meaningful conclusions be drawn not only about
1790J65 the artistic styles, but the differences among the potters, or sections
1800J65 of the population which favoured one or the other method of showing
1810J65 the animal*'s body.*#
        **[no. of words = 02012**]

        **[txt. j66**]
0010J66 **<*3THE ART OF SOUTH INDIA-- TAMIL NADU & KERALA*0**> $*<*3The Chera
0020J66 cave art phase*0*> $^The passes in the Western Ghats which link Kerala
0030J66 with Tamil plains, should have relieved the relative isolation of
0040J66 the Chera tract even in the past and towards the north, it allowed
0050J66 Karnataka to_ influence its art, though it did develop certain distinct
0060J66 mannerisms of its own. ^The Chera (Kerala) cave-temples of
0070J66 which about ten exist, are distributed accordingly in three groups,
0080J66 the southern most, across the Aramboli (Aralvaymoli) pass in Venad
0090J66 or the erstwhile Travancore region, being at Bhutapandi, Tirunandikara,
0100J66 Vilinjam and Tuvarankadu, the central group at Kaviyur,
0110J66 Kottukal and Airurpara (or Madavurpara), all north of Trivandrum
0120J66 across the Ariyankavu pass, while the northern group, found at Irunilamcode,
0130J66 Trikkur and Branthanpara are relatable to the Peermade-Munar
0140J66 pass. ^Of the last mentioned, Trikkur (Ernakulam District)
0150J66 is the most important and the largest. ^Its outstanding features
0160J66 are its detachable *4linga on a monolithic square *4pitha, the orientation
0170J66 of the water-chute of the *4pitha to the north-- the entrance
0180J66 direction of the cave-temple-- thus making the *4linga itself face
0190J66 properly east, the carving of *4dvarapala in three quarter relief
0200J66 on the side walls of the cella chamber and not on the outer walls flanking
0210J66 the door, the cella being entlaed not by a single door but by
0220J66 a pillared facade with three bays, whose pillars have a *4taranga or
0230J66 wavy corbel of the voluted type, the Ganesa sculpture in the north-west
0240J66 wall niche in the cella, all these eke out its nexus clearly
0250J66 with the early Chalukyan usages, making the cave-shrine ascribable
0260J66 to the early 8th century \0A.D. if not slightly earlier. ^The other
0270J66 example at Irunilamcode (Trichur District) is distinguished by
0280J66 double opposed shrines for Siva and Vishnu, although these two are
0290J66 no more than niches, Siva being represented by a *4linga and the back
0300J66 wall having Dakshinamurti image in unconventional and lively pattern.
0310J66 ^The cave-temple is facing north but the Dakshinamurti on the back
0320J66 wall is made to_ imply its location on the south wall of the shrine
0330J66 (and seemingly oriented south also). ^It is datable to the last quater
0340J66 of the 8th century \0A.D. ^The third example at Branthanpara
0350J66 near Shoranur was just commenced and shows the technique of rock-scooping
0360J66 similar to the Pallavas and the provision for niches of Saptamatrika
0370J66 and Ganesa on the outer flanks. $^The examples of the
0380J66 central Kerala group have strong Pandyan influence except for two
0390J66 factors: the *4linga is often of the *4arsha type with a tapering
0400J66 top and the *4pitha is of multiple cut stone masonry blocks, which we
0410J66 see at Tirunandikara also. ^The provision for *4pitha in two or three
0420J66 parts to_ be assembled inside the cella during the consecration
0430J66 is essentially a 9th century practice, of the peripheral regions of
0440J66 Tamil Nadu. ^However, three distinctive features link them closely
0450J66 and directly with Pandyan country. ^These are: the carving of ascetic
0460J66 like figures on the side walls of the *4mandapa, compared to that_
0470J66 at Tirukkalakudi, Kunnandarkoil and Virasikhamani in Tamil
0480J66 Nadu; the provision of a separate pedestal for the niche carving is,
0490J66 however, original to Kaviyur. ^The Kottukal type is the most impressive
0500J66 correlation of themes-- represented in the depiction of Hanuman
0510J66 as *4dvarapala-- seemingly assumed by Nandi, a feature which
0520J66 occurs in a more impressive size on the door flanks of the cella at
0530J66 Kunnattur cave near Madurai. ^The corbel type at Kottukal is of the
0540J66 simple bevel type. ^It has further a monolithic *4nandi also. ^The
0550J66 hanuman *4dvarapla seemingly as a reflection Nandi*'s location, is inspired
0560J66 by Hanuman having been considered as a manifestation of Nandi,
0570J66 as recalled by Ravana when Hanuman visits his court before the burning
0580J66 of Lanka. ^At Airurpara, the *4linga is an *4arsha or archaic
0590J66 type and Vishnu and Ganesa carvings are shown on the wall, recalling
0600J66 similar usage at Sevilipatti, and Tirumalapuram. ^The southern
0610J66 group again shows an archaic *4linga at Bhutapandi (now in Tamil
0620J66 Nadu) which is rather a diminutive cave excavation. ^But its architectural
0630J66 details like the jointly cut lintel and side corbels of wall pilasters
0640J66 in the front *4mandapa are of interest, while the example at
0650J66 Tirunandikara-- an excavation of the time of Vikramaditya Varaguna
0660J66 the Ay king is satisfying, with a composite masonary *5linga pitha*6
0670J66 and detachable *4linga as at Kaviyur, a side-facing shrine and
0680J66 ceiling in the *4mandapa whose back walls carried extensive mural paintings
0690J66 in the past, coeval with the excavation, of which only the bare
0700J66 outer lines of a Dakshinamurti is now visible in parts. ^The third
0710J66 example of the southern group is the niche cave on a boulder at
0720J66 Vilinjam, a seaport town 8 miles (14.8 \0Km.) south of Trivandrum,
0730J66 a scene of battle between Pandyas and Ay kings and containing some
0740J66 beautiful figures of Siva as Tripurarimurti and a dancing form
0750J66 on either flank of the front face respectively. $^The key note of the
0760J66 Kerala group of cave temples is its variability, heterogeneity, originality
0770J66 and differential impacts from the Chalukyan and the mainland
0780J66 Pandya zones on its art-matrix. $*<*3B. Early Structural Stages*0*>
0790J66 $*<*3Pallava period*0*> $^The range and gamut of structural
0800J66 temple design under the Pallavas may now be briefly documented. ^They
0810J66 were all confined to Tondaimandalam. ^They were almost all of them
0820J66 rendered in sandstone except those at Mahabalipuram of the early Pallava
0830J66 stage of Rajasimha and those on the western periphery like
0840J66 Tiruttani, Nenmeli, Velakanampudi, \0etc., which, having come under
0850J66 the influence of the Banas, Vaidumbas and the aggressive Cholas
0860J66 who involved them all, could dabble in the granite medium. ^Such a
0870J66 rendering in granite, in Tondaimandalam until the 9th-10th or even
0880J66 11th century \0A.D. should have been rather out of the ordinary,
0890J66 the norm being either sandstone or a mixed medium (*4misra) of some
0900J66 type of local stone for the ground floor and stucco and brick for the
0910J66 superstructure. ^This is well brought out by the fact that inscriptions
0920J66 of builders and donors who employed the hardstone make a special
0930J66 reference to this, as in the case of the Virattanesvara temple at
0940J66 Tiruttani recorded therein as built by Nambi Appi in the 18th year
0950J66 of the Aparajita Pallava, in granite stone, or in the case of
0960J66 the reconstruction of the apsidal temple at Tiruvorriyur on the outskrits
0970J66 of Madras, which is recorded as having been built by Rajendra
0980J66 Chola in '*5krishna sila*6' or black granite stone. $^That the most
0990J66 early structural experimentation was for a *4mandapa type, there
1000J66 can be no doubt. ^The analogy was available in cave and monolithic art
1010J66 also and is the safest for first faltering stages. ^Our evidence,
1020J66 in this regard, for the Pallavas, is eloquently brought out by the
1030J66 Chittoor Copper plate grant of Nripatunga. ^This mentions that Narasimhavarman
1040J66 *=1 Mamalla built a sleeping chamber shrine for Vishnu
1050J66 on the fringe of the sea there, out of stones (*4asmabhih) seemingly
1060J66 to_ emphasize by the plural employed, the structural character of
1070J66 the temple as contrasted, with monolithic art, where such 'plural'
1080J66 might be singularly inapt. ^We know that the Talasayana shrine, sandwiched
1090J66 between the twin Shore Temples should be the one referred
1100J66 to here. ^This God has been carved on the rock in monolithic technique
1110J66 but above the plinth the temple should have contained a pillared
1120J66 chamber for the God, the superstructure being yet in brick thus urging
1130J66 Rajasimha to_ restore the chamber for this God, while building
1140J66 his larger Shore Temple, around its *4pradakshina circuit where
1150J66 this Vishnu was located. $^After this landmark of Mamalla, the next
1160J66 important structural enterprise was the apsidal temple at Kuram
1170J66 by Paramesvaravarman *=1, as mentioned in his Kuram Plates,
1180J66 and called as Vidyavinita Pallavesvaragriham. ^This temple again
1190J66 was of stone in the plinth and ground floor but was seemingly of
1200J66 wood and tile for the superstructure. ^What more, the plinth was itself
1210J66 of a 'boxed' technique, with solid brick masonry core and veneering
1220J66 with slabs cut in small pieces, course by course, and boxed around
1230J66 the brick hearting. ^This was a technique that_ was seen prevalent
1240J66 in the Ikshvaku structures at Nagarjunakonda, as in the apsidal
1250J66 Pushpabhadraswami temple, built by Ehavala Chantamula in the 4th
1260J66 century \0A.D. ^This composite temple plinth is extant till today,
1270J66 but the wall and superstructure has been renovated in later times.
1280J66 ^The use of tiles (and by implication timber also) is inferred by
1290J66 the reference in Paramesvara*'s copper plate to an endowment of land
1300J66 for a specific kiln which will make brick and tiles necessary for
1310J66 the temple. $^The first confident creations in all stone structural
1320J66 style, though yet in coarse granite or sandstone interleavened with
1330J66 granite plinth to_ help in recording inscriptions and to_ bear the
1340J66 stress which might pulverise the sandstone material as time passed, belong
1350J66 only to Rajasimha*'s time, when we have a spurt of structural activity.
1360J66 ^As many as four major temples were constructed at Mahabalipuram
1370J66 besides six or seven more at Kanchipuram, including the Rajasimhesvara
1380J66 or Kailasanatha temple complex and one more at Panamalai,
1390J66 during his rule. ^The later Pallavas, beginning with Nandivarman
1400J66 *=2 Pallavamalla, were responsible for an equally large number of temples,
1410J66 of which Vaikunthaperumal temple, Muktesvara and Matangesvara
1420J66 at Kanchi are of Nandivarman *=2, and Sundaravarada temple at
1430J66 Uttiramerur and perhaps the Pundarikaksha temple at Tiruvellarai
1440J66 in Tiruchchi District, and the Aivarkoil at Kodumbalur under the
1450J66 Irukkuvel vassals, all of the time of Dantivarman. ^We have also
1460J66 inscribed evidence that_ might ascribe a temple at Tiruchanur (near
1470J66 Tirupati) to the latter, probably the Panchavira temple of Venugopala
1480J66 near the Padmavati Tayar temple at that_ place. ^Of the time
1490J66 of Nandivarman *=3, we have the Kailasanatha temple at Tiruppattur
1500J66 (near Perambalur in Tiruchchi District) built of sandstone in
1510J66 four *4talas and with a *4dharalinga in the *4sandhara sanctum. ^*Nripatunga,
1520J66 Kampavarman and the latter*'s son Aparajita have their basic
1530J66 temple munificences noticed at Bahur, Tiruchchennampundi, Narttamalai,
1540J66 (Paliyiliccuram) Kavantandalam, Uttiramerur, Tiruvorriyur,
1550J66 Kaveripakkam, Sumangali, Natteri, Tiruttani, Nenmeli, Velakanampudi
1560J66 and Takkolam. ^Some of these temples have been repaired
1570J66 or rebuilt during the Chola times. ^The last two appear to_ have been
1580J66 by the Bana feudatories of the Pallavas. $^We should note that
1590J66 the early Pallava structural temple, until the close of the time of
1600J66 Rajasimha, did not use a *4linga, had only a Somaskanda panel on
1610J66 the back wall for worship, did not have any exterior projecting water
1620J66 chute for *4abhisheka water on the top of the plinth, there was no
1630J66 *4upapitha, as a rule, until the time of Nandivarman *=2, both *4sandhara
1640J66 (with inner covered ambulatory circuit) and *4nirandhara (without
1650J66 such a device and to_ be circumbulated only on the open outer court)
1660J66 were common, the former device, largely for the principle of *4Kadalikakarana
1670J66 or corbelling through the cellular wall base, for the
1680J66 support of the heavy superstructural load. ^Both *4arpita (applique)
1690J66 and *4anarpita (separated) *4hara parapets of the successive *4prastaras
1700J66 (entablatures) were common, the former indicative generally
1710J66 of the latter stage already having been gone through and conventionalised
1720J66 for structural purposes in the former. ^The *4sikhara shape had
1730J66 already got variegated into the *4Dravida (octagon), *4Nagara (square)
1740J66 and *4Vesara (circular or apsidal) shapes in that_ order of
1750J66 introduction. ^The first circular *4sikhara came only in the period
1760J66 of Nandivarman *=2, as at Muktesvara, *4^Upapitha also started only
1770J66 in his reign, as a rule. ^A *5dhara linga*6 (or faceted *4linga
1780J66 in increasing multiples of four from the base or multiple flutes all
1790J66 through) gets introduced from \0*3C*0. \0A.D. 725 and continues
1800J66 for almost the entire later Pallava period upto the end of the 9th
1810J66 century \0A.D., whereafter they get superseded by regular Chola type
1820J66 *4lingas everywhere as the only object of worship. ^Simultaneously,
1830J66 there is also a *4pranala or projecting water chute on the plinth edge
1840J66 on the exterior for ritual bath water. ^*Somaskanda figure gets modified
1850J66 into Umamahesvara and finally disappeared along with this stage. ^*Umamahesvara
1860J66 panel on back wall are **[sic**] seen at Tiruvadigai and Velakanampudi,
1870J66 while all the temples outside Kanchi or Mahabalipuram do
1880J66 not show any Somaskanda or other image, after the time of Nandivarman
1890J66 *=2. ^In Cholamandalam under the Pallavas, as at Kodumbalur
1900J66 (Aivarkoil) or Narttamalai, *4linga had been introduced, mostly with
1910J66 square *4pitha below it, from the time of Dantivarman and circular
1920J66 later on.*#
        **[no. of words = 02021**]

        **[txt. j67**]
0010J67 **<*3Transition: A complete process*0**> $^Viewed from such a historical
0020J67 perspective of Indian music, we find that only during the period
0030J67 just preceding that_ of Bharata, \0i.e., in the second stage of development,
0040J67 there was an attempt at systematization, because it was
0050J67 Bharata who, for the first time, referred to and dealt exhaustively
0060J67 with the *4jatis and its subdivisions on the one hand, and the *4dhruva,
0070J67 the earliest form of *4geetis on the other. ^That the *4jatis
0080J67 were themselves *4ragas or contained in them rudiments of *4ragas,
0090J67 is a matter of debatable discussion; but studying the ten characteristics
0100J67 (*5dasa lakshamanas*6) of the *4jatis as mentioned by Bharata,
0110J67 there is left little doubt that these were the actual forerunners
0120J67 of the proper *4ragas. ^The *4svara structure, through a process of
0130J67 steady progression since the time of the early *4Vedas, came to a
0140J67 proper system with specific characteristics just referred to and took
0150J67 a more or less concrete shape so as to_ be termed *4ragas. ^As a
0160J67 parallel development, the song-- the *4geeti as it was then called--
0170J67 took a proper shape in the form of *4dhruva. ^Besides dealing exhaustively
0180J67 with *4srutis, *4gramas, *4murchhanas, voice-registers \0etc.,
0190J67 Bharata treated, with the greatest importance, the *4jatis (*5jati ragas*6)
0200J67 and *5dhruva geetis*6 in the twentyeighth to thirty-second chapters
0210J67 of the Natyasastra respectively. ^In fact, the entire thirty-second
0220J67 chapter is devoted to the discussion of *5dhruva geetis*6, with
0230J67 the few exclusion of twenty-five *4slokas where he discussed some
0240J67 other aspects relating to the characteristics of the *4veena player
0250J67 and the qualities of a musician, teacher, \0etc. $^The discussion on
0260J67 the various aspects of Indian music then prevalent is quite systematic
0270J67 in the Natyasastra and one can easily guess to what maturity
0280J67 and emotive height the music reached at that_ time. ^Before the discussion
0290J67 on *4jatis, Bharata treated the seven notes, the two *4gramas
0300J67 and the *4srutis in the *4sadja and *5madhyama gramas*6, *4murchhanas
0310J67 and *4tans. ^Thus it may be seen that the constituents that_
0320J67 led to the formation of *4jatis are discussed in a chronological sequence.
0330J67 ^That the emergence of *4jatiragas is caused due to the mutual
0340J67 relation of notes as well as the development of such constituent
0350J67 elements, is quite evident from the nature of the description. $^The
0360J67 base of all Indian music rests on the seven notes and Bharata named
0370J67 the notes *4sadja, *4rishava, *4gandhara; *4madhyama, *4pancama,
0380J67 *4dhaivata and *4nishada, as *5sapta ca svara*6 and in the very next
0390J67 *4sloka he mentioned the notes as belonging to four classes, \0e.g.,
0400J67 *4vadi, *4samvadi, *4anuvadi and *4vivadi where the question of
0410J67 assonance and dissonance of notes has been discussed. ^This seems to_
0420J67 be a very important point. ^*Indian music, specially its classical
0430J67 forms, is based on melody-types, but the harmonic relationship between
0440J67 the notes is an integral part of the structural constituents
0450J67 of *4raga pattern. ^The very conception of *4vadi *4samvadi on the
0460J67 one hand and *4vivadi on the other rests on the principle of assonance,
0470J67 which relates to the essential harmonic nature of the constituent
0480J67 notes forming a *4raga pattern. $^Along with the discussion on assonance
0490J67 and dissonance, the question of *4sruti becomes inevitable;
0500J67 because, it is only in the discussion of the interval of notes that
0510J67 their relational aspects may be determined. ^It has been seen that
0520J67 the notes resting at a distance of eight and twelve *4sruti intervals,
0530J67 the assonance becomes most congenial and harmonic. ^That_ is why
0540J67 *4sadja is assonant with *4madhyama and *4pancama, and *4rishava with
0550J67 *4pancama, and so on. ^*Bharata has admitted the existence of twenty-two
0560J67 *4srutis resting on the notes as follows: **[verses in sanskrit**]
0570J67 $^This is true in respect of *4sadjagrama only. ^But in the *4madhyamagrama,
0580J67 the position of *4sruti has changed, *4dhaivata taking
0590J67 four and *4pancama three *4srutis. ^This is quite evident now, as
0600J67 *4madhyamagrama has become obsolete and the current practice of singing
0610J67 in *4sadjagrama having the above *4sruti intervals quite justifies
0620J67 the harmonic relationship that_ was established long ago. ^The
0630J67 relationship may be mathematically tabulated as follows: more precisely,
0640J67 to_ put in mathematical proportion as follows: $^Leaving aside the
0650J67 *4sruti interval from *4ma, or considering the entire gamut as composed
0660J67 of two tetrachords, the entire sequence is found to_ be quite
0670J67 harmonic. $*4^Murchhanas have been described in detail and these are
0680J67 of fourteen kinds in the two *4gramas, the *4gandharagrama being obsolete
0690J67 during the time of Bharata. ^The *4sadjagrama has seven *4murchhanas
0700J67 as **[table**] $^*Manomohan Ghosh, in the Introduction
0710J67 to his translation of the Natyasastra, has observed a striking resemblance
0720J67 of the first six of these with the Greek modes Ionian, dorian,
0730J67 Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and Acolian. ^The *4madhyamagrama
0740J67 has similiarly given rise to seven *4murchhanas as *4Sauviri, *4Harinasva,
0750J67 *4Kalopanata, *4suddhamadhya, *4Margavi, *4Pauravi and
0760J67 *4Hrishyaka, but in later years even the *4madhyamagrama became obsolete,
0770J67 the *4sadjagrama remaining the only *4grama for all practical
0780J67 purposes with definite *4sruti intervals as mentioned earlier. ^That
0790J67 the other two *4gramas became obsolete was due perhaps to their non-harmonic
0800J67 *4sruti divisions. ^The *4murchhanas in the *4sadjagrama
0810J67 were of four kinds according to the distribution of notes as *4sampurna,
0820J67 *4shadava, *4audava and *4sadharanikrita, the last one depending
0830J67 on the overlapping notes. $^The modern concept of *4raga system,
0840J67 broadly described as melody-type, is the result of a long process
0850J67 of *4svara combination since the time of Bharata or even earlier.
0860J67 ^The successive discussion on *4svara, *4sruti, *4gramas and *4murchhanas
0870J67 and then on *4jatis clearly indicates that Bharata was conscious
0880J67 of the process which led to such a system resulting in the formation
0890J67 of melody-types. ^In the description of the Natyasastra, *4jatis
0900J67 and their subdivisions, sentiments and other attributes were focussed
0910J67 in every detail and one could guess that *4jatiragas might have
0920J67 been a living form of systematic music; more than eleven centuries
0930J67 later when Sarangadeva discussed the *4ragas in the chapter on *4Ragadhyay,
0940J67 he stressed importance on the *4jatiragas and their subdivisions
0950J67 no doubt, but that_ aspect was dealt with from a historical perspective.
0960J67 ^This is an indication of a prolonged and steady development
0970J67 of *4raga system that_ underwent many changes, fusion and intermixture.
0980J67 ^While Bharata mentions the term '*4raga' only as associated
0990J67 with *4jatis, Sarangadeva devoted an exclusive chapter on the *4raga
1000J67 system. ^It is obvious therefrom that the term *4raga had found
1010J67 its constant and generalised use during his time and that *4jatiragas
1020J67 were a matter of a distant past. ^*Bharata did not assign any definition
1030J67 to *4jati but mentioned how *4srutis led to the *4jatiragas.
1040J67 ^*Catura Kallinatha, in his commentary on the *4Sangitratnakara,
1050J67 refers to the origin of *4jatis as $*5Gramadyavajjayata iti jataya*6
1060J67 $^While Bharata attached more significance to *4srutis, Sarangadeva
1070J67 to the *4gramas. ^The word *4jati might have more than one significance
1080J67 of which two are vital for the determination of its character
1090J67 while discussing *4jatiragas. ^The first connotation relates to 'birth'
1100J67 when it might be assumed *4jatis to_ be of pure origin while
1110J67 the second connotation as 'classification' might refer *4jatis to_
1120J67 be of certain broad classes from which later *4jatis originated.
1130J67 $^In the Natyasastra Bharata did not treat *4ragas separately though
1140J67 he mentioned the term on more than one occasion. ^In the *4slokas
1150J67 from 38 to 151 he had dealt with *4jatis quite exhaustively and assigned
1160J67 their origin, mentioned their characters, classification and
1170J67 finally gave description of the eighteen *4suddha and *4vikrita *4jatis.
1180J67 ^It is obvious, therefore, that the term *4raga did not find any
1190J67 generalised use during his time. ^In the 29th chapter where he discussed
1200J67 the *4alamkaras and *4rasas, there even *4ragas were not mentioned
1210J67 in relation to evocative sentiments. ^There are good number of
1220J67 reasons that_ might lead one to_ guess that *4raga was not something
1230J67 different from the *4jatis. ^Not only the *4ragas were later development
1240J67 of the *4jatis, *4jatiragas and *4gramaragas but also the
1250J67 characteristics which go to_ define a *4raga were the same that_
1260J67 were ascribed to the *4jatis. ^The following reasons might prove that
1270J67 the *4ragas were the same as the *4jatiragas of earlier periods if
1280J67 certain characteristics are taken into consideration: $^*Bharata mentions
1290J67 as tenpoint characteristics of a *4jati $*5 dasabidham jatilakshmanam*6
1300J67 it is further mentioned $*5Grahamsau taramandrau ca nyasapanyasa
1310J67 eba ca alpatvam ca bahutvam ca shadavauduvite tatha*6 the characteristics
1320J67 are *4graha, *4amsa, *4tar, *4mandra, *4nyasa, *4apanyasa,
1330J67 *4alpatva, *4bahutva, *4shadava and *4audava. ^These characteristics
1340J67 are still assigned to the *4raga in the modern period while determining
1350J67 its quality. ^*Bharata then explained all these characteristics
1360J67 in separate *4slokas. $^The *4jatis have been classified as *4suddha
1370J67 and *4vikrita. ^In modern times even *4ragas have three broad
1380J67 categories as *4suddha, *4shalaga and *4samkirna. ^The *5vikrita jatis*6
1390J67 have been originated by a process of fusion and mixture, so have
1400J67 the *5samkirna ragas*6 been derived that_ way. $^The *5shadava audava*6
1410J67 characters of the *4jatis are also the specific characters
1420J67 of the *4ragas in modern times. ^The hexatonic or pentatonic notes
1430J67 used in certain *4ragas determine their characters as *4shadava or
1440J67 *4audava. $^The *4ragas used to_ tinge or colour and to_ evoke corresponding
1450J67 sentiments in human mind and so also the *4jatis. ^*Bharata
1460J67 describes in detail in the 29th chapter of Natyasastra all these
1470J67 emotive attributes. ^The erotic, comic, heroic, furious, marvellous,
1480J67 pathetic, terrible, odious, \0etc., are the sentiments that_ the
1490J67 *4jatis can evoke. ^He further mentions 'only the *4sadjamadhya is
1500J67 the *4jati which can accommodate all the sentiments'. $^The *4ragas,
1510J67 in modern times, are applied to songs and so were the *4jatis. ^The
1520J67 usage of four *4varnas could also be found in the Natyasastra: $*5Arohi
1530J67 cabarohi ca sthaisancarinau tatha*6 $while discussing the relation
1540J67 between *4jati and *4raga, the above points should be considered.
1550J67 ^As Swami Prajnanananda has stated, the term *4raga was used
1560J67 though only on a few occasions, yet these eighteen *4suddha and *4vikrita
1570J67 *4jatis were perhaps nothing but *4ragas with powers to_ excite
1580J67 emotion and pleasing sentiments. $^It was a long process of fusion,
1590J67 mixture and separation until we arrive at the modern concept of
1600J67 *4raga. ^The process elaborately categorises such terms as *4jatiragas,
1610J67 *4gramragas, *4bhasa, *4bibhasa, *4antarabhasa \0etc., but this
1620J67 long chain had certain permanent aspects common to them and the modern
1630J67 concept of *4raga ingrained within it the basic constituents that_
1640J67 went into its complete and artistic blending. $^The *4jatis, before
1650J67 and at the time of Bharata, were divided into two classes, *4suddha
1660J67 and *4vikrita (pure and modified). ^In the *4sadjagrama, there were
1670J67 four pure *4jatis as *4sadji, *4arshavi, *4dhaivati and *4naishadi
1680J67 while in the *4madhyamagrama those were *4gandhari, *4madhyama and
1690J67 *4pancami. ^The pure *4jatis consisted of all the notes having *4amsa,
1700J67 *4graha and *4nyasa. ^The modified *4jatis were eleven in number
1710J67 and grew out of combinations from the pure *4jatis. ^These were *4sadjakaisiki,
1720J67 *4sadjadicyava, *4sadjamadhya, *4maktagandhari, *4gandharodicyava,
1730J67 *4gandharapancami, *4madhyamomicyava, *4undhri, *4nandayanti,
1740J67 *4karmaravi and *4kaisiki. ^The description and characteristics
1750J67 of each of these *4jatis were elaborately give in the \0N.S.
1760J67 An English rendering by Manomohan Ghosh reads as: *4Sadji, 'In
1770J67 the *5sadji jati*6, the *4amsa is of five notes (of the *4grama),
1780J67 *4nishada and *4rishava being excluded. ^Its *4apanyasa is *4gandhara
1790J67 and *4pancama, and *4nyasa, *4sadja; and *4nishada should be dropped
1800J67 from it. ^Its hexatonic treatment should exclude *4nishada. ^In it,
1810J67 *4dhaivata and *4nishada should be reduced; and *4sadja and *4gandhara
1820J67 as well as *4dhaivata and *4sadja should move together, and *4gandhara
1830J67 should be amplified. ^These *4jatis with ten characteristics
1840J67 should be applied in the song (*4pada) with dance movements (*4karanas)
1850J67 and gestures suitable to them. ^The four kinds of songs or *4geetis
1860J67 in which the *4jatis were applied were *4magadhi, *4ardhamagadhi,
1870J67 *4sambhavita and *4prithule. $^While the above kinds of *4geetis considered
1880J67 the *4pada and *4tala more than anything else and applied to
1890J67 *4jatis, the five kinds of *4geetis that_ developed at a later period
1900J67 as *4suddha, *4vinna, *4goudi, *4besara and *4sadharani considered
1910J67 the *4raga element more systematically and were applied to the *4gramaragas.
1920J67 ^*Sarangadeva referred to the *4jatiragas from the historian*'s
1930J67 point of view, but treated *4gramaragas and their offshoots in
1940J67 all detail as the existing order of the day. ^*Rajyeswar Mitra,
1950J67 in his commentary on the Ratnakara has made the following observation:
1960J67 the *4raga based itself on the *4geetis and in the process, the *4geetis
1970J67 have emerged from the poetic to the musical world [\0tr. by the
1980J67 author]. $^The *4gramaragas, thirty in number, based themselves on
1990J67 the above *4geetis in both the *4gramas; as seven in the *5suddha
2000J67 geeti*6, five in the *5vinna geeti,*6 three in the *5goudi geeti,*6
2010J67 eight in the *5besara geeti*6 and seven in the *5sadharani geeti*6.*#**[no.
        of words = 02006**]

        **[txt. j68**]
0010J68 **<*3A Study of Dattilam*0**> $^The notion of *4anuranana-- 'resonance'--
0020J68 is not very clear in this context, but apparently it was a notion
0030J68 connected with the laws of accoustics: the harmonic relations existing
0040J68 naturally between certain sounds. ^After making a sound if there
0050J68 arises another sound which has any harmonic relation with the first,
0060J68 then the two sounds will acquire a resonant quality. ^This seems
0070J68 to_ be what Abhinava meant by *4anuranana. $^The octave itself is
0080J68 born of the harmonic principle and has many possible graded intervals,
0090J68 the *4srutis, but not all of these have the resonant qualities inherent
0100J68 in *4svara. ^Only intervals separated from each other by a certain
0110J68 measure of *4sruti-interval have a naturally pleasing effect:
0120J68 these are the *4svaras. ^Thus some theorists in Abhinava*'s days
0130J68 opined that "when the intervening *4srutis (between two sounds) consist
0140J68 of a certain definite number, then on the final *4sruti if a sound
0150J68 is made through the friction of the breath (in singing), this results
0160J68 in *4svara; this consists of the quality of charm and pleasingness
0170J68 **[sic**] which belongs to that_ particular *4sruti position.
0180J68 *4^Svara imparts colour \0i.e., 'musical significance' (in this context)
0190J68 to the *4sruti on which it rests (*4tasyasrayabhutayah Sruteruparanjakah)".
0200J68 *4^Svara according to this view, was the pleasing quality
0210J68 that_ certain *4sruti positions naturally possessed. ^*Abhinava
0220J68 was in favour of somewhat amending this view and himself considered
0230J68 *4anuranana as the basic characteristic of a note: "the sound, consiting
0240J68 of *4anuranana, charming and sweet, which is produced as an effect
0250J68 of that_ sound which results on striking a (specific) *4sruti position,
0260J68 is *4svara". ^Thus *4svara according to Abhinava was not just
0270J68 a sound but an echo-like resonant, secondary sound which was the
0280J68 characteristic of certain *4srutis and it was this resonance which
0290J68 produced the pleasant and charming sensation that_ the musical notes
0300J68 arouse in us. $*4^Srutis according to this view were secondary to
0310J68 *4svara (they were *4svarasrayah: \0i.e., 'dependent upon *4svara');
0320J68 they were pitch-gradations within the interval of a *4svara: "*5srutayo
0330J68 hyuccanicataya api svarasraya eva pratiyante*6" (\0^*A.B. on
0340J68 \0N.S. 28, 21). $^Though, doctrinally, Matanga has given primacy
0350J68 to *4sruti over *4svara (believing as he did that *4srutis gave rise
0360J68 to *4svaras) yet in his view, too, *4svaras and not *4srutis were of
0370J68 primary musical significance. *4^Sruti he defines as a sound that_
0380J68 is audible \0Br. 26-27), but *4svara is much more. *4^Svara, Matanga
0400J68 says, has the quality of *4dipti-- 'splendour', 'beauty', 'illumination'.
0410J68 ^Etymologically analysing and defining the word *4svara,
0420J68 he further says that *4svara is an entity which shines forth on its
0430J68 own: this is another way of saying that *4svaras are '*4svayambhu'
0440J68 entities, born of the very laws of sound: **[sanskrit verse**] ^The
0450J68 Vrtti on these lines comments that "*4svara is the sound which produces
0460J68 *4raga" (*5ragajanako dhvanih svarah*6). ^Taking the pun on *4raga
0470J68 to_ be intentional, the meaning would be that *4svaras are sounds
0480J68 that_ arouse our affections or emotions and also are the basis of
0490J68 organised melodic structures. ^The Vrtti quotes Kohala who had defined
0500J68 *4svara as an 'affective sound' (*5dhvani raktah svara*6; Vrtti
0510J68 on \0Br. 64A). ^A *4sruti does not have this significance. $^The
0520J68 nature of *4svara-- like that_ of *4sruti-- had given rise to some
0530J68 metaphysical questions: was *4svara, in the ultimate analysis, one
0540J68 or many ('*5eko*'3neko va*6)? ^Was it perishable or perennial (*5nityo'nityo
0550J68 va*6)? ^The Vrtti on *4brhaddesi raises these questions and answers
0560J68 them by stating that *4svara is both one and many; it is pervasive
0570J68 and perennial. *4^Svara, it says, in its indivisible-- *4niskala--
0580J68 form is one, but becomes many in the form of individual notes
0590J68 like *4sadja \0etc. *4^Svara, the Vrtti continues, is perennial because
0600J68 it is indestructible; in other words, the Vrttikara thought that
0610J68 *4svara was not a 'thing created' and thus could not be destructible
0620J68 like created things. ^It was something which existed in the very
0630J68 nature of things and was *4nitya-- without a beginning and end. ^Man
0640J68 did not create *4svara but only perceived this ever existent phenomenon
0650J68 and with its help created music. $*4^Svara is also pervasive because
0660J68 it is universal (*4sarvagatah). ^This perhaps means that *4svara
0670J68 is not a mere subjective phenomenon perceived differently by different
0680J68 people but a universal entity perceived the same by all. *4^Svara
0690J68 is, indeed, basically dependent upon the laws of accoustics and
0700J68 its perception has therefore an objective, universal basis. ^The Vrtti
0710J68 quotes a verse by Kohala which describes *4svara as *4vyapaka
0720J68 which in the context, evidently, means 'universal'. $^In *4gandharva
0721J68 there were seven *4svaras in
0730J68 an octave (*5svarah sadjadayah sapta;*6 Datt. 11) : *4sadja, *4rsabha,
0740J68 *4gandhara, *4madhyama, *4pancama, *4dhaivata and *4nisada. ^There
0750J68 were in addition two intermediary or auxiliary-- *4sadharana--
0760J68 notes, namely, *5antara gandhara*6 and *5kakali nisada*6. ^These latter
0770J68 two were not accorded the full status of svara: *5antara gandhara*6
0780J68 was a subsidiary of *4gandhara and *5kakali nisada*6 that_ of
0790J68 *4nisada. ^*Abhinava, commenting on \0N.S. 28, 21 where the seven
0800J68 notes have been named, says: "notes are declared to_ be seven in
0810J68 number; by this statement Bharata reveals that *4kakali (*4nisada)
0811J68 and *4antara (*4gandhara) are not separate notes--. $^In tuning the pitches
0820J68 of the *4svaras were apparently arrived at through the ear as
0830J68 in current practice. *4^Sruti the minute interval within a *4svara
0840J68 could not be thus arrived at. ^It required a more elaborate procedure.
0850J68 ^*Bharata has described the process of tuning at some length through
0860J68 which *4sruti could be determined. ^The process involved two *4vinas
0870J68 equal in all respects: in size, in the number and thickness of
0880J68 strings, in *4upavadana (the '*4mizrab' or plectrum for striking them?)
0890J68 and the succession of notes. ^The two *4vinas were then identically
0900J68 tuned to the sadja-grama: **[sanskrit quotation**] ^*Bharata gives
0910J68 no method or process for arriving at this initial tuning. ^Evidently,
0930J68 it was done through the ear and not through a process employing
0940J68 mathematical ratios (such as is given by later theorists like Ahobala,
0950J68 Srinivasa \0etc.) ^*Bharata*'s attitude was in this respect
0960J68 empirical. ^It was an attitude which prevailed in all early musical
0970J68 thinking. ^No early text makes an attempt to_ numerically assess the
0980J68 magnitude of the *4svaras in any way; all assume their positions as
0990J68 given. ^The Vritti on *4brhaddesi in describing the measure (Mana)
1000J68 or magnitude of a *4sruti also assumes the position of the *4svaras
1020J68 themselves as known and merely reproduces Bharata*'s passage on this
1030J68 subject with minor changes (\0Br. Vrtti on 28). $^In ancient
1040J68 Greece, early theorists, chiefly Pythagoras (6th Century \0B.C.)
1050J68 had arrived at numerical ratios for the position of various notes:
1060J68 tonal intervals were demonstrated on a single stretched string in terms
1070J68 of spatial divisions. ^However, other theorists, especially Aristoxenus
1080J68 (born 350 \0B.C.) favoured the empirical method. ^Introducing
1090J68 the subject of harmonics (the study of musical sounds) he observes
1100J68 that the subject of the study is the question: "in melody of every
1110J68 kind what are the natural laws according to which the voice in ascending
1120J68 and descending places the intervals?" ^In reply he asserts
1130J68 that the voice (meaning, of course, the musical voice) spontaneously
1140J68 arrives at the right interval according to an inexorable law of sound.
1150J68 "^For we hold", he says, "that the voice follows a natural law in
1160J68 its motion and does not place the intervals at random." ^Further,
1170J68 he observes that the ear is a judge which cognises the measure of true
1180J68 musical intervals. ^He states: "our subject matter being all melody,
1190J68 whether vocal or instrumental, our method rests in the last resort
1200J68 on an appeal to the two faculties of hearing and intellect. ^By
1210J68 the former we judge the magnitudes of intervals, by the latter we contemplate
1220J68 the functions of the notes." ^Recognising that an inexorable
1230J68 natural law is the basis of '*4svara', Aristoxenus remarks that
1240J68 "there is a certain marvellous order which belongs to the nature of
1250J68 harmony in general; in this order every instrument, to the best of
1260J68 its ability, participates under the direction of that_ faculty of
1270J68 sense-perception on which they, as well as everything else in music,
1280J68 finally depend." $^In tuning an instrument, too, it was this sense-perception,
1290J68 the sensitive ear, which was to_ act as the guide. "^No
1300J68 instrument", he asserts, "is self-tuned and that the harmonizing of
1310J68 it is the prerogative of sense-perception is obvious and requires
1320J68 no proof." ^A student of musical science according to Aristoxenus
1330J68 was not like a physical seientist who has to_ depend upon extraneous
1340J68 measures for judging his observations. ^A geometrician, for example,
1350J68 uses phrases such as 'let this be a straight line', but he makes
1360J68 no use of his faculty of sense-perception in judging a straight line
1370J68 as such: "^He does not in any degree train his sight to_ discriminate
1380J68 the straight line, the circle or any other figure." ^Such a discriminative
1390J68 training belongs rather to the craftsman, the artist: people
1400J68 such as "the carpenter, the turner or some other such handicraftsman",
1410J68 whose vocation involves the actual construction of geometric
1420J68 figures made through the trained sense of sight. ^The student of music,
1430J68 too, has to_ be similarly perceptive. ^*Aristoxenus says: "for
1440J68 the student of musical science, accuracy of sense-perception is a
1450J68 fundamental requirement." $^Though Bharata and other early Indian
1460J68 theorists have not explicity stated the idea in so many words, they,
1470J68 too, were evidently empiricists when it came to judging musical intervals.
1480J68 ^They had the same student in mind whom Aristoxenus considered
1490J68 as ideal: a student with a developed and descriminatively trained
1500J68 ear for musical intervals. ^Manuals such as those of Bharata, Dattila,
1510J68 Matanga and others were written and studied within *4samparadayas--
1520J68 schools of musical training-- and a basic knowledge of intervals
1530J68 as well as a trained faculty for perceiving them was, evidently,
1540J68 taken for granted in such students or musicians as were considered
1550J68 fit to_ study the writings of the great *4acaryas. $^It was quite
1560J68 late in the history of *4sangita literature that musical intervals were
1570J68 given in terms of spatial measures on a string. ^*Sarngadeva is
1580J68 the first to_ speak of Svara-vinas, on the cross-bar (*4danda) of
1590J68 which the location of each *4svara was marked and the magnitude of
1600J68 the intervening *4srutis was similarly indicated.
1601J68 *4^Vinas such as the *4ekatantri, *4nakula, *4tritantrika,
1610J68 Citra, *4vipanci, *4mattakokila, \0etc. were all *4svara-vinas.
1620J68 ^They seem to_ have been both of the lute and the harp varieties.
1630J68 ^In describing the construction of *4^Vinas Sarngadeva notes distances
1640J68 between frets on the basis of spatial intervals between svaras
1650J68 at different string points (see \0S.R. \0ch. 6); but the measurements
1660J68 and the *4svaras they represent are not very clear. ^The matter is
1670J68 more clear in works like the *3Rasakaumudi*0 of Srikantha (\0C.
1680J68 16th-17th century) which gives exact numerical ratios. ^Other such
1690J68 works are the *3Ragatattvavibodha*0 of Srinivasa (see verses 36-49
1700J68 of this work) and the *3Sangitaparijata*0 of Ahobala. $^Let us now
1710J68 return to the two identically constructed *4vinas of bharata. ^Both
1720J68 were tuned to the seven notes arranged according to *4sadja-grama.
1730J68 ^One *4vina was taken as the constant *4vina and was left untouched
1740J68 (this was the *4dhruva or the 'still' *4vina) while the *4pancama string
1750J68 of the other *4vina (termed the *4cala-vina) was loosened so that the
1760J68 string now sounded just a little lower than the *4pancama string of the
1761J68 *4dhruva-vina; this lowered pitch was tuned to the *4pancama of the
1770J68 *4madhyama-grama which was on the third *4sruti from the *4madhyama.
1780J68 while the *4pancama of the *4sadja-grama lay on the fourth *4sruti from
1781J68 the *4madhyama. ^This gave one the measure of a *4sruti. ^Then with this
1790J68 lowered *4pancama as the fulcrum, all other strings of the *4cala-vina
1800J68 were also lowered so that they were returned to the *4sadja-grama, but
1810J68 at a pitch one *4sruti lower than the *4dhruva-vina. ^This process has
1820J68 been outlined by Bharata for giving the magnitude of a *4sruti interval:
1830J68 **[sanskrit quotation**] $^One cannot but conclude that the *(*4sruti-interval*)
1840J68 like the *(*4svara-interval*) was also arrived at through
1850J68 the ear. ^The basis for lowering the *4pancama of the *4sadja-grama
1860J68 so as to_ make it the *4pancama of the *4madhyama-grama was clearly
1870J68 an empirical one in which the musician relied upon his ear. ^Only
1880J68 a person who could empirically distinguish the two *4gramas could have
1890J68 applied Bharata*'s process. $^There were, however, certain distinct harmonic
1900J68 properties of the slightly different octaves of the two *4gramas,
1910J68 which must have aided a musician in applying the process.*#
        **[no. of words = 02018**]

        **[txt. j69**]
0010J69 **<*33*0*> **<*3Circuits For \0D.C. Measurement*0**> $^In this chapter
0020J69 we will describe various circuits for \0d.c. measurements. ^Our
0030J69 starting point will be potentiometers which is basically a device
0040J69 for the comparison of voltages. ^After discussing the simple type of
0050J69 slide wire potentiometer, modification of \0R.E. Crompton will
0060J69 be explained. ^The limitations in performance due to slide wire is
0070J69 removed in Vernier potentiometer. $^The potentiometers described above
0080J69 are for general purpose in the sense they are used for variety
0090J69 of measurements. ^In addition to these potentiomerers there are some
0100J69 other potentiometers for special purposes. ^One of such potentiometers
0110J69 is Brook*'s deflection potentiometer specially designed for calibration
0120J69 and checking of \0d.c. ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters.
0130J69 $^The potentiometers we have been talking about are referred as
0140J69 \0d.c. potentiometers as they are used for \0d.c. measurements. ^Likewise
0150J69 there are \0a.c. potentiometers also which will be discussed
0160J69 in the subsequent chapter of \0a.c. measurements. $^After describing
0170J69 various types of \0d.c. potentiometers, we shall study their use
0180J69 for measurements of voltage, current and resistance. ^As stated above,
0190J69 potentiometer is basically an instrument for the comparison of
0200J69 voltages. ^If one of the voltages is a known standard voltage, the
0210J69 potentiometer can be used for measurement of voltages. ^By measuring
0220J69 the voltage drop across a shunt of known resistance, it can also
0230J69 be used for the determination of current with the help of Ohm*'s
0240J69 law. ^Potentiometer is a ratio instrument. ^An unknown voltage is measured
0250J69 in terms of a reference voltage by means of the ratio of resistances.
0260J69 ^If the voltages and one of the resistances is known potentiometer
0270J69 can also be used for measurement of resistance. $^The potentiometers
0280J69 we have been talking about are referred as \0d.c. potentiometers
0290J69 since they are used for \0d.c. measurements. ^Likewise there are \0a.c.
0300J69 potentiometers used for \0a.c. measurements. ^They will be discussed
0310J69 in the subsequent chapter on circuits for \0a.c. measurements. $\0^*D.C.
0320J69 potentiometers are used for measurement of low resistance. ^For
0330J69 precision measurements of resistance bridge circuits are used. ^The
0340J69 basic bridge circuit is a Wheat stone*'s bridge. ^After describing
0350J69 Wheat stone*'s bridge, Cary Foster Bridge will be explained which
0360J69 eliminates the error due to contact and leads resistances. ^*Kelvin
0370J69 double bridge is another modification of the Wheat Stone*'s bridge
0380J69 to_ secure an increased accuracy in the measurement of low resistance.
0390J69 ^In general, bridge circuits are used for measurement of medium
0400J69 resistances. $^The bridge circuits described above are called \0d.c. bridges
0410J69 likewise there are \0a.c. bridges. ^They will also be discussed
0420J69 in the subsequent chapter on circuits for \0a.c. measurement. $^As
0430J69 explained above, the precise measurement of resistance involves the
0440J69 use of potentiometer or bridge circuits. ^Direct methods are also
0450J69 available and are more convenient where the accuracy requirements
0460J69 are not severe. ^Such methods are catagorised as direct deflection
0470J69 methods. ^These methods are very much suited for measurement of high
0480J69 resistances or insulations. ^Measurement of very high resistances,
0490J69 such as resistance of porcelain and glass is achieved by loss of charge
0500J69 method, which will also be explained in this chapter. ^In the end
0510J69 voltage-ammeter method for measurement of resistance will be described.
0520J69 ^This is generally abbreviated as \0VA method. ^However \0VA
0530J69 method is used for measurement of low and medium resistances and
0540J69 is rarely used for high resistances. $^For clarity and better understanding,
0550J69 low resistance refers to the resistance of the order of one
0560J69 ohm and below. ^While medium resistance includes resistances from
0570J69 1 to 100 \0k ohms. ^High resistance means resistances of the order
0580J69 of 100 \0k ohms and above. ^However these classifications are not
0590J69 rigid. $*<*33-1. Potentiometers*0*> $^A potentiometer is an instrument
0600J69 for measuring an unknown \0e.m.f. or potential difference produced
0610J69 by the flow of a known current in a network of circuits of known
0620J69 characteristic. ^Potentiometers are extensively used in measurements
0630J69 where the precision required is higher than can be obtained by deflection
0640J69 instruments, or where it is important that no current be drawn
0650J69 from the source under measurement, or where this current must be
0660J69 limited to a small value. $^As already stated, there are two catagories
0670J69 of potentiometers \0d.c. potentiometers and \0a.c. potentiometers.
0680J69 ^In this chapter we will describe only \0d.c. potentiometers.
0690J69 \0^*A.C. potentiometers will be taken up in the subsequent chapters.
0700J69 $^There are various forms of \0d.c. potentiometers that_ are used
0710J69 in practice. ^The simplest and basic type of potentiometer is a slide
0720J69 wire potentiometer shown in \0Fig 3-1. ^A battery \0B*;1**; sends
0730J69 a current through a slide wire AD of uniform section. ^*R is a
0740J69 regulating resistor to_ limit the slide-wire current. \0B*;2**;
0750J69 is the battery whose \0e.m.f. is to_ be measured. ^A galvanometer
0760J69 ^*G is connected in series with the battery along with a switch S.
0770J69 $^Let *Yr be the resistance per unit length of the slide-wire AD
0780J69 and I the current flowing through it when switch S is open. ^Then
0790J69 if the length AC is *3l*0 the voltage across V*;AC**; across AC will
0800J69 be $*Me. $^If now switch S is closed a current will flow through
0810J69 the galvanometer in the direction A to C if V*;AC**; is greater than
0820J69 \0e.m.f. of \0B*;2**;. ^It may be mentioned here that the \0B*;2**;
0830J69 is connected so as to_ oppose this current. ^If these \0e.m.f.
0840J69 are equal no current will flow through the galvanometer. $^Suppose
0850J69 the the \0e.m.fs of two batteries \0B*;2**; and \0B*;3**; are to_
0860J69 be compared. ^Then \0B*;2**; is connected as shown in \0Fig 3-1
0870J69 and the sliding contact is adjusted such that no current flows through
0880J69 the galvanometer. ^Let this length of AC*1**; be l*;1**; \0cms.
0890J69 \0^*B*;2**; is then replaced by \0B*;3**; and the contact C is
0900J69 again adjusted until no current flows through G. ^Let this length of
0910J69 AC*;2**; be l*;2**; \0cms. $^If E*;1**; and E*;2**; are respectively
0920J69 the \0e.m.fs of batteries \0B*;2**; and \0B*;3**; we have from \0Eq
0930J69 (3-1) $*Mes So that *Me $^If one of the batteries is a standard cell
0940J69 of known voltage E*;2**;, the \0e.m.f of the battery \0B*;2**; is given
0950J69 by $*Me $^The accuracy of measurement depends to large extent upon
0960J69 the accuracy with which *Mn, can be determined. ^Thus the longer the slide-wire
0970J69 the less is the percentage error. ^In modern potentiometers designed
0980J69 for precise measurements, the effect of a very long slide-wire is
0990J69 achieved by connecting a number of resistance coils in series with
1000J69 a comparatively short slide, as described in \0Art. 3-3. $*<*33-2.
1010J69 Standardisation of the Potentiometer*0*> $^The process of adjusting
1020J69 the working current so as to_ match the voltage drop across a portion
1030J69 of the sliding wire against a standard reference source is known
1040J69 as *3standardisation*0. ^The standardisation of the basic slide-wire
1050J69 potentiometer described in the preceding articles is achieved as follows.
1060J69 $^The battery B*;2**; in \0Fig 3-5 is replaced by a standard cell.
1070J69 ^Its \0e.m.f. will be 1.0186 \0V. ^Let the total length of the slide-wire
1080J69 AD be 200 \0cms whose resistance is 200 ohms. ^The switch S
1090J69 is closed and the sliding contact C is placed at 101.86 \0cm mark
1100J69 on the slide-wire scale. ^The resistance R is now adjusted till
1110J69 there is no deflection in galvanometer G. ^Under these conditions,
1120J69 the voltage drop along the 101.86 in portion of the slide-wire is equal
1130J69 to standard cell voltage of 101.86 since 101.86 \0cms portion
1140J69 of the slide-wire has a resistance of 101.86 ohms, the working current
1150J69 in fact has been adjusted to, $*Mes $^The voltage at any point
1160J69 along the slide-wire is proportional to the length of the slide wire.
1170J69 ^This voltage is obtained by converting the calibrated length into
1180J69 the corresponding voltage, simply by placing the decimal point in
1190J69 the proper position, \0i.e., 133.7 \0cm = 1.337 \0V. ^If the potentiometer
1200J69 has been calibrated once, its working current (adjusted by
1210J69 \0R.) is never varied. $*<*33-3. Crompton Potentiometer*0*> $^As
1220J69 mentioned in \0Art. 3-1, the longer the slide-wire the less is the
1230J69 percentage error. *(^*R.E.*) Crompton achieved the effect of a very
1240J69 long slide-wire by connecting a number of resistance coils in series
1250J69 with a comparatively short slide-wire. ^This modifed version of a
1260J69 basic slide-wire potentiometer is called Crompton potentiometer and
1270J69 is shown in \0Fig 3-2. $^A graduated slide-wire AC has a resistance
1280J69 usually of the order of 10 ohms. ^It is connected in series with
1290J69 fourteen (or more) coils, each of which has a resistance exactly equal
1300J69 to that_ of the slide-wire. ^There are two moving contacts C*;1**;
1310J69 sliding over the wire AC and C*;2**; sliding over the studs of
1320J69 the resistance coils. \0B*;1**; is the battery of 2 volts and \0R*;1**;
1330J69 and \0R*;2**; are two variable resistors. \0^*R*;1**; consists
1340J69 of a number of coils for coarse adjustment of the potentiometer current,
1350J69 while the \0R*;2**; takes the form of a slide-wire for fine adjustment.
1360J69 $^The galvanometer \0G is connected in series with a switch \0S*;1**;
1370J69 and double throw switch \0S;2**; by means of which either
1380J69 the standard cell \0B*;2**; or the \0e.m.f. to_ be measured can be
1390J69 connected in the galvanometer circuit. ^In one position, the switch
1400J69 \0S;2**; connects galvanometer with standard cell \0B*;2**;. ^This
1410J69 position is usually referred as *3calibrate position*0 and is shown
1420J69 by solid line arrows. ^In other position, the switch \0S;2**; connects
1430J69 galvanometer to the unknown \0e.m.f. ^This position is called
1440J69 as *3operate position*0 and is shown by dotted arrows in \0Fig.
1450J69 3-2. ^Proper polarity must be observed while connecting the batteries,
1460J69 \0etc, to_ avoid the damage to the potentiometer. $^First of
1470J69 all the galvanometer is heavily shunted and then the potentiometer
1480J69 is standardized by putting the double throw switch \0S;2**; in calibrate
1490J69 position the potentiometer will then read directly the \0e.m.f.
1500J69 of the standard cell. ^If the standard cell is Weston type, its
1510J69 \0e.m.f. will be 1.0186 volts contact C*;2**; is placed on stud 1.0
1520J69 and contact C*;1**; on 0.0186 on the slide-wire Resistors. ^\0R*;1**;
1530J69 and \0R*;2**; are then adjusted until no deflection of the galvanometer
1540J69 is obtained with the galvanometer shunt adjusted to_ give maximum
1550J69 senstivity. $^Now put the double throw switch \0S;2**; in operate
1560J69 position which will bring the battery (with unknown \0e.m.f.)
1570J69 in the galvanometer circuit at the same time removing standard cell \0B*;2**;
1580J69 from the circuit. ^Again contacts C*;1**; and C*;2**; are
1590J69 adjusted until the potentiometer is again balanced, \0i.e., no deflection
1600J69 is observed in the galvanometer. ^The reading of the potentiometer
1610J69 will then give the \0e.m.f. to_ be measured directly. $^This
1620J69 potentiometer has two main disadvantages $(**=1) it is not possible
1630J69 to_ arrange for the contacts C*;1**; and C*;2**; to_ coincide and
1640J69 a true zero reading cannot be obtained. $(**=2) ^It is desirable to_
1650J69 check the standardization regularly during series of measurements.
1660J69 ^Since it involves resetting the main dials it is incovenient. $^These
1670J69 disadvantages are overcome in the vernier potentiometer to_
1680J69 be described now. $*<*33-4. Vernier Potentiometer*0*> $^As explained
1690J69 in the preceding article, the disadvantages of the slide-wire
1700J69 type is removed in this vernier potentiometer. ^Its simplified diagram
1710J69 is shown in \0Fig. 3-3. ^The instrument has two ranges: the normal
1720J69 range of 1.80100 volt down to *Mf volts; and a lower range of 0.180100
1730J69 volt down to *Mf volt. ^This potentiometer is based on the principle
1740J69 of the Kelvin-Varley slide shown in \0Fig. 3-3. $^There are
1750J69 three measuring dials in this potentiometer. ^The first dial measures
1760J69 upto 1.0 \0V. on x 1 range in steps of 0.001 \0V. ^The middle
1761J69 dial has 102 studs and reads upto 0.1 \0V in steps of 0.001 \0V.
1762J69 ^The third dial also has
1770J69 102 studs and reads from -0.001 \0V. to 0.001 \0V. in steps of 0.00001
1780J69 \0V. \0i.e., *Mf volts. ^There is no slide wire B is the working
1790J69 battery connected in series with the rheostat \0R*;1**;. ^The resistances
1800J69 of the second dial shunt two of the coils of the first dial
1810J69 as shown in \0Fig. 3-3. ^The moving arm of the second dial carries
1820J69 two arms spaced two studs apart. ^In practice, the resistance of
1830J69 second dial is greater than that_ between two studs in the first dial,
1840J69 so that the voltage drop across the second dial is greater than
1850J69 0.1 \0V. ^This is to_ avoid voltage drop in switch contact resistances
1860J69 and leads which would render the coverage of middle dial to less
1870J69 than 0.1 \0V.*#
        **[no. of words = 02003**]

        **[txt. j70**]
0010J70 **<*3Prospects of reducing electric energy requirements in the production
0020J70 of some metals and metallic compounds*0**> $*<*3ABSTRACT*0*> $^An
0030J70 outline is given of the possibilities of reducing electric energy
0040J70 requirements in the conventional electrolytic processes through the
0050J70 use of more efficient electrodes and diaphragms; better design of electrolytic
0060J70 cells; use of better conducting electrolytes with reduced inter-electrode
0070J70 gaps in some aqueous and fused salf electrolysis besides
0080J70 the possibilities of reducing electric energy requirements in the
0090J70 production of some metals and metallic compounds through the use of
0100J70 alternative procedures where cheap carbonaceous, gaseous fuels combusted
0110J70 in by-product oxygen could serve as a very efficient substitute
0120J70 for electricity by supplying the necessary high temperatures thereby
0130J70 avoiding the steps involved in the production of electric energy from
0140J70 such fuels for the production of metals and metallic compounds. ^An
0150J70 outline is also given of the attractive procedures for employing nuclear
0160J70 heat and or concentrated solar heat with special reference to obtaining
0170J70 hydrogen and oxygen from water and their utilisation in future.
0180J70 $*<*3RECOVERY OF METALS BY FUSED SALT ELECTROLYSIS*0*> $^Aluminium,
0190J70 magnesium, sodium and misch metal are produced in large quantities
0200J70 by fused salt electrolysis in which electric energy is utilised
0210J70 both for electrolysis and for maintenance of required temperatures.
0220J70 by keeping the loss of heat from the electrolytic cells a minimum, by
0230J70 choosing a proper low melting electorlyte composition and by supplying
0240J70 the necessary heat through the utilisation of a cheap source of
0250J70 fuel, considerable economies can be effected in the recovery of metals.
0260J70 ^While choosing a highly conducting and low melting electrolyte,
0270J70 care must be taken to_ avoid as far as possible any complicated cell
0280J70 design and arrangement of electrodes with minimum inter-electrode distance
0290J70 and or sophisticated operation of the cell. ^The cost of make-up
0300J70 losses or replacement of one or more costly component of such electrolyte
0310J70 composition must also be taken into account. $^Metals like
0320J70 calcium, barium, manganese, chromium, carbon-free ferro-alloys, niobium,
0330J70 tantalum, vanadium, \0etc, are produced by alumino-thermic reduction.
0340J70 ^Potassium, sodium-potassium alloys, titanium, zirconium, hafnium,
0350J70 \0etc., are produced by sodium reduction of their respective anhydrous
0360J70 chlorides. ^Magnesium or mixtures of magnesium with sodium
0370J70 can be utilised in the production of zirconium and titanium sponges
0380J70 from their anhydrous chlorides. ^Calcium or magnesium is used in the
0390J70 production of uranium and thorium from their oxides or fluorides. $^Niobium
0400J70 and tantalum obtained by alumino-thermic reduction, can be
0410J70 purified by vacuum dealuminizing and further with respect to nitrogen
0420J70 and oxygen by pyro-vacuum technique. ^Vanadium metal obtained by alumino-thermic
0430J70 reduction can be purified by electro-refining, through
0440J70 its use as an anode in a bath containing proper amounts of anhydrous
0450J70 sodium chloride, potassium chloride (or lithium chloride) and vanadium
0460J70 dichloride. ^Vanadium dichloride for this purpose can be obtained
0470J70 in situ by the chlorination of vanadium metal. ^Molybdenum metal
0480J70 produced by alumino-thermic reduction of molybdenum sulphide or calcium
0490J70 molybdate can be refined to_ get high purity metal by using it as
0500J70 anode in a bath containing suitable proportions of *Mn. ^Molybdenum
0510J70 metal in-situ can be chlorinated to_ form *Mn which reacts with potassium
0520J70 chloride to_ form *Mn. $^Zirconium, titanium, vanadium and
0530J70 molybdenum can be extracted by employing their carbides as anodes in a suitable
0540J70 molten bath. ^For zirconium, a bath containing suitable mixtures
0550J70 of *Mn, *Mn and *Mn is used. ^The bath for vanadium is *Mn; for
0560J70 molybdenum is *Mn and for titanium *Mn, *Mn, *Mn or *Mn. $^It
0570J70 is therefore clear that any procedure which can reduce electric energy
0580J70 requirements in the production of aluminium, sodium and magnesium
0590J70 metals will also help in reducing the electric energy requirements
0600J70 in the recovery of many other metals. $*<*3Aluminium metal*0*> $^Increasing
0610J70 the size of the individual cells producing aluminium, by
0620J70 the electrolysis of calcined alumina dissolved in a bath of cryolite
0630J70 containing suitable amounts of calcium fluoride, in order to_ approach
0640J70 a diabatic operation more closely, will reduce the heat losses.
0650J70 ^This procedure has resulted in considerable energy savings in aluminium
0660J70 metal production. (^In 1952, the consumption was 8.5 \0d.c. \0kwhr/lb
0670J70 of aluminium produced. ^Whereas in 1977, it was 6.5 \0t.c. \0kwhr/lb
0680J70 by introducing this change only). ^The use of permanent cathodes
0690J70 such as titanium and zirconium carbides and borides operating
0700J70 with only a thin layer of liquid aluminium would permit the use of smaller
0710J70 inter-electrode distances as opposed to thick aluminium layer
0720J70 used in conventional cells which is often subject to erratic oscillations
0730J70 by the magnetic fields relating to changes in current density. ^High
0740J70 amperage cells fitted with the said cathode materials can have
0750J70 advantageously silicon oxy-nitride bonded silicon carbide side walls.
0760J70 ^In such cells, to_ maintain the electrolyte composition almost constant
0770J70 so as to_ obtain maximum benefit from the electric energy supplied,
0780J70 a continuous feed of alumina dissolved in proper electrolyte
0790J70 composition should be attempted by continuously withdrawing a required
0800J70 portion of the depleted electrolyte from the electrolytic cell and
0810J70 fortifying it with alumina outside the cell. ^Suitable amounts of
0820J70 calcium fluoride, lithium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, sodium chloride
0830J70 \0etc., can be added to sodium cryolite to_ have the benefit of comparatively
0840J70 low melting electrolyte with better conductivity and
0850J70 easy separation of aluminium. $^It is not out of place to_ mention
0860J70 here, that economies can be effected in carbon anode consumption by
0870J70 surrounding the pre-baked carbon anodes with carbon monoxide gas. ^It
0880J70 is also possible to obtain oxygen as anode product instead of mixtures
0890J70 of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide through the use of diaphragm
0900J70 materials made of zirconium oxide doped with oxides of calcium
0910J70 or yttrium which are oxygen ion-conduction materials and which are at
0920J70 the same time resistant to the attack by electrolyte at the temperature
0930J70 of electrolysis. ^Oxygen ions diffuse through the layer and get
0931J70 discharged at the anode which can be constructed
0940J70 out of semi-conducting oxides of metals such as \0e.g. 93 to 94% *Mn,
0950J70 with 2 to 6% *Mn, 3 to 7% *Mn and 1 to 4% *Mn. $^Utilising bauxite
0960J70 as a raw material for the extraction of alumina by the Bayer
0970J70 process greater economies can be obtained by extracting vanadium, gallium
0980J70 and indium from sodium aluminate liquors. ^While it is well established
0990J70 that sodium vanadate can be recovered from sodium aluminate liquors,
1000J70 (when sufficient concentration of gallium is built up as sodium
1010J70 gallate in sodium aluminate liquors) by proper progressive cooling sodium
1020J70 vanadate can be removed. ^Any vanadium and chromium not removed by
1030J70 this step is removed as vanadium and chromium oxides through addition
1040J70 of aluminium scrap to the liquor. ^Then the sodium gallate-sodium
1050J70 aluminate solution containing gallium in proper concentrations is electrolysed
1060J70 to_ obtain gallium metal. ^A solvent extraction technique
1070J70 can be employed for the recovery of gallium and indium. ^The solution
1080J70 is contracted with a kerosene solution of tertiary saturated aliphatic
1090J70 acid to_ extract gallium and indium into the organic phase. ^The
1100J70 organic phase is separated and stripped with a mineral acid and the
1110J70 acidic strip solution is contracted with isopropyl ether to_ selectively
1120J70 extract gallium from the acid solution.
1130J70 ^The remaining acid solution is contracted with tributyl phosphate
1140J70 to extract indium. ^The organic solvents are used in the cyclic
1150J70 processes. $^The voluminous by-product red mud left after leaching
1160J70 out sodium aluminate from bauxite is first reduced with a cheap source
1170J70 of hydrogen to iron powder and then separated out by magnetic concentration.
1180J70 ^The nonmagnetic portion is mixed with carbon and chlorinated.
1190J70 ^The vapours are condensed at different temperatures under suitable
1200J70 conditions to_ obtain valuable anhydrous aluminium chloride, vanadium
1210J70 oxychloride and also gallium values. $^The use of anhydrous aluminium
1220J70 chloride to the extent of 5% in a bath containing 45% lithium chloride
1230J70 and 50% sodium chlorite at 700*@ \0C with bipolar system of
1240J70 carbon electrodes can produce aluminium and chlorine by electrolysis.
1250J70 ^This process works with a very small inter electrode distance (less
1260J70 than 1.3 \0cm) and employs a highly conducting electrolyte. ^It is
1270J70 stated that the electrolyte is also continuously pumped. ^Under these
1280J70 circumstances, a reduction in 30% electric energy is claimed. ^This
1290J70 method involves the use of costlier lithium chloride and also requires
1300J70 very careful control of operations. ^As an alternative to this,
1310J70 even without minding the extra energy required, the following two-stage
1320J70 electrolytic process, in the opinion of the author, would be preferred.
1330J70 ^Employing molten aluminium as cathode, magnesium metal is discharged
1340J70 on to aluminium from a bath containing anhydrous potassium carnallite.
1350J70 ^The aluminium-magnesium alloy is reacted with anhydrous
1360J70 aluminium chloride outside the cell and aluminium metal is produced. ^A
1370J70 required portion of the molten aluminium metal is sent back for serving
1380J70 as cathode in the cyclic process. ^The anhydrous magnesium chloride
1390J70 formed in the reduction outside the cell is also sent back to the
1400J70 electrolytic cell. ^A simple electrolytic cell without any diaphragm
1410J70 is employed to_ obtain aluminium-magnesium alloy and the chlorine
1420J70 is easily sucked off and utilised in the production, of anhydrous
1430J70 aluminium chloride from a variety of cheap non-bauxitic raw materials
1440J70 like clay. $^Aluminium silicide can be produced from clay or fly
1450J70 ash or mixtures of these by reacting them with carbon monoxide at very
1460J70 high temperatures. ^The carbon monoxide for this purpose can be
1470J70 obtained even from high ash coal by gasifying **[sic**] the powdered
1480J70 high ash coal in by-product oxygen in a fluidised bed. ^A portion of
1490J70 the carbon monoxide is burnt in by-product oxygen and the heat
1500J70 thus obtained is utilised to_ heat the rest of carbon monoxide to very
1510J70 high temperatures necessary for converting the aluminium silicate
1520J70 to aluminium silicide. ^The aluminium silicide containing small percentages
1530J70 of iron and titanium could find applications. ^Crude silicon
1540J70 containing small percentages of iron and titanium can be had from aluminium
1550J70 silicide by employing molten zinc in a cyclic process. ^In this
1560J70 process the aluminium from aluminium silicide gets dissolved in
1570J70 molten zinc leaving behind crude silicon. ^The zinc is removed from
1580J70 aluminium by distillation and returned to the leaching stage. ^By cooling
1590J70 an alloy containing about 60% aluminium, 33% silicon and 3% iron
1600J70 from 1000*@ \0C to 580*@ \0C, a solid iron silicon phase crystallises
1610J70 out. ^A molten layer with a composition containing 87.5% aluminium,
1620J70 11.7% silicon and 0.8% iron is left out. ^This enriched alloy
1630J70 is reacted with molten zinc in a Soxlet type extractor.
1640J70 ^By a careful control of operation or by again leaching the aluminium
1650J70 containing 1.5% silicon and iron plus titanium upto 0.2%, with zinc,
1660J70 in a cyclic process, high purity aluminium can be produced. $^Employing
1670J70 anhydrous aluminium chloride in a cycylic process, the aluminium
1680J70 from aluminium silicide can be removed as aluminium sub-chloride
1690J70 at high temperatures and when cooled to about 700*@ \0C in a bath of
1700J70 molten lead, it disproportionates to aluminium and anhydrous aluminium
1710J70 chloride for reuse in the process is obtained. ^In this process
1720J70 also crude silicon is obtained as a by-product. $^Compared to the
1730J70 above two procedures, the production of anhydrous aluminium chloride
1740J70 from bauxitic or non-bauxitic sources followed by its reaction with
1750J70 manganese metal in a cyclic process as in the Tooth process, would
1760J70 be very costly although this process is claimed to_ be the attractive
1770J70 process for obtaining aluminium metal without employing electricity.
1780J70 $^It is not out of place to_ mention in this connection that recently
1790J70 Mitsui Alumina Company and Mitsui Mining & Smelting Company
1800J70 of Japan have successfully utilised clay containing 32% alumina
1810J70 in test blast furnaces for the production of aluminium metal and
1820J70 claimed that electric power necessary for aluminium smelting can be
1830J70 reduced to 1/15th (one fifteenth) the amount required by conventional
1840J70 technology \0viz., 1000 \0kwhrs/ton by this procedure compared to
1850J70 15,000 \0kwhrs/ton by conventional process. ^Even the improved Alcoa
1860J70 process which produces aluminium metal from anhydrous aluminium chloride
1870J70 melts requires 10,000 \0kwhr/ton. $*<*3Sodium Metal*0*> $^Through
1880J70 the use of *Mn alumina diaphragms doped with lithium oxide or zirconium-silicate-phosphate
1890J70 diaphragms for electrolysing suitable molten
1900J70 mixtures of zinc chloride and sodium chloride at about 300*@ \0C in a
1910J70 divided cell, high purity sodium and chlorine can be produced economically.
1920J70 ^In comparison with the Down*'s cell operations, the electrolysis
1930J70 temperature is very much lowered (300*@ \0C instead of 590*@ \0C).
1940J70 ^Such a cheap source of sodium can also produce caustic soda and hydrogen
1950J70 economically and this procedure can compete with aqueous electrolysis
1960J70 of sodium chloride solutions for the production of caustic soda,
1970J70 hydrogen and chlorine even in improved types of cells employing (1)
1980J70 titanium anodes containing precious metal oxide coatings substituted
1990J70 for graphite to_ bring out at least 15% reduction in electric energy;
2000J70 (2) nafion diaphragms having better performance than asbestos diaphragms
2010J70 and (3) fuel cell type oxygen electrodes as cathodes for preventing
2020J70 the evolution of hydrogen and effecting a reduction in electric energy
2030J70 to the extent of 20% (thus it can be claimed that by employing
2040J70 all the three devices, a net savings of 35% of the electric energy
2050J70 can be effected in aqueous electrolysis of alkali metal chloride solutions
2060J70 to_ produce alkali and chlorine).*#
        **[no. of words = 02120**]

        **[txt. j71**]
0010J71 **<*3The Role of Toxicological Research in Environmental Air Quality
0020J71 Control*0**> $*<*3INTRODUCTION*0*> $^Toxicology
0030J71 is the science of poisons, taken up accidentally or deliberately
0040J71 and also the side effects of compounds taken in for other purposes.
0050J71 ^As such, the study of the harmful effects of compounds
0060J71 foreign to living systems-- Xenobi0tics is an important area of this
0070J71 science. ^Among such agents, the undesirable effects of drugs
0080J71 and forensic chemicals have received considerable attention due
0090J71 to their immediate concern to human health. ^However, in
0100J71 the case of occupational and environmental xenobiotics, the effects
0110J71 are less obvious and takes greater period of exposure to_
0120J71 manifest the full implications. ^As such our understanding
0130J71 of the biological effects of such agents is not sufficiently well
0140J71 developed. ^Recently the undesirable effects of such
0150J71 agents are becoming more and more obvious day by day and considerable
0160J71 concern is expressed in many quarters regarding the consequences.
0170J71 ^Therefore, a multidisciplinary branch of occupational
0180J71 and environmental toxicology has emerged. ^This is the branch
0190J71 of biomedical science where pathologists, physiologists, pharmacologists,
0200J71 biochemists, biologists, chemists, biophysists and
0210J71 epidemiologists work hand in hand towards the common aim of safeguarding
0220J71 living systems against man-made maladies.
0230J71 ^The fruit of this labour is becoming visible, as evident from the general
0240J71 concern about pollution hazards. ^Therefore, the role of
0250J71 toxicologist in environmental science is becoming important day
0260J71 by day and a general assessment of it is attempted in this article.
0270J71 ^Among such pollutants, those present in polluted air, both
0280J71 in the community air as well as in the work room atmosphere are of
0290J71 paramount importance, since one has to_ breathe the surrounding
0300J71 air, be it clean or polluted. ^Thus the study of toxicology
0310J71 of air-borne pollutants is a prime requisite in the humanitarian
0320J71 approach to the global problem of preserving the quality
0330J71 of the life-giving and life sustaining air. $*<*3NEED
0340J71 FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MAINTENANCE*0*> $^Man is just one species,
0350J71 of course, one with a conscience, in the whole eco-system.
0360J71 ^Though he might have conquered nature he is still a part of
0370J71 it. ^Life originated from its environment and higher forms
0380J71 evolved as a natural process in the normal environment. ^Only
0390J71 man has attempted to_ disturb the balance of nature in the earthy
0400J71 environment to_ suit his immediate needs. ^The present
0410J71 status of environmental degradation accompanying the so-called
0420J71 improved living standard achieved as a result of rapid strides made
0430J71 by agriculture and industry in recent years is also associated
0440J71 with certain harmful secondary effects. ^One of these secondary
0450J71 effects is the problem of environmental pollution, a major
0460J71 man made malady, that_ now threatens the existence of life on
0470J71 this planet. ^Since man himself is responsible for polluting the
0480J71 environment, it is his moral responsibility not only to_ rectify
0490J71 the situation but also to_ keep a guard against creating any further
0500J71 damage, keeping the environment in a healthy form for all forms
0510J71 of life, present or future. ^Many sad experiences of the past
0520J71 have taught man the dangeres of threatening the environment
0530J71 by introducing harmful chemicals. ^In fact, the environmentalists
0540J71 have now extrapolated the present pollution figures
0550J71 to the future and have started worrying for a possble doomsday
0560J71 caused by man-made environmental destabilization. ^Such
0570J71 a pessimistic outlook is not warranted nor is the cry to_ pull down
0580J71 factories fully justified. ^We can have a compromise situation
0590J71 wherein industrial and agricultural revolutions can lead
0600J71 us to prosperity and welfare without affecting the environment.
0610J71 ^This is possible through concerted efforts in environmental quality
0620J71 control along with industrialization. ^In arriving
0630J71 at such an ideal situation of safe environment amidst industrial
0640J71 progress, the maintenance of air quality is important.
0650J71 $*<*3SERIOUSNESS OF THE HEALTH HAZARDS DUE TO AIR POLLUTANTS IN
0660J71 INDIA*0*> $^Considerable information has accumulated regarding
0680J71 the various air pollutants and the undesirable effects on human, **[sic**]
0680J71 animals and plants. ^Most of the available information
0690J71 is from advanced countries. ^If countries on the threshold
0700J71 of industrial development like ours take proper notice of the situation
0710J71 and do **[sic**] proper steps timely
0720J71 in the right direction, our industrialization will be free from
0730J71 machine made maladies. ^A major problem of air pollution in India
0740J71 is that_ of particulate matter evident from the magnitude of
0750J71 cases of silicosis due to inhalation of silica dust in various
0760J71 mining and ore-processing trades. ^Similarly dusts of asbestos,
0770J71 mica iron and manganese ores, clay, talc \0etc. are a matter
0780J71 of grave concern causing the well characterized toxic diseases.
0790J71 ^Since over a million workers are engaged in mineral
0800J71 based industries, the harmful effects of the noxious substances
0810J71 on the health of workers is a great malady which has to_ be combated
0820J71 to_ promote welfare and productivity. ^The emanations
0830J71 from various factories and thermal power plants, especially particulate
0840J71 matter and sulphur dioxide and many others like solvent
0850J71 fumes, carbon monoxide, aromatic compounds, nitrogen oxides
0860J71 and oxidants are also of grave concern. ^This is evident
0870J71 from the various reports from our major industrial centres. ^The
0880J71 harmful effects of these agents are well known though there are still
0890J71 many areas of lacunae. ^The effects of emissions on agricultural
0900J71 crops and an overall fauna and flora are also a grave concern
0910J71 to India, evident from the many reports. ^With the advent
0920J71 of green revolution, the large amounts or pesticides, sprayed
0930J71 are also polluting air and further they pollute waters too and
0940J71 undergo biological enrichment. ^Automobiles are also causing
0950J71 degradation of our atmosphere by agents which produce grave
0960J71 health effects. ^Since in India, consciousness regarding
0970J71 pollution has come to_ stay only recently and that_ too only in
0980J71 limited areas, concerted effect of various agencies, institutions
0990J71 and individuals is needed in assessing the graveness of the
1000J71 pollution. ^Therefore, it is heart warming to_ note the steps
1010J71 being done **[sic**] in this direction and defining and maintaining
1020J71 of air quality is one of the initial steps in this approach.
1030J71 $*<*3SEQUENCE OF ARRIVING AT ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY*0*>
1040J71 $^Environment is a man*'s surrounding which includes all
1050J71 the circumstances, influences, events and factors that_ encounter
1060J71 him in his life time. ^According to the \0U.N. declaration
1070J71 on the human environment, man*'s fundamental right and freedom
1080J71 to healthy environment for today and tomorrow has to_ be safeguarded.
1090J71 ^Science and technology, as part of their contribution
1100J71 to economic and social development must be applied to the identification,
1110J71 avoidance and control of enviornmental problems for the
1120J71 common good of mankind, present and future. ^In order to_ study the
1130J71 problems of environment it is first and foremost **[sic**] to_ define
1140J71 which is the ideal environment and try to_ achieve and maintain
1150J71 it. $^Environmental contaminants can be put into
1160J71 four levels. ^The first one is the concentration and exposure
1170J71 time at or below which no direct or indirect adverse effect is
1180J71 known. ^The level two is the concentration and time at and
1190J71 above which irritation to senses, damage to vegetation and reduction
1200J71 in visibility are known. ^At the third level, those concentrations
1210J71 and times specified, the pollutants are known to_
1220J71 cause vital physiological changes and chronic diseases, decreasing
1230J71 life expectancy. ^Acute symptoms of health risks are
1240J71 observed at the fourth level. ^By continuous monitoring and
1250J71 intense biomedical research all the four levels of each
1260J71 pollutant have to_ be arrived at and the approach towards it involves
1270J71 toxicology. $^Standards developed for air quality on the
1280J71 basis of the above should be such so as **[sic**] to_ reflect the
1290J71 relationship between intensity and composition of air pollution and
1300J71 its effects on human **[sic**] farm animals, agriculture and overall
1310J71 ecosystems. ^As such air quality standards prescribe pollution
1320J71 levels that_ cannot be legally excluded during a specific time
1330J71 in a particular area. ^To_ arrive at such a practically feasible
1340J71 standard the following steps have to_ be followed: $^Firstly,
1350J71 on the basis of available information on adverse effects
1360J71 of various
1370J71 pollutants, that_ is toxicological data, air quality criterion have
1380J71 to_ be defined. ^From this air quality goals, the level of pollutant
1390J71 within which we can live without any harmful effects arearrived
1400J71 at. ^The next step is to_ see whether the above goal
1410J71 can be achieved without economic stress. ^If it is not so, then
1420J71 a compromise standard has to_ be worked out. ^Towards this aim
1430J71 it is very essential to_ formulate standards for factory design,
1440J71 raw materials, fuel, emission, chimney height, ventillation, recovery
1450J71 and recycling processes, \0etc. and implement them. ^Considerable
1460J71 thought has to_ be given to the location of the factory
1470J71 vis-a-vis population, vegetation and climate. ^Further an efficient
1480J71 system for monitoring pollution, follow up measures and media to_ create
1490J71 public awareness are to_ be developed. ^Above all, since standards
1500J71 may always undergo revision in the light of new information and
1510J71 situation, research and developmental activities on all aspects
1520J71 of environmental sciences have to_ continue in greater detail.
1530J71 ^Such research is the backbone of environmental quality control.
1540J71 $^The basis to_ prescribe standards for community
1550J71 air quality is the long-term effects of different concentrations
1560J71 of pollutants, alone or combined, on flora and fauana along with
1570J71 field surveys. ^Air quality level of the country before industrialization
1580J71 set in, or that_ of a healthy rural community in a day
1590J71 of good ventilation could also be useful. ^Standards set by
1600J71 other countries in a modified form in view of the local conditions,
1610J71 also help in fixing air quality standards. $*<*3SPECIAL
1620J71 FACTORS TO_ BE CONSIDERED IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT*0*> $^The rapid
1630J71 strides made by the country towards industrialization should not
1640J71 lead to a catastrophic situation. ^Due to economic and employment
1650J71 needs, cost and foreign exchange problems, we cannot abandon
1660J71 or alter factories to_ reduce pollution. ^Being a predominently
1670J71 agricultural and rural oriented country, we have to_ protect
1680J71 our rural masses and crops from pollution hazards even after prolonged
1690J71 exposure. ^Also to_ achieve desired air quality, we
1700J71 have yet to_ expand work on monitoring of pollution, reduction of
1710J71 pollution at source, know-how for recycling and recovery and follow
1720J71 up measures and indigenous facilities. ^Again factors such
1730J71 as climate, nutrition, infectious diseases and social pattern affect
1740J71 the course of the toxicity caused by a particular pollutant.
1750J71 ^These conditions are not so important in developed countries.
1760J71 ^Therefore, we just cannot blindly follow their know-how. ^Instead
1770J71 we have to_ develop standard suitable to our requirements.
1780J71 $^The combined effect of different pollutants also is more serious
1790J71 in a country like India, due to the high content of dust in most
1800J71 Indian city air. ^In view of the climatic variations and other
1810J71 meteorological factors in the country, the same compound may have
1820J71 different degree and magnitude of effect in hot humid days
1830J71 and dry cold days. ^The extent of natural radiation also may affect
1840J71 pollution. ^Our density of population and the recent trend
1850J71 of urbanization also create problems in fixing air quality standards.
1860J71 ^However, once we fix the standards, it may serve as helpful
1870J71 guidelines for other developing countries. $*<*3SOME
1880J71 SUGGESTIONS FOR MAINTAINING AIR QUALITY*0*> $^Among the
1890J71 various common air pollutants, particulate matter (dust) and sulphur
1900J71 dioxide are the most important ones, needing an alarm at this
1910J71 stage in India. ^The main sources are burning of coal, firewood
1920J71 and refuse. ^Since both sulphur dioxide and particulates
1930J71 separately and together produce a large variety of toxic
1940J71 effects on man, animals and vegetation, the levels of these have
1950J71 to_ be within the safe limits even on continuous exposure.
1960J71 ^In fact, it is advisable to_ have the Indian standards as the
1970J71 lowest in the world. ^We can achieve it because we have learnt
1980J71 from the experience of other countries and so we can give
1990J71 more thought on pollution control at source level itself.
2000J71 ^Improvement of design, fuel and stacks of thermal power plants in
2010J71 cities also will help to_ reduce pollution. ^Another major source
2020J71 of air pollution in Indian urban settlements is the large number
2030J71 of ill-designed domestic stoves used in cooking food, using
2040J71 inefficient and smoking fuels especially in poorly ventilated
2050J71 and narrow lanes and crowded areas, with buildings on either sides.
2060J71 **[sic**] ^This could easily be controlled by providing better
2070J71 facilities. ^Our traditional methods of mining and quarrying
2080J71 and loading transport and unloading of mineral could very well be
2090J71 modified without compromising productivity, to_ reduce environmental
2100J71 deterioration. ^Likewise, the large multitude of village
2110J71 level small industries have to_ be provided with cheap yet
2120J71 efficient pollution abatements techniques.*#
        **[no. of words = 02004**]

        **[txt. j72**]
0001J72 *3Free standing groups in loose sand*0
0002J72 ^In the case of loose sand, the load-settlement
0010J72 curves are not found to_ be characterised by two, initial and
0020J72 final, linear portions with a non-linear section in between. ^But the non-linear
0030J72 behaviour is observed from the very beginning. ^Hence, the method
0040J72 of computing slope values is not possible here. ^In order to_ evaluate
0050J72 the settlement behaviour the settlement values at a pile load of 56.7
0060J72 \0kg have been considered. ^This particular load chosen is within the range
0070J72 of the ultimate load of the piles and pile group. ^The observed
0071J72 settlement values
0080J72 indicate that in loose sand the resistance to penetration or settlement
0090J72 is in general more for the latter installed piles whether immediately
0100J72 after installation, or after construction of group or after group load
0110J72 tests. ^Similarly computations for the influence of installation operations
0120J72 and also that_ of installation operations and group tests on the
0130J72 original settlement behaviour of piles have been made. ^These ratios can
0140J72 be considered to_ be similar to the *3Influence Ratio (in settlement)
0150J72 due to Installation, \0I*;RI**;*0 and Influence Ratio
0160J72 (in settlement) due to Group* tests, \0I*;RT**;*0 respectively.
0170J72 ^The results show that there is a marked increase in the settlement response
0180J72 of a pile after the installation of adjacent piles. ^Though the
0190J72 group loading tends to_ narrow down the differences between the settlement
0200J72 that_ occurs in the test immediately after installation and that_
0210J72 in the test after construction of group, there is still a considerable
0220J72 increase in the settlement of a pile over its initial value. ^Values of
0230J72 settlement ratio for the first and second group load tests have been calculated.
0240J72 ^The settlement ratio specially for the first group load test
0241J72 should be
0250J72 considered approximate, since the reload tests conducted on each pile
0260J72 after installation of the group but prior to group loading could have
0270J72 counteracted substantially the installation effects on the settlement of
0280J72 the group. ^However, it is evident from the observations that prestressing
0290J72 of sand mass brought about by first loading of the group considerably
0300J72 reduces the settlement of the pile group during its subsequnt reloading.
0310J72 $^The above observations in the case of pile groups in loose sand
0320J72 should be interpreted with great caution when pile installation in the field
0330J72 practice is done by driving or vibration. ^Such procedures are likely
0340J72 to_ effect greater compaction of the loose deposit which might modify
0350J72 the observations and results. $*3Groups with
0360J72 pile cap resting on medium dense sand:*0 ^The pile cap has a large
0370J72 influence on the load-settlement behaviour of a group. ^The load-settlement
0380J72 curve (\0Fig. 15) for the first load test on a group test on
0390J72 a group consists of two, almost linear portions before reaching the
0400J72 ultimate load even which is not pronounced. ^The failure pattern corresponds
0410J72 to that_ of local shear failure. ^On the other hand a general shear
0420J72 failure type of load-settlement curve is obtained for the second load
0430J72 test on the group. ^For groups whith pile cap resting on sand the
0440J72 prestressing of sand underneath the pile cap and in the pressure bulb
0450J72 beneath the pile tips seems to_ control settlement behaviour considerably.
0460J72 ^The effect in reducing settlement is so pronounced that the settlement
0470J72 ratio with respect to second group load test becomes less than 1.
0480J72 ^Whereas for free standing groups in medium dense sand, group loading
0490J72 tends to_ bring back the settlement behaviour of the individual piles to
0500J72 their initial behaviour (counteracting the installation effects) no such
0510J72 tendency could be observed in the case of groups with pile cap resting
0520J72 on sand. ^The high values of \0*3I*;RT**;*0 (ranging from 2.5 to 6)mean
0530J72 that even after load tests on groups with pile cap resting on sand,
0540J72 the settlement response of individual piles continues to_ be as high as
0550J72 or even higher than that_ after the installation of the group. ^In other
0560J72 words, the group load tests on this series have no doubt made the pile-soil
0570J72 interaction state for all the piles uniform without necessarily making
0580J72 them more resistant to penetration. ^Contrary to the order of
0590J72 settlement response behaviour of piles after group installation, the
0600J72 the settlement response of the piles increases with the order of reload
0610J72 test on individual piles after group load tests.
0620J72 $*<*3Discussions*0*> $^*Beredugo (1966) from his studies on free standing
0630J72 groups concluded that installation order and pile positions are
0640J72 the most inportant factors governing the distribution of load among the
0650J72 individual piles in a group. ^He observed that for the first loading of
0660J72 the group initially the amount of load taken by each pile increases with
0670J72 the order of installation of the piles but as the load increases the pile
0680J72 position tends to_ govern the load carried by each pile. ^For the
0690J72 second,
0700J72 third and subsequent loadings of the group the manner in which the individual
0710J72 piles build up their loads is similar to the first loading except
0720J72 that the influence of installation order progressively diminishes.
0730J72 ^The findings of the present investigations are in conformity with the
0740J72 observations of Beredugo, though the load in each pile of a group has
0750J72 not been directly measured during group loadings. ^However, the behaviour
0760J72 could be inferred from the results of the two series of tests on 2*:2**:
0770J72 groups (A-and B-series). ^It is seen from the results of A-series
0780J72 that during the first loading of the group (immediately after
0790J72 construction of the group) the resistance to settlement and the ultimate
0800J72 load of individual piles increase from the first pile to the last pile
0810J72 in the order of installation. ^Since a rigid pile cap imposes the same
0820J72 settlement for each pile, initially for a load on the group the load
0830J72 shared by each pile tends to_ be in the order of installation of the
0840J72 piles. ^As the load on the group increases, the latter installed piles
0850J72 would build up rapidly their ultimate load after which readjustment has
0860J72 to_ take place within the group. ^The first group loading brings
0870J72 about changes in the soil-pile interaction state tending to_ make them
0871J72 uniform for all the piles in the group. ^This would decrease the influence
0880J72 of the installation effects on the load distribution among the piles
0890J72 even at small levels of load on the group during reload tests. ^The
0900J72 change brought about in the soil conditions by group loading is evident
0910J72 from the second load tests carried out on piles (after group tests) in
0920J72 the B-series of tests, where it is found that the group loading tends
0930J72 to_ make the settlement behaviour of all the piles in the group more or
0940J72 less the same corresponding almost to that_ of the test pile. ^A similar
0950J72 phenomenon of installation effects on the settlement behaviour of
0960J72 already installed piles is observed in the case of loose sand also.
0970J72 ^Thus
0980J72 pile installation operations have been found to_ cause an increase in the
0990J72 settlement response of the piles in both loose and medium dense sand
1000J72 deposits. $^For the first loading of a group with pile cap
1010J72 resting on sand, the load-settlement curve has been found to_ have two
1020J72 approximately linear portions (the slope of the latter being such as to_
1030J72 yield greater settlement) and it is also found to_ be indicative of the
1040J72 local shear type of failure. ^In the absence of detailed
1050J72 instrumentation to_ separate the load borne by the piles and the pile
1060J72 cap, an explanation of the phenomenon as a logical conjecture is
1070J72 attempted. ^During the first loading of the group, initially the load
1080J72 is carried primarily by the piles as the sand immediately below the
1090J72 pile cap is in a loosened state due to the earlier installation
1100J72 operations. ^As the load on the group increases the piles reach their
1110J72 normal ultimate load (\0i.e. as if the pile cap is not effective) and
1120J72 additional load is then resisted by the pile cap. ^These two parts of
1130J72 the mechanism are probably characterised by the two approximate linear
1140J72 portions of the load-settlement curve. ^The increase in the levels of
1150J72 normal stress in sand around the piles due to load transferred through
1160J72 the pile cap makes the piles proportionately more resistant to
1170J72 penetration. ^This is possibly why the pile group with pile cap
1180J72 resting on sand does not register a distinct peak during the first load
1190J72 test on the group. ^But during the subsequent reloading of the group, the
1200J72 sand within the pressure bulb of the pile cap and within the pressure
1210J72 bulb below the pile tips is in a prestressed state. ^Since the resistance
1220J72 to settlement of piles compared to that_ of the pile cap would also
1230J72 be low at this stage (as is evident from the load tests on individual piles
1240J72 after group tests), the major share of the load even during the initial
1250J72 stages of the subsequent reloading of the group will be taken up by
1260J72 the pile cap. ^However, since these direct and indirect effects are
1270J72 governed by the plan dimensions of the pile cap and the relative depth
1280J72 of embedment of piles, the load-settlement behaviour of such a piled
1290J72 group is found to_ differ from test results in quantitative terms as
1300J72 affected by these factors. $^In the light of the above
1310J72 discussions, it might be said that the Skempton*'s theory of settlement
1320J72 of pile foundations in sand, which considers that the greater
1330J72 settlement of a group compared to that_ of a single pile is primarily
1340J72 due to differences in the magnitude and compressibility characteristics
1350J72 of sand mass in their respective pressure bulbs, accounts for a part of
1360J72 the settlement mechanism of piled foundations with driven piles, since
1370J72 the influence of installation operations and the interaction of pile cap
1380J72 have not been explicitly given expression to. ^The caution with which
1390J72 the results of the earlier investigations on piles and pile groups,
1400J72 either installed as a whole unit or buried should be extrapolated for
1410J72 use in field practices becomes self evident now. ^Where the pile group
1420J72 has been installed as a whole, apart from the sand inside the pressure
1430J72 bulb of the group becoming prestressed, the influence of installation
1440J72 operations on the load-settlement behaviour of individual piles in the
1450J72 group is totally eliminated. ^These two factors consequently lead to a
1460J72 prediction, lower than the actual settlement value for the pile group.
1470J72 ^When the piles are buried, there is no zone of prestressing for single
1480J72 pile as well as for the group. ^As a result, the settlement of a
1490J72 buried single pile is more than that_ of a driven pile, other conditions
1500J72 remaining the same. ^*Vesic (1967) reports that buried single piles
1510J72 require a settlement as much as 27 per cent of their diameter in order
1520J72 to_ reach their ultimate bearing capacity whereas for driven piles a
1530J72 settlement of less than 10 per cent of the pile diameter is all that_ is
1540J72 required. (^It is observed to_ be about 8 per cent in the investigations
1550J72 reported here). ^But, for a buried pile group the settlement is likely
1560J72 to_ be less than that_ of a pile group constructed by individual
1570J72 driving of piles, since the influence of installation operations have
1580J72 been totally eliminated and the soil condition and the load-settlement
1590J72 behaviour for each pile are the same. ^Thus an increase in the
1600J72 settlement of a comparative single pile and a possible decrease in the
1610J72 group settlement give rise to a smaller than actual settlement ratio
1620J72 values. ^Hence designs based on the results of such investigations
1630J72 (installed as a whole or buried) will have a tendency to_ err on the
1640J72 *3unsafe*0 side in cases where piles are installed individually by
1650J72 driving. $*<*3Conclusions*0*> $^The following
1660J72 conclusions are drawn based on the research studies reported in
1670J72 the paper. $1. ^Installation of an adjacent pile has significant
1680J72 effect on the behaviour of already installed piles. ^The effect is more
1690J72 marked for groups in loose sand than for groups in medium dense sand.
1700J72 ^In both these types of deposits, installation of a pile considerably
1710J72 increases the settlement of already installed piles. ^For free standing
1720J72 pile groups in medium dense sand, group loading tends to_ counteract the
1730J72 installation effects with respect to settlement whereas for piled
1740J72 groups in medium dense sand such a tendency is not clearly observed.*#
        **[no. of words = 02006**]

        **[txt. j73**]
0010J73 **<*3The Role of Nutrients in Sugarcane and Signs of their
0020J73 Hunger*0**> $*<*3Introduction*0*> $^Underfeeding and starvation
0030J73 of plants constitute the basic reason for low yield of sugarcane in
0040J73 India. ^Even high yielding strains fail to_ yield to capacity,
0050J73 unless they are adequately nourished. ^Malnutrition stands
0060J73 at the base of majority of controllable ills afflicting the crop
0070J73 and hidden hunger poses a serious problem, which need be solved
0080J73 by bringing the *3nature*0 and *3nurture*0 closer together to the
0090J73 mobilizing of adequate nourishment to plants, if yield must go up
0100J73 and quality improve. ^Efficient culture of crop is one of the
0110J73 most complex occupation, **[sic**] much more tough than any other task of
0120J73 production. ^Even the results of research in this field are absorbed
0130J73 slowly and imperceptibly and the progress creeps but slowly.
0140J73 ^The age old concept that agriculture is an art, no longer holds
0150J73 true in this era of technological advancement in crop production
0160J73 and raising of healthy crop is recognized as a highly skilled
0170J73 job. ^It has well been established that lack of planned production
0180J73 and growing of sugarcane crop on the already depleted soils, at low
0190J73 farming cost regularly has cost nation dearly and laid the foundation
0200J73 for malnutrition and maladies of the magnitude, never experienced
0210J73 before. ^There is, therefore, the obvious need to_ have
0220J73 a correct appraisal of the role of nutrient elements and signs of
0230J73 their hunger. $^When any of the essential elements go out of balance,
0240J73 the plants slow down in the rate of their growth, and exhibit other
0250J73 signs of trouble, which vary from element to element. ^But
0260J73 the characteristic symptoms of the deficiency of individual elements
0270J73 remain almost constant in a crop. ^These, however, appear quite
0280J73 late when crop has already sustained severe loss due to hidden
0290J73 hunger for considerable periods. ^It is, therefore, essential
0300J73 that the deficiency is detected at the very outset, when crop slows
0310J73 down in growth and exhibits other signs of hidden hunger. ^The
0320J73 information presented hereinafter may be quite helpful in understanding
0330J73 the role of different elements in sugarcane feeding and detecting
0340J73 their hunger signs. $*<*3The role of nutrient elements symptoms
0350J73 of their deficiency:*0*> $*<*3Nitrogen*0*> $^Nitrogen is the mosst
0360J73 important element of plant nutrition, as 40 to 60% of the total dry
0370J73 weight of the protoplasm contains nitrogenous compounds. ^It enters
0380J73 into the composition of aminoacids, amides, alkaloids and proteins.
0390J73 ^The chlorophylly-- green pigment of leaves also contains nitrogen
0400J73 in the chloroplasts. ^It is, therefore, needed by
0410J73 sugarcane crop in relatively large amounts. ^A healthy crop at fourth
0420J73 month stage has more than 2% nitrogen in first fully expanded leaf
0430J73 blade on dry basis. ^It declines slowly with advancement in age and at the
0440J73 harvest time reaches to the minimum level of about 0.5 per cent.
0450J73 ^Specific deficiency symptoms of this element appear, when
0460J73 its level in the leaf blade declines below 0.5 per cent. $*3Deficiency
0470J73 symptoms:*0 ^Lack of adequate supply of nitrogen becomes quickly
0480J73 apparent in the yellowing of plants, reduced growth of tillers
0490J73 and stalk. ^The internodes reduce in size and leaves become
0500J73 smaller than normal. ^The colour of the leaves turns lighter
0510J73 green and then yellow due to lack of chlorophyll and the intensity
0520J73 depends upon the extent of deficiency. ^The symptoms
0530J73 first appear in the older leaves due to the translocation of
0540J73 nitrogen from them to growing point. ^Young leaves show signs
0550J73 of gradual loss of chlorophyll and development of yellow pigments
0560J73 in them. ^Yellowing generally starts from the tip and
0570J73 proceeds downwards along the two margins and covers the entire
0580J73 surface gradually. ^When the deficiency continues unchecked,
0590J73 the death of leaf tissues also ensues in similar pattern
0600J73 starting from the tip and the leaf dries prematurely. ^As
0610J73 nitrogen deficiency leads to cessation of growth, sugar synthesized
0620J73 in leaves is stored in the stalk and crop matures early.
0630J73 $*<*3Phosphorus*0*> $^Phosphorus is the next
0640J73 important and major element of plant growth. ^It enters into
0650J73 the composition of organic compounds like phytin, phospholipids,
0660J73 hexose phosphate, nucleic acid and some amino acids which make up
0670J73 phoshpoproteins that_ are utilized in new growth. ^It plays
0680J73 important role in nitrogen uptake, respiration, and synthesis
0690J73 of fats but sugar metabolism seems independent of its supply.
0700J73 ^It has been observed that due to deficient supply of phosphorus,
0710J73 rate of cell division is reduced, new growth slows
0720J73 down and both roots and tops become stunted. ^Sugars accumulate in
0730J73 abnormal quantity as these are not converted into starch and cellulose
0740J73 required in growth. ^Phosphorus is found more in the
0750J73 tissues of maximum growth activity, in the meristems and in the
0760J73 elongating canes. ^A healthy crop at fourth month stage contains
0770J73 about 0.2% phosphorus in the lamina of first fully expanded
0780J73 leaf, which declines gradually with age of the crop and reaches
0790J73 to the lowest level of about 0.1% by harvest time. ^Specific
0800J73 symptoms of deficiency appear when phosphorus content declines
0810J73 below 0.05% in the leaf blade. $*3Deficiency symptoms:*0
0820J73 ^Reduced tillering and inhibited growth of both stalks
0830J73 and leaves are the initial symptoms of phosphorus shortage. ^The
0840J73 length and diameter of cane is greatly reduced, internodes
0850J73 become short and the stalk tapers towards the growing tip. ^The
0860J73 leaves become narrow due to larger reduction in their breadth
0870J73 as compared to length. ^They exhibit greenish blue colour
0880J73 due to increase in anthocyanin pigments. ^A phosphorus is
0890J73 also translocated from the old leaves to new ones, deficiency symptoms
0900J73 first appear in these. ^Young plants that_ have a large
0910J73 demand show signs of hunger more than the mature plants. ^Soils
0920J73 capable of meeting the crop need upto elongation growth period
0930J73 of cane seldom prove deficient and plants rarely show signs of
0940J73 deficiency during sugar accumulation phase. ^Phosphorus deficiency
0950J73 symptoms become more severe during drought and dry seasons.
0960J73 $*<*3Potassium*0*> $^Potassium is the third essential element,
0970J73 which is required in large amounts. ^A fertile soil
0980J73 may have about 2% potassium on oven dry basis in contrast to 0.24%
0990J73 of nitrogen and somewhat less phosphorus. ^It is, therefore,
1000J73 rarely found deficient. ^Potassium does not form part of any
1010J73 structural tissue like nitrogen and phosphorus but plays equally
1020J73 important role in nutrition. ^It is generally found associated
1030J73 with protein activity and in a complementary fashion with
1040J73 calcium plays role **[sic**] in cell organization, hydration, and
1050J73 permeability. ^It influences many enzyme systems and carbohydrate
1060J73 and protein synthesis. ^Plant*'s ability to_ resist disease,
1070J73 cold and other adverse conditions is enhanced by it. ^A crop
1080J73 of about 100 tons removes about 3/5 \0kg of potasssium, which
1090J73 exceeds in quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus removed for similar
1100J73 yield. ^Healthy crop of sugarcane at the fourth month stage possesses
1110J73 about 2.5% potassium in the first fully expanded leaf on oven
1120J73 dry basis as against 2% of nitrogen and 0.2% phosphorus. ^It also
1130J73 diminishes with advancement in the age of the crop and reaches
1140J73 to the level of about 1.0% by the harvest time. ^Specific symptoms
1150J73 of its dificiency have been observed, when its content has
1160J73 declined below 0.5% in the leaf blade. $*3Deficiency symptoms:*0
1170J73 ^Plants suffering from potassium deficiency exhibit depressed
1180J73 growth, slender stalks, yellowish leaves and their marginal
1190J73 drying. ^The symptoms of deficiency first appear in old leaves.
1200J73 ^As the length of stalk is greatly reduced due to reduction
1210J73 in the elongating internodes for want of potassium supply, a
1220J73 bunchy top appeaarances is **[sic**] caused in the stalks. ^Old leaves
1230J73 exhibit orange yellow colour and possess numerous chlorotic spots
1240J73 that_ later turn brown and have dead centres. ^After the spots
1250J73 coalesce, general browning is causedd in leaves and the mid rib
1260J73 on the upper surface exhibits reddish colouration. ^Later
1270J73 the leaves die from the tip and the two margins. $*<*3Calcium*0*>
1280J73 $^Like nitrogen and phosphorus, calcium also enters into
1290J73 the composition of plant constituents. ^It is found in proteins
1300J73 of the nucleus, protoplasm, plastids and in the middle lamella
1310J73 of the cell wall in the form of calcium pectate, which prevents
1320J73 the leaching out of organic materials and mineral salts and
1330J73 acts as a cementing force between the walls of adjoining cells
1340J73 to_ hold them together. ^Calcium is found in highest concentration
1350J73 in meristematic tissues and in younger leaves. ^Some of
1360J73 the calcium absorbed by the plants is used for neutralizing the organic
1370J73 acids formed as by product and accordingly oxalic acid
1380J73 is converted to calcium oxalate. ^Calcium appears to_ exist
1390J73 in balance with magnesium, potassium and boron, as deficiency
1400J73 of any of these results in the accumulation of excessive
1410J73 amounts of calcium. ^Similarly excess of any of these elements
1420J73 results in calcium deficiency. $^Sugarcane grows well,
1430J73 if about 200 \0kg of calcium in exchangeable form is available per
1440J73 hectare. ^A healthy crop possesses between 0.1 to 0.2 per cent calcium
1450J73 in the blade of first fully expanded leaf and deficiency
1460J73 appears when its content declines below 0.1 per cent. ^In general,
1470J73 content of calcium remains low in acidic soils and varies
1480J73 inversely with phosphorus content. $*3Deficiency symptoms:*0
1490J73 ^Calcium deficiency is seldom encountered in sugarcane under normal
1500J73 field conditions but whenever occurs, **[sic**] it results in the
1510J73 retardation of growth. ^New cell walls are not formed with the
1520J73 result stalks become weak and possess soft rind. ^The leaves
1530J73 of sugarcane exhibit chlorotic spots with dead centers that_ later
1540J73 turn dark and reddish brown in colour. ^The intensity of spotting
1550J73 increases with age of the leaf and older leaves exhibit a
1560J73 rusty appearance. ^When deficiency persists, during the elongation
1570J73 growth period, meristematic growth almost completely ceases
1580J73 and death of the meristem is later caused, as it is not translocated
1590J73 from older leaves. $*<*3Magnesium*0*> $^Magnesium is the
1600J73 key element of chlorophyll and the beauty of green world largely
1610J73 depends on it. ^It is essential to plants, as a constituent of chlorophyll
1620J73 and important component of many plant enzymes. ^It is also
1630J73 regarded as a carrier of phosphorus, since phosphates move to
1640J73 their destination after combining with it and forming magnesium
1650J73 phosphate. ^Owing to its high mobility, deficiency symptoms
1660J73 first appear in older leaves. ^It is found in abundance, where
1670J73 nucleoproteins are formed in plant. ^A healthy crop of sugarcane
1680J73 contains in its first fully expanded leaf about 0.5% magnesium
1690J73 at the fourth month stage, which declines gradually with age and
1700J73 reaches to the level of about 0.2 per cent by the harvest time.
1710J73 ^Specific symptoms of deficiency appear when its content drops below
1720J73 0.1% in the leaf blade. ^A 100 ton sugarcane crop removes about
1730J73 160 \0kg. of magnesium per hectare. $*3Deficiency symptoms:*0
1740J73 ^Magnesium deficiency is often encountered in crop grown under
1750J73 acidic conditions of sandy soils. ^The first symptom appears on
1760J73 the lower leaves as general yellowing due to loss of chlorophyll and
1770J73 increase in carotin and xanthophyll pigments. ^The interveinal
1780J73 areas lose greenness in the initial stage with the result stripes
1790J73 are often formed in leaves. ^After the persistence of deficiency,
1800J73 however, veins also lose the green colour and entire leaf turns
1810J73 light green and then yellow in colour. ^Small dark brown spots
1820J73 also appear in these leaves which coalesce gradually and leaves exhibit
1830J73 rusty appearance. ^The stalks also exhibit anaemic condition and show
1840J73 internal browning. $*<*3Sulphur*0*> $^Sulphur is also an important
1850J73 major element, which enters into the composition of cystine-- an amino
1860J73 acid that_ forms protein. ^Thiamin and biotin, which are important
1870J73 hormones and certain volatile compounds are formed by it.
1880J73 ^Since it is available to plants as sulphate, fertilizers such
1890J73 as ammonium sulphate, calcium sulphate and potassium sulphate, which are
1900J73 commonly applied for the supply of nitrogen, calcium and potassium,
1910J73 supply this element in adequate quantity. ^It, therefore,
1920J73 finds a free ride to the soil. ^Rain water also supplies about
1930J73 10 \0kg of sulphur annually. ^Sulhpur deficiency is, therefore, rarely
1940J73 found in sugarcane. ^A healthy crop possesses in the leaf blade
1950J73 at the fourth month stage about 0.2% sulphur, which declines with age.
1960J73 ^The deficiency appears when its content falls below 0.01 per
1970J73 cent. ^A crop of about 100 tons/ \0ha requires about 65 \0kg of sulphur.
1980J73 $*3Deficiency symptoms:*0 ^Sulphur deficiency symptoms are characterized
1990J73 by stunted growth and general yellowing of the crop.
2000J73 ^The length and girth of the stalk are greatly reduced and leaves exhibit
2010J73 yellowing similar to that_ observed is case of nitrogen deficiency.*#
        **[no. of words = 02006**]

        **[txt. j74**]
0010J74 **<*3A REVIEW OF NICKEL-SULPHIDE AND ASSOCIATED BASEMETAL MINERALISATION
0020J74 IN GREENSTONE TERRAINS OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH INDIA WITH EMPHASIS
0021J74 ON EXPLORATION*0*>
0030J74 $*<ABSTRACT*> $^A brief appraisal of geology, nature of mineralisation
0040J74 and geochemical methods of exploration on some of the recently
0050J74 discovered nickel-sulphide deposits within the granite-greenstone terrain
0060J74 of the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia together with some copper
0070J74 sulphide occurrences having minor nickel in South Indian green schist
0080J74 belt has been made. ^Most of the nickel sulphide deposits of Western
0090J74 Australia have a close affinity with the komatiitic type of synvolcanic
0100J74 bodies. ^The exploration of these deposits was generally initiated
0110J74 around the airborne anomalies by means of geochemical techniques almost
0120J74 always in conjunction with ground geophysical work by magnetic survey.
0130J74 ^Case histories on exploration of Kambalda, Ora Banda, Redross-Widgeimooltha
0140J74 Perseverance and Mount Keith deposit illustrate how various problems
0150J74 of geochemical exploration have been tackled in these areas. ^In this
0160J74 context, possibility of locating similar nickel and other basemetal sulphide
0170J74 deposits within the Archaean schist belt of South India has been
0180J74 highlighted. ^The rock associations in some of the reported occurrences
0190J74 of \0Cu-sulphides with minor \0Ni association around Nuggihalli,
0200J74 Kaiga, Belgumba of Karnataka and Virupakshi, Godepalaiyam of Tamil
0210J74 Nadu resemble the synvolcanic bodies containing both high and low magnesian
0220J74 magmatic suites as noted in Western Australia. $^The granitoid-greenstone
0230J74 terrain of the Yilgarn Block contrasts with the migmatite
0240J74 gneiss high grade metamorphic terrain lying in the southeastern part
0250J74 of this Block in their tectonic style, lithological association, metamorphic
0260J74 features and radioactive age. ^The latter is characterised by large
0270J74 areas of magmatic, migmatitic and gneissic granitoids that_ contain
0280J74 enclaves of high grade schists and gneisses. ^The regional contrast
0290J74 of these two types of terrain points out to the existence of a protonucleus
0300J74 in this part of Western Australia, now represented by the high grade
0310J74 migmatitic gneiss-granulite terrain to the south-west. ^Such a tectono-geological
0320J74 set up has some resemblance with the Dharwar
0330J74 craton of South India, characterised by rocks of early to middle
0340J74 Precambrian age which constitutes mostly the granite-greenstone belts.
0350J74 ^The high metamorphic facies rocks comprising charnockite-khondalite suite
0360J74 occurring at the southern fringe of the cratonic block, and the peninsular
0370J74 gneiss together form the gneiss-granulite province that_ separates
0380J74 the former belt along a longitudinal fracture system. $^In the Yilgarn
0390J74 Block of Western Australia, presence of true-gossans has been found
0400J74 to_ be an useful tool for locating the concealed \0Ni-sulphide mineralisation.
0410J74 ^Besides, the anomalous presence of certain indicator/ pathfinder
0420J74 elements like \0Cu, \0Zn, \0Cr, \0Au, \0Pt, \0Pd, \0Ir, \0etc,
0430J74 could be successfully used to_ delineate the primary and secondary
0440J74 halos of \0Ni, where sub-surface drilling subsequently established the
0450J74 presence of \0Ni-sulphide below such halos. ^It appears from the geological
0460J74 characters of the Archaean greenschist belt of South India that
0470J74 thorough search for \0Ni-\0Cu sulphides with special emphasis on platinoid
0480J74 group of elements should be carried out, not only along the extension
0490J74 zones of the reported occurrences but also in other suitable areas
0500J74 for the possible concealed deposits through identification of true-gossans,
0510J74 if any, followed by detailed geophysical ground surveys and geochemical
0520J74 exploration using suitable pathfinder elements. $*<INTRODUCTION*>
0530J74 $^A critical review of the history of mineral exploration in the
0540J74 Yilgarn Block of Western Australia reveals that most mineral discoveries
0550J74 in this area, prior to 1965, were of weathering resistates such as
0560J74 gold and tin, or weathering products such as iron-ore and bauxite.
0570J74 ^Since then, the exploration strategy changed radically in this part and
0580J74 with the proper recognition of gossans (distinguishing it from the other
0590J74 surface ironstones), a good number of nickel and basemetal sulphide
0600J74 deposits have been discovered around the famous gold mining areas during
0610J74 the last decade with the help of geophysical and geochemical methods
0620J74 (Smith *(0et al.,*) 1976). ^Some of these new prospects have already
0630J74 started production and the others are undergoing
0640J74 detailed exploration or exploratory mining. ^During the 25th International
0650J74 Geological Congress held in August, 1976, the senior author had
0660J74 the opportunity of visiting some of the prospects in course of a post-session
0670J74 excursion organised by the Congress, in which an introduction to
0680J74 certain aspects of the weathering and geomorphology of the Archaean Yilgarn
0690J74 Block of southwestern Australia with a stress on their importance
0700J74 to the application of geochemical techniques for basemetal exploration
0710J74 was provided. ^This informative excursion inspired him to_ make a
0720J74 comparative study of the overall geological set-up and the geochemical features
0730J74 of this area with that_ of the Archaean green schist belt of South
0740J74 India, since, in this part of India, almost similar elongate belts
0750J74 of greenstone exists in close association with granitic rocks of early
0760J74 to middle Precambrian age. ^Moreover, we have the gold occurrences
0770J74 as well as ultramafic rocks having some indications of \0Ni and other basemetal
0780J74 sulphide mineralisation in this area. ^Accordingly, a critical
0790J74 review of reports and literature on these two widely separated areas of
0800J74 the two different continents along with some field observations made by
0810J74 the junior author during a short tour on some of the South Indian occurrences
0820J74 and those made by the senior author in course of his tour in Western
0830J74 Australia, has been outlined in this paper. $*<GEOLOGY
0840J74 OF THE YILGARN BLOCK*> $^This block has been sub-divided into southwestern
0850J74 Province, Murchison Province and Eastern Goldfields Province,
0860J74 based upon zones of contrasting tectonic style, lithological association,
0870J74 metamorphic features and geochronology (Plate 1). ^The granitoid-greenstone
0880J74 terrains of the Murchison and the Eastern Goldfields
0890J74 Provinces are basically similar. ^They, however, contrast with
0900J74 the magmatic, migmatitic and gneissic granitoids of the southwestern Province
0910J74 that_ contains enclaves of high-grade schists and gneisses.
0920J74 ^Metamorphosed mafic and ultramafic rocks occur here as small pods.
0930J74 ^Scattered occurrences of granulite facies rocks within the metasediments
0940J74 are also reported. ^Isotopic ages from the gneiss and schist of this
0950J74 province are the oldest known from the Yilgarn Block, ranging from
0960J74 2.8 to 3.1 \0b.y. ^The magmatic granitoids that_ intruded the gneissic
0970J74 terrain gave ages ranging from 2.6 to 2.7 \0b.y., similar to those
0980J74 granitoids in the granitoid greenstone terrain. $^By contrast, the
0990J74 granitoid-greenstone terrain tends to_ lie peripherally to the old segment
1000J74 and are composed of elongate, generally synclinal keels of volcanogenic
1010J74 greenstone belts within voluminous granitoids of different types.
1020J74 ^Pre-metamorphic rocks include tholeiitic, types, commonly pillowed, and
1030J74 comagmatic gabbro; a high magnesian komatiitic type volcanic suite ranging
1040J74 from periodotite (upto 50% \0MgO, volatile-free) to high magnesian
1050J74 basalt (down to 10% \0MgO); ultramagnesian intrusive peridotite and
1060J74 dunite dykes; felsic volcanics consisting of lava, tuff, agglomerate,
1070J74 and breccia (dacite to rhyodacite in composition); chemical sediments such
1080J74 as chert and banded iron formation; and clastic sediments such as arkose,
1090J74 greywacke, and polymictic conglomerate. ^Within the greenstone
1100J74 belts, nickel-sulphide deposits are associated with ultrabasic extrusions
1110J74 and intrusions, and massive copper-zinc sulphide deposits are associated
1120J74 with basic to felsic volcanogenic settings. ^The simplest regional
1130J74 structure displayed in most of the areas involves synclinal keels of
1140J74 greenstone flanked by domal granitoids that_ rose diapirically. ^However,
1150J74 on the regional scale, there is evidence of polyphase deformation
1160J74 giving rise to superposed cleavages and mesoscopic folds (Smith *(oet
1170J74 al.,*) 1976). $^Thus, the regional contrast of the provinces
1180J74 point to the existence of a protonucleus, now represented by the south
1190J74 western Province, which was extensively affected by the later granitic
1200J74 plutonism. ^The granitoid-greenstone terrain appears to_ have evolved
1210J74 on primitive crust adjacent to the sialic protonucleus.
1220J74 $*<GEOLOGY OF THE ARCHAEAN COMPLEXES OF SOUTH INDIAN SHIELD*>
1230J74 $^*South India comprises mainly Archaean to Proterozoic rocks belonging
1240J74 to the Dharwar Super Group and the Peninsular gneissic complex.
1250J74 ^The Central part forms the granite greenstone belt (2.6 to 2.1 \0b.y.)
1260J74 consisting of rock formations of Dharwar Super Group characterised by
1270J74 green-schist to amphibolite facies (\0Pl. 2). ^These are surrounded
1280J74 by migmatitic gneisses charnockite-khondalite suite of rocks, granulites
1290J74 and other high grade metamorphic rocks of peninsular gneissic complex
1300J74 (3.0 to 2.1 \0b.y.) that_ form the gneiss-granulite province.
1310J74 ^An intervening area between the two regions in some parts contains high
1320J74 grade rocks showing amphibolite to lower granulite facies of metamorphism.
1330J74 $^The rocks belonging to Peninsular gneissic complex are essentially
1340J74 represented by migmitites (often after charnockites) of both
1350J74 diatexitic and metatexitic types associated with charnockite and khondalite
1360J74 groups of rocks. ^The occurrences of quartzites, crystalline
1370J74 limestones and metapelites in some areas as enclaves or restites within
1380J74 the Peninsular gneiss suggest a narrow platformal paleo-environment.
1390J74 ^Along the median fractures of these platformal areas, high magnesian ultramafic
1400J74 sequence of rocks of komatiitic affinity such as those reported
1410J74 from Nuggihalli area had extruded with common association of chromite,
1420J74 vanadiferous-titaniferous magnetite and \0Cu-\0Ni sulphides.
1430J74 ^Besides, the Peninsular gnessic complex is full of inclusions of amphibolite
1440J74 and basic schists, representing the igneous rocks and sediments
1450J74 of a period probably older than the Dharwars (Radhakrishana, 1964).
1460J74 ^An older group of lavas and associated metasedimeents occurring in small
1470J74 linear belts have been identified for which the name 'Sargur schist
1471J74 complex' (3.5 to 3.0 \0b.y.) has been given (Swami Nath *(0et al.,*)
1472J74 1976, Viswanatha
1480J74 and Ramkrishnan, 1975). ^It is composed essentially of extensive meta-ultramafics
1490J74 and meta-basalts with associated quartzitic carbonate
1500J74 and aluminous sediments showing upper amphibolite to lower granulite facies.
1510J74 ^These represent the older greenstones of South Indian Shield.
1520J74 $^The bulk of the Dharwar Super Group are consitituted by
1530J74 the younger greenstone sequence composed of platformal, geosynclinal and
1540J74 intramontane basin accumulations volcano-sedimental sequences resting
1550J74 unconformably over the older migmatitic gneisses traceable continuously
1560J74 along the strike for over 500 \0km. ^The platformal sequence is represented
1570J74 by the Bababudan Group composed of pyrite and gold bearing oligomictic
1580J74 conglomerates to orthoquartzites, sub-aerial tholeiite lava
1590J74 and magnetite quartzite with an younger cycle consisting of orthoquartitic
1600J74 shale and carbonate. ^These rocks are locally intruded by ultramafic
1610J74 rocks carrying subordinate chromite, vanadiferous-titaniferous
1620J74 magnetite and copper-nickel sulphide mineralisation. ^The rocks of
1630J74 the Chitradurga Group belong to the geosynclinal sequence, probably developed
1640J74 along fracture bound elongate basins, comprising basic volcanics,
1650J74 interbedded with polymictic conglomerates, greywakes, banded iron-formations
1660J74 of oxide, sulphide and carbonate facies (Srinivas & Sreenivas,
1670J74 1976). $^The Widgiemooltha region is part of a north-west trending belt
1680J74 of metamorphosed volcanic sedimentary and ultramafic rocks which correlate
1690J74 with the rocks of Kambalda area. ^*Widgiemooltha is about 30 \0km
1700J74 south of Kambalda and Redross is 23 \0km \0SSE of Widgiemooltha.
1710J74 ^This belt contains a number of domal structures with intrusive
1720J74 granitic cores. ^Three ultramafic units have been located here around
1730J74 the diapiric granite core. ^The lower unit is barren. ^The central
1740J74 unit is mineralised in the northern half of the dome and is quite prospective
1750J74 further north. ^The uppermost unit is mineralised at Redross
1760J74 along the eastern flank of the dome. ^The nickel mineralisation
1770J74 generally occurs in this area along the contact of talc-altered dunite
1780J74 or peridotite sills and flows within a tholeiitic basalt pile. ^At
1790J74 Redross, massive or brecciated re-mobilised nickel sulphide ores are
1800J74 present at the base of an altered ultrabasic sill against a basalt foot-wall,
1810J74 controlled by a shear, sub-parallel to the contact. ^Inferred
1825J74 ore reserves upto a depth of 280 \0m in 1973 were one million tonnes, wth
1830J74 average grade at 3.5% \0Ni and 0.25% \0Cu primary ore minerals are
1840J74 essentially pyrrhotite and pentlandite with minor amount of chalcopyrite.
1850J74 ^The supergene ore assemblage consisting of violatite, pyrite, chalcopyrite
1860J74 and chalcocite, assays upto 18% \0Ni and 0.2 to 1.0% \0cu, occurring
1870J74 between 25-150 \0m (Smith *(0et al.,*). 1976). $^Regional
1880J74 geochemical survey for basemetals started in this area during 1965 using
1890J74 minus 80 mesh drainage samples wherever suitable. ^Follow-up procedures
1900J74 consisted of gossan search, colluvium and soil sampling, costean
1910J74 cuts, auger-pereussion and finally diamond drilling. ^Gossan search
1920J74 and soil sampling were used in areas of exposed residuum, and weathered
1930J74 bed rock sampling by costeaning and drilling were used in areas of poor
1940J74 outcrop and transported cover. ^Exploration, in areas of limited exposure
1950J74 was greatly aided by aerial and ground magnetics which accurately
1960J74 delineated the concealed ultrabasics. ^Exploratory drilling was generally
1970J74 carried out on \0Ni, \0Cr, \0Zn anomalies and \0Pt & \0Pd
1980J74 worked as distinct indicators of true gossans in this area.
1990J74 $*<*3Lateritic Nickel of Ora Banda*> $^The Ora Banda area,
2000J74 60 \0km \0NW of Kalgoorlie consists predominantly of a very thick sequence
2010J74 of intrusive and extrusive mafic and ultramafic rocks, bounded by
2020J74 batholithic granites. ^Metamorphic grade is generally not higher than
2030J74 greenschist facies.*#
        **[no. of words = 02007**]

        **[txt. j75**]
0010J75 **<*3Metabolism of *3n-Alkane in *8Endomycopsis lipolytica*9 (*8Saccharomycopsis
0020J75 lipolytica*9): Part *=4-- Characteristics of Lipid Formation
0030J75 from *3n-Alkanes by Non-proliferating Cells**>
0040J75 $^Fatty acids and fatty acid esters are the most significant direct
0050J75 products of *3n-alkane metabolism in microorganisms. ^Hence,
0060J75 numerous reports have appeared describing qualitative and quantitative
0070J75 aspects of cellular lipids in microorganisms grown on *3n-alkane in
0080J75 an attempt to_ obtain specific metabolic relationship between the alkane
0090J75 substrate and lipid products. ^Quality and quantity of cellular lipids
0100J75 formed from *3n-alkanes, however, are greatly influenced not only
0110J75 by the type of organism and alkane substrate used but also by the conditions
0120J75 of culture. ^In most of the reported studies,
0130J75 cellular lipids were analyzed after cultivation of the organism on *3n-alkanes
0140J75 without careful delineation of the culture conditions.
0150J75 ^As pointed out by Hug and Fiechter, in such cases it is hazardous to_
0160J75 read any meaningful relationship between the alkane substrate and the
0170J75 lipoidal products. ^Besides, in growing cells, considerable proportions
0180J75 of the alkane carbons go *3via fatty acids towards formation of
0190J75 non-lipoidal constituents (70-80% of dry biomass) of the proliferating
0200J75 cells. ^Evidently, the changes in the quality and quantity of
0201J75 cellular lipids do not necessarily reflect any particular
0210J75 relationship with the alkane substrate under these conditions. ^The problem
0220J75 is compounded by the general practice followed by many investigators
0230J75 in expressing lipid fractions such as fatty acids as relative percentage
0240J75 of total fatty acid or total lipid which may lead to fallacious interpretation.
0250J75 $^It is anticipated that under growth limiting conditions
0260J75 the pattern of changes in cellular lipids will be more directly related
0270J75 to the alkane substrate. ^Accordingly, this paper presents the
0280J75 pattern of changes in cellular lipids, particularly fatty acids, when
0290J75 cells of *8Endomycopsis lipolytica*9 were incubated with *3n-alkanes
0300J75 under conditions which did not promote the proliferation of cells.
0310J75 ^The possible significance of these cellular lipid and fatty acid patterns
0320J75 is discussed and a hypothetical metabolic scheme for the transformation
0330J75 of *3n-alkanes into long-chain fatty acids in yeasts is advanced.
0340J75 $*<*3Materials and Methods*> $*3Organism-- ^The characteristics
0350J75 and maintenance of the ascosporogenous yeast, *8Endomycopsis lipolytica*9
0360J75 (*8saccharomycopsis lipolytica*9)
0361J75 Y 13, used in these studies, have been described elsewhere.
0370J75 $*3Cultivation-- ^A sufficient amount of inoculum of yeast cells
0380J75 was prepared by growing the organism on nutrient broth containing 1%
0390J75 peptone, 1% yeast extract, 1% malt extract and 1% glucose in a 5-litre
0400J75 capacity New Brunswick Fermentor. ^After cultivation for 20 \0hr
0410J75 at 28*@ \0C and \0pH 5, the cells were harvested by brief centrifugation
0420J75 and washed thrice with 0.06 \0*3M0 \0Na*;2**:HPO*:4**:-- \0KH*:2**:P:o*:4**:
0430J75 buffer (\0pH 7). ^About
0440J75 600 \0mg (dry \0wt) of washed cells were suspended in 25 \0ml sterile 0.06
0450J75 \0*3M \0Na*:2**: HPQ*:4**: -\0Kh*:2**:PO*:4**: buffer (\0pH7)
0460J75 containing 10% (\0vol./\0vol.) *3n-alkane substrates and 0.07% \0MgSO*:4**:
0470J75 in 250 \0ml conical flasks. ^The
0480J75 flasks were incubated for 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 \0hr at 28-30*@ \0C on a
0490J75 rotary shaker. ^Cells were separated by centrifugation and washed
0500J75 once in phosphate buffer. ^The washed cells were
0510J75 used for the analysis of lipids and carbohydrates. ^Cell-free
0520J75 medium and the washings were collected for the estimation of residual alkanes.
0530J75 *3Assay methods-- ^Lipids were extracted from wet cells
0540J75 by the method recommended by Vorbeck and Marinetti. ^About 1 \0g
0550J75 (dry \0wt) of cells was heated with 20 \0ml methanol at 65*@ \0C for 5
0560J75 \0min followed by cooling and stirring with 40 \0ml chloroform for 20
0570J75 \0min. ^The solvent extract was collected. ^The extraction procedure
0580J75 was repeated thrice using 10 \0ml methanol and 20 \0ml chloroform
0590J75 and finally the cell debris was refluxed with 50 \0ml chloroform-methanol
0600J75 mixture (2 : 1, \0v0l./\0vol.) for 2 \0hr. ^This was followed
0610J75 by another extraction with 25 \0ml chloroform-methanol mixture.
0620J75 ^Finally, all the extracts were combined and repeatedly washed with distilled
0630J75 water. ^The lipid extract was dehydrated with anhydrous
0640J75 \0Na*:2**:SO*:4**: and then brought to a definite volume (10 \0ml)
0650J75 by evaporation under reduced pressure. $^For the estimation of total
0660J75 lipid, an aliquot (5 \0ml) of the lipid extract was evaporated at 60*@
0670J75 \0C for 20 \0hr and weighed. ^The value of the total lipid was corrected
0680J75 for the presence of *3n-alkane which was estimated in a small aliquot
0690J75 (2 \0*Yml) of the extract by gas-liquid chromatography as described
0700J75 elsewhere. ^For the estimation of fatty acids, the lipid extract
0710J75 was saponified and fatty acids were extracted from the saponifiable
0720J75 fraction, methylated with diazomethane and analyzed with gas-liquid chromatography
0730J75 as described previously. ^Absolute values of fatty acid
0740J75 methyl esters were obtained by comparison with standard samples.
0750J75 ^Phospholipids were estimated in the lipid extract after separation through
0760J75 thin layer chromatography and by comparison with standard phospholipids.
0770J75 $^Sterols were estimated in the non-saponified fraction according
0780J75 to the method described by Rodnight using cholesterol as standard.
0790J75 ^Total lipid and individual lipid fractions were expressed as
0800J75 per cent of dry biomass. ^The residual *3n-alkane in the cell-free
0810J75 incubation medium and washings was repeatedly extracted with *3n-heptane
0820J75 and the alkane in the heptane extract was estimated by gas-liquid
0830J75 chromatography as described previously. $^Carbohydrates in the cells
0840J75 were estimated by using anthrone reagent. $*<*3Results*>
0850J75 $^Cells actively growing on nutrient broth were used for inoculation
0860J75 into the incubation medium in sufficiently large amount to_ ensure rapid
0870J75 consumption and oxidation of *3n-alkane substrate so that the observed
0880J75 pattern of the oxidation products reflected the characteristics of the
0890J75 substrate. ^Nutrient broth grown cells were found satisfactory because
0900J75 of the low lipid content and reproducible profile of the cellular
0910J75 lipid fractions. ^These cells also possessed good capacity to_ utilize
0920J75 *3n-alkane. $^Conditions of non-proliferation of the cells were
0930J75 achieved by the absence of assimilable nitrogen, specific inorganic ions
0940J75 and growth factors, such as vitamins, in the incubation medium.
0950J75 ^Some cryptic growth on the lysed cells could be possible but it was considered
0960J75 negligible in terms of the total cell biomass. \0^*Mg*;2+**;
0970J75 was included in the incubation medium because of its essential role in
0980J75 metabolism. $*3Pattern of cellular lipid formation from *3n-alkanes
0990J75 by non-proliferating cells-- ^When nutrient broth-grown
1000J75 cells were incubated in a non-proliferating medium containing *3N-dodecane,
1010J75 a rapid linear increase in total cellular lipid and fatty acids
1020J75 was observed in the initial 12 \0hr of incubation concomitant with the
1030J75 rapid consumption of the alkane (\0Fig. 1). ^At this period, the
1040J75 total lipid reached a peak level of 16% of dry biomass which was double
1050J75 the initial value and this high level was maintained throughout the rest
1060J75 of the period of incubation for 48 \0hr. ^Total fatty acid likewise
1070J75 reached the peak level of 9.9% which was about three-times the initial
1080J75 value after 12 \0hr of incubation, followed by a decreasing trend.
1090J75 ^Cellular phospholipids and sterols, however, increased at slower
1100J75 rates to_ reach peak levels after 24 and 12 \0hr of incubation, respectively.
1110J75 ^Alkane consumption, after the initial rapid increase, slowed down
1120J75 after 12 \0hr of incubation. $^Similar patterns of cellular response
1130J75 were also observed by using alkanes other than *3N-dodecane, (\0Fig.
1140J75 2). ^A rapid increase of the total fatty acid was observed in
1150J75 the initial hour of incubation when *3n-tridecane, *3n-pentadecane
1160J75 or *3n-hexadecane was used as substrate. $^*Hug *(0et al*), found
1170J75 a rapid increase in total cellular lipids without concomitant consumption
1180J75 of *3n-hexadecane following a substrate change from glucose to
1190J75 hexadecane in continuous culture experiments. ^It was contended that
1200J75 the synthesis of lipid, presumably from nonhydrocarbon sources, in the
1210J75 cells was activated by the presence of alkane in the initial period.
1220J75 ^In th present experiments with non-proliferating cells, it was possible
1230J75 to_ demonstrate that non-hydrocarbon cellular constituents did not play
1240J75 any major role in initial lipogenesis. $\0^*Fig. 1 shows that
1250J75 cellular carbohydrates, specially glycogen which may be regarded as
1260J75 the most probable alternate carbon source for lipid synthesis, also increased
1270J75 in the initial period of incubation along with the increase in cellular
1280J75 lipids, indicating that cellular carbohydrates were unlikely to_
1290J75 serve as precursor for initial lipid synthesis. ^The possibility
1300J75 of cellular proteins serving as carbon source for lipid synthesis was
1310J75 also unlikely as it is generally known that proteins are used only in the
1320J75 absence of other assimilable carbon sources. ^It thus appears possible
1330J75 that the initial response of non-proliferating cells was to_ hasten
1340J75 up the conversion of the alkane substrates into lipids. ^Consequently,
1350J75 an analysis of these lipids and the pattern of their changes
1360J75 may throw light on the primary metabolic transformations of the alkanes.
1370J75 $*3Cellular fatty acid profile-- \0^*Figs. 3-6 show the
1380J75 changes in the profile of major cellular fatty acids during the incubation
1390J75 of the nutrient broth-grown cells with *3n-alkanes in the range of
1400J75 *3n-dodecane to *3n-hexadecane in a non-proliferating medium. ^The
1410J75 changes in total fatty acid corresponding to these figures are given in
1420J75 \0Fig. 2. ^A unique feature of these fatty acid profiles was the predominance
1430J75 of the \0C*:18**: and \0C:16**: fatty acids and the rapid increase
1440J75 of these acids in the initial period of incubation (8-12 \0hr).
1450J75 ^When even chain alkanes, *3n-dodecane and *3n-hexadedane,
1460J75 were used as substrates, \0C*:18**: and \0C*:16**: fatty acids constituted
1470J75 more than 90% of the total fatty acid throughout the incubation period.
1480J75 ^The unsaturated \0C*:18:2**: fatty acid was the most predominant
1490J75 fatty acid followed by \0C*:18:1**: acid. $^*Dodecanoic
1500J75 acid (\0C*:12:0**:) the fatty acid corresponding to *3n-dodekane, was
1510J75 conspicuous by its low level throughout the incubation period with this
1520J75 alkane (\0Fig. 3). ^On the other hand, with *3n-hexadecane as the
1530J75 substrate, the corresponding fatty acid, hexadecanoic acid (\0C*:16:0**:),
1540J75 gradually increased until it reached a peak after 24 \0hr of incubation
1550J75 (\0Fig. 6). $^Incubation with odd-chain alkanes, *3n-tridecane
1560J75 and *3n-pentadecane, resulted in a fatty acid profile (\0fig. 4 & 5),
1570J75 in the initial period of incubation, similar to that_ observed in incubation
1580J75 with *3n-dodecane. ^Only after prolonged incubation, odd-chain fatty
1590J75 acids appeared. ^In cells incubated with *3n-tridecane \0C*:18:2**:
1600J75 and \0C*:18:1**: fatty acids constituted the largest fractions of
1610J75 total fatty acid and these acids rapidly increased in the initial 12
1620J75 \0hr of incubation followed by decline. ^The second largest fraction
1630J75 \0C*:16:0**: and \0C*:16:1**: fatty acids, also behaved similarly but
1640J75 to a lesser degree. ^Tridecanoic acid (\0C*:13:0**:), the fatty
1650J75 acid corresponding to *3n-tridecane was barely perceptible in the initial
1660J75 12 \0hr of incubation and then suddenly increased concomitant with
1670J75 the decline of \0C*:18**: and \0C*:16**: fatty acids and continued to_
1680J75 increase until the end of 48 \0hr of incubation at which period it
1690J75 constituted 12% of the total fatty acid (\0Fig. 3). ^Other odd-chain fatty
1700J75 acids, \0C*:15:0**:, \0C*:17:0**:and \0C*:17:1**: acids, also rose
1710J75 along with trideconic acid but to a much lesser degree. ^In cells
1720J75 incubated with *3n-pentadecane a similar pattern of changes in fatty
1730J75 acids was observed except that \0C*:18**: and \0C*:16**: fatty acids
1740J75 reached the peak level after 8 \0hr of incubation followed by decline
1750J75 and concomitant sharp rise of the corresponding fatty acid, pentadecanoic
1760J75 acid (\0Fig. 5). \0^*C*:17:0**: and \0C*:17:1**: fatty acids also rose
1770J75 along with \0C*:15:0**: acid at a lesser degree, but \0C*13:0**: acid
1780J75 was barely perceptible. ^After 48 \0hr of incubation, \0C:15:0**:
1790J75 acid constituted 22.4%, \0C:18:1**: acid 21% and \0C:18:2**: acid
1800J75 30.8% of the total fatty acid. ^As shown in \0Figs. 3 and 4, the
1810J75 relative percentage of fatty acids showed a pattern different from that_
1820J75 of absolute values (\0g% of dry biomass) of these acids. ^For
1830J75 example, in \0fig. 4, the absolute value of \0C:18:2**: fatty acid showed
1840J75 a sharp increase in the initial hours of incubation, but the relative
1850J75 value showed a decline. it is obivous that absolute values will
1860J75 give a true picture of the fatty acid pattern. ^Most of the published
1870J75 works in this field, however, presented fatty acids as relative
1880J75 percentage of the total fatty acid and did not bring out the true sequence
1890J75 of events. $^It was reported by many investigators that the
1900J75 major fatty acids in the microorganism utilizing long-chain *3n-alkanes
1910J75 (\0C*:13**:-\0C:18**:) as carbon source reflect the chain length of
1920J75 the alkane substrate and were believed to_ be incorporated intact into cellular
1930J75 lipids. ^The results obtained in the present studies seemingly
1940J75 contradict these observations. ^This may be attributable
1950J75 to the fact that earlier results were obtained from cells grown on *3n-alkane
1960J75 without due consideration of the stage of growth and the initial
1970J75 fatty acid profile of the cells in response to the presence of the
1980J75 alkane substrate might have been masked by later developments in metabolism
1990J75 in these studies. ^As shown in \0figs. 4-6 identical chain
2000J75 length fatty acids did constitute significant proportions of the total
2010J75 fatty acid in the later period of incubation.*#
        **[no. of words = 02015**]

        **[txt. j76**]
0010J76 **<*3Some Aspects of Feeding of \0S.G. Iron Castings**> $*<*3introduction*>
0020J76 $^The mechanism of freezing of \0S.G. Irons governs
0030J76 their feeding behaviour. ^The resulting micro- and macro-morphologies
0040J76 of solidification structure in the casting are fundamental to_
0050J76 the origin of shrinkage cavities in these irons. ^Besides, the shrinkage
0060J76 behaviour of these irons is also influenced by such foundry
0070J76 variables as chemical composition, pouring temperature and mold rigidity.
0080J76 ^All the above variables affecting the feeding behaviour
0090J76 of \0S.G. Iron castings are discussed below. ^Also the investigations
0100J76 carried out by the authors on feeder dimensioning of \0S.G.
0110J76 Iron plate and bar castings are discussed. $*<FREEZING MECHANISM*>
0120J76 $*<*3Volume changes*> $^Volume changes taking place
0130J76 in an \0S.G. Iron casting from the pouring temperature down
0140J76 to the solidus temperature can be discussed as follows. ^Rapid elimination
0150J76 of superheat takes place between the pouring temperature
0160J76 and the liquidus temperature. ^During this temperature drop, liquid
0170J76 \0S.G. Iron contracts in volume like any other metal. ^*White
0180J76 reports a value of 1.6% of liquid contraction for every 100*@ \0C
0190J76 of superheat. ^*Sinha and Kondic have reported that liquid contraction
0200J76 may vary between 1.0 and 4.8% per 100*@ \0C the average values
0210J76 for eutectic irons lying between 1.0 and 2.0%. $^At the liquidus
0220J76 temperature, hypereutectic nodules of graphite are precipitated
0230J76 in the liquid. ^As the solidification
0250J76 progresses with the drop in temperature, there coexist both liquid and
0260J76 proeutectic graphite. ^While the liquid contracts, the precipitation
0270J76 of graphite leads to expansion of the liquid since graphite
0280J76 has a high specific volume. ^Austenite-graphite eutectic cells
0290J76 are nucleated at the eutectic initiation temperature. ^While
0300J76 the precipitation and subsequent growth of austenite in the
0310J76 eutectic cells leads to contraction, that_ of the graphite spheroids in
0320J76 the eutectic cells leads to expansion. ^The interplay between
0321J76 contraction and expansion leads to the final volume
0330J76 changes in the casting. $^*Shnay and Gertsman have reported
0340J76 a pouring temperature range between 1275 and 1300*@ \0C as being critical
0350J76 in the case of hypereutectic irons. ^However, Devaux
0360J76 and Jeancolas report no significant influence of pouring temperature
0370J76 range on their studies on feeding of these irons.
0380J76 $^Two types of shrinkage are normally encountered in \0S.G. Iron
0390J76 castings. ^They are: **=1) gross shrinkage and **=2) interdendritic
0400J76 dendritic shrinkage or known also as sponge shrinkage.
0410J76 $^Gross shrinkage occurs between the time the mold is poured and
0420J76 the time the metal solidifies. ^It can be compensated by having
0430J76 a minimum amount of superheat, which in turn reduces the amount
0440J76 of liquid contraction. $^Sponge shrinkage occurs in the
0450J76 last stages of solidification. $*<*3Microscopic mechanism of solidification*>
0460J76 $^The bulk of published research on solidification
0470J76 of \0S.G. Irons deals with two microscopic problems. (^**=1) the mechanism
0480J76 of formation of spheroidal graphite rather than flake graphite
0490J76 and **=2) the morphology of nodule growth. ^The latter influences the
0500J76 shrinkage of nodule growth. ^The latter influences the shrinkage
0510J76 behaviour of \0S.G. Irons during freezing. ^Morphology of nodule
0520J76 growth is currently believed to_ develop in two stages.
0530J76 ^In the first stage, proeutectic nodules of graphite form in and are
0540J76 surrounded by, the liquid in which they grow by direct diffusion
0550J76 of carbon. ^Austenite grains form independently and continue
0560J76 to_ grow during the eutectic solidification. ^During this
0570J76 stage, the liquid is Continuous throughout the volume of the casting
0580J76 and the expansion due to the growth of the spheroid is transmitted
0590J76 directly to the whole of the
0600J76 liquid. ^In the second stage of
0610J76 nodule growth, spheroids become surrounded by an austenite envelope,
0620J76 through which carbon has to_ diffuse so that the spheroids can
0630J76 continue to_ grow. ^From the view point of shrinkage behaviour
0640J76 of the irons, the second stage of nodule growth, which occurs in
0650J76 the latter stages of freezing is important. ^At this stage, the
0660J76 liquid in contact with the austenite-graphite eutectic cells is
0670J76 not connected with those portions in the casting, passing through the
0680J76 first stage of freezing. ^Consequently, any expansion due to
0690J76 graphite growth in this second stage can cause macroscopic expansion
0700J76 of the casting, leading to mold dilation. ^The number
0710J76 of graphite-austenite eutectic cells per unit area, known as the
0720J76 nodule count, also affects the shrinkage behaviour of the irons considerably.
0730J76 ^The nodule count in \0S.G. Iron is about two to three
0740J76 orders of magnitude higher than in grey irons of identical
0750J76 composition. ^Increase in nodule count decreases the casting soundness
0760J76 through **=1) increased mold wall movement and **=2) resistance
0770J76 to feed metal flow through intercellular flow channels. ^Nodule
0780J76 count affects the structure of the iron in that, if it is too
0790J76 low, graphite degeneration and occurrence of intercellular carbides
0800J76 will result. ^The latter aggravates the problem of shrinkage
0810J76 in the iron because **=1) carbides represent a shrinkage phase
0820J76 and **=2) they choke intercellular feed channels. $*<*3Macroscopic
0830J76 mechanism of solidification*> $^The macroscopic mechanism
0840J76 of solidification relates to the growth sequences within the casting.
0850J76 \0^*S.G. Iron solidifies in a pasty manner. ^*Reynolds
0860J76 *(0et al*) determined the solidification sequence of \0S.G. Irons,
0870J76 by estimating the amount of solid and liquid throughout the casting
0880J76 at various time intervals during solidification. ^Three distinct
0890J76 zones have been observed in an \0S.G. Iron sand casting.
0900J76 (^**=1) the first zone appearing during freezing is largely liquid with
0910J76 some graphite spheroids and austenite grains dispersed throughout
0920J76 it; (**=2) this is followed by a predominantly pasty zone consisting
0930J76 of a continuous network of austenite interspersed with the
0940J76 liquid containing graphite spheroids and (**=3) finally, a solidified
0950J76 zone of austenite and graphite with isolated liquid pockets.
0960J76 ^Zones (**=1) and (**=2) correspond to the first stage of freezing
0970J76 which is relevant to the feeding of these irons. ^Each of these
0980J76 three zones proceeds from the surfaces of the casting inward. $^Under
0990J76 non-equilibrium conditions of freezing, \0S.G. Irons of
1000J76 eutectic or of hypereutectic composition, freeze as if they were
1010J76 of hypoeutectic composition and in such an event, show austenite
1020J76 dendrites in their microstructure. ^There can be resistance
1030J76 to the supply of feed metal whenever austenite dendrites form.
1040J76 ^It has been reported that whenever the casting developed the dendritic
1050J76 structure, the internal shrinkage defects were concentrated
1060J76 and comparatively larger. ^The eutectic freezing in \0S.G.
1070J76 Irons being less progressive, there is the resistance to the flow
1080J76 of feed metal in the zones (*=1) and (**=2) described above. ^The
1090J76 eutectic and the dendritic resistances to the feed metal lead to shrinkage.
1100J76 $*<*3Chemical composition*> $^Chemical composition
1110J76 of the iron exerts a profound influence on the feeding requirements
1120J76 and the solidification behaviour of the iron. $^The major
1130J76 elements present in \0S.G. Iron may be grouped into two categories,
1140J76 **=1) graphite stabilizing elements and **=2) carbide stabilizing elements.
1150J76 $^Those elements which stabilize the graphite, like carbon
1160J76 and silicon, enlarge the temperature gap between the solidification
1170J76 of stable (graphitic) and metastable (carbidic) eutectics,
1180J76 thus increasing the possibility of the graphite eutectic being formed
1190J76 under a given set of freezing conditions. ^Carbon is the
1200J76 source of graphite in the cast iron. ^If carbon in the iron
1210J76 is high, the graphite available for precipitations is also high.
1220J76 ^Carbon content influences both graphite shape and size through
1230J76 its influence on carbon equivalent. ^Silicon is a graphitizer and
1240J76 a powerful chill-reducer. ^It generally increases the nodule count
1250J76 and improves the spheroidal shape. ^These elements thus aid the
1260J76 feeding in \0S.G. Irons through their role in promoting graphitization
1270J76 during solidification.
1280J76 ^Sponge shrinkage, which occurs during the last stages of solidification
1290J76 can be minimized by having adequate graphite available, and this
1300J76 can be ensured by having total carbon + 1/7 silicon equal to or greater
1310J76 than 3.9%. $^Carbon in \0S.G. Irons is maintained in the
1320J76 range of 3-3.8% and silicon in the range of 2-2.8%. $^Carbide stabilizing
1330J76 elements like manganese, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum,
1340J76 \0etc. increase the feeding requirements of \0S.G. Irons. c
1350J76 ^These elements segregating into the intercellular liquid, which is
1360J76 the last portion to_ solidify, stabilize the carbides and thus promote
1370J76 shrinkage. ^In the production of \0S.G. Irons, the level of
1380J76 manganese should be kept below 0.5%
1390J76 and those of the other carbide stabilizing elements below 0.05% (unless
1400J76 required for some specific purpose). $^Phosphorus increases the freezing
1410J76 range of the iron by the formation of phosphide eutectic. ^Phosphide eutectic
1420J76 freezes at a temperature of about 150*@ \0C below that_ of the eutectic
1430J76 temperature and increases the solidification shrinkage of the iron.
1440J76 ^The shrinkage is of the sponge type. ^Phosphorus is normally
1450J76 kept below 0.04%. $^Nickel is a mild pearlite stabilizer whereas tin is
1460J76 a very powerful pearlite promoter. ^From the view point of solidification
1470J76 shrinkage of the iron, it is immaterial whether the iron has
1480J76 pearlitic or ferritic matrix, since pearlite formation is essentially
1490J76 a solid state reaction. ^However, in an unsound castitng, the shrinkage
1500J76 porosity inherited during freezing,
1510J76 is known to_ get aggravated because of the
1520J76 pearlite formation, due to the presence of these pearlite promoting
1530J76 elements. $^Undesirable elements such as antimony, arsenic, lead,
1540J76 bismuth \0etc. when present even in trace amounts exert detrimental
1550J76 influence on the iron, by altering the growth characteristics of
1560J76 the graphite nodules and or structure of the iron. ^The influence
1570J76 of these elements on the feeding characteristics of \0S.G. Iron is not
1580J76 known. $*<*3Mold rigidity*> $^The primary cause of mold wall
1590J76 movement is heat absorption and the resultant behaviour of sand grains
1600J76 and binders. ^In the case of \0S.G. Irons, apart from the pouring
1610J76 temperature contributing to mold wall movement, the mechanism
1611J76 and sequence of solidification also influence the
1620J76 mold wall movement. ^Mold cavity deformation thus plays a vital
1630J76 role in regulating the incidence of shrinkage and the self-feeding characteristics
1640J76 of \0S.G. Irons. ^Depending on whether it is rigid, the
1650J76 mold wall is subjected to movement, directed either outward or inward,
1660J76 during freezing of the iron. ^The problem of mold dilation has been
1670J76 exhaustively reviewed by Engler *(0et al*) and by Levelnik *(0et al*).
1680J76 \0^*S.G. Irons freeze by pasty form of growth, characterized by
1690J76 the presence of isolated liquid pockets, wherein expansion due to graphite
1700J76 precipitation can lead to mold cavity enlargement if the mold
1710J76 is non-rigid. ^Green sand molds are rated inferior to sodium
1720J76 silicate bonded or cement bonded sand molds. ^While it has been shown
1730J76 that both \0S.G. Iron and flake graphite cast iron can cause
1740J76 mold dilation, it has been proved that \0S.G. Iron does so more
1750J76 predominantly. ^In addition, it has been established that a higher degree
1760J76 of nucleation as in \0S.G. Irons, also leads to significantly
1770J76 higher values of mold wall movement. $^It has been reported that
1780J76 mold wall movement is also influenced by section thickness of the
1790J76 casting, with increased mold enlargement in thicker sections. ^Besides,
1800J76 the shape or casting geometry also influences mold cavity deformation
1810J76 in \0S.G. Irons. ^Flat shape of plate castings is more
1820J76 sensitive to mold wall movement than cylindrical-spherical shape
1830J76 of feeders. $*<*3Authors*' own investigations and findings*>
1840J76 $^Experiments have been carried out to_ arrive at feeder dimensioning
1850J76 equations for \0S.G. Iron plate and bar castings, cast in \0CO*:2**:
1860J76 molds. $^Normally, \0S.G. Irons of hypereutectic compositions
1870J76 find extensive use in industries. ^Hence, an iron having the
1880J76 basic composition: 3.6% \0C 2.8% \0Si and carbon equivalent of 4.53% was
1890J76 used in the investigation. ^The cooling curve method, which gives
1900J76 good indication regarding solidification characteristics and feeding
1910J76 ability of metals and alloys, was used to_ arrive at feeder
1920J76 equations. $*<*3Variables studied*> $Plate dimensions: 150
1930J76 \0mm wide, 225 \0mm long with thickness varying from 12.5 \0mm to 50.0
1940J76 \0mm. $Bar dimensions: 225 \Mm long, width to thickness ratio of 2,
1950J76 with thickness varying from 20 \0mm to 50 \0mm. $^Casting modulus range:
1960J76 5.5 \0mm to 16.0 \0mm for plates, 8.0 \0mm to around 12.0 \0mm
1970J76 for bars. $Feeder shape: Cylindrical with hemispherical bottom and
1980J76 height to diameter (\0H, \0D) ratios of 1.0 and 1.5. $Feeder size:
1990J76 40 \0mm to 120 \0mm in diameter. $*<*3Soundness of castings determined
2000J76 by:**> $**=1) visual observation for surface sinks $**=2) X-
2010J76 and gamma radiography $**=3) Tensile strength measurement along casting
2020J76 length for both plates and bars. $^A casting was considered
2030J76 sound, if it passed all the three criteria mentioned above. $^Based
2040J76 on the above considerations, the following feeder equations have been
2050J76 obtained for both plates and bars. $For plates $*Mes $For bars$*Mes
2060J76 where \0FR = freezing ratio and \0VR = volume ratio.*#
        **[no. of words = 02002**]

        **[txt. j77**]
0010J77 **<*3Remote Sensing from Space and its Applications in Hydrology
0020J77 and Water Resources Development**> $^MAN*'S quest for knowledge,
0030J77 his spirit of adventure and his capacity for innovation have no apparent
0040J77 limits and all the three together have contributed to his efforts at
0050J77 exploring, understanding and conquering the mysteries of outer space.
0060J77 ^It was not very long ago that the first space probe 'Sputnik', carrying
0070J77 an earthling, the ill-fated dog 'Laika' sent out by man was splashed
0080J77 in banner headlines in the world*'s press; but already the very many space
0090J77 exploits of man since then, such as the series of Apollo and Soyuz
0100J77 missions, the joint Apollo-Soyuz venture, the Voyager and the Mariner
0110J77 series of probes have not only eclipsed the first Sputnik, but have
0120J77 almost obliterated its memory from the public mind. $^Exploration of
0130J77 outer space by man continues unabated, to what end or ultimate result,
0140J77 it is difficult to_ say. ^However, one off-shoot of
0141J77 man*'s space exploits has been the opportunity they
0150J77 provided him to_ look at his habitat, the earth, from the distance of
0160J77 his platform in space, several hundred kilometers away from earth*'s
0170J77 surface and the accelerated development of the practically new technology
0180J77 of remote sensing for the discovery and management of earth*'s vast natural
0190J77 resources, a large part of which, especially in the developing countries,
0200J77 still remains uncharted. $*<*3Development of Remote Sensing Techniques*>
0210J77 $^Major advances in the gathering of data about the earth*'s
0220J77 resources over large areas and from a considerable distance came first
0230J77 with the invention of the photographic camera and later, of the aeroplane.
0240J77 ^Although aerial photography was developed and refined for military
0250J77 purposes in the course of two world wars, it began to_ be employed half
0260J77 a century ago to_ provide visual data needed for a variety of peaceful
0270J77 purposes in cartography, geology, agriculture, forestry, land-use planning,
0280J77 hydrology \0etc. $^The contributions of the photographic camera and
0290J77 the aeroplane to the task of gathering data about the earth and its resources
0300J77 have by no means been exhausted and they still have highly valuable
0310J77 functions to_ perform. ^However, in the face of greatly increased
0320J77 need for detailed information about the earth*'s resources, both visual
0330J77 photography and aircraft platforms have their limitations. ^For various
0340J77 important resource data objectives, especially those related to vegetation
0350J77 water, geology and mineral exploration, the dynamic range of conventional
0360J77 photographic film is too narrow to_ gauge other needed physical parameters,
0370J77 such as temperature, magnetism, moisture or chlorophyll content.
0380J77 ^In recent years, therefore, airplanes have been outfitted with "sensors"
0390J77 such as radar, magnetometers, infra-red cameras and multi-spectral
0391J77 scanners
0400J77 to_ gather data to_ complement those obtained with conventional photographic
0410J77 film. $^The aircraft as a platform, for all its numerous advantages,
0420J77 is limited by the area it can cover in any one photographic scene,
0430J77 by the costs it involves in covering very large areas, and by the degree
0440J77 of uniformity it offers either in its repetitive coverage of the same
0450J77 scene at different times or in its coverage of different scenes at the
0460J77 same sun-time (\0i.e., with the same sun-angle). $^With the coming of
0470J77 the space programme, orbiting spacecraft were recognised as a potential
0480J77 means of overcoming these limitations and of providing advantageous platforms
0490J77 for data gathering cameras and sensors. ^The combination of
0500J77 new types of sensors with a space platform has proved to_ be more than a
0510J77 high altitude extension of aerial photography. ^Remote sensing from space
0520J77 represents a major technological advance in the gathering of data about
0530J77 the earth*'s resources. $^The recording of observations of the
0540J77 earth*'s surface from an orbiting spacecraft began in 1960 with the first
0550J77 \0U.S. meteorological satellite, TIROS-1. ^Photographs taken
0560J77 by astronauts in the Gemini and Apollo flights increased recognition of
0570J77 the potential usefulness of photographs from space. ^The most significant
0580J77 experiments in earth resources sensing were initiated with the launching
0590J77 of the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (now called LANDSAT-1
0600J77 in july 1972 and the placement of sensor packages on three
0610J77 missions of the manned SKYLAB Satellite in 1973 and 1974. $^The
0620J77 experimental sensor packages on SKYLAB which orbited the earth at 425
0630J77 \0km altitude, consisted of conventional photography, near infra-red photography,
0640J77 a 13-channel multispectral scanner and microwave sensors. ^These
0650J77 provided data that_ will be useful in designing future resource sensing
0660J77 systems. $*<*3Remote Sensing from Landsat*> $(a) <*3Spacecraft*>
0670J77 $^Since 1975, two experimental LANDSAT spacecraft have been
0671J77 circling the globe,
0680J77 sensing the earth*'s surface and transmitting to ground receiving stations
0690J77 the data acquired by the Satellites*' sensors (\0Fig. 1). ^The
0700J77 \0U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (\0NASA)
0710J77 placed LANDSAT-2 in orbit in January 1975 to_ assure continuity of
0720J77 data after the equipment on the first satellite ceased to_ acquire all the
0730J77 data desired and to_ supplement the coverage of LANDSAT-1 as long
0740J77 as the latter*'s sensors are still operating. $^The LANDSAT travels
0750J77 at an altitude of about 920 \0km in a circular near-polar orbit and crosses
0760J77 the equator at a 99 degree angle. ^It makes 14 orbits a day (103
0770J77 minutes per orbit) and repeats its coverage of any specific point on the earth*'s
0780J77 surface at about 9.30 \0a.m. local time every 18 days (\0Fig.
0790J77 2). ^This uniformity of passage times in the sun-synchronous orbit
0800J77 results in the uniformity of the sun illumination conditions and simplifies
0810J77 their interpretation. $^The 14 strips of the earth*'s surface covered
0820J77 each day by LANDSAT are successively 2800 \0km apart at the
0830J77 equator. ^On each satellite pass, the strip viewed by the sensors is
0840J77 185 \0km wide. ^A day later, the satellite passes over a point at the
0850J77 equator 170 \0km west of that_ same strip and senses a contiguous strip
0860J77 also 185 \0km wide. ^This provides a 14% overlap at the equator with at
0870J77 least 15 \0km at the edge of each strip viewed twice on consecutive days
0880J77 in each 18 day cycle. ^The image overlap increases with latitude.
0890J77 $^The launch of LANDSAT-2 was timed to_ provide 9-day coverage as
0900J77 long as LANDSAT-1 continues to_ function.
0910J77 $*<*3The On Board Instrument Package*> $^The instrument package
0920J77 on LANDSAT-1 and 2 consists of two sensor systems-- a Multispectral Scanner
0930J77 (\0MSS) and three Return Beam Vidicon (\0RBV) Cameras
0940J77 plus two Data Collection System (\0CS) receivers and two video tape
0950J77 recorders. $^The \0MSS is a four-channel radiometer which scans
0960J77 the surface of the earth and registers the intensity of energy reflected
0970J77 by the features and objects on the earth*'s surface. ^These are sensed
0980J77 by the \0MSS in each of four distinct wave length bands of the electromagnetic
0990J77 spectrum. $^All objects, inanimate or animate, reflect,
1000J77 absorb, transmit or radiate electromangetic energy in the form of electro-magnetic
1010J77 waves or radiation.
1020J77 ^The energy radiated or reflected may be characterised by its wave length,
1030J77 which ranges from smaller than an atom to hundreds of kilometres.
1040J77 ^The human eye is sensitive to radiation only in a small region (the visible
1050J77 region) of the electro-magnetic spectrum. ^The main regions
1060J77 of the spectrum in order of decreasing wavelength are radio (including
1070J77 microwave), infra-red, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray.
1080J77 $^Every object, bombarded by the sun with radiation having a broad
1090J77 range of wavelengths, reflects or reradiates different proportions of each
1100J77 wavelength received. ^The physical properties of the object itself
1110J77 esthablish how much of the solar radiation of each wavelength is
1120J77 reflected and thereby determine the spectral distribution of the radiation
1130J77 reflected by the object. ^This reflected energy with its distinct
1140J77 spectral or wavelength distribution for each object (referred to as
1150J77 the spectral signature of the object) is selectively observed by the \0MSS
1160J77 in four small portions or bands of the electromagnetic spectrum.
1170J77 ^The use of multiple spectral bands increases the capacity to_ identify
1180J77 or classify features on the ground. $^LANDSAT sensors are
1190J77 sensitive to radiation only in the visible and a part of the infra-red regions
1200J77 with wavelengths in the order of a micrometer (*Ymm). $^The two
1210J77 LANDSAT sensors-- the \0MSS and the \0RBV use seven bands
1220J77 in the visible (0.4 to 0.7 *Ymm) and near-infra-red (0.7 to 1.1 *Ymm)
1230J77 portions of the spectrum (near-infra-red is the portion of the infra-red
1240J77 region nearest the visible region). ^The three bands in the (\0RBV)
1250J77 (Bands 1, 2 and 3) cover parts of the spectrum that_ are included
1260J77 also in the \0MSS (bands 4, 5, 6 and 7). $^The four bands in the
1270J77 \0MSS and examples of earth features to which they are particularly
1280J77 sensitive are as follws: $^Band 4 (0.5 to 0.6 *Ymm) has the best
1290J77 capability to_ penetrate water and to- determine turbidity in water bodies,
1300J77 to_ distinguish between green vegetation from other surface cover
1310J77 and to_ identify geologic structures. $^Band 5 (0.6 to 0.7 *Ymm)
1320J77 is useful for defining cultural and topographic features and for
1330J77 classifying different types of green vegetation with full ground cover.
1340J77 $^Band 6 (0.7 to 0.8 *Ymm) is particularly suited to_ identify differences
1350J77 in land use and to_ sense the amount of green biomass in vegetation.
1360J77 $^Band 7 (0.8 to 1.1 *Ymm) is effective for land-water
1370J77 boundary delineations and soil-crop contrasts. $^Within each
1380J77 \0MSS band are detectors whose function is to_ receive the energy reflected
1390J77 from ground feartures and to_ convert this radiation into electrical
1400J77 signals that_ can be recorded on a magnetic tape on the spacecraft
1410J77 or telemetered back to earth. ^These signals are ultimately reproduced
1420J77 in the LANDSAT imagery product as a series of "picture elements"
1430J77 or "pixels" each representing an area of about 80 metres square
1440J77 on the earth*'s surface. ^In other words, ground features or objects
1450J77 less than 80 metres square in size are not likely to_ be detected by
1460J77 the current LANDSAT sensors. $^What distinguishes one radiation
1470J77 signal from another as it reaches the detectors is its level of
1480J77 intensity. ^Each 80 by 80 metre area of the earth*'s surface has
1490J77 a variety of components with different wavelengths. ^Some pixels,
1500J77 such as those pertaining to extensive features like oceans, forests,
1510J77 deserts, wheatfields, \0etc. will have a high degree of uniformity.
1520J77 ^Others for example, coastlines, suburbs, mixed, croplands,
1530J77 may be highly varied in composition. ^Depending on the nature
1540J77 of each 80 by 80 metre area and the wavelengths reflected by its various
1550J77 components, the level of intensity of the composite signal emanating
1560J77 from that_ area will be stronger or weaker as it reaches the detectors.
1570J77 ^Because of the different sensitivities of the four \0MSS bands
1580J77 to the various wavelengths represented within each signal, the intensity
1590J77 level of that_ signal will be "sensed" and recorded differently
1600J77 in each of the four bands. ^The full range of intensities sensedby
1610J77 the \0MSS detectors on LANDSAT-1 and 2 can be transmitted
1620J77 to the ground in 64 distinct intensity levels. ^It is the recording
1630J77 and analysis of these different levels of intensity and their identification
1640J77 with the features and areas they represent on the ground that
1650J77 provide the basis for remote sensing of earth resources. $^The
1660J77 \0RBV cameras operate on a different principle. $^Three
1670J77 television cameras simultaneoulsly photograph the same portion of the earth
1680J77 in three different spectral bands, which are: $^Band 1
1690J77 (green) 0.46 to 0.60 *Ymm. $Band 2 (red) 0.57 to 0.68 *Ymm.
1700J77 $Band 3 (near infrared) 0.66 to 0.82 *Ymm. $^While operating,
1710J77 the cameras photograph a 185 by 185 \0km area every 25 seconds.
1720J77 ^Because the satellite moves only about 165 \0km in 25 seconds, every
1730J77 185 \0km square scene has an overlap of 18.5 \0km with the next scene.
1740J77 $^In the early orbits of LANDSAT-1 the \0RBV system generated
1750J77 data of excellent quality. ^However, as a result of a
1760J77 circuit failure within weeks after launch, the \0RBV system ceased
1770J77 to_ function. ^Although the \0RBV on LANDSAT-2 is in working order,
1780J77 it is being held in reserve for possible special or emergency use.
1790J77 $^The LANDSATS also serve as communication satellites to_ relay
1800J77 hydrological, meteorological, seismographic and other environmental
1810J77 data from remote unmanned data collecting platforms on the ground to central
1820J77 receiving ground stations elsewhere. ^The function of these
1830J77 in-situ ground platforms is to_ provide continuous readings of phenomena
1840J77 such as water level, streamflow, tide, rainfall, snow depth, temperature
1850J77 \0etc. in areas where direct and frequent human observation
1860J77 is difficult or uneconomic. ^The platforms can be situated in
1870J77 rarely frequented places on land and water, and equipped with upto ten
1880J77 sensing devices.*#
        **[no. of words = 02009**]

        **[txt. j78**]
0010J78 **<*3Nearer to the Fusion Switch-on**> $^Nuclear fusion promises
0020J78 us a new, inherently safe source of energy using cheap, readily available
0030J78 fuels. ^Believed to_ be the source of the Sun*'s energy, it has
0040J78 been demonstrated on Earth in a violent and uncontrolled way in the
0050J78 hydrogen bomb. ^But to_ benefit mankind, fusion must be controlled and
0060J78 contained in coveniently sized reactors. $^Fusion of two light atomic
0070J78 nuclei to_ form a heavier nucleus releases binding energy, but the problem
0080J78 of making them fuse together is extremely hard. ^They each
0090J78 have a positive electric charge, so there is a repulsive electrostatic
0100J78 force between them which increases as they get closer together. ^One
0110J78 way of giving them sufficient energy to_ overcome this is to_
0120J78 heat the fuel to very high temperatures of 100 million or more kelvin.
0130J78 ^Well below these temperatures all matter is in the so called plasma
0140J78 state, that_ is, a mixture of positively-charged nuclei, or ions
0141J78 and negatively charged electrons.
0150J78 $^To_ obtain an overall gain in energy from fusion reactions, the number
0160J78 of nuclei present in a given space and the time for which they are maintained
0170J78 at the necessary temperature must exceed certain minimum values.
0180J78 ^The simplest fusion reaction involves the nuclei of the two hydrogen
0190J78 isotopes deuterium and tritium (diagram 1). ^The amount of deuterim
0200J78 in ordinary water is so enormous that there is enough to_ last
0210J78 mankind thousands of millions of years. ^Tritium, however, is not
0220J78 a naturally occurring element, and it has to_ be manufactured in a
0230J78 secondary reaction which involves surrounding the plasma region with
0240J78 lithium. ^The reserves of lithium in the crust of the Earth will
0250J78 last for several thousand years. $^Long-term availability of
0260J78 these cheap fuels is the main inducement for many countries to_ undertake
0270J78 fusion research programmes. ^In all of them, devices of the
0280J78 so-called tokamak type are receiving most attention. ^The tokamak
0290J78 pioneered in the \0USSR became prominent in 1969, and in the following
0300J78 year a joint Anglo-Soviet experiment confirmed that the system
0310J78 holds the most promise of achieving a dense enough high-temperature
0320J78 plasma, confined in such a way as to_ isolate it from the walls of the
0330J78 apparatus for relatively long times. $^The tokamak is simple. ^In
0331J78 it plasma is heated and confined in a toroidal vacuum chamber, known as
0340J78 the torus. ^The main way of creating and heating the plasma is to_ pass
0350J78 a large current through the chamber, typically between several thousand
0360J78 and a few million amperes. ^This is done by linking the torus with
0370J78 a transformer core, the plasma itself forming a single turn secondary
0380J78 winding. $^A much more difficult task is to_ isolate the heated
0390J78 plasma from all surrounding matter, for such contact would rapidly cool
0400J78 it and prevent fusion reactions. ^Magnetic fields seem to_ provide the
0410J78 best means of isolating the plasma but the main difficulty has been to_
0420J78 find the shape and strength of magnetic field needed. $^In the tokamak
0430J78 system the field has two components (diagram 2): the current in the plasma
0440J78 produces one field, called the poloidal field, while coils encircling
0450J78 the torus produce a much stronger toroidal field. ^Together they
0451J78 produce a helical field which prevents the plasma particles
0460J78 from rapidly escaping to the container walls. ^At first, tokamaks
0470J78 were small and could not be expected to_ develop the conditions
0480J78 needed in a fusion reactor, but more recent ones have produced
0490J78 a consistent pattern of encouraging results; with their increasing size,
0500J78 hotter and denser plasmas have been confined for longer times.
0510J78 ^To_ see whether they can be scaled up to reactor size, a series
0520J78 of progressively larger machines is being built and each step produces
0530J78 plasma conditions closer to those required to_ get energy out.
0540J78 $^At Culham Laboratory, the \0UK centre for fusion research,
0550J78 the largest tokamak in western Europe has recently started operating.
0560J78 ^In this device, known as \0DITE (standing for Diverter and Injection
0570J78 Tokamak Experiment) the toroidal vacuum chamber, with a
0580J78 major diameter of 2.2 metres and a minor one of 0.56 metre is linked with
0590J78 a large transformer core. ^By passing a current through the transformer
0600J78 primary windings, a current of 250,000 amperes is induced in the
0610J78 hydrogen gas in the torus, creating a high-temperature plasma. ^This
0620J78 current also produces one component of the confining magnetic field,
0630J78 and the field from 16 coils spaced evenly around the torus completes
0640J78 the magnetic trap. $*<*3More Heat*> $^Temperatures
0650J78 of more than 10 million kelvin have been obtained in \0DITE for about
0660J78 5 milliseconds, but the main attribute of \0DITE is its versatility.
0670J78 ^In addition to producing hotter and denser plasma, Culham
0680J78 scientists are investigating areas crucial to future large tokamaks.
0690J78 ^They are studying the practicability of providing more heat by injecting
0710J78 energetic neutral
0720J78 atoms into the plasma. ^This is needed because the heating current
0730J78 becomes less effective at very high temperatures, for the resistance
0740J78 of the plasma goes down as the temperature goes up. ^It is
0750J78 done by injecting beams of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms through the
0760J78 magnetic field. ^These atoms are ionized in the plasma and the
0770J78 ions impart their energy to the cooler plasma ions. ^Injectors
0780J78 now in use on \0DITE are designed to_ double the plasma temperature;
0790J78 two more powerful injectors will be installed later to_ raise the
0800J78 temperature even more. $^It is essential to_ keep plasma free
0810J78 from impurities, because they can cause serious losses of energy.
0820J78 ^*Culham scientists will study this problem using the diverter, a unique
0830J78 feature of the \0Dite apparatus. ^Two coils produce a field
0840J78 which locally distorts the main toroidal field so that field lines
0850J78 are diverted into a special pumping chamber and then returned to the torus.
0860J78 ^Plasma from the outer surface of the heated gas in the torus follows
0880J78 the field lines. ^It contains impurities from the torus walls
0890J78 and is 'scraped off' by the diverter and pumped away before the impurities
0900J78 can drift into the main plasma and poison it. ^The \0Dite
0910J78 diverter has markedly improved the plasma without upsetting its equilibrium.
0920J78 $^The major cost of the fusion reactor is likely to_
0930J78 lie in the confining magnetic field, so the efficiency with which
0940J78 the fields are employed is an important factor. ^The ratio, B of
0950J78 the pressure in the plasma to the pressure exerted by the magnetic
0960J78 field, is a measure of this effciency. ^A second, much smaller
0970J78 tokamak has been built at Culham to_
0980J78 study ways of increasing B either by compressing the plasma by rapidly
0990J78 increasing the toroidal magnetic field or by the use of plasmas that_
1000J78 are not circular in cross section. ^This machine, known as TOSCA,
1010J78 has produced a range of plasma densities at temperatures of
1020J78 5,000,000 \0K. ^During compression experiments, the plasma density,
1030J78 temperature and confinement time all roughly double. $*<*3Alternatiive
1040J78 field Arrangements*> $^There are several other fusion experiments
1050J78 at Culham besides the tokamaks, including devices known as the reversed-field
1060J78 pinch and stellarators. ^The former is similar to the tokamak
1070J78 but makes more efficient use of the magnetic field. $^In tokamaks
1080J78 the toroidal magnetic field is much greater than the poloidal
1090J78 field, but in the reversed-field pinch the two fields have about the same
1100J78 magnitude and the toroidal field is reversed in the outer regions
1110J78 of the plasma. $^Plasma confinement in the reversed-field pinch
1120J78 arrangement is studied in the \0HBTX *=1 apparatus. ^In this
1130J78 device, plasma is heated and confined in a quartz glass torus which
1140J78 has major and minor diameters of 2 metres and 12 centimetres.
1150J78 ^To_ produce the poloidal magnetic field and to_ heat the plasma we
1160J78 pass a current of about 100,000 amperes through the plasma.
1170J78 ^The toroidal field outside the plasma is in the opposite direction to that_
1180J78 trapped within the plasma, and is produced by external coils.
1190J78 ^High density plasmas at temperatures of 400,000 to 500,000 \0K are
1200J78 obtained. $^From studies carried out on the design of a reactor
1210J78 based on the reversed-field pinch, it appears to_ be fully practicable
1220J78 alternative to the tokamak. ^Design studies are well advanced for
1230J78 a large experiment as a successor to \0HBTX *=1 to_ confirm the way
1240J78 that_ plasmas more like expected in a reactor can be confined.
1250J78 $^In the stellarator arrangement the toroidal magnetic field is produced
1260J78 in the conventional way while the second field is developed
1270J78 by passing a direct current through another set of external conductors
1280J78 arranged to_ allow continuous instead of pulsed operation.
1290J78 ^The complex field that_ this produces forms a set of nested,
1300J78 closed magnetic surfaces that_ twist around the plasma axis. ^The
1310J78 direct current operation offers a big advantage in a reactor.
1320J78 $^The stellarator at Culham, known as \0CLEO, can be operated as
1330J78 a tokamak when the six helical conductors are not energized and enables
1340J78 us to_ compare, in the same torus, the way the plasma is confined
1350J78 in a stellarator, with ohmic heating, and in a tokamak. ^These
1360J78 experiments show that the confinement properties of the stellarator
1370J78 are two to three times better than in the tokamak for the same gas
1380J78 current; this is a very favourable result for stellarators without ohmic
1390J78 heating currents. $*<*3Large Scale*> $^In the next
1400J78 generation of experiments the main objective will be to_ produce
1410J78 plasma conditions much nearer to those needed for a fusion reactor.
1420J78 ^The experiments will therefore be on a much larger scale and
1430J78 consequently much more expensive. $^Fusion research conducted within
1440J78 the European Economic Community is co-ordinated by Euratom,
1450J78 and it has been agreed that a large tokamak capable of reaching near-reactor
1460J78 conditions should be built as a joint European venture. ^Accordingly,
1470J78 an international design team has been working at Culham
1480J78 Laboratory since September 1973 on the design of a device known as
1490J78 \0JET (Joint European Torus). ^Both the size of \0JET
1500J78 and its plasma current of 3,800,000 amperes are about 10 times greater
1510J78 than present designs, the toroidal vacuum chamber being 6 metres
1520J78 in major diameter with an elliptical cross-section of 4.2 metres
1530J78 by 2.5 metres. ^The whole apparatus measures about 10 metres
1540J78 cube, weighs about 2,000 tonnes and will take five years to_ build.
1550J78 $^Apparatus of similar size is proposed for the American,
1560J78 Russian and Japanese fusion programmes. ^The \0JET
1570J78 design has been accepted by all the partners of Euratom and the
1580J78 project now awaits approval by the Council of Ministers. ^However,
1590J78 there have been difficulties in reaching agreement on where
1600J78 \0JET will be constructed and the project cannot proceed until
1610J78 this situation is resolved. ^*Culham Laboratory is one of
1620J78 the four proposed sites for this vitally important project.
1630J78 $*<*3Fusion Reactors*> $^In parallel with the plasma heating
1640J78 and confinement research programme, studies are being made on the
1650J78 design of fusion reactors for producing electricity. ^They
1660J78 embody the latest technology, of course, and identify the most promising
1670J78 and feasible prospective system. $^Some 80 per cent of the
1680J78 nuclear energy released by a fusion reactor using deuterium-tritium
1690J78 plasma will appear as energetic neutrons that_ are not confined by
1700J78 the magnetic field. ^These must be attenuated in a 'blanket'
1710J78 surrounding the plasma. ^A second but equally important requirement
1720J78 is that the neutrons be used to_ breed tritium for fuelling the reactor,
1730J78 so the blanket will contain lithium. ^A blanket of lithium
1740J78 one metre thick is enough to_ absorb most of the neutron energy,
1750J78 which will heat it up; this heat will then be transferred to_ operate
1760J78 steam turbines to_ produce electricity. $^The cofining
1770J78 magnetic field will account for a large part of the reactor.
1780J78 ^Magnetic fields approaching 10 tesla will be needed and economic considerations
1790J78 indicate that superconducting magnets must be used.
1800J78 ^Because they will operate at an extremely low temperature, around
1810J78 4 \0K it will be necessary to_ have another shield outside the
1820J78 blanket. ^It could be made of lead and borated water, in which
1830J78 case it would need to_ be about 0.8 metre thick. $^A general
1840J78 design for a reactor to_ produce 2,000 \0MW of electrical power, based
1850J78 on the tokamak and with an elliptical cross section plasma similar
1860J78 to that_ envisaged for \0JET, has already been produced at Culham.
1870J78 ^A lot of attention has been paid to the problem of providing
1880J78 access for maintenance and repair particularly difficult with a torus.*#
        **[no. of words = 02003**]

        **[txt. j79**]
0010J79 **<*3CHAPTER*0 *=7**> $**<*3SURVEYING: VERTICAL MEASUREMENTS*0**>
0020J79 $7-1. *3Levelling*0: ^This branch of surveying deals with
0030J79 determining the relative heights of various points on the surface of the
0040J79 earth. ^Various terms used in levelling are explained in figure 7.1 and
0050J79 are shortly discussed below. **[figure**] $1) ^Level surface is any
0060J79 surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth. ^It is always
0070J79 a curved surface. ^Each point on such a level surface is equidistant
0080J79 from the centre of the earth. $2) ^Level line is any line lying
0090J79 in a level surface. ^It is a curved line. $3) ^Horizontal surface
0100J79 or plane is a plane tangential to any level surface. ^All points on
0110J79 it are coplanar. $4) ^Horizontal line is a line lying in any horizontal
0120J79 plane. ^It is a straight line; and is tangential to the level surface
0130J79 or line. $5) ^Vertical line at any point is a line normal to level
0140J79 surface through that_ point. ^Any vertical line passes through the centre
0150J79 of the earth. ^Stretched position of the string of a plumb bob gives
0160J79 the vertical line. $6) ^A datum surface or line is any arbitrary
0170J79 assumed level surface or line from which the vertical heights are related.
0180J79 ^It is a reference surface or a reference line. ^It is a particular
0190J79 level surface or line. ^The mean sea level (\0M.S.L.) at
0200J79 Karachi (then in the undivided country) has been chosen as datum for all
0210J79 important levelling work in India. $7) ^The elevation of a point
0220J79 is vertical distance from the datum to that_ point. ^It may be plus or
0230J79 minus depending upon, whether the point is above or below the datum.
0240J79 ^It is also known as 'reduced level' (\0R.L.) of that_ point. $8)
0250J79 ^The difference in elevation or height between any two points is the vertical
0260J79 distance between level surfaces passing through those points.
0270J79 $9) ^Bench mark (\0B.M.) is a fixed reference point whose elevation
0280J79 is known. $7-2. *3Instruments*0: ^The instruments used in levelling
0290J79 work consist some levelling instrument and the levelling staff.
0300J79 ^Many types of levelling instruments (many a times referred to as 'level'
0310J79 only) are available. ^These are dumpy level, Wye level, Cooks level
0320J79 Cushings level, Indian Office Pattern (\0I.O.P.) level \0etc.^Dumpy
0330J79 level is in general use and we shall discuss about this level in
0340J79 more detail. $^A photograph of a dumpy level is shown in figure 7.2
0350J79 (A). Figure 7.2 (B) shows the various details of the dumpy level. $^The
0360J79 dumpy level consists mainly of a telescope (2) which can be rotated
0370J79 in a plane. ^The requirement is that it should rotate in a horizontalplane.
0380J79 ^At one end of the telescope, eye piece (3) is situated and the
0390J79 other end carries the object glass (11). ^Near the eyepiece is situated
0400J79 a diaphragm (4). ^It consists of horse hairs in vertical and horizontal
0410J79 positions and form a cross. ^It is also known as cross hairs.
0420J79 ^Telescope can be directed towards the levelling staff and focussed on
0430J79 it by the focussing screw (5) situated on it. ^The levelling instrument
0440J79 can be fixed on to the tripod stand through the bottom plate (1).
0450J79 ^There are three foot screws (10) forming an equilateral triangle in
0460J79 plan. ^The inclination of the telescope with the plate can be changed
0470J79 if desired, by means of these foot screws. ^A longitudinal bubble tube
0480J79 (7) **[figure**] is mounted on to the telescope and is parallel to it.
0490J79 ^By noting down position of the bubble in this tube, the telescope can
0500J79 be brought in a horizontal plane, and thus the instrument can be levelled.
0510J79 ^The inclination of this tube can be relatively changed with the telescope
0520J79 by means of capstan headed screw (8). ^This is necessary while
0530J79 carrying out the permanent adjustments of the level. ^Similarly a
0540J79 cross bubble tube (9) is also provided on the telescope. ^A ray shade
0550J79 (6) can be slided on to the object glass to_ avoid glare. $^Other terms
0560J79 in levelling work as related to the instrument and noting the observations
0570J79 are shortly discussed below. $1) ^The line of collimation is the
0580J79 line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs of the diaphragm to
0590J79 the optical centre of the object glass, and its continuation. ^It is also
0600J79 known as the 'line of sight.' ^The observations on levelling staff
0610J79 along this line are to_ be taken. $2) ^Axis of telescope is the line
0620J79 joining the optical centres of the eye piece and the objective. ^Line
0630J79 of collimation and telescopic axis should be colinear. $3) ^Axis
0640J79 of the bubble tube is an imaginary line tangential to the curved bubble
0650J79 tube at its centre. ^It is also termed as the bubble line. ^When the
0660J79 bubble is in centre, this line is horizontal. ^Line of collimation
0670J79 and the bubble tube axis should be parallel to each other. $4)
0680J79 ^The axis of rotation is the centre line through the levelling instrument
0690J79 about which it rotates. ^It should be vertical; so that the telescope
0700J79 rotates in a horizontal plane. $5) ^Back sight (\0B.S.) or
0710J79 the back sight reading is the first reading taken after the instrument
0711J79 is positioned and the work is started from that_ position. ^It
0720J79 is usually taken on a bench mark or a change point, whose \0R.L. is
0730J79 known. ^It is considered as plus reading. $6) ^Fore sight (\0F.S.)
0740J79 or the fore sight reading is the last staff reading taken from a particular
0750J79 position of a level. ^It is treated as a minus reading. ^It
0760J79 is usually taken on a change point or the bench mark. ^It generally
0770J79 denotes the shift of the instrument. $^Apart from these definitions at
0780J79 5 and 6 above, even though the levelling work from the same position of
0790J79 the level is being continued; but the levelling page gets fully entered;
0800J79 then merely for sake of convenience last reading there should be entered
0810J79 as fore sight on that_ page. ^Same reading should be entered as the
0820J79 back sight on the new page and the work continued. $7) ^Intermediate
0830J79 sight (\0I.S.) is any other staff reading on point of unknown elevation.
0840J79 ^Thus all staff readings, other than \0B.S. and \0F.S. are the
0850J79 intermediate readings. ^These are treated as minus readings. $8)
0860J79 ^Change point (\0C.P.) is a point (on ground or so), which denotes shift
0870J79 of instrument. ^On this point two readings must be taken; one of
0880J79 them being the \0F.S. from the old position of level and the other being
0890J79 the \0B.S. from the new position of the instrument. ^The change
0900J79 points are inevitable when the sight distance is very large, so that reading
0910J79 can not be seen clearly and also when the ground is undulating.
0920J79 ^A well defined object like boundary stone, rail \0etc. should be chosen
0930J79 as a change point. $9) ^The height of the instrument (\0H.I.) is
0940J79 the elevation or \0R.L. of the plane of collimation, when the instrument
0950J79 is perfectly levelled. $10) ^The sight distance is the distance between
0960J79 the instrument and the levelling staff. $11) ^A station is a
0970J79 point whose elevation is to_ be determined. ^The staff should be therefore
0980J79 placed on that_ point. ^It should not be misunderstood to_ be the
0990J79 point where the level is set up. $^The other important item used in levelling
1000J79 work is the levelling staff. ^The metric staff is now in common
1010J79 use. ^Usually it is 4 to 4.5 \0m. long and is made in three lengths
1020J79 being folded in each other to make it compact and handy. ^Such a levelling
1030J79 staff as seen through the telescope is shown in figure 7.3. ^It
1040J79 is seen inverted, and the readings go on increasing from top to bottom
1050J79 as shown in the figure. ^A few readings are marked on the staff for the
1060J79 sake of understanding the use. ^Have yourself enough practice of reading
1070J79 the staff correctly. ^The divisions on staff are 5 \0mm wide and
1080J79 each alternate division is painted black on white background. $7-3.
1090J79 *3Temporary adjustments of dumpy levelO: ^The tripod stand is placed
1100J79 on firm ground at convenient place, wherefrom large number of points canbe
1110J79 sighted. ^The dumpy level is taken out from the box and is fitted
1120J79 on to the top of the tripod stand. ^We have to_ carry out certain adjustments
1130J79 before taking observations. ^These are called as the 'temporary
1140J79 adjustments'. ^These are necessary at each setting of the level.
1150J79 ^There is no need of centering the level at any station, and should be
1160J79 placed at any commanding position. $^Following are the adjustments--
1170J79 $(1) Levelling of the instrument-- (A) Leg adjustment-- ^Two legs are
1180J79 firmly placed in ground. ^The third leg is moved both, radially and circumferentially,
1190J79 to_ make the plane of the instrument roughly levelled.
1200J79 ^This can be checked by observing the main bubble and the cross bubble coming
1210J79 roughly near to centres of their run. ^If a circular bubble tube
1220J79 is provided, this bubble should be brought roughly to its centre by the
1230J79 leg adjustment. ^When this is properly done, a lot of time is saved
1240J79 while correctly levelling the instrument. $(B) levelling by foot screws--
1250J79 ^The principle is that, when the instrument is levelled on any two
1260J79 mutually perpendicular lines, it will remain in a horizontal plane at
1270J79 any of its position. ^All the foot screws should be initially brought
1280J79 to centre of their run. ^The telescope is made parallel to any two foot
1290J79 screws. ^These foot screws are turned both inwards or both outwards,
1300J79 till the longitudinal bubble on telescope comes to its centre. ^Then
1310J79 the telescope is rotated on to the third foot screw. ^In this position,
1320J79 it will be perpendicular to its first position. ^Turn this foot
1330J79 screw alone to_ bring the bubble in centre. ^Move back to original position
1340J79 and have a few repetitions, so that bubble remains in centre at
1350J79 both the positions. ^Then, if the instrument is in perfect condition
1360J79 (\0i.e. the level is in permanent adjustments), the bubble will remain at
1370J79 the centre for any position of the telescope, and thus will revolve in
1380J79 a horizontal plane. $(2) ^Focussing the eye piece and object glass--
1390J79 A white paper is held in front of the object glass at about 15-20 \0cm.
1400J79 ^The eye piece is rotated to and fro, till the cross hairs of the diaphragm
1410J79 are distinctly seen. ^Each person may have separate position
1420J79 of the eye piece for this purpose. ^The instrument is now ready for taking
1430J79 observations. ^Focussing of the objective is to_ be done for each
1440J79 of the observations. ^The telescope now is directed towards the object
1450J79 (levelling staff). ^Look to it through the two aimers provided on telescope.
1460J79 ^This is very much essential, otherwise a lot of time is usually
1470J79 wasted for sighting the staff. ^Turn the focussing screw on the telescope;
1480J79 while looking through it. ^Usually the staff will now be in
1490J79 the vision. ^Make this habit to_ save your valuable time. ^It helps
1500J79 a lot. ^A slight rotation of telescope may be found necessary till you
1510J79 get enough pratice. ^When the focussing is carried out, the staff divisions
1520J79 are seen distinctly and clearly. ^In this case the parallax
1530J79 gets removed. ^Then, the relative displacement between the reading and
1540J79 the diaphragm wire is absent, when the eye is moved up and down. ^The
1550J79 reading can be observed and recorded properly. $7-4. \0*3I.O.P.*0
1560J79 *3Level*0: ^In an Indian Office Pattern level, the telescope is
1570J79 provided with a screw at the bottom near the eye piece. ^When this
1580J79 is moved up or down, the inclination of the telescope gets changed. ^Hence
1590J79 it is a form of a tilting level. ^The footscrews are generally replaced
1600J79 by the ball and socket arrangement. ^With its aid the instrument
1610J79 is roughly levelled, by observing the bubble in a round tube coming
1620J79 at its centre. ^The main bubble then may come near to its central position.
1630J79 ^Each time, while taking reading this bubble is to_ be brought
1640J79 to centre. ^For this, turn the telescope to the object. ^Turn the above
1650J79 mentioned screw up and down and bring the main bubble at the centre.
1660J79 ^Focus the object glass and take the reading. ^Each time this operation
1670J79 is necessary. \0^*I.O.P. level can also be used to_ determine the grades
1680J79 betweem points.*#
        **[no. of words = 02005**]

        **[txt. j80**]
0010J80 **<*3DIGITAL LOGIC*0**> $^It was India that_ gave the world
0020J80 ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each
0030J80 symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value.
0040J80 ^This decimal system for counting has been so widely adopted throughout
0050J80 our present civilisation that we rarely consider the possibilities of other
0060J80 number systems. ^Early atttempts to_ design electronic calculating
0070J80 machines were, therefore, based on this system but the problem of defining
0080J80 and maintaining ten distinct levels proved to_ be so great that the
0090J80 decimal system was soon replaced by a simple binary system with only
0100J80 two levels or digits called 0 and 1. ^In binary arithmetic a quantity
0110J80 either exists (1) or does not exist (0) and this type of decision making
0120J80 is relatively easy and fast. ^For example, it is easy to_ decide whether
0130J80 a lamp is ON or OFF despite wide voltage variations in the
0140J80 supply line. ^Since the transistor can change from fully conducting
0150J80 to cut off condition in less than one millionth of a second, it can
0160J80 make at least a million such decisions per second. $*<*3The Binary
0170J80 System*> ^In the decimal system, we first count units upto
0180J80 9 and then for the next order we go back to unit 0, but insert a 1 in the
0190J80 second order column to_ indicate that we have counted through all the
0200J80 units once. ^This gives us 10. ^To_ count with the binary scale,
0210J80 we follow exactly the same procedure using only the numbers 0 and 1.
0220J80 ^After count 1, we have used all our units and must move to the second order
0230J80 column to_ indicate that we have counted through our scale once.
0240J80 ^Thus the number 2 in the decimal system is indicated by 10 (called one-zero
0250J80 and not ten) in the binary scale. ^The next count 3 will be 11
0260J80 (one-one). ^Now we have again used all our units and so for the next
0270J80 count, we go back to 0 and put a 1 in the third order column, giving
0280J80 100 (one-zero-zero) as the binary equivalent of 4.
0290J80 $^Table 1 gives the equivalent binary nembers for decimal numbers from 0
0300J80 to 15. ^Note that the binary number 10 is equal to decimal 2 which is 2*;1**;;
0310J80 binary 100 equals to decimal 4 or 2*;2**;; binary 1000 equals decimal
0320J80 8 or 2*;3**;. ^Similarly decimal 64 will be equal to binary 2*;6**;.
0330J80 every additional order of binary nembers corresponds to an additional
0340J80 power of 2. ^This fact is used in converting a binary number to
0350J80 its decimal equivalent. ^For example take the binary number 11010.
0360J80 ^This is equivalent to 2*;4**;+2*;3**; + 0 + 2*;1**; + 0 or 16 + 8 + 0
0370J80 + 2 + 0, which equals 26. ^Conversely, a decimal number can be converted
0380J80 to binary by repeatedly dividing it by 2; $26 *Ms 2 = 13 + remainder
0390J80 of 0 $13 *Ms 2 = 6 + remainder of 1 $6 *Ms 2 = 3 + remainder of 0
0400J80 $3 *Ms 2 = 1 + remainder of 1 $1 *Ms 2 = 0 + remainder of 1
0410J80 1 *Ms 2 = 0 + remainder of 1 $*Ms 26 (decimal) = 11010 (binary).
0420J80 $^All digital equipment, simple or complex, is constructed from
0430J80 just a few basic circuits called logic elements. ^There are two basic
0440J80 types of digital logic circuits, decision-making and memory.
0450J80 ^Decision making logic elements monitor binary inputs and produce outputs
0460J80 based on the input states and the operational characteristics of the l0gic
0470J80 element.. ^Memory elements are used to_ store binary information.
0480J80 ^To_ make logic decisions, three basic logic circuits (called gates)
0490J80 are used. ^These are the OR circuit, the AND circuit and
0500J80 the NOT circuit. $*<*3The OR Circuit*>
0510J80 ^This basic circuit has two or more inputs and a single output. ^The
0520J80 inputs and the output can each be at any one of the two states 0 or 1.
0530J80 ^The circuit is so arranged that the output is in state 1, when any
0540J80 of the inputs is in state 1, \0i.e., the output is 1 when the input A or
0550J80 input B or input C is 1. ^The circuit can be illustrated by the
0560J80 analogy shown in \0Fig. 1a. ^A battery supplies a lamp L through
0570J80 three switches in parallel. ^The switches are the inputs to the
0580J80 lamp; the light from the lamp represents the circuit output. $^If
0590J80 we define an open switch as a 0 state and a closed switch as a 1 state
0600J80 for the inputs and no light as 0 state and a glowing lamp as a 1 state
0610J80 for the output, we can list the various combinations of switch states and
0620J80 the resulting output states. ^This list is called a "truth table"
0630J80 or a "function table" and is shown in \0Fig. 1(c).
0640J80 ^From the truth table it can be seen that all switches must be open (0
0650J80 state) for the light to_ be off (output 0 state). ^The lamp will be
0660J80 on (1. state) if switch A or switch B or switch C is on (1 state).
0670J80 $^This type of circuit is called an OR gate and its symbolic representation
0680J80 is shown in \0Fig. 1(b), which shows an OR gate with 3 inputs.
0690J80 ^The OR function is expressed mathematically by the equation:
0700J80 ^*L = A+B+C (read as L equals A or B or C). ^Thus, the OR
0710J80 gate is used, to_ make logic decision on whether or not at least one
0720J80 of several inputs is in 1 state. $*<*3The AND Circuit*>
0730J80 $^This circuit also has several inputs and only one output, but in this
0740J80 case the circuit output is at a logical state 1 only if all inputs are
0750J80 in the logical 1 state simultaneously. ^This is illustrated in \0Fig.
0760J80 2. which also gives the symbol and the truth table. ^Here, lamp
0770J80 L lights (1 state) only if switch A and switch B and switch
0780J80 C all are closed (1 state) at the same time. ^The lamp does not light
0790J80 if any of the switches is open. ^Thus the AND gate makes the logic
0800J80 decision, on whether or not several inputs are all in 1 state at the
0810J80 same time. ^The mathematical expression for an AND function
0820J80 is L = A.B.C. (read as L equals A and B and C).
0821J80 $*<*3The NOT Circuit*> ^This circuit
0830J80 has a single input and a single output and is arranged so that the
0840J80 output state is always opposite to the input state. ^It is illustrated
0850J80 in \0Fig. 3 which also gives its symbol and the truth table. ^If
0860J80 the switch is open, (0 state) the lamp is on (1 state); if the switch is
0870J80 closed, (1 state), the lamp goes off (0 state). ^This operation of making
0880J80 the output state opposite to that_ of the input is called *3inversion
0890J80 and a circuit designed to_ do that_ is called an *3inverter.
0900J80 ^The mathematical expression for an inverter function is L *Ms A
0910J80 (read as L equals not A). $*<"*3NOR*0" and "*3NAND*0" *3Gates*0*>
0920J80 $^A "NOT" circuit can be combined with an "OR" gate or
0930J80 "AND" gate so that inversion occurs together with the gate function.
0940J80 ^These are illustrated in \0Fig. 4 and 5, which also show the truth tables
0950J80 and the schematic symbols. ^Because of ease of fabrication and convenience
0960J80 of use in practical circuits the "NOR" and "NAND" gates
0970J80 are much more common than the "OR" and "AND" gates. 3*<*3Fan-in
0980J80 and Fan-out*> ^The number of inputs to a gate is called the *3fan-in.
0990J80 ^In the above examples, the gates have a fan-in of three.
1000J80 ^In actual use, the output of a gate may be required to_ drive gates of
1010J80 following circuits. ^The number of subsequent gates that_ the output
1020J80 of a particular gate can drive is called its *3fan-out capability.
1030J80 \0^TTL logic gates have fan-out of eight to ten gates. $*<*3Types
1040J80 of Logic*> $^A number of circuit techniques have been evolved
1050J80 to_ make logic circuits. ^Although their functions may be identical,
1060J80 logic families can be distinguished by how they perform these functions.
1070J80 ^Some of these are: $1. Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (\0DCTL)>
1080J80 $2. Resistor-transistor Logic (\0RTL). $3. Diode-Transistor
1090J80 Logic (\0DTL)> $4. Transistor-transistor
1100J80 Logic (\0TTL). $5. Emitter-Coupled Logic (\0ECL).
1110J80 $^Though each one of these has its own advantages, the Transistor-Transistor
1120J80 Logic (\0TTL or \0T*;2**;L) has by far become the
1130J80 most popular and is used widely. ^Its popularity is primarily the result
1140J80 of its extremely low cost and off-the-shelf availability of a wide
1150J80 variety of circuits. $^In most logic system, logic 1 and 0 are represented
1160J80 by voltage levels. ^If the most positive voltage level is defined
1170J80 to_ be the logical 1 state and the most negative voltage level is defined
1180J80 as 0 level, the system is known as positive logic. ^Negative logic
1190J80 is just the opposite, \0i.e., the most positive voltage is 0 and the
1200J80 most negative voltage is 1. $^The \0TTL is a positive logic system.
1210J80 ^An input voltage of 0.8 \0V or less is read as LOW (0) and an input
1220J80 voltage greater than 2 \0V but less than 5.5 \0V is read as HIGH
1230J80 (1). $^The circuit configuration of a typical NAND gate of the
1240J80 type used in popular 74 series is shown in \0Fig. 6. ^A multi-emitter
1250J80 transistor, which can be economically fabricated in monolithic form, isused
1260J80 as the input stage. ^An output stage using an active pull-up transistor
1270J80 (also known as Totem-Pole output) is added to_ give current gain
1280J80 and drive for switching in both directions. ^This output configuration
1290J80 results in faster switching speed and higher fan-out capabilility.
1300J80 $^In \0Fig. 6 input terminals A and B are normally at a HIGH (1)
1310J80 level if there are no external connections. ^When the voltage level
1320J80 at A or B is less than 2 \0V, the current supplied by R1 will flow
1330J80 out of the low input terminal, keeping transitor T2 and T4 turned off.
1340J80 ^Transistor T3, being forward biased by R2, conducts freely and the
1350J80 output voltage rises to supply voltage minus voltage drop across T3 and
1360J80 D. ^In other words when any of the input goes LOW (0) the output
1370J80 goes HIGH (1). ^If both inputs A and B are raised to a HIGH
1380J80 voltage level (or left unconnected) the base-emitter diodes of the
1390J80 input transistor T1 will be reverse biased. ^The current supplied by
1400J80 R1 will then flow through the base-collector diode of T1 turning on
1410J80 transistors T2 and T4 and turning off the transistor T3. ^The output
1420J80 is, therefore, LOW (0). ^In this state, the output can conduct
1430J80 through load via T4 to ground (or sink) a reasonable amount of current
1440J80 (\0approx. 16 \0mA). ^For this reason, \0TTL is sometimes referred
1450J80 to as "current sinking logic". $^In the regular \0TTL family,
1460J80 a current of about 1.6 \0mA flows through any input grounding circuit.
1470J80 ^In the event that grounding is done through a resistor, the value
1480J80 of this resistor should not exceed 500 Ohms to_ limit the voltage drop
1490J80 between the input terminal and ground below 0.8 volts. ^In practical
1500J80 circuits a resistance greater than 220 Ohms is seldom used to_ achieve
1510J80 an adequate safety margin from noise, spread in characteristics and variations
1520J80 of temperature. $^In some \0TTL devices, a protective diode
1530J80 is connected from each input to ground to_ protect the gate if the same
1540J80 is accidentally connected to a voltage of reverse polarity. ^The protective
1550J80 diodes also prevent high frequency ringing when long connecting
1560J80 leads are used with pulses of sharp rise time. $*<*3Open Collector
1570J80 Gates*> $^The type of output stage shown in \0Fig. 6 is called
1580J80 a Totem Pole output. ^It has the advantage of low output impedance
1590J80 in both logical states; but this circuit configuration is not well suited
1600J80 to the wire-AND logic connection. $^Wire-ANDIng simply
1610J80 means tying gate outputs together (\0Fig. 7) to_ obtain the AND
1620J80 functions. ^In this configuration there is a very good possibility that
1630J80 a single gate will have a LOW (0) output and all others will be HIGH
1640J80 (1). ^If the wire AND connections were implemented using gates
1650J80 with a Totem-Pole output stage, this single output stage in LOW
1660J80 (0) state would be required to_ sink the outputs of all other gates which
1670J80 may result in poor circuit performance and damage to the transistors.*#
        **[no. of words = 02022**]