F01   1 <#FROWN:F01\><h_><p_>Unearthing Dracula<p/>
F01   2 <p_>Tall, dark, and campy, vampires have long held sway over our 
F01   3 most sinister impulses. Here Herb Ritts photographs the stars on 
F01   4 the set of Francis Ford Coppola's new baroque <tf|>Dracula, and 
F01   5 Mary Gaitskill dissects the power of this age-old gooey 
F01   6 nightmare<p/><h/>
F01   7 <p_>He approaches slowly, with the grace and cold authority of an 
F01   8 expert seducer. His body is shrouded in black, and his eyes have 
F01   9 the paralyzing fascination of death. His victim, a frail beauty 
F01  10 reduced to incoherent high-pitched gasps of fright, waits in a 
F01  11 state of alertness and horror, yet she is swooning - her head 
F01  12 thrown back, her throat exposed in electrifying receptivity. There 
F01  13 is a pregnant moment, as if an unarticulated longing is about to 
F01  14 come to fruition. Then, sinking his fangs into her neck, he 
F01  15 penetrates and devours her.<p/>
F01  16 <p_>Really, it's <tf|>too corny, not to mention too sexist, for 
F01  17 sophisticated people like you and me. But sexist corn 
F01  18 notwithstanding, there it is: the vampire myth persists with the 
F01  19 tenacity of a spider, continually reemerging in varying guises that 
F01  20 range from the dire to the erotic to the goofy and back again. Be 
F01  21 it Bela Lugosi standing mute and icy in the graveyard or Elvira 
F01  22 camping it up between ads for the greatest hits of the seventies, 
F01  23 the vampire lurks at a complex intersection of human dilemma; his 
F01  24 myth is a great dark jewel that reveals another facet with each 
F01  25 turn. And he is about to walk again in Francis Ford Coppola's 
F01  26 version of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel, <tf|>Dracula, a sumptuous 
F01  27 retelling of the old, old story.<p/>
F01  28 <p_>This story is a bloody Kabuki comic about our fear of and 
F01  29 ambivalence toward our own nature, and the fragmentation that 
F01  30 results. It is a metaphor for maddeningly common human behavior; we 
F01  31 have all known (and been) psychic 'vampires,' people who, because 
F01  32 of their inability to internally 'get a life,' do all kinds of 
F01  33 things to feel more complete - like social climbing, marrying for 
F01  34 money, or augmenting hollow self-esteem by attacking someone 
F01  35 else's, to name a few. Today's pervasive celebrity worship is a 
F01  36 kind of mutual vampirism, in which the adoring masses and the 
F01  37 celebrity get their identity and power from each other, and thus 
F01  38 never fully become themselves. Almost all vampire movies, even the 
F01  39 silliest, deal with this stuff, playfully or intensely. Judging 
F01  40 from the screenplay for <tf_>Bram Stoker's Dracula<tf/>, written by 
F01  41 James V. Hart (author of <tf|>Hook), Coppola is going for the 
F01  42 intense.<p/>
F01  43 <p_>One of literature's first vampires appears in Coleridge's 
F01  44 weird, unfinished narrative poem, <tf|>Christabel, published in 
F01  45 1816. Camille Paglia, in an astute, erudite, and totally horny 
F01  46 essay, describes Coleridge's lesbian vampire Geraldine as nature's 
F01  47 own psycho slut from hell, <quote_>"the chthonian mother who eats 
F01  48 her children."<quote/> She's not the only one. In the old movies, 
F01  49 vampires hang out with swarms of insects, spiders, maggots, rats, 
F01  50 and bats - the deep-down ugly part of nature, lower-order 
F01  51 group-minded creatures that remind us of our connection with the 
F01  52 part of life that scares us: the brainless, monstrously gooey 
F01  53 primeval, the death-dealing predator, the heartless cycle of aging, 
F01  54 illness, death. In a word, the irrational, which is mirrored in our 
F01  55 emotions, and which typically overrides our brains.<p/>
F01  56 <p_>Cannily, Jim Hart included a scene from Stoker's original novel 
F01  57 that most other screen Draculas have omitted. In it, the virtuous 
F01  58 hero (Keanu Reeves! The ideal swooning beauty!) is swarmed and 
F01  59 bitten by Dracula's three 'brides' in a lush haunted bedchamber, a 
F01  60 realm of the undifferentiated primordial at which religion and 
F01  61 society shake their pale fingers in vain. These 'mothers' literally 
F01  62 do eat the young -Dracula feeds the brides by tossing them a live 
F01  63 baby. Winona Ryder, who stars as the film's heroine, Mina, says she 
F01  64 was grossed out by the scene: <quote_>"These women are played by 
F01  65 beautiful models and it should be sexy... but they're horrible, 
F01  66 like insects or spiders."<quote/> Exactly. At one point the film 
F01  67 reveals Dracula lying in his coffin as if it's a womb, covered with 
F01  68 placentalike slime, a perfect image of the conflation of life and 
F01  69 death and all that...<tf|>stuff they entail.<p/>
F01  70 <p_>We may fear the deep-down ugly, but it is part of who we are; 
F01  71 in trying to deny it, we divide ourselves and the world into 
F01  72 opposing factions. That on which we shut the door will come 
F01  73 knocking in some truly skanky forms, and we will always let it in, 
F01  74 because 'it' is us. Harold Bloom has referred to Coleridge's 
F01  75 heroine Christabel as <quote_>"a half-willing victim."<quote/> No 
F01  76 kidding. As Coleridge describes her, she is Virtue on two legs. 
F01  77 This type of purity is compelling but unlivable. Since the lady 
F01  78 Christabel, the feminine ideal of her day, is not allowed to even 
F01  79 imagine the ugly, cruel, predatory slut within, she will secretly 
F01  80 long for it and be sensually transfixed when it appears in the form 
F01  81 of another person - especially another woman. The passivity of this 
F01  82 kind of 'victim' is deceptive, for it is not mere inertia or 
F01  83 failure of will. It is a convoluted attempt to imbibe the power of 
F01  84 the aggressor; it is unacknowledged power, fierce and resolute in 
F01  85 its own way. It would be better if such 'victims' felt free to 
F01  86 experience their own power more directly, in an ambience of mutual 
F01  87 respect and honor - but unfortunately, a lot of people don't know 
F01  88 how to do that.<p/>
F01  89 <p_>The female victims in the old vampire movies definitely don't. 
F01  90 Idealized expressions of ultrarefined femininity, they are weak, 
F01  91 flighty, Blanche du Boisesque. The dark, powerful vampire may be 
F01  92 nasty, but he represents an earthy solidity and strength that have 
F01  93 the potential to make them complete. And vice versa. In F.W. 
F01  94 Murnau's beautiful, silent 1922 <tf|>Nosferatu, the vampire can be 
F01  95 destroyed only if a pure woman keeps him by her side until 
F01  96 daylight. The film ends with the heroine sacrificing herself to the 
F01  97 vampire to save the populace. It's as if the vampire, despite his 
F01  98 toothy might, is stuck in a purgatory; only when purity is made 
F01  99 freely available to him can he finally cut out.<p/>
F01 100 <p_>This Sturm und Drang is sexy, but it's not just about sex. 
F01 101 Whenever the full potential is thwarted, rage, possession, and 
F01 102 devouring rear their ugly heads. One of the most pathetic victims 
F01 103 in vampire lore is Stoker's hapless solicitor, Renfield, as 
F01 104 portrayed by Dwight Frye in the famous 1931 Tod Browning 
F01 105 <tf|>Dracula. (In the Coppola film, he's played by Tom Waits, in a 
F01 106 less central but equally intense role.) Frye's Renfield is a 
F01 107 friendly, dapper, optimistic businessman who arrives at the 
F01 108 vampire's castle with a natty walking stick and a natty smile. 
F01 109 <quote_>"Oh, the fire,"<quote/> he exclaims, seizing on the only 
F01 110 homey aspect of the vampire's gruesome castle; <quote_>"it's so 
F01 111 <tf|>cheerful!"<quote/> It is both comic and painful to watch this 
F01 112 upbeat fellow become Dracula's morbidly degraded slave, on his 
F01 113 hands and knees eating insects. Comic because there is a grim 
F01 114 appropriateness in this silly, effete person being forced to eat 
F01 115 the earthiness that his ultracivilized persona implicitly denies. 
F01 116 Dracula's sadistic power is brutal but so, in a sense, is 
F01 117 Renfield's idiotic optimism and refinement. Consciously or not, 
F01 118 Renfield has coldly excised the guts from his insipid world, a 
F01 119 world in which the power and veracity of the extreme are not 
F01 120 allowed to exist. The extreme has returned in the form of Dracula, 
F01 121 and boy, is he pissed.<p/>
F01 122 <p_>These days, in movies and in the culture at large, it seems as 
F01 123 if everybody's eager to sling extremities and guts all over the 
F01 124 place, as if Dracula could be just another crank on the subway. But 
F01 125 the guts so garishly and routinely displayed are artificial; while 
F01 126 we seem to have acknowledged our extreme aspects, our discomfort is 
F01 127 actually as acute as ever.<p/>
F01 128 <p_>Modern vampires no longer represent biological dread; instead, 
F01 129 they seem a defiance of biology, reversing the symbolic meaning of 
F01 130 the grotty old monster. Agelessly beautiful, sexy, and glamorous, 
F01 131 they are far more dynamic than the dumpy mortals upon whom they 
F01 132 prey. Anne Rice's novels are filled with empathy for them. They do 
F01 133 bad stuff but they can't help it; they're lonely and full of angst. 
F01 134 In the old vampire story, the underlying frisson is the victim's 
F01 135 unspoken ambivalence and longing. In the current version it's the 
F01 136 anguish and longing of the vampire, who is, after all, a parasite 
F01 137 totally dependent on his/her weak prey. Today's vampires symbolize 
F01 138 the tyranny of the imagination and the mind as estranged from the 
F01 139 heart and the body. In the 1983 film <tf_>The Hunger<tf/>, a chic 
F01 140 lesbian (Catherine Deneuve) imprisons her victims not in an earthy 
F01 141 crypt but in an airy town house; instead of swarming rats and bugs 
F01 142 she is surrounded by flocks of white birds. In <tf_>The Lost 
F01 143 Boys<tf/> (1987), a gang of beautiful boy vampires terrorizes a 
F01 144 fantastical amusement park while, on the sound track, a seraphic 
F01 145 boys choir sings <quote_>"thou shalt not grow,"<quote/> and the 
F01 146 camera pans up to a sky of preternaturally brilliant blue. High 
F01 147 style, soaring movement, ethereal height, unadulterated beauty, 
F01 148 perpetual adolescence, limitless power, and pleasure: these 
F01 149 vampires inhabit a realm utterly removed from the icky, crawly, 
F01 150 ugly forces of nature, free of relentless evolutionary flux.<p/>
F01 151 <p_>But this realm is arid, sterile, and, ahem, bloodless. The 
F01 152 vampires must feed, compulsively, endlessly. They can only borrow 
F01 153 life, they can never truly have it. As Dracula laments in Coppola's 
F01 154 film: <quote_>"I am nothing."<quote/> Although the vampire bites 
F01 155 and bites, he remains 'the undead' who cannot live.<p/>
F01 156 <p_>In the trashy but perceptive <tf_>Vampire's Kiss<tf/> (1989), 
F01 157 Nicolas Cage is a cruel, internally dessicated womanizer cut off 
F01 158 from his own emotionality - the kind of guy who, despite his 
F01 159 compulsive sex life, would fear a deep sexual experience. After a 
F01 160 hallucinatory one-night stand, he becomes convinced he is turning 
F01 161 into a vampire and before long is eating bugs, tearing at the flesh 
F01 162 of birds, and pursuing people while wearing plastic fangs. He 
F01 163 becomes increasingly sadistic to a female employee and finally 
F01 164 rapes her. The joke of the movie is that while Cage is not 
F01 165 physically a vampire, psychically he is and always has been. In a 
F01 166 pivotal scene he claws at a mirror, moaning, <quote_>"Oh, Christ, 
F01 167 where am I?"<quote/> having become invisible to himself. Geraldine, 
F01 168 Dracula, Nosferatu, and the rest may have great power, but there is 
F01 169 a terrible emptiness at its center, and <tf_>Vampire's Kiss<tf/> - 
F01 170 the product of a modern sensibility in an age pervaded by 
F01 171 expressions of disconnected, empty power - recognizes that dead-on. 
F01 172 It is appropriate that Cage becomes a rapist, for rape is another 
F01 173 vampiric act. A rapist longs to have whatever the female and the 
F01 174 feminine represent to him, and is driven to attack. Yet since he 
F01 175 violates and damages what he craves, he puts it even further out of 
F01 176 reach, creating an endless cycle of mutual torment not unlike the 
F01 177 vampire's.<p/>
F01 178 <p_>Among the many vampires walking among us today, perhaps the 
F01 179 most horrifying is not psychic but physical. AIDS divides the body 
F01 180 and causes it to attack itself with a method we still have no 
F01 181 understanding of and little defense against. In a sense, it is like 
F01 182 a horrible and horribly unfair mirror of our divided and warring 
F01 183 psychic selves - only in this case the horror is impossible to 
F01 184 ignore (although as a society, we have been trying hard to do just 
F01 185 that).<p/>
F01 186 <p_>Screenwriter Hart was very aware of this metaphoric connection; 
F01 187 his brother, who died of AIDS, had remarked to him that it is 
F01 188 <quote_>"a vampire's disease,"<quote/> a comment that seems to have 
F01 189 haunted Hart. Indeed, Winona Ryder, who brought the script to 
F01 190 Coppola's attention, responded to it initially because she had just 
F01 191 lost a close friend to AIDS and thus found the script eerily 
F01 192 resonant.<p/>
F01 193 <p_>The script is juicy and operatic (possibly campy, depending on 
F01 194 how it's played), a combination of the old and modern vampire 
F01 195 modes. (The 1979 version starring super-sexy Frank Langella only 
F01 196 hinted at this.) Dracula (Gary Oldman) is both a snarling beastie 
F01 197 with hairy palms and the 'most handsome man on the street.' And his 
F01 198 victims are scarcely the 'pure' creatures of the past; they too are 
F01 199 conflicted and angsty.
F01 200 
F01 201 
F01 202 
F02   1 <#FROWN:F02><h_><p_>DOES JAPAN PLAY FAIR?<p/>
F02   2 <p_>While official protectionism is largely gone, Americans still 
F02   3 battle cartels, old-boy networks, and outright corruption. The U.S. 
F02   4 must keep the pressure on.<p/>
F02   5 <p_>by Edmund Faltermayer<p/><h/>
F02   6 <p_>DOES JAPAN tilt its economic playing field against the rest of 
F02   7 the world? The question is crucial, for despite years of pressure 
F02   8 to open the world's No. 2 economy to foreign goods and investment, 
F02   9 Japan has amassed an unheard-of trade surplus now soaring above 
F02  10 $100 billion a year. If Japan's policies and business culture 
F02  11 really do deny foreign companies a fighting chance, what can be 
F02  12 done to set the balance right? Unless it is corrected, governments 
F02  13 around the world, including the U.S. President elected in November, 
F02  14 are sure to feel rising protectionist demands.<p/>
F02  15 <p_>This article examines specific markets and business practices 
F02  16 that shed light on Japan's openness. Sizing up a country's business 
F02  17 terrain is relative. Difficult or easy compared with what? In 
F02  18 making the assessment, FORTUNE judged access to markets in Japan in 
F02  19 relation to hardships Japanese companies face in the U.S.<p/>
F02  20 <p_>Overall, is the playing field level? In a word, no. 
F02  21 <quote_>"The Japanese market is not as closed as Americans 
F02  22 think,"<quote/> says Akio Morita, chairman of Sony, <quote_>"but 
F02  23 not as open as the Japanese think."<quote/> The long answer is more 
F02  24 complicated, however - and more encouraging. Japan has changed 
F02  25 greatly since the mid-Eighties. In many markets today's tilt is 
F02  26 less steep than it was, and an official, orchestrated policy of 
F02  27 thwarting the <foreign|>gaijin (foreigner) is mostly gone. 
F02  28 Americans with high-quality goods and services can make a dent in 
F02  29 Japan. Because of remaining governmental roadblocks and a business 
F02  30 culture that can be extraordinarily inhospitable to outsiders, 
F02  31 however, U.S. companies still have to work harder than Japanese 
F02  32 companies in the U.S. And sometimes the Americans need diplomatic 
F02  33 pressure to help laissez faire along, particularly when they are 
F02  34 trying to penetrate industries dominated by entrenched 
F02  35 oligopolies.<p/>
F02  36 <p_>For those willing to take lots of bruises and stay in the game, 
F02  37 Japan has compensations. The customers the Yank wins are often more 
F02  38 loyal than those back home. Makoto Kuroda, managing director of 
F02  39 Mitsubishi Corp., tells an American visitor: <quote_>"Your market 
F02  40 is easy to enter, but it's also easy to be kicked out. In Japan, 
F02  41 once in, your people may stay much longer."<quote/> Depending on 
F02  42 the industry, the Americans may also reap outsize profits. Says 
F02  43 William Wheeler, who heads Asia-Pacific operations for FMC Corp.: 
F02  44 <quote_>"The margins here are some of the highest in the 
F02  45 world."<quote/><p/>
F02  46 <p_>Many Japanese insist that their country's barriers have fallen 
F02  47 and that Americans have little to grouse about. <quote_>"In terms 
F02  48 of formal government policies,"<quote/> asserts Noboru Hatakeyama, 
F02  49 vice minister for international affairs at the Ministry of 
F02  50 International Trade and Industry (MITI), <quote_>"Japan is much 
F02  51 more open"<quote/> than the U.S. Japan has cut average tariffs on 
F02  52 manufactured goods below America's (2.1% vs. 5%). The country may 
F02  53 also be one of the few in history to <tf|>subsidize imports. For 
F02  54 the past three years, Japanese companies that substantially boost 
F02  55 imports of a wide array of manufactured goods can get a 5% tax 
F02  56 credit on the increase.<p/>
F02  57 <p_>Japan has some gripes about the U.S. too. In semiconductors, 
F02  58 for instance, Washington has resorted to managed trade with quotas, 
F02  59 demanding that Japan buy 20% of the chips it uses from foreign 
F02  60 companies. The U.S. has also leaned on Japan to curb exports of 
F02  61 such items as cars and machine tools, forcing a shift of production 
F02  62 to American transplants. Light pickup trucks from Japan face an 
F02  63 unusually high tariff of 25%. And let's not ignore recent 
F02  64 protectionist outbursts, as when opportunistic politicians in Los 
F02  65 Angeles canceled a subway car contract with Sumitomo in favor of 
F02  66 Morrison Knudsen.<p/>
F02  67 <p_>For Japanese executives running businesses in the U.S., life is 
F02  68 no Zen garden. They must often contend with a poorly educated, 
F02  69 ill-trained labor force. The U.S. used to be ranked among the 
F02  70 lowest<?_>-<?/>risk countries in which to do business, says Tachi 
F02  71 Kiuchi, CEO of Mitsubishi Electronics America, a sales subsidiary 
F02  72 of Mitsubishi Electric. But because of <quote_>"all the 
F02  73 lawsuits,"<quote/> he says, <quote_>"the U.S. is no longer in the 
F02  74 top five."<quote/><p/>
F02  75 <p_>Still, for all America's blemishes, one giant fact stands out: 
F02  76 Gaining entry is like falling out of bed compared with what a 
F02  77 foreign company confronts in Japan. Though formal barriers there 
F02  78 <tf|>are mostly gone, a forest of others remains. Many impede any 
F02  79 newcomer to a particular market, Japanese or foreign, and in that 
F02  80 sense foreigners are getting what trade negotiators call national 
F02  81 treatment. But because Americans find conditions harder in Japan 
F02  82 than vice versa, they are handicapped in redressing the trade 
F02  83 imbalance.<p/>
F02  84 <p_>Topping the list of adverse conditions, according to U.S. 
F02  85 companies surveyed in 1991 by the A.T. Kearney consulting firm, is 
F02  86 <quote_>"the high cost of doing business."<quote/> The rise in the 
F02  87 yen against the dollar since the mid-Eighties has made a bad 
F02  88 situation worse. Kearney itself pays $160 a square foot for its 
F02  89 Tokyo office, nearly five times what equivalent space would command 
F02  90 in New York City. Assuming that an American company lands orders, 
F02  91 survival in the early years can resemble life in a piranha tank. 
F02  92 Unless the product is unique and can't be readily duplicated, says 
F02  93 Kearney vice president William Best, <quote_>"you'll have 
F02  94 competition faster than you can believe."<quote/><p/>
F02  95 <p_>Americans who bend your ear about the perils aren't all 
F02  96 crybabies, for the Japanese themselves acknowledge that their 
F02  97 country is a rough go. Listen to Seiichi Takikawa, the jovial 
F02  98 president of Canon Sales, a marketing and importing offshoot of the 
F02  99 Japanese camera and copier company. He says that in the Seventies, 
F02 100 when he built up Canon's operation in the U.S. - <quote_>"where 
F02 101 it's a much simpler task"<quote/> - it took only six years to lift 
F02 102 sales tenfold. Returning to Japan, Takikawa needed 15 years to 
F02 103 achieve similar growth. Reason: a smaller market, fiercer 
F02 104 competition, and a government that, he says, <quote_>"has a habit 
F02 105 of sticking its nose into everything it sees."<quote/> And Takikawa 
F02 106 was born into the culture. For an American, he says, success in 
F02 107 Japan requires <quote_>"two to three times as much as<&|>sic! 
F02 108 energy."<quote/><p/>
F02 109 <p_>Daunting as this sounds, it was worse when Japan practiced 
F02 110 flagrant protectionism. Edmund Reilly, president of Digital 
F02 111 Equipment's Japanese subsidiary, recalls that when he first went to 
F02 112 Japan for his company in 1970, the government was nurturing a 
F02 113 home-grown computer industry and <quote_>"the odds <tf_>really 
F02 114 were<tf/> stacked against us."<quote/> Overt discrimination against 
F02 115 foreign products is now limited, though Japan still keeps out rice. 
F02 116 The ban flies in the face of the free-market principles: The 
F02 117 home-grown variety costs seven times as much as imported rice 
F02 118 would.<p/>
F02 119 <p_>These days, when the Japanese government makes life difficult 
F02 120 for foreigners, it's mainly through regulatory moves that rarely 
F02 121 get headlines. Etak, a California company now part of Rupert 
F02 122 Murdoch's News Corp., was the first to begin electronic mapping of 
F02 123 Japanese cities in 1987, hoping to enable ambulance services and 
F02 124 others to find addresses on computer screens. But a year later the 
F02 125 government decided that Etak needed a license. By the time it came 
F02 126 through, the company's head start was gone and a Japanese 
F02 127 competitor had moved in.<p/>
F02 128 <p_>This is but one example. Says Clyde Prestowitz Jr., president 
F02 129 of the Economic Strategy Instate, a Washington research group: 
F02 130 <quote_>"The procedures that you go through are typically not 
F02 131 transparent."<quote/> He means they are neither open nor based on 
F02 132 criteria known to all who are affected. In that atmosphere, 
F02 133 American executives say, Japanese who have good entree with 
F02 134 bureaucrats can delay the entry of competitors. The effects are 
F02 135 sufficiently serious that Japan, in the latest round of talks with 
F02 136 the U.S. under the so-called Structural Impediments Initiative, has 
F02 137 agreed to reform its regulatory practices.<p/>
F02 138 <p_>What really leaves many foreign companies out in the cold is 
F02 139 the business culture. The word keiretsu suggests giant industrial 
F02 140 groups linked by cross-ownership, such as Mitsubishi or Sumitomo. 
F02 141 But the term can apply to longstanding business relationships 
F02 142 without financial ties. When Sony developed its videocassette 
F02 143 recorder in the early Seventies, Chairman Morita relates, it needed 
F02 144 a new, high-quality recording tape. At the time, a major U.S. 
F02 145 chemical company passed up Sony's invitation to supply the tape 
F02 146 because it was reluctant to invest new production equipment. Sony 
F02 147 enlisted two Japanese companies that, Morita says, 
F02 148 <quote_>"invested money at their own risk."<quote/> To this day 
F02 149 Sony holds no equity stake in these suppliers, he adds, 
F02 150 <quote_>"but once they invest money and make a good product, that 
F02 151 situation is a keiretsu, and we feel some kind of 
F02 152 obligation."<quote/><p/>
F02 153 <p_>Outsiders sometimes fail to understand why they can't instantly 
F02 154 displace such suppliers by underselling them. As Morita explains: 
F02 155 <quote_>"An American company says, 'Our product is good, our price 
F02 156 is good, why don't you buy?' But with an industrial product that 
F02 157 needs continuous improvement, you need a long-term 
F02 158 relationship."<quote/> The U.S. company that originally declined 
F02 159 Morita's invitation now has some of the business, but less than it 
F02 160 might have had.<p/>
F02 161 <p_>Productive relationships are the good side of keiretsu, which 
F02 162 America has begun to emulate. But all too often, keiretsu exclude 
F02 163 new players or give preferential treatment to members. Says Reilly 
F02 164 of Digital Equipment, who is also president of the American Chamber 
F02 165 of Commerce in Japan: <quote_>"Keiretsu links, bidding cartels, and 
F02 166 the old-boy network still present us with formidable obstacles that 
F02 167 Japanese corporations do not face in the U.S. market."<quote/><p/>
F02 168 <p_>Obstacles or no, more and more companies find they must be in 
F02 169 Japan. Applied Materials, a Silicon Valley company with sales of 
F02 170 $644 million a year, is one of the few flourishing American 
F02 171 manufacturers of chipmaking equipment. One reason: It gets valuable 
F02 172 customer feedback from Japan, which accounts for 35% of its 
F02 173 revenues. Tetsuo Iwasaki, CEO of Applied Materials Japan, explains 
F02 174 how the company benefits from working closely with Japan's 
F02 175 semi<?_>-<?/>conductor industry, the world's largest. Japan excels 
F02 176 in manufacturing DRAM memory chips, he notes, which require finer 
F02 177 circuitry than the microprocessors in which the U.S. has the 
F02 178 leading position. Says Iwasaki: <quote_>"In production, DRAMs are 
F02 179 the technology driver."<quote/><p/>
F02 180 <p_>The examination that follows concentrates on markets where 
F02 181 Americans have a strong competitive edge or a chance to improve the 
F02 182 trade numbers dramatically - if only the playing fields were level. 
F02 183 One notable theme that emerges: It's relatively easy to sell to 
F02 184 Japanese consumers as opposed to the purchasing agents of big 
F02 185 companies. We also assess Japanese fairness in two important areas 
F02 186 that cut across many businesses - direct investment and patent 
F02 187 production.<p/>
F02 188 <p_><*_>black-square<*/><tf_>CONSUMER ITEMS.<tf/> The Apple 
F02 189 computers jumping off Tokyo store shelves and BMWs tooling down the 
F02 190 elevated express<?_>-<?/>ways dispel the notion that Japanese 
F02 191 citizens shun all foreign products. When it comes to marketing, 
F02 192 says Tokyo consultant George Fields, <quote_>"American companies 
F02 193 have an advantage in anything related to youth and 
F02 194 lifestyle."<quote/> Fields, the son of an Australian father and a 
F02 195 Japanese mother, spent time in each country in his youth. He notes 
F02 196 that Japan's No. 1 soft drink is Coca-Cola, the No. 1 fast-food 
F02 197 chain is McDonald's, the No. 1 theme park Disneyland, and the list 
F02 198 goes on.<p/>
F02 199 <p_>Many of the successful products are made in Japan rather than 
F02 200 exported from the U.S., but the earnings help America's balance of 
F02 201 payments. The main difficulty in marketing consumer goods is 
F02 202 penetrating the convoluted distribution system. Kodak's entry in 
F02 203 the mid-Eighties shows the unexpected routes a company might have 
F02 204 to take: It used a mail-order company to sell film and a 
F02 205 dry-cleaning chain as a collection point for developing.<p/>
F02 206 <p_>Distribution is an impediment for the supreme consumer item: 
F02 207 the automobile. When Japanese carmakers entered the U.S., they were 
F02 208 able to sell through existing American dealers, who have long been 
F02 209 allowed to offer more than one make. Japanese automakers own much 
F02 210 of the sales network in Japan, and dual dealerships are rare. 
F02 211 Bowing to pressure from Washington, Japanese carmakers are starting 
F02 212 to offer a few American models. But the only real answer may be a 
F02 213 direct stake in a distribution network. BMW carved out a 
F02 214 respectable niche in Japan's market after it bought an ailing chain 
F02 215 of showrooms in 1981 and expanded it. Ford, the most aggressive of 
F02 216 Detroit's Big Three in Japan, has just raised its ownership in the 
F02 217 Autorama sales chain from 34% to 36,5%, making it an equal partner 
F02 218 with Mazda.<p/>
F02 219 
F02 220 
F03   1 <#FROWN:F03\><h_><p_>AN INTRODUCTION TO ASTROLOGY<p/>
F03   2 <p_>Part 2: What the Chart Means.<p/>
F03   3 <p_>A popular astrologer shares knowledge of her science in a way 
F03   4 that is easy to understand. In the first part of this article 
F03   5 (FATE, February 1992) she wrote about the history of astrology. Now 
F03   6 learn about astrology from a <tf|>practical point of view.<p/>
F03   7 <p_>By Linda Chamlee Black<p/><h/>
F03   8 <h_><p_>COMPILING A CHART<p/><h/>
F03   9 <p_>If you were out in a boat at sea and wanted to find your 
F03  10 location, you'd look through a device called a <tf|>sextant until 
F03  11 you found a star you could identify. Through another part of the 
F03  12 instrument you'd locate the horizon.<p/>
F03  13 <p_>A sextant is made so that you can determine the angle between 
F03  14 the horizon, a star and the point where you're located. By doing 
F03  15 this with two different stars, you get two different angles. Then, 
F03  16 by looking up the positions of the stars for that time in books 
F03  17 called <tf|>ephemerides (<tf|>ephemeris in the singular) and 
F03  18 performing a few mathematical computations, you can determine where 
F03  19 you are at that exact moment.<p/>
F03  20 <p_>An astrologer does the same thing - only backwards. We first 
F03  21 find the exact time and place of birth. Then we look in books that 
F03  22 give us the planets' positions, perform a little math and figure 
F03  23 out where things were in the sky at that birth time. Initially 
F03  24 astrologers had to physically see where the planets were located in 
F03  25 order to draw up a chart, although they've used mathematically 
F03  26 compiled tables of locations for quite some time. Now computers can 
F03  27 do the same work with less error in a matter of minutes or even 
F03  28 seconds.<p/>
F03  29 <p_>The circle of the zodiac, or astrological chart, represents the 
F03  30 heavens with the Earth being the spot in the middle. The point due 
F03  31 west (at the left of the chart) is actually the sign on the eastern 
F03  32 horizon. To understand this better, imagine that you're standing on 
F03  33 the Earth - the dot where all the lines intersect.<p/>
F03  34 <p_>The <tf|>Ascendant (the sign on the eastern horizon at birth) 
F03  35 is at least as important as the positions of the Sun and Moon in 
F03  36 reading a chart. It also determines where to place the other lines 
F03  37 which cut the circle into 12 pie pieces. These are the <tf|>houses, 
F03  38 each with a sign on the <tf|>cusp (dividing line between two 
F03  39 houses). Thus, the signs overlap the houses on a chart.<p/>
F03  40 <p_>Each house represents a certain area of life. Although each is 
F03  41 actually much more complex, they basically break down as 
F03  42 follows:<p/>
F03  43 <p_>1) Ego, self-analysis<p/>
F03  44 <p_>2) Money and land<p/>
F03  45 <p_>3) Education and siblings<p/>
F03  46 <p_>4) Home and family<p/>
F03  47 <p_>5) Love affairs and adolescents<p/>
F03  48 <p_>6) Service to others<p/>
F03  49 <p_>7) Partnerships and beauty<p/>
F03  50 <p_>8) Life, death, secrets and other people's money<p/>
F03  51 <p_>9) Travel, philosophy and publications<p/>
F03  52 <p_>10) Career, area of greatest success<p/>
F03  53 <p_>11) Friends and creative solutions<p/>
F03  54 <p_>12) Spirituality, faith and institutions<p/>
F03  55 <p_>Each house (pie piece) is <tf|>ruled (dominated) by the sign on 
F03  56 its left edge. That means, for example, if you have Scorpio on the 
F03  57 cusp of the second house you'll probably gain through inheritance 
F03  58 or have some other secret and plentiful source of income.<p/>
F03  59 <p_>Sometimes the same sign rules two houses and another sign 
F03  60 doesn't get an edge at all (if it is completely within one house 
F03  61 and not crossing a cusp). This happens more often when the birth 
F03  62 takes place farther north or south on the globe.<p/>
F03  63 <h_><p_>SIGNS, PLANETS AND HOUSES<p/><h/>
F03  64 <p_>The sign ruling each house also influences the planets that are 
F03  65 in that house. Each planet has its own characteristics which are 
F03  66 modified by the sign it's in, the house it's in and its 
F03  67 mathematical relationship (<tf_>angle or aspect<tf/>) to the other 
F03  68 planets. (<tf_>Editor's note:<tf/> the word <tf|>planet means 
F03  69 'traveler.' Even though it has long been recognized that the Sun 
F03  70 and Moon are not planets in the modern, scientific sense, from our 
F03  71 earthly point of view they still <tf|>appear to travel through the 
F03  72 sky. Hence, astrologers may refer to them as planets.)<p/>
F03  73 <p_><O_>diagram<O/><p/>
F03  74 <p_>This diagram shows the houses, Medium Coeli and Ascendant. The 
F03  75 Ascendant is marked by the heart-shaped wedge pointing to the left. 
F03  76 This is the sign that is on the eastern horizon for the moment that 
F03  77 the chart is drawn. It is determined by the time and location being 
F03  78 charted.<p/>
F03  79 <p_>The top of the chart, the Medium Coeli or Midheaven, is the 
F03  80 point directly overhead at the time for which the chart is cast. 
F03  81 This defines the separation between the ninth and tenth houses, 
F03  82 both indicators of success. The ninth implies that success will 
F03  83 come through good fortune while the tenth usually means that it's 
F03  84 going to take some hard work.<p/>
F03  85 <p_>In this illustration the pie pieces, called the houses, are 
F03  86 numbered. The sequence goes from the left in a counter-clockwise 
F03  87 direction.<p/>
F03  88 <p_>The cusps are the divisions between houses. These are 
F03  89 established by the latitude and longitude as well as the exact time 
F03  90 being charted. Signs are given to each cusp just as they are to the 
F03  91 first cusp, the Ascendant.<p/>
F03  92 <p_>The Earth is located in the center, where all of the lines 
F03  93 intersect.<p/>
F03  94 <p_>Here is an example: Assume that Mars is in Scorpio and in your 
F03  95 second house. Scorpio is on the cusp of the second house. In this 
F03  96 example Mars is <tf|>squared (at about a 90<*_>degree<*/> angle to 
F03  97 Mars) to the planet Jupiter which is in the sign of Leo. According 
F03  98 to Western astrology, Mars represents aggression, Jupiter luck, Leo 
F03  99 fair play and Scorpio other people's money and secrets. The squared 
F03 100 relationship means that there is a block (or lesson to be learned) 
F03 101 represented by the planets, signs and houses at each end of the 
F03 102 angle.<p/>
F03 103 <p_>Interpreting an entire chart - as opposed to just one small, 
F03 104 isolated part of a chart - is called <tf|>synthesis. In the example 
F03 105 described above we would say that a person born with the above 
F03 106 example in his or her chart would have a strong urge to grab other 
F03 107 people's money, but it will be blocked by their own sense of 
F03 108 decency and fair play. Or the person will find a game to play that 
F03 109 allows you to win other people's money in an honorable, although 
F03 110 private, manner.<p/>
F03 111 <h_><p_>THE ASPECTS<p/><h/>
F03 112 <p_>The <tf|>aspects, or the angles between the different planets, 
F03 113 are very important. A difference of 30<*_>degree<*/>, called a 
F03 114 <tf|>semi-sextile, is supposed to be mildly beneficial. A 
F03 115 <tf|>sextile or 60<*_>degree<*/> angle is very beneficial. A 
F03 116 <tf|>semi-square, found when planets are at 45<*_>degree<*/> is 
F03 117 upsetting while a <tf|>square at 90<*_>degree<*/> is a difficulty 
F03 118 or barrier. Planets at 180<*_>degree<*/> are <tf|>opposed, but can 
F03 119 actually be attractive (their effects enhance one another).<p/>
F03 120 <h_><p_>THE MOST IMPORTANT PARTS OF A CHART<p/><h/>
F03 121 <p_>The three equally dominant parts of any chart are the positions 
F03 122 of the Sun, the Moon, and the Ascendant and the signs that are on 
F03 123 their cusps. People who were born when the Sun was within five 
F03 124 degrees of the next sign should consider both, with the coming sign 
F03 125 slightly stronger. When the Sun is divided this way the influence 
F03 126 of the Moon and Ascendant signs are considered to be even more 
F03 127 important.<p/>
F03 128 <p_>The sign at the top of the chart, the <tf|>Midheaven (also 
F03 129 known as the <tf_>Medium Coeli<tf/> or <tf|>MC), is considered by 
F03 130 some to be very important too. That area of the chart is supposed 
F03 131 to indicate the individual's career and greatest success.<p/>
F03 132 <p_>The ascending sign changes completely every two hours. The Moon 
F03 133 takes two to three days to get through a sign and the Sun stays in 
F03 134 one sign for almost a month. You can see, then, why it's so 
F03 135 important to know the exact time of birth - the Ascendant changes 
F03 136 one degree for every four minutes of time and its position also 
F03 137 determines the positions of the Houses all the way around the 
F03 138 chart. Charts figures for 8:00 <tf|>AM and 8:00 <tf|>PM on the same 
F03 139 day and in the same location are completely different.<p/>
F03 140 <h_><p_>ASTRAL TWINS<p/><h/>
F03 141 <p_>Since all the planets are continually moving (at different 
F03 142 rates), the same configuration won't repeat for at least 26,000 
F03 143 years (the length of time needed for the precession of the 
F03 144 equinoxes to complete one cycle. See the previous article in last 
F03 145 month's issue of FATE for details). You can have an astral twin - 
F03 146 somebody who has the same chart as you. This can result from 
F03 147 differences in birth locations. However, having an astral twin is 
F03 148 even more uncommon than having a fraternal twin. Incidentally, 
F03 149 fraternal twins aren't always astral twins.<p/>
F03 150 <p_>As you can see, the time is very important when setting up a 
F03 151 chart. Things can change considerably in only a few minutes. 
F03 152 Dramatic changes will usually occur in an hour or two. If you have 
F03 153 your chart done and find that it doesn't sound like you, don't 
F03 154 assume that astrology is wrong. Check the time of birth. Then check 
F03 155 the exact latitude and longitude. The reading of your accurate 
F03 156 natal chart will leave you feeling that you have been described 
F03 157 with uncomfortable precision.<p/>
F03 158 <h|>PREDICTIONS
F03 159 <p_>To make predictions with astrology, the astrologer compares 
F03 160 where the planets are now to the natal chart (birth chart of the 
F03 161 subject). A <tf|>progression of the natal chart (where each day in 
F03 162 the ephemeris equals a year in the person's life, starting at 
F03 163 birth) is also used. For example, if you're 30 years old your 
F03 164 progressed chart is for 30 days from your actual birth. This 
F03 165 implies that the person goes through phases in life. If the Sun has 
F03 166 progressed from Aries into Taurus, for example, the person will be 
F03 167 much less spontaneous and more interested in financial security 
F03 168 than when he or she was younger.<p/>
F03 169 <p_>The position of each of the planets and the Moon is also 
F03 170 progressed. For example, the Moon changes signs through this method 
F03 171 approximately every two to three years. Since the Moon sign is an 
F03 172 indicator of love and romance, this would suggest that people have 
F03 173 a tendency to change their romantic preferences every couple of 
F03 174 years. Consequently, a stable relationship has to be based on 
F03 175 something more than whether a couple agrees on everything, or even 
F03 176 whether they like each other at all. Both of those conditions would 
F03 177 be in a constant state of flux, even if the two people were born 
F03 178 with the Moon in the same sign.<p/>
F03 179 <p_>Finally, the astrologer making the predictions compares the 
F03 180 natal chart of the person involved, the progressed chart and a 
F03 181 chart of where everything in the sky is today, or for the date in 
F03 182 question for the prediction.<p/>
F03 183 <p_>As you can see, this can get very complicated! For example, if 
F03 184 you want to know the best time to make an investment you should 
F03 185 compare your natal chart, your progressed chart and the chart of 
F03 186 the time of incorporation of the business in which you want to 
F03 187 invest <tf|>and its progressed chart. Then you'd look for a day in 
F03 188 the future when strong growth was indicated, such as one with the 
F03 189 Moon in Scorpio. You'd have to compare everything else on that day 
F03 190 to all of the other charts, though, in order to make sure you 
F03 191 weren't going to have favorable indications in one area and 
F03 192 unfavorable ones in another. You don't want to pick a date when the 
F03 193 business does fine - by growing strongly with your money - but 
F03 194 leaves you behind in the dust.<p/>
F03 195 <h_><p_>COMPLICATIONS, COMPLICATIONS...<p/><h/>
F03 196 <p_>As you see, this is a complicated game. When Jupiter, as it is 
F03 197 in the sky, now <tf|>transits (crosses) the position of Jupiter in 
F03 198 your natal chart, things will be very favorable for you. Money will 
F03 199 come your way. This would be a good time to buy a lottery 
F03 200 ticket.<p/>
F03 201 <p_>When Saturn transits your natal Saturn (called a <tf_>Saturn 
F03 202 return<tf/>) you get a test. That's when you find out how well 
F03 203 you've learned the lessons life has dished out to you up to that 
F03 204 point. If you've been an open-minded and diligent scholar and have 
F03 205 learned from your mistakes, your Saturn return marks the beginning 
F03 206 of your period of greatest success. If you've continually avoided 
F03 207 facing up to your problems, however, you're in for a very rough 
F03 208 time. You may have the feeling you're repeating the same painful 
F03 209 thing that happened before.
F03 210 
F03 211 
F04   1 <#FROWN:F04\>That's not done with antiemetic drugs, they explain, 
F04   2 because only 30 percent of postoperative patients become nauseous, 
F04   3 and they worry about side effects, such as excessive sleepiness 
F04   4 from a drug. With ginger, they found no side effects.<p/>
F04   5 <p_>Then there's garlic. In January of this year, we told you about 
F04   6 exciting research from Europe, where doctors found that doses of 
F04   7 garlic powder appear to have a marked beneficial effect on 
F04   8 cholesterol and blood pressure. Garlic research is proceeding in 
F04   9 the United States, as well.<p/>
F04  10 <p_>One area of interest is cancer prevention. At the UCLA School 
F04  11 of Medicine, researchers added aged garlic extract to test tubes 
F04  12 containing cancer cells from humans and mice. A week later, they 
F04  13 saw that the cells' growth had been inhibited. The growth of 
F04  14 healthy cells was not affected (<tf_>Proceedings of the American 
F04  15 Association for Cancer Research<tf/>, March 1991).<p/>
F04  16 <p_>At Pennsylvania State University, rats were fed garlic and also 
F04  17 subjected to a chemical known to turn normal mammary cells 
F04  18 cancerous. <quote_>"In some studies,"<quote/> says the head of the 
F04  19 nutrition department, John Milner, Ph.D., <quote_>"we observed a 70 
F04  20 percent reduction in the number of tumors."<quote/> Dr. Milner's 
F04  21 best theory is that garlic inhibits cancer-causing chemicals from 
F04  22 binding to DNA, the part of a cell that carries hereditary 
F04  23 information.<p/>
F04  24 <p_>In any event, Dr. Milner says, <quote_>"this marked reduction 
F04  25 places new emphasis on the importance of this condiment in our 
F04  26 diet."<quote/><p/>
F04  27 <p_>Speaking of diet, there's always the question of how to eat 
F04  28 garlic. Some researchers advise eating your garlic raw, but now 
F04  29 evidence suggests this isn't the only way.<p/>
F04  30 <p_>Mahendra K. Jain, Ph.D., professor in the department of 
F04  31 chemistry and biochemistry at the University of Delaware, says his 
F04  32 work with Rafael Apitz, M.D., suggesting an antithrombosis role for 
F04  33 garlic, leads him to prefer cooked garlic. Cooking promotes the 
F04  34 formation of compounds that, in the lab, thin blood.<p/>
F04  35 <p_>Robert I-San Lin, Ph.D., who served as chairman of the 1990 
F04  36 First World Congress of Garlic, says his two favorite forms are 
F04  37 cooked and aged. He told us <quote_>"aging garlic in vinegar or 
F04  38 wine can drastically reduce the pungency and odor problem of raw 
F04  39 garlic, while boiling makes garlic sweet."<quote/> 
F04  40 Saut<*_>e-acute<*/>ing garlic does not always eliminate the 
F04  41 pungency, and frying it can stink up your house.<p/>
F04  42 <p_>The experts we talked to say that no one should treat a serious 
F04  43 illness with garlic, but most are big believers in adding some to 
F04  44 your diet as a possible helper in warding off problems a lot worse 
F04  45 than garlic breath.<p/>
F04  46 
F04  47 <h_><p_>REVERSE DIABETES<p/>
F04  48 <p_>A 12-step, recommended-daily-action plan that can help you 
F04  49 drive the disease into retreat<p/><h/>
F04  50 <p_>DON'T BE SO DEFENSIVE. RECENT RESEARCH suggests that most 
F04  51 people with diabetes would do well to assume an <tf|>offensive 
F04  52 position. That is, to commit to an aggressive daily-action plan 
F04  53 designed not just to manage the disease and keep it from getting 
F04  54 worse but to actually shift the disease process into reverse. 
F04  55 <*_>black-square<*/>Imagine requiring less medication to control 
F04  56 your blood-sugar swings - or perhaps weaning yourself off 
F04  57 medication altogether - while preventing the often crippling and 
F04  58 deadly complications of diabetes. <*_>black-square<*/>In fact, not 
F04  59 only is this possible but, for people with non-insulin-dependent 
F04  60 diabetes (also known as type-II diabetes), the results can be 
F04  61 phenomenal. <*_>black-square<*/>In a recent study, 701 people with 
F04  62 type-II diabetes - all enrollees at the Pritikin Longevity Center 
F04  63 in Santa Monica, California - were asked to follow a challenging 
F04  64 diet-and-exercise regimen. They ate a diet high in complex 
F04  65 carbohydrates and fiber and very low in protein and fat. (The 
F04  66 therapeutic diet consisted of about 10 percent of calories from fat 
F04  67 compared with the typical American diet of 40 percent fat.) They 
F04  68 also walked about 45 minutes each day and participated in a 
F04  69 40-to-50-minute exercise class five times a week.<p/>
F04  70 <p_>At the outset, 207 of them were taking oral drugs to control 
F04  71 their blood-sugar levels. Another 214, who had more advanced cases 
F04  72 of diabetes, were on insulin injections. The rest were not on 
F04  73 medication of any kind.<p/>
F04  74 <p_>After three weeks on the aggressive program, however, 70 
F04  75 percent of the group on oral agents were able to discontinue their 
F04  76 medication. Even those whose disease had progressed to the point 
F04  77 where they required insulin benefited; 36 percent of them were able 
F04  78 to go completely medication<?_>-<?/>free. Many in the study were 
F04  79 also able to at least reduce their medication requirements.<p/>
F04  80 <p_>In people with type-I diabetes, the pancreas produces no 
F04  81 insulin at all. Type-I diabetics are dependent on insulin, usually 
F04  82 from self-administered injections (although some are turning to new 
F04  83 insulin pumps that are surgically implanted under their skin) to 
F04  84 keep blood-sugar levels normal.<p/>
F04  85 
F04  86 <h_><p_>EARLY CATCH, BETTER RESULTS<p/><h/>
F04  87 <p_>The implications are clear. An aggressive diet-and-exercise 
F04  88 program can have a major impact on the course of diabetes. And the 
F04  89 earlier in the disease process you start making these lifestyle 
F04  90 changes, the greater the potential benefits. <quote_>"We know that 
F04  91 genetic factors predispose certain people to diabetes. But all of 
F04  92 the data suggest that lifestyle factors, particularly diet and 
F04  93 exercise, can determine whether those genetic factors actually 
F04  94 manifest in the disease,"<quote/> says James Barnard, Ph.D., 
F04  95 professor of physiological science at the University of California 
F04  96 at Los Angeles, one author of the study.<p/>
F04  97 <p_><quote_>"By committing yourself to certain lifestyle changes, 
F04  98 you may be able to reduce your need for medication - and possibly 
F04  99 get off and stay off diabetes drugs for the rest of your 
F04 100 life,"<quote/> he continues. <quote_>"Plus, you may be able to 
F04 101 avoid any complications."<quote/><p/>
F04 102 <p_>The Pritikin-program participants saw all three of their 
F04 103 heart-disease risk factors - total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and 
F04 104 triglycerides - drop dramatically. This is significant because 
F04 105 diabetes can double, triple, even quadruple your risk for heart 
F04 106 disease. In fact, it's the number-one cause of death among 
F04 107 diabetics.<p/>
F04 108 <p_><quote_>"Even type-I diabetics, who <tf|>must rely on insulin 
F04 109 injections, may benefit from a lifestyle approach such as the one 
F04 110 described above,"<quote/> Dr. Barnard says. There's a chance that 
F04 111 they can reduce the amount of insulin they need to keep their 
F04 112 blood-sugar levels stable - and that may mean fewer daily 
F04 113 injections. And they may also reduce their risk of heart disease 
F04 114 and other complications.<p/>
F04 115 
F04 116 <h_><p_>TAKING CONTROL<p/><h/>
F04 117 <p_>The trouble is, some people with diabetes believe they can 
F04 118 simply adjust their medications to compensate for dietary 
F04 119 indiscretions. That's their idea of being in control. In fact, says 
F04 120 Marie Gelato, M.D., Ph.D., associate professor of endocrinology at 
F04 121 SUNY Health Science Center at Stony Brook, <quote_>"medications are 
F04 122 an adjunct to - not a replacement for - a good diet and exercise 
F04 123 program."<quote/> Real control of diabetes comes from the ability 
F04 124 to redirect the course of the disease through a proactive 
F04 125 diet-and-exercise plan coupled with intelligent self-care.<p/>
F04 126 <p_>But before you do anything, talk with your doctor. With his or 
F04 127 her guidance, you can decide which of our 12 recommended daily 
F04 128 actions might best help you achieve your health goals.<p/>
F04 129 
F04 130 <h_><p_>OUR RECOMMENDED DAILY ACTIONS<p/><h/>
F04 131 <p_><tf_>1. Monitor your blood-sugar levels throughout the 
F04 132 day.<tf/> <quote_>"It's absolutely imprudent to adjust your diet, 
F04 133 exercise schedule or medication simply on the basis of the way you 
F04 134 feel,"<quote/> says James Pichert, Ph.D., associate professor of 
F04 135 education in medicine at the diabetes research and training center 
F04 136 at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine.<p/>
F04 137 <p_>You can eliminate the guesswork about your diet by using 
F04 138 do-it-yourself, at-home blood-glucose meters that analyze a sample 
F04 139 of your blood (from a pricked finger).<p/>
F04 140 <p_>A once-a-day blood-sugar test, scheduled at the same time every 
F04 141 day, is the absolute minimum. Your doctor may also advise you to 
F04 142 check your blood sugar after meals, and before and after exercise, 
F04 143 too.<p/>
F04 144 <p_>Be sure to log the results of each test in a special book 
F04 145 (available from your doctor or at most drugstores). That allows you 
F04 146 and your doctor to analyze the highs and lows and adjust your diet, 
F04 147 exercise and medication accordingly, if necessary.<p/>
F04 148 <p_><tf_>2. Keep a careful eye on the fat grams you consume.<tf/> 
F04 149 The American Diabetes Association recommends that you limit fat 
F04 150 intake to under 30 percent of calories to redirect the course of 
F04 151 the disease and prevent complications.<p/>
F04 152 <p_>For one thing, fat calories contribute more to excess body 
F04 153 weight than calories from any other source. And excess weight 
F04 154 contributes to the development of type-II diabetes. Overweight is 
F04 155 no small contributor, either. In early stages of type-II diabetes 
F04 156 (characterized by a malfunction of the body's insulin-receptor 
F04 157 cells), the loss of excess body weight is sometimes sufficient to 
F04 158 reverse the degenerative diabetic process and restore function to 
F04 159 the receptor cells.<p/>
F04 160 <p_>A number of studies also have suggested that overweight 
F04 161 diabetics are more likely to have associated risk factors, 
F04 162 including high blood pressure, high triglycerides and high 
F04 163 cholesterol. These factors, in turn, can lead to complications like 
F04 164 heart disease and kidney damage.<p/>
F04 165 <p_>In addition, dietary fat (especially saturated fat) with its 
F04 166 artery-clogging, heart-sabotaging abilities, puts an extra burden 
F04 167 on people with diabetes, who are already at higher risk for heart 
F04 168 disease.<p/>
F04 169 <p_><tf_>3. Aim for 40 grams of fiber from complex-carbohydrate 
F04 170 foods.<tf/> Fiber-rich complex carbohydrates break down into 
F04 171 glucose more gradually and are slowly absorbed into the 
F04 172 bloodstream. So they don't hit your bloodstream all at once, like 
F04 173 simple sugars, preventing a postmeal blood-sugar surge. Combined 
F04 174 with exercise, they're also a great way to slim down, which is a 
F04 175 definite goal for many type-II diabetics.<p/>
F04 176 <p_>Among the best sources of complex carbohydrates are starchy 
F04 177 foods, like whole-grain breads, pasta and rice, or foods high in 
F04 178 water-soluble fiber, like legumes, oats and barley. Studies 
F04 179 indicate that these foods are especially slow-digesting. 
F04 180 Water-soluble fiber turns into a gel when it hits your digestive 
F04 181 system, increasing the time it takes for the sugar in food to be 
F04 182 absorbed by your body.<p/>
F04 183 <p_><tf_>4. Take a 45-minute exercise break every day, dividing 
F04 184 your time between aerobic conditioning and resistance 
F04 185 training.<tf/> <quote_>"Make exercise just as important and routine 
F04 186 as brushing your teeth. Do it every day,"<quote/> Dr. Barnard says. 
F04 187 Combined with a low-fat diet, there's no more powerful way to 
F04 188 strengthen your resistance to diabetes. <tf|>Prevention recently 
F04 189 reported on a study of 5,990 men showing that, for every 500 
F04 190 calories burned per week (the equivalent of walking just 5 miles), 
F04 191 the risk of developing type-II diabetes dropped 6 percent.<p/>
F04 192 <p_>But the big returns were for the men who had at least one risk 
F04 193 factor for the disease, like a family history of diabetes or excess 
F04 194 body weight. Men in that high-risk group who burned 2,000 calories 
F04 195 or more a week had 41 percent less risk compared with men who 
F04 196 burned only 500 calories a week. That's about 45 minutes of brisk 
F04 197 walking or stationary cycling.<p/>
F04 198 <p_>What's more, recent research suggests that resistance training 
F04 199 may help control blood-sugar levels even in type-I diabetics. 
F04 200 Muscles apparently take up glucose greedily. And there's some 
F04 201 evidence that when you build muscle, the muscle's insulin receptors 
F04 202 on the cells, which store glucose, may grow in number, and this may 
F04 203 enhance glucose utilization by the cells. That means you now have 
F04 204 more room to store glucose. With less glucose in circulation, it's 
F04 205 possible that insulin requirements may be reduced.<p/>
F04 206 <p_>One note of caution: Check with your doctor before beginning 
F04 207 any exercise program. And, if your program includes weight 
F04 208 training, have your eyes checked regularly. Resistance training may 
F04 209 cause surges in blood pressure, which could affect pressure in the 
F04 210 eyes.<p/>
F04 211 <p_><tf_>5. Consider supplementing your diet.<tf/> A number of 
F04 212 studies suggest that diabetics tend to run low on certain vitamins 
F04 213 and minerals, particularly vitamins C and E. That's significant 
F04 214 because there's increasing evidence that these antioxidant vitamins 
F04 215 may protect diabetics from common complications, such as heart 
F04 216 disease and kidney, eye and nerve damage.<p/>
F04 217 <p_><quote_>"Because diabetics are prone to vascular disease, they 
F04 218 may need to increase their intake of vitamin C,"<quote/> says 
F04 219 Ishwarial Jialal, M.D., assistant professor of internal medicine 
F04 220 and clinical nutrition at the University of Texas Southwestern 
F04 221 Medical Center. Based on findings including his own, he believes 
F04 222 diabetics should be sure to get 120 milligrams of vitamin C a day - 
F04 223 twice the Recommended Dietary Allowance. <quote_>"That won't cause 
F04 224 any side effects, and it could be beneficial,"<quote/> he says.<p/>
F04 225 <p_>Vitamin E may also prevent a process called protein 
F04 226 glycosylation (<tf|>gleye-caw-sil-A-shun). In a diabetic, this 
F04 227 process may be involved in damaging proteins circulating in the 
F04 228 blood.
F04 229 
F04 230 
F05   1 <#FROWN:F05\><h_><p_>Is There A Conspiracy To Keep Blacks Off 
F05   2 Juries?<p/>
F05   3 <p_>Recent cases have led many to believe that the American justice 
F05   4 system is still far from its color-blind ideal<p/>
F05   5 <p_>By Charles Whitaker<p/><h/>
F05   6 <p_>FOR the vast majority of Black Americans - and many sympathetic 
F05   7 White Americans - the acquittal of the four White police officers 
F05   8 charged with the brutal beating of motorist Rodney King cast in 
F05   9 sharp relief the racist leanings of the nation's judicial system, 
F05  10 particularly the process 
F05  11 by which jurors are selected.<p/>
F05  12 <p_>While most of us were taught in grammar school civics classes 
F05  13 that the selection of a fair and impartial jury is the backbone of 
F05  14 American jurisprudence, the King case - and other splashy 
F05  15 court<?_>-<?/>room dramas that have recently held the nation's rapt 
F05  16 attention - confirmed for many the feeling that the law is applied 
F05  17 quite differently when either the defendant or the plaintiff/victim 
F05  18 is Black.<p/>
F05  19 <p_>Though the Supreme Court has attempted to address the issue of 
F05  20 race<?_>-<?/>based jury selection, most recently in a June ruling 
F05  21 that extended the ban on such practices to defense attorneys, some 
F05  22 continue to find ways around the law.<p/>
F05  23 <p_>Legal maneuverings in the King case, for example, helped the 
F05  24 odds of seating an all-White jury. The trial was moved from 
F05  25 ethnically diverse Los Angeles County (10.5 percent Black), where 
F05  26 the beating occurred, to overwhelming White Simi Valley in Ventura 
F05  27 County (only 2 percent Black).<p/>
F05  28 <p_>In the court of public opinion, the change of venue and other 
F05  29 high profile examples of under-representation or complete lack of 
F05  30 representation of Blacks on juries have the distinct smell of pure 
F05  31 racism.<p/>
F05  32 <p_><quote_>"In the King case, in particular, the racial overtones 
F05  33 are just shameful,"<quote/> says Miami attorney H.P. Smith, who has 
F05  34 conducted seminars and workshops in the art and philosophy of jury 
F05  35 selection for the National Bar Association. <quote_>"In terms of 
F05  36 jury selection, Blacks are clearly losing ground when it comes to 
F05  37 being allowed to sit as the factual judges of innocence or guilt. 
F05  38 We are at a point when justice is still peeping from under the 
F05  39 blindfold that she is supposed to be wearing, and unfortunately 
F05  40 what she is seeing is a system that still shuts the door of 
F05  41 opportunity for Blacks to be involved in this great experiment 
F05  42 called a trial by jury."<quote/><p/>
F05  43 <p_>In barbershops and at lunch counters, the indignation is 
F05  44 expressed in more blunt terms. Many speculate about the existence 
F05  45 of a national conspiracy to keep Blacks out of the jury box, 
F05  46 particularly in racially tinged cases.<p/>
F05  47 <p_>Specifically, many courtroom watchers have expressed alarm at 
F05  48 the scant number of Blacks selected for such highly visible cases 
F05  49 as the Mike Tyson rape trial (in which there were only two Black 
F05  50 jurors) and the trial of mass murderer Jeffrey Dahmer (one Black 
F05  51 juror).<p/>
F05  52 <p_>While most attorneys and legal scholars are loath to subscribe 
F05  53 to conspiracy theories, they uniformly maintain that a degree of 
F05  54 racism continues to taint the jury selection process even in light 
F05  55 of recent Supreme Court rulings that prohibit the dismissal of 
F05  56 prospective jurors based on race.<p/>
F05  57 <p_><quote_>"Prejudice is so pervasive in our society, you really 
F05  58 don't need to look for a conspiracy,"<quote/> says Sharon McPhail, 
F05  59 immediate past president of the National Bar Association, in 
F05  60 explaining the persistence of race-based jury selection. 
F05  61 <quote_>"Any system that depends upon the behavior of human beings 
F05  62 is going to be somewhat affected by the prejudices and biases of 
F05  63 those human beings. Frankly, I don't know that you could design a 
F05  64 process that would pull out the prejudices of the people selecting 
F05  65 the jury."<quote/><p/>
F05  66 <p_>Currently, the process works like this: A random and, in 
F05  67 theory, ethnically representative pool of prospective jurors - 
F05  68 culled in most jurisdictions from voter registration rolls - is 
F05  69 impaneled and interviewed by opposing counselors. During the 
F05  70 interview process, known as <foreign_>voir dire<foreign/>, the 
F05  71 opposing attorneys attempt to root out persons with biases, fears 
F05  72 or hostilities that would prevent a prospective juror from reaching 
F05  73 a fair and impartial decision based on the facts presented at 
F05  74 trial. Each side is allowed a specified number (depending upon the 
F05  75 jurisdiction) of peremptory challenges.<p/>
F05  76 <p_>What has traditionally happened in many criminal and personal 
F05  77 injury cases, however, is that prosecutors and attorneys for 
F05  78 deep-pocket defendants have sought, as a matter of course, to 
F05  79 eliminate prospective Black jurors under the racist assumption that 
F05  80 Blacks are, by nature, soft on criminals and quick to 'punish' 
F05  81 large firms.<p/>
F05  82 <p_><quote_>"For whatever reason, there is this perception that 
F05  83 Black jurors will give away the farm or somewhat are more 
F05  84 sympathetic to criminals,"<quote/> says McPhail. <quote_>"And so 
F05  85 you have these challenges based on unacceptable reasons such as 
F05  86 race and gender."<quote/><p/>
F05  87 <p_>Yet in a 1986 ruling (<tf|>Batson v. <tf|>Kentucky), the U.S. 
F05  88 Supreme Court declared the use of race stereotypes in jury 
F05  89 selection for criminal cases unconstitutional and held that 
F05  90 prosecutors may be required to explain their objection to 
F05  91 prospective jurors.<p/>
F05  92 <p_>In 1991, the Court's ruling in <tf|>Edmonton v. <tf_>Leeville 
F05  93 Concrete Co.<tf/> extended its condemnation of race-based 
F05  94 challenges to include civil suits as well. Then in June, the Court 
F05  95 ruled in <tf|>Georgia v. <tf|>McCollum that defense attorneys also 
F05  96 could not use race as a basis for peremptory challenges.<p/>
F05  97 <p_>Since the advent of <tf|>Batson and its legal progeny, many 
F05  98 attorneys say they have, in the main, detected something of a 
F05  99 change in the air. <quote_>"Before <tf|>Batson, I could walk into 
F05 100 any courtroom in South Georgia and have a panel of 42 prospective 
F05 101 jurors and maybe half a dozen Black males and females, and I'd know 
F05 102 that the prosecutor, without thinking, would strike most of them 
F05 103 from the pool,"<quote/> says Atlanta attorney Tony Axam, a member 
F05 104 of the faculties of the National Institute for Trial Advocacy and 
F05 105 the National College of Criminal Defense Lawyers. <quote_>"That was 
F05 106 both the philosophy and the practice of some sitting prosecutors 
F05 107 and their young assistants who were trying cases. <tf|>Batson has 
F05 108 changed that."<quote/><p/>
F05 109 <p_>Not everyone agrees that the changes have been all that 
F05 110 significant, however.<p/>
F05 111 <p_><quote_>"We still have the problem of prosecutors using 
F05 112 peremptory challenges to strike Black jurors without a legitimate 
F05 113 explanation,"<quote/> says Julius Chambers, executive counsel of 
F05 114 the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. <quote_>"I don't know 
F05 115 how widespread this is, but we've seen enough instances of this 
F05 116 occurring to say that we should all be concerned about 
F05 117 improprieties in the way juries are constituted."<quote/><p/>
F05 118 <p_>Among the most common reasons used by prosecutors to exclude 
F05 119 prospective Black jurors is the reasoning that a would-be juror and 
F05 120 the defendant live in close proximity, making the juror 
F05 121 less-than-impartial, prosecutors say. It is a line of reasoning 
F05 122 that attorneys say defies all logic. <quote_>"Who is going to be 
F05 123 more concerned about crime in a given area that someone who's from 
F05 124 the same neighborhood,"<quote/> says H.P. Smith. <quote_>"If the 
F05 125 person is guilty, I would want him prosecuted and off the streets 
F05 126 where I live. If he's innocent, I'd want to see the right person 
F05 127 found, so the reasoning just doesn't make sense."<quote/><p/>
F05 128 <p_>That reasoning, particularly in light of the spate of 
F05 129 high-profile trials, has also raised the ire of some Black 
F05 130 Americans and heightened sensitivity to the jury selection process. 
F05 131 But observers of the fury say Black Americans must do more than get 
F05 132 angry; they must seize this opportunity to apply more pressure to 
F05 133 keep the system honest.<p/>
F05 134 <p_><quote_>"<tf|>Batson is the vehicle the Supreme Court devised 
F05 135 for ensuring fairness, but you have to give it bite,"<quote/> says 
F05 136 Jackson, Miss., attorney Dennis Sweet, a lecturer at the 
F05 137 Introductory Trial Advocacy Program at Harvard University and a 
F05 138 member of the Jackson Board of Bar Commissioners. <quote_>"Judges 
F05 139 have to take a closer look at these challenges and make prosecutors 
F05 140 and other attorneys give real reasons for excluding Blacks. Once 
F05 141 you start getting the same explanations over and over and you start 
F05 142 seeing a pattern of exclusion, then judges have to invoke 
F05 143 <tf|>Batson and deny these strikes."<quote/><p/>
F05 144 <p_>Clearly, the racial tensions that continue to smolder in the 
F05 145 wake of the Los Angeles riots have, for the moment, had some affect 
F05 146 on judicial behavior. A Florida judge, for example, recently 
F05 147 shifted the highly publicized trial of a Hispanic Miami police 
F05 148 officer charged with the shooting death of a Black motorcyclist 
F05 149 from Orlando to Tallahassee which has a Black population closer in 
F05 150 number to that of Miami's.<p/>
F05 151 <p_>Still, <}_><-|>attorney's<+|>attorneys<}/> say, the real key to 
F05 152 courtroom fairness, however, is the seating of more Black judges. 
F05 153 <quote_>"You've got to believe that Black judges would be less 
F05 154 likely to accept the legal mumbo jumbo that lawyers are likely to 
F05 155 give,"<quote/> says H.P. Smith.<p/>
F05 156 <p_>Similarly, many attorneys advocate changing the way jury pools 
F05 157 are selected. Rather than selecting potential jurors from voter 
F05 158 registration rolls or property tax rolls, some suggest impaneling 
F05 159 jurors from driver's license rolls, a register that more accurately 
F05 160 reflects the makeup of a community.<p/>
F05 161 <p_>And Black Americans must understand the significance of jury 
F05 162 selection and must be willing to serve. <quote_>"We have to impress 
F05 163 upon the Black community how very important jury service 
F05 164 is,"<quote/> says Dennis Sweet. <quote_>"You have to have people 
F05 165 registering to vote and getting involved. The issue here is 
F05 166 participation and fairness. Having Black people on juries brings 
F05 167 cultural sensitivity into the jury room that can be very useful. 
F05 168 When you have a jury that is representative, a decision can be 
F05 169 reached that's fair to everybody involved."<quote/><p/>
F05 170 
F05 171 <h_><p_>Why HYPERTENSION Strikes Twice As Many Blacks As Whites<p/>
F05 172 <p_>Racism and urban pressures may cause hypertension disparity 
F05 173 between Blacks and Whites<p/>
F05 174 <p_>By Karima A. Haynes<p/><h/>
F05 175 <p_>LIKE a predator silently stalking its prey, hypertension, or 
F05 176 high blood pressure, strikes African-Americans at alarmingly higher 
F05 177 rates than it does Whites, prompting medical researchers to look at 
F05 178 environmental factors like racism, stress and diet as causes for 
F05 179 the disparity.<p/>
F05 180 <p_>For reasons that are hotly debated in medical circles, 
F05 181 hypertension, according to the American Heart Assn., strikes twice 
F05 182 as many Blacks as Whites. African-Americans also suffer from 
F05 183 chronic hypertension nearly five to seven times more often than 
F05 184 Whites. And interestingly, Black Americans have much higher rates 
F05 185 of high blood pressure than Blacks in Africa, leading researchers 
F05 186 to believe that the stress of living in America's inner cities 
F05 187 plays a major role in triggering high blood pressure in Blacks with 
F05 188 a genetic predisposition to the condition.<p/>
F05 189 <p_>The number of Blacks between the ages of 45 and 64 years with 
F05 190 chronic hypertension is 366.9 per 1,000 compared to 204.2 per 1,000 
F05 191 among Whites in the same age group, according to a 1990 study by 
F05 192 the National Center for Health Statistics. Some medical experts 
F05 193 blame the hypertension disparity on the condition being passed on 
F05 194 from generation to generation. Others say African-Americans are 
F05 195 disproportionately exposed to urban pressures and racism. And still 
F05 196 others surmise that it is a combination of both factors.<p/>
F05 197 <p_>A strong case has been made that racism itself is a major cause 
F05 198 of hypertension among Black Americans. <quote_>"There are many 
F05 199 environmental factors associated with high blood pressure,"<quote/> 
F05 200 says Dr. Robert F. Murray Jr., director of the division of medical 
F05 201 genetics at the Howard University College of Medicine. 
F05 202 <quote_>"Because of the racism that exists in our society, people 
F05 203 of darker pigment are discriminated against more than those who are 
F05 204 fairer. Darker-skinned people undergo more streets because they 
F05 205 feel powerless over their condition, particularly people in the 
F05 206 inner city."<quote/><p/>
F05 207 <p_>Dr. Clarence E. Grim of Charles R. Drew University of Medicine 
F05 208 in Los Angeles theorizes that Black Americans are more susceptible 
F05 209 to high blood pressure because of a sensitivity to salt inherited 
F05 210 from some African slaves. The theory is that many slaves died on 
F05 211 the passage from West Africa to the Americas and the Caribbean due 
F05 212 to diarrhea and salt loss. Those slaves who carried genes that 
F05 213 helped them to retain water and salt survived the journey and 
F05 214 subsequently passed the genes on to their descendants.<p/>
F05 215 <p_>If the theory holds true, Grim asserts, some 75 percent of the 
F05 216 cases of hyper<?_>-<?/>tension among Blacks could be eliminated by 
F05 217 reducing salt intake. <quote_>"The exciting thing is that we could 
F05 218 start wiping out this disease in the Black community by changing 
F05 219 dietary salt intake and by prescribing diuretics (drugs that reduce 
F05 220 salt and fluid retention),"<quote/> Grim points out.<p/>
F05 221 <p_>Still, there is a third school of thought that says both 
F05 222 environment and heredity cause hypertension in Blacks.
F05 223 
F05 224 
F06   1 <#FROWN:F06\><h_><p_>HALF A MOUNTAIN...<p/>
F06   2 <p_>The Matterhorn challenges our travel editor<p/>
F06   3 <p_>By Charles N. Barnard.<p/><h/>
F06   4 <p_>I met Perrig in Switzerland more than two years ago. It was he 
F06   5 who tempted me to think I might climb a certain mountain. (Which 
F06   6 led to this adventure.) Perrig is not a climber himself; he is a 
F06   7 former ski instructor, now a government official. But anyone living 
F06   8 in Zermatt thinks inevitably of mountains. And of climbing them.<p/>
F06   9 <p_><quote_>"We are surrounded here by the greatest concentration 
F06  10 of 4,000-meter mountains in Europe,"<quote/> he said. 
F06  11 <quote_>"Twenty-nine."<quote/> One had only to look out any window 
F06  12 in town to see a great array of snow-frosted peaks - including the 
F06  13 Matterhorn - standing guard above and around the valley of Zermatt. 
F06  14 All had been conquered by climbers long ago, of course; 
F06  15 mountaineers have been coming to this picturesque Alpine village 
F06  16 for much more than a century. <quote_>"All the same,"<quote/> said 
F06  17 my enthusiastic friend, <quote_>"to climb a 4,000-meter mountain - 
F06  18 any one of them, even today - is a kind of 
F06  19 achievement...."<quote/><p/>
F06  20 <p_>My mind was doing funny, irresponsible things as Perrig talked. 
F06  21 I could hear what he was saying, but I was communing with myself at 
F06  22 the same time. <tf_>Let's see. Four thousand meters? That's 13,200 
F06  23 feet. That isn't impossible. You were higher than that in Peru. 
F06  24 You're in pretty good shape. You've even started lying about your 
F06  25 age because you discovered you can get away with it. So why not 
F06  26 think about a climb, you old coot? It might boost your 
F06  27 morale.<tf/><p/>
F06  28 <p_><quote_>"... Some of the fourthousanders are more difficult 
F06  29 than others, of course,"<quote/> Perrig was saying and I heard 
F06  30 myself answering, <tf_>Of course<tf/>, in an unfazed, age-39 tone. 
F06  31 <quote_>"You could try, for example, the Breithorn. It is 4,160 
F06  32 meters, but if you are quite fit, it should be no problem. I can 
F06  33 introduce you to a guide who has taken clients up the Matterhorn 
F06  34 more than 200 times. You couldn't be in better hands."<quote/><p/>
F06  35 <p_>My imagination was racing. An aphorism came flashing back 
F06  36 <tf_>You don't stop playing because you get old. But you could get 
F06  37 old if you stop playing.<tf/> (Admittedly this bit of wisdom was 
F06  38 meant to apply to romance, but why not mountain-climbing too?)<p/>
F06  39 <p_><quote_>"Well, think about it,"<quote/> Perrig said, shaking 
F06  40 hands as we parted. <quote_>"If you ever want to give Breithorn a 
F06  41 try, let me know."<quote/> <tf_>Give Breithorn a try, give 
F06  42 Breithorn a try.... Hmmm.<tf/> Time passed, as they say in stories, 
F06  43 but this visit to Switzerland - this <tf|>idea - refused to fade. 
F06  44 Not because I believe Perrig really cares if I climb Breithorn or 
F06  45 not - or even remembers our conversation. Not (forfend) because I 
F06  46 think I have something to prove at this age - but there it is, the 
F06  47 shimmering, inextinguishable thought: <tf_>I must climb a 
F06  48 4,000-meter mountain and have done with it. What's the big fear? 
F06  49 What would it take? A little extra conditioning. Then a day or so 
F06  50 and it will be over. For life.<p/>
F06  51 <p_><quote_>August, 1991<p/>
F06  52 <p_>Dear Amand<*_>e-acute<*/> Perrig:<p/>
F06  53 <p_>Great news! I will be coming back to Zermatt next month to do a 
F06  54 magazine story. Will be arriving via Glacier Express from St. 
F06  55 Moritz about the 15th. Do you remember the talk we had about doing 
F06  56 a bit of mountaineering? I think you said September would be an 
F06  57 ideal month. Can you set something up for me with that veteran 
F06  58 guide you said you knew?<p/>
F06  59 <p_>Oh, yes. In case you don't remember. The mountain we were 
F06  60 talking about is Breithorn ...<tf/><p/>
F06  61 <p_>I pack thermal underwear, sun goggles, sturdy gloves, a wool 
F06  62 hat, lip balm, sweaters, hiking boots. And my clipping file - all 
F06  63 the stories I have been saving about climbing in the Swiss Alps: 
F06  64 <quote_>"FOUR DIE ON MATTERHORN"<quote/> ... <quote_>"OLDEST 
F06  65 MOUNTAIN GUIDE IS 88"<quote/> ... <quote_>THE CHALLENGE OF THE 
F06  66 PEAKS."<quote/> Also a great calendar photo of climbers near the 
F06  67 summit of Breithorn, and a copy of Edward Whymper's classic 
F06  68 <tf_>Ascent of the Matterhorn<tf/>, the story of the first 
F06  69 successful climb to the summit of the famed mountain in 1865. Good 
F06  70 reading for tonight on the plane.<p/>
F06  71 <p_>I am early at the Swissair lounge. I find a cup of coffee, some 
F06  72 sweet Swiss biscuits and a guide book I have not seen before - all 
F06  73 about 'Alpinismo ... Bergsteigen ... Mountaineering.' It says most 
F06  74 Zermatt climbs take two days. (<quote_>"First day, ascent to the 
F06  75 hut. Second day, climb in view."<quote/>) It warns that good 
F06  76 physical condition and equipment are indispensable. It cautions 
F06  77 that fourthousanders should not be climbed without a guide. In a 
F06  78 list of <quote_>"classical high-Alpine climbs"<quote_> I find my 
F06  79 mountain: <quote_>"Breithorn, ice-climbing, 4,164 meters, 45-degree 
F06  80 pitch."<quote/><p/>
F06  81 <p_>Well, I think, if I'm not ready now, it's too late to back out. 
F06  82 The plane leaves in 15 minutes.<p/>
F06  83 <p_>One cannot fly into Zermatt; there is no airport. Nor can one 
F06  84 arrive by tour bus or drive into the town itself in any motor 
F06  85 vehicle. Only the narrow-gauge trains of a private railroad arrive 
F06  86 here after a spectacular journey through vertiginous gorges and 
F06  87 mountain passes.<p/>
F06  88 <p_>A gathering of small battery-powered carts and horse-drawn 
F06  89 coaches meet each arriving train to pick up guests. The chauffeurs 
F06  90 have the names of the leading hotels embroidered in gold on their 
F06  91 caps: Mont Cervin, Schweizerhof, Monte Rosa, Alphubel. I signal my 
F06  92 man, he rushes to relieve me of my luggage and off we drive, 
F06  93 swiftly and electric-motor-silent, up half-mile Bahnhofstrasse, the 
F06  94 main street.<p/>
F06  95 <p_>If every weathered timber and stone of Zermatt - every Alpine 
F06  96 meadow and herd of black-and-white cows - had been assembled by a 
F06  97 theatrical set designer to represent the most idyllic of Swiss 
F06  98 mountain villages, the result would be - well, Zermatt. <tf_>The 
F06  99 Sound of Music<tf/>! Heidi-town! Geraniums tumbling from chalet 
F06 100 balconies! Small, quaint hotels! Sidewalk caf<*_>e-acute<*/>s! The 
F06 101 sweet scents of bratwurst steaming and pastries baking! The sound 
F06 102 of cowbells echoing down from the hills. Skiers in brilliant colors 
F06 103 striding back into town after a day on the slopes. Climbers in 
F06 104 knickerbockers, ropes coiled unaffectedly over one shoulder, ice 
F06 105 axes in hand. I take in the whole scene once again with 
F06 106 affection.<p/>
F06 107 <p_>To be a guest in a small Swiss hotel is to be a member of the 
F06 108 family. Inn-keeping is as much a proprietary Swiss occupation as 
F06 109 watch-, chocolate- or cheesemaking. Swiss hoteliers founded a 
F06 110 profession in the remote valleys of this mountainous country more 
F06 111 than a century ago. Now the Swiss manage great hotels in every 
F06 112 corner of the world. In Zermatt, a guest is still greeted as one 
F06 113 who has just survived an arduous and perhaps risky journey and 
F06 114 deserves the best of care: a bed smothered in down comforters; a 
F06 115 small, cozy lounge for a schnapps before dinner; a roaring log 
F06 116 fire; a dining room where you will have your own table for as long 
F06 117 as you stay. And a waitress who addresses you by name (but has the 
F06 118 good manners not to announce her own). And, yes, your very own 
F06 119 napkin ring.<p/>
F06 120 <p_>Zermatt is a small town in both population (about 3,500) and 
F06 121 style. I do not have to go looking for Perrig. A few minutes after 
F06 122 dropping my bags at the hotel, I meet him by chance on the main 
F06 123 street. <quote_>"So! You have come for the Breithorn!"<quote/> he 
F06 124 exclaims, as if not more than two weeks, rather than two years, had 
F06 125 passed. In this environment, under the shadow of the Matterhorn, I 
F06 126 suddenly feel a little like an imposter. Well, yes, I say, perhaps. 
F06 127 <quote_>"No perhaps!"<quote/> Perrig shouts. <quote_>"We are 
F06 128 waiting for you! Breithorn is waiting for you! We meet with Biener 
F06 129 at five!"<quote/><p/>
F06 130 <p_>Emil Biener is the guide who has climbed the Matterhorn more 
F06 131 than 200 times. The three of us gather in a small restaurant. Three 
F06 132 glasses of sherry, a toast to success, and then it all becomes very 
F06 133 businesslike - the essential first discussion of <quote_>"ze 
F06 134 program."<quote/> A few days will be allowed, to become accustomed 
F06 135 to the altitude and to recover from jet lag. Perrig and Biener 
F06 136 agree on some moderate mountain hiking for me.<p/>
F06 137 <p_>I am conscious of Veteran Guide giving Greenhorn Client a 
F06 138 preliminary checkout: <quote_>"How old is this American, how fit, 
F06 139 what temperament? He says he is here to climb Breithorn, but does 
F06 140 he seem like someone I would take up a mountain, any mountain? We 
F06 141 shall see."<quote/><p/>
F06 142 <p_>First meeting is a time for the client to make a preliminary 
F06 143 appraisal of the guide, too. Frankly, I am in awe of anyone who has 
F06 144 climbed the Matterhorn once, to say nothing of 200 times. (I later 
F06 145 learn even that figure is not extraordinary within the fraternity 
F06 146 of approximately 50 Zermatt mountain guides.) Biener is a small, 
F06 147 intense man with sharp blue eyes, thin gray hair and a leathery 
F06 148 face. He is about my age and very explicit. <quote_>"Tomorrow we 
F06 149 walk,"<quote/> he says. <quote_>"And I must see your 
F06 150 boots."<quote/><p/>
F06 151 <p_>From this moment and for the next few days, Emil Biener runs my 
F06 152 life and manipulates my emotions.<p/>
F06 153 <p_>It is raining this first morning and the day does not look 
F06 154 promising for mountain hikes, but Guide Emil shows up at my hotel 
F06 155 precisely on time. He examines my boots with displeasure. Too soft, 
F06 156 he says, but they will do for now. I am wearing a favorite jacket 
F06 157 that kept me warm even in Antarctica. Anxious to please, I point 
F06 158 out to my new father<?_>-<?/>figure that my jacket is waterproof. 
F06 159 <quote_>"Nozzing iss vaterprooof!"<quote/> Emil declares with a 
F06 160 snort. I am put off balance already; I am doing everything 
F06 161 wrong.<p/>
F06 162 <p_>The floor of the valley at Zermatt is at about 1,620 meters. 
F06 163 (One meter is three-feet-plus.) We give ourselves a 700-meter jump 
F06 164 on today's itinerary by taking a fast ride on a funicular railroad 
F06 165 tunneled through the mountains to a station named Sunnegga at 2,300 
F06 166 meters. When we emerge into daylight, the weather has improved 
F06 167 slightly.<p/>
F06 168 <p_>When we begin to walk, Emil leads the way along a stony trail 
F06 169 through a treeless landscape. We are headed for a crossing of the 
F06 170 Findelgletscher; we follow the moraine left behind by the 
F06 171 retreating glacier over the past few centuries. It is like 
F06 172 scrambling along the rim of a crater.<p/>
F06 173 <p_>The sky remains overcast and there are occasional spits of 
F06 174 rain. Emil stops now and then to survey the weather in all 
F06 175 directions with binoculars. Once he points in the direction of the 
F06 176 partially obscured Matterhorn and announces, <quote_>"It is snowing 
F06 177 at H<*_>o-umlaut<*/>rnlih<*_>u-umlaut<*/>tte."<quote/> I take this 
F06 178 to be a remark full of portent, if only I understood what.<p/>
F06 179 <p_>Soon the glacial icefield begins to be visible several hundred 
F06 180 feet below on our right. We begin a diagonal traverse down the 
F06 181 inner slope of the moraine, stumbling through a boulder field. 
F06 182 There is no trail here, only gravelly spaces between big rocks, 
F06 183 rocks that move underfoot, and rocks that rumble.<p/>
F06 184 <p_>(This is no piece of cake, I am thinking. I really must stop 
F06 185 lying about my age - especially to myself.)<p/>
F06 186 <p_>When we reach the edge of the ice, the cold breath of the 
F06 187 glacier feels like the entrance to a frigid cave. Up close, 
F06 188 Findelgletscher is a little frightening - a huge, craggy mass that 
F06 189 makes groaning, growling sounds. Emil probes ahead with his ice 
F06 190 axe: There is a crevasse. He dislodges some big rocks and they 
F06 191 tumble into the void. After a pause, the stuff makes a big, muffled 
F06 192 splash below; it's like having dropped several cement blocks into a 
F06 193 deep well. Once we know where the crevasse is, we proceed.<p/>
F06 194 <p_>Now the rain begins in earnest and Emil says we must wait. We 
F06 195 find shelter under the overhang of a boulder about the size of a 
F06 196 small house. A gurgling river of glacial melt rushes by. We pull up 
F06 197 some flat stones and sit. A foggy vapor rolls off the glacier.<p/>
F06 198 <p_><quote_>"What is 
F06 199 H<*_>o-umlaut<*/>rnlih<*_>u-umlaut<*/>tte?"<quote/> I ask while we 
F06 200 wait. Emil says it is the first climbers' hut on the way up the 
F06 201 Matterhorn; it's also the last. <quote_>"At three-two,"<quote/> he 
F06 202 says. That means 3,200 meters - more than 10,000 feet.<p/>
F06 203 <p_>The rain lets up after 20 minutes and Emil says it is time to 
F06 204 put on crampons, the steel-toothed footgear that make it possible 
F06 205 to walk or climb on ice.
F06 206 
F06 207 
F07   1 <#FROWN:F07\><h_><p_>Waste vs. waste<p/>
F07   2 <p_>David Scott<p/><h/>
F07   3 <p_>Three new products made from waste materials promise low-cost, 
F07   4 speedy cleanups for oil spills.<p/>
F07   5 <p_>At the University of Texas in Austin, two chemical engineering 
F07   6 professors have invented tiny glass beads, manufactured from fly 
F07   7 ash, that float on oil and stick to it. The hollow microbeads, 
F07   8 about the thickness of a human hair, are partially coated with 
F07   9 titanium dioxide - a nontoxic white pigment used in paint.<p/>
F07  10 <p_>The coating acts as a semiconductor: struck by sunlight, it 
F07  11 provides the energy needed to oxidize oil. The oxidized oil then 
F07  12 dissolves in the ocean, where it can be quickly consumed by 
F07  13 naturally occurring bacteria. Adam Heller, one of the inventors, 
F07  14 estimates that a ton of beads could dissolve about 35 tons of oil 
F07  15 per week.<p/>
F07  16 <p_>The oil-soaked beads, unlike thin layers of oil, can be ignited 
F07  17 for even faster cleanups. The end product resembles white sand and 
F07  18 is harmless, says Heller.<p/>
F07  19 <p_>A British farmer has devised another simple and inexpensive 
F07  20 means of countering oil spills. Ten years ago, Kenneth Frogbrook 
F07  21 discovered he could use straw to clean seabirds soaked with oil. 
F07  22 From this chance discovery, he invented Frogmat. <quote_>"It's a 
F07  23 ribbon of compacted straw that is stapled between two skins of 
F07  24 nylon mesh,"<quote/> he explains.<p/>
F07  25 <p_>To hasten cleanup after an oil spill, mobile Frogmat factories 
F07  26 could be rushed to the scene of the accident. With funding from the 
F07  27 British government's Marine Pollution Control Unit, Frogbrook has 
F07  28 already designed and built several trailer-mounted machines that 
F07  29 chop baled straw, use a belt conveyor to feed the straw between 
F07  30 mesh coverings, and shape the straw into mats that are three inches 
F07  31 thick and four feet wide.<p/>
F07  32 <p_><quote_>"This ribbon is churned out continuously at the rate of 
F07  33 11 yards per minute, or nine miles a day. It can be coiled in 
F07  34 330-foot lengths weighing 560 pounds,"<quote/> says Frogbrook, 
F07  35 <quote_>"then unrolled along the beach or on the water, where the 
F07  36 straw floats even when fully saturated."<quote/> Used mats can be 
F07  37 rolled up to squeeze out the oil, and then they can be 
F07  38 incinerated.<p/>
F07  39 <p_>A comparable American system uses a sawdust to soak up oil - an 
F07  40 idea borrowed form saloon owners who sprinkle sawdust on floors to 
F07  41 absorb spilled beer. Heat-treatment of ordinary sawdust alters its 
F07  42 porous structure so it absorbs oil but repels water. The concept 
F07  43 was developed by Thomas B. Reed, a research professor at the 
F07  44 Colorado School of Mines.<p/>
F07  45 <p_>Called Sea Sweep, the treated sawdust is spread on the water 
F07  46 from a boat or aircraft. It can float indefinitely, storing 80 
F07  47 percent of its own volume in oil while congealing into clumps. The 
F07  48 oily dust is recovered by a scoop or boom, or swept to a collection 
F07  49 point for removal by suction or mechanical means. Sea Sweep can be 
F07  50 processed to extract most of the crude, then burned as an 
F07  51 industrial fuel.<p/>
F07  52 
F07  53 <h_><p_>Laser watchdog<p/>
F07  54 <p_>P.J. Skerrett<p/><h/>
F07  55 <p_>Barry Commoner's fourth law of ecology - there's no such thing 
F07  56 as a free lunch - definitely applies to burning solid waste instead 
F07  57 of burying it in overburdened landfills. Incineration may solve 
F07  58 disposal problems and generate electricity to boot, but it can also 
F07  59 create toxic emissions. Currently, emissions monitoring is a 
F07  60 time-consuming process that at best <quote_>"gives you a good 
F07  61 snapshot of what happened a couple of weeks ago when you took the 
F07  62 samples,"<quote/> explains Terill Cool, a physics professor at 
F07  63 Cornell University who is developing a laser system that can spit 
F07  64 out results in less than two hours.<p/>
F07  65 <p_>The Cornell monitor uses a laser to excite incinerator gases, 
F07  66 but only after a sample of smokestack gases has been flash-cooled 
F07  67 to less than - 380<*_>degree<*/>F in a vacuum flask. The detector 
F07  68 searches for approximately two dozen chemicals that always form 
F07  69 along with dioxins and other suspected carcinogens, but in higher 
F07  70 concentrations.<p/>
F07  71 <p_>An even faster sensor designed at the Massachusetts Institute 
F07  72 of Technology (MIT) detects and tracks compounds called polycyclic 
F07  73 aromatic hydrocarbons (PACs) from the instant they form deep in an 
F07  74 incinerator's flame. The technique, called laser-induced 
F07  75 fluorescence, targets PACs because <quote_>"they are the real 
F07  76 villains in emissions,"<quote/> says J<*_>a-acute<*/>nos 
F07  77 Be<*_>e-acute<*/>r, a professor of chemical engineering. Not only 
F07  78 are PACs carcinogenic, but their presence indicates that 
F07  79 hard-to-detect dioxins are being produced as the stack gases 
F07  80 cool.<p/>
F07  81 <p_>Through a tiny pie-shaped slit in MIT's huge test incinerator, 
F07  82 sparkling blue light from an argon-ion laser slices into the 
F07  83 roaring orange flame. Any PACs hit by the laser absorb some of its 
F07  84 energy, then release it at characteristic wavelengths. A detector 
F07  85 outside the incinerator filters out background radiation from the 
F07  86 2,200<*_>degree<*/>F flame and picks up the distinctive PAC 
F07  87 'signatures'.<p/>
F07  88 <p_>Under real operating conditions, a surge of these hardy 
F07  89 compounds could be destroyed by releasing a blast of oxygen or 
F07  90 hydrogen peroxide, says Be<*_>e-acute<*/>r. Or the incinerator 
F07  91 gases could be diverted through special scrubbers.<p/>
F07  92 <p_>An industrial-scale prototype is now under construction at a 
F07  93 municipal power plant in D<*_>u-umlaut<*/>sseldorf, Germany. 
F07  94 Be<*_>e-acute<*/>r expects the laser detector system to cost around 
F07  95 $100,000.<p/>
F07  96 
F07  97 <h_><p_>The Great (imported) Lakes<p/>
F07  98 <p_>Mark D. Uehling<p/><h/>
F07  99 <p_>Beloved though they are, the Great Lakes have become great 
F07 100 aquariums: holding ponds for species introduced by humans. In a 
F07 101 report prepared for the Great Lakes Fishery Commission, a team led 
F07 102 by Edward L. Mills of the Cornell University Biological Field 
F07 103 Station has identified 136 species from Europe, the Pacific, and 
F07 104 elsewhere that thrive in the world's largest expanse of fresh 
F07 105 water.<p/>
F07 106 <p_>Some species were released accidentally by ships dumping 
F07 107 ballast water; others were introduced deliberately to provide good 
F07 108 fishing. <quote_>"Probably most of the biomass in the Great Lake is 
F07 109 exotic,"<quote/> says Mills. <quote_>"It's a very artificial system 
F07 110 now."<quote/><p/>
F07 111 <p_>Alewives, for example, decimated native yellow perch and 
F07 112 reproduced so well that they washed ashore by the millions in the 
F07 113 1960s. Today the same fish are struggling to survive - and fed at 
F07 114 public expense because they are the prey of choice for salmon, 
F07 115 another immigrant. New<?_>-<?/>comers themselves, the finicky 
F07 116 salmon may not have had enough time to evolve a taste for 
F07 117 indigenous species, Mills speculates.<p/>
F07 118 <p_>For the moment, the most despised import is the amazingly 
F07 119 fecund zebra mussel, each of which generates 30,000 eggs a year. 
F07 120 The small, clamlike pests are clogging intake valves at power 
F07 121 plants throughout the region. Their removal could cost $2 billion 
F07 122 annually. Unable to keep up by scraping off clumps of the mollusks, 
F07 123 some utilities treat nearby water with chlorine to kill the 
F07 124 creatures. But a company specializing in naval research seems to 
F07 125 have found a more environmentally sound approach. Sonalysts, Inc. 
F07 126 in Waterford, Conn., discovered that ultra<?_>-<?/>sound waves 
F07 127 shatter the mussels at a larval stage.<p/>
F07 128 <p_>Less notorious exotic species will have severe biological 
F07 129 ramifications in the Great Lakes too. A tall aquatic weed, purple 
F07 130 loosestrife, is edging out native cattails and marsh grasses. 
F07 131 Inedible to migrating birds, loosestrife is already impervious to 
F07 132 herbicides and expanding its range. And the ruffe, a fish that 
F07 133 flourishes at a variety of temperatures, is well established in 
F07 134 Lake Superior, where it is disrupting what is left of the natural 
F07 135 ecological balance. The ruffe is too spiny to be a tempting meal 
F07 136 for predators.<p/>
F07 137 
F07 138 <h_><p_>Biosphere J<p/>
F07 139 <p_>Dennis Normile<p/><h/>
F07 140 <p_>First there was Biosphere - Earth. Then there was Biosphere II 
F07 141 - a small replica of Earth ['Inside Biosphere II,' Nov. '90]. And 
F07 142 soon there will be Biosphere J - the unofficial name of a research 
F07 143 project being planned by Japan's Science and Technology Agency.<p/>
F07 144 <p_>The project's purpose is to determine how radioactive elements 
F07 145 move through an ecosystem. Agency official Toshinori Kanno 
F07 146 emphasizes that there are no current plans to use radioactive 
F07 147 material at Biosphere J. The aim is to understand the food chain 
F07 148 more clearly and how elements move through it by studying closed 
F07 149 systems. Researchers may then infer how radioactive material could 
F07 150 move through a larger ecosystem. That understanding eventually 
F07 151 could lead to better safety measures at nuclear power plants.<p/>
F07 152 <p_>Kanno says the agency is not ruling out the possibility of 
F07 153 using trace amounts of radioactive elements in the future. Japan is 
F07 154 still committed to nuclear power, although the public is 
F07 155 increasingly uneasy about it.<p/>
F07 156 <p_>Unlike Biosphere II, which is a one-of-a-kind environment, 
F07 157 Biosphere J will probably contain two nearly identical closed 
F07 158 systems. One will serve as the experimental system while the other 
F07 159 will be a control system. The agency would like to be able to 
F07 160 manipulate the concentrations of atmospheric gases and other 
F07 161 environmental conditions to observe the response.<p/>
F07 162 <p_>Enclosed within Biosphere J will be a variety of small animals, 
F07 163 microorganisms, and plants. It is likely that humans will also be 
F07 164 enclosed for extended periods. Preliminary designs call for sealed 
F07 165 areas of up to 1,200 square yards. Biosphere J is expected to cost 
F07 166 approximately $30 million and is targeted for completion in 
F07 167 1995.<p/>
F07 168 
F07 169 <h_><p_>Third World wonder tree<p/>
F07 170 <p_>Robert Langreth<p/><h/>
F07 171 <p_>This tree sounds too good to be true: Its twigs prevent tooth 
F07 172 decay, its oil is a strong contraceptive, its seeds produce a safe 
F07 173 pesticide, and it is so hardy that it grows even in 
F07 174 drought-stricken parts of the Third World.<p/>
F07 175 <p_>But the tree really exists, and it's called the neem. Indians 
F07 176 have recognized the neem's value for centuries, but only recently 
F07 177 have scientists begun to confirm the folklore about the tropical 
F07 178 evergreen, a relative of mahagony. Now <quote_>"even the most 
F07 179 cautious of researchers are saying that the neem deserves to be 
F07 180 called a wonder tree,"<quote/> reports Noel Vietmeyer, the director 
F07 181 of a National Research Council study on the neem.<p/>
F07 182 <p_>In India, where the tree originated, it is used for so many 
F07 183 curative purposes that some call it <quote_>"the village 
F07 184 pharmacy,"<quote/> the report says. Investigations show that 
F07 185 chemicals from the tree may kill athlete's foot-type fungi, block 
F07 186 ringworms, and prevent the spread of a crippling tropical parasite. 
F07 187 Brushing one's teeth with neem twigs seems to deter gum disease, 
F07 188 although scientists aren't sure why. And natural pesticides can be 
F07 189 extracted from the neem's seeds (see 'HNF,' this issue).<p/>
F07 190 <p_>Research on animals and humans indicates that neem oil is a 
F07 191 potent spermicide, according to the National Research Council. Such 
F07 192 a contraceptive offers several advantages for developing nations: 
F07 193 Neem oil is cheap, nontoxic and easy to extract.<p/>
F07 194 <p_>Yet another use for the neem tree is in reforestation. 
F07 195 <quote_>"Planting neem on a large scale might ... improve the 
F07 196 declining ecosystems of many areas considered fairly 
F07 197 hopeless,"<quote/> the report says. The neem provides firewood and 
F07 198 shade and prevents erosion.<p/>
F07 199 
F07 200 <h_><p_>Strategic offense initiative<p/>
F07 201 <p_>M.D.U.<p/><h/>
F07 202 <p_>Scientists have adapted high-energy weapons, originally 
F07 203 designed for Strategic Defense Initiative research, to zap 
F07 204 hazardous stews bubbling up at hundreds of industrial and military 
F07 205 installations where water is contaminated by solvents and organic 
F07 206 chemicals. The scientists are fighting waste with million-volt 
F07 207 electron beams and high-intensity X-rays.<p/>
F07 208 <p_><quote_>"We call this an equal opportunity destroyer - it 
F07 209 attacks a broad spectrum of wastes,"<quote/> says Louis Rosocha, a 
F07 210 physicist at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. His 
F07 211 electron beam annihilates trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, 
F07 212 phenols, and vinyl chlorides.<p/>
F07 213 <p_>In California, physicist Stephan Matthews has achieved similar 
F07 214 results with X-rays at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 
F07 215 His machines can deliver radiation several hundred times more 
F07 216 intense than that used by doctors and dentists. Unlike electron 
F07 217 beams, the X-rays can penetrate steel drums used to store toxic 
F07 218 chemicals.<p/>
F07 219 <p_>Both beams shatter the chemical bonds in water. The resulting 
F07 220 molecular shrapnel then reacts with contaminants to form more 
F07 221 benign chemical debris. <quote_>"We're hardening the water, 
F07 222 basically,"<quote/> Matthews says, because the main byproducts are 
F07 223 harmless salts.<p/>
F07 224 <p_>Though others physicists laid the groundwork for such research 
F07 225 with experiments using radioactive cobalt, today's beam machines 
F07 226 are safe when turned off. And neither produces any sludge that must 
F07 227 be treated or stored.<p/>
F07 228 <p_>In Miami one electron beam is already operating on a large 
F07 229 scale. It targets contaminated water cascading over a short ledge 
F07 230 at a rate of 120 gallons per minute. Bombarding the waterfall, the 
F07 231 beam can obliterate 99 percent of the most common solvents found at 
F07 232 Superfund sites.<p/>
F07 233 <p_>The only residues are minute levels of formaldehyde and formic 
F07 234 acid. <quote_>"We found the concentrations are a hundred times 
F07 235 lower than those in a common cola and a recent Beaujolais,"<quote/> 
F07 236 explains Bill Cooper of Florida International University. 
F07 237 <quote_>"I wouldn't drink this water, but I would have no 
F07 238 hesitation about using it for irrigation or releasing it into the 
F07 239 environment.<quote/><p/>
F07 240 
F07 241 
F08   1 <#FROWN:F08\><h_><p_>The Children<p/><h/>
F08   2 <p_><tf_>I am five. The July sun shines on my shoulders. I am 
F08   3 wearing a dress I have never seen before, one I don't remember 
F08   4 putting on. The door opens and a little girl runs to me, her 
F08   5 face<tf/> delighted. I have never seen her before. I am completely 
F08   6 terrified and try to hide behind my astonished and irritated 
F08   7 mother.<p/>
F08   8 <p_><quote_>"But she's your best friend!"<quote/> my mother says, 
F08   9 and tells me that I played at the girl's house just yesterday. I 
F08  10 don't remember. When my mother tells me her name, I've never heard 
F08  11 it before.<p/>
F08  12 <p_>Other children arrive. I remember some of them, but from long 
F08  13 ago. They're older now. They've grown. Some have lost their 
F08  14 teeth.<p/>
F08  15 <p_>I pretend that everything is all right.<p/>
F08  16 <p_>At night I lie awake as I have for years, listening. I hear 
F08  17 footsteps coming down the hall. I hold my breath. I watch the edge 
F08  18 of the door to my bedroom. I watch for the hand that will push it 
F08  19 open. If it is my mother's hand or my father's, I am all right. For 
F08  20 now. If it is the hand of the woman who lives with us and sticks 
F08  21 things into me, I move out of my body. I disappear into a painting 
F08  22 on the wall, into my alarm clock with its rocking Gene Autry 
F08  23 figure, into imaginary landscapes. Usually I come back when the 
F08  24 woman leaves. But not always.<p/>
F08  25 <p_>I am eight. I have spoken French from the time I was three. I 
F08  26 attended a French kindergarten, and now the Lyc<*_>e-acute<*/>e 
F08  27 Fran<*_>c-cedille<*/>ais. I have just spent the summer in France. 
F08  28 My French is fluent when we leave Nice. Four days later, after my 
F08  29 return to the woman who hurts me, I can no longer understand or 
F08  30 speak a single word of French. Sitting at my gouged wooden desk, my 
F08  31 classmates sniggering around me, I feel terrified and ashamed, 
F08  32 certain that whatever is wrong is my fault.<p/>
F08  33 <p_>She told me she would cut out my tongue. She told me I would 
F08  34 forget. I remember how tall she was, how she wore her hair pulled 
F08  35 back with wisps breaking loose at the temples. I knew then that I 
F08  36 would never forget.<p/>
F08  37 <p_>I am 40. There are things I have always remembered, things I 
F08  38 have forgotten, things that exist in shadows only, that slip away 
F08  39 when I try to think about them. I can't remember all that she did 
F08  40 that sent me 'away.' Nor do I know what I was doing while I was 
F08  41 'away.' I only know that these episodes began with periods of abuse 
F08  42 so frightening, painful, and humiliating that I left my body and 
F08  43 parts of my mind.<p/>
F08  44 <p_>I rarely talk about what happened to me. I have never discussed 
F08  45 the details with my parents, my husband, or anyone else. Whenever I 
F08  46 think of telling, she returns in my dreams.<p/>
F08  47 <p_>I dream that I am a child and she chases me with a sharp knife, 
F08  48 catches me, and gouges out my eyes. I dream that I have to protect 
F08  49 little children at night, even though I am alone and a child 
F08  50 myself. I tuck in the other children and get into my bed. Her arm 
F08  51 reaches for me and pulls me down. I dream that I run for help, 
F08  52 enter a phone booth, hear a dial tone. When I reach up I see the 
F08  53 phone has been torn from the wall. I dream of animals skinned alive 
F08  54 while I scream.<p/>
F08  55 <p_>Sometimes when I sleep I stop breathing and can't make myself 
F08  56 start until I wake gasping, my fingers blue.<p/>
F08  57 <p_>Incest can happen to anyone: to rich and to poor; to whites, 
F08  58 blacks, Asians, Native Americans, Jews, Christians, and Buddhists. 
F08  59 It happens to girls and to boys, to the gifted and to the disabled. 
F08  60 It happens to children whose parents neglect them, and those - like 
F08  61 me - whose parents love and care for them.<p/>
F08  62 <p_>What exactly is incest? The definition that I use in this 
F08  63 article is: any sexual abuse of a child by a relative or other 
F08  64 person in a position of trust and authority over the child. It is 
F08  65 the violation of the child where he or she lives - literally and 
F08  66 metaphorically. A child molested by a stranger can run home for 
F08  67 help and comfort. A victim of incest cannot.<p/>
F08  68 <p_>Versions of this definition are widely used outside the 
F08  69 courtroom by therapists and researchers. In court, incest 
F08  70 definitions vary from state to state. In many states, the law 
F08  71 requires that for incest to have taken place, vaginal penetration 
F08  72 must be proved. So if a father rapes his child anally or orally he 
F08  73 may be guilty of child sexual abuse but may not, legally, be guilty 
F08  74 of incest.<p/>
F08  75 <p_>I believe that if incest is to be understood and fought 
F08  76 effectively, it is imperative that the definition commonly held 
F08  77 among therapists and researchers - the definition I have given here 
F08  78 - be generally accepted by the courts and public. I am not alone in 
F08  79 this belief. As therapist E. Sue Bloom, for one, writes in 
F08  80 <tf_>Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and Its Aftereffects in 
F08  81 Women<tf/>: <quote_>"If we are to understand incest, we must look 
F08  82 not at the blood bond, but at the emotional bond between the victim 
F08  83 and the perpetrator. ... The important criterion is whether there 
F08  84 is a real relationship in the experience of the child."<quote/><p/>
F08  85 <p_><quote_>"The crucial psychosocial dynamic is the <tf|>familial 
F08  86 relationship between the incest participants,"<quote/> adds Suzanne 
F08  87 M. Sgroi, M.D., director of the Saint Joseph College's Institute 
F08  88 for Child Sexual Abuse Intervention in West Hartford, Connecticut, 
F08  89 writing in the <tf_>Handbook of Clinical Intervention in Child 
F08  90 Sexual Abuse<tf/>. <quote_>"The presence or absence of a blood 
F08  91 relationship between incest participants is of far less 
F08  92 significance than the kinship roles they occupy."<quote/><p/>
F08  93 <p_>Incest happens between father and daughter, father and son, 
F08  94 mother and daughter, mother and son. It also happens between 
F08  95 stepparents and stepchildren, between grandparents and 
F08  96 grandchildren, between aunts and uncles and their nieces and 
F08  97 nephews. It can also happen by proxy, when live-in help abuses or a 
F08  98 parent's lover is the abuser; though there is no blood or legal 
F08  99 relationship, the child is betrayed and violated within the context 
F08 100 of family.<p/>
F08 101 <p_>No one knows how many incest victims there are. No definite 
F08 102 random studies on incest involving a cross section of respondents 
F08 103 have been undertaken. No accurate collection systems for gathering 
F08 104 information exist. The statistics change depending on a number of 
F08 105 variables: the population surveyed, the bias of the researcher, the 
F08 106 sensitivity of the questions, and the definition of incest used. 
F08 107 This is an area <quote_>"where each question becomes a dispute and 
F08 108 every answer an insult,"<quote/> writes Roland Summit, M.D., a 
F08 109 professor of psychiatry at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in Torrance, 
F08 110 California, in his introduction to <tf_>Sexual Abuse of Young 
F08 111 Children<tf/>. <quote_>"The expert in child sexual abuse today may 
F08 112 be an ignoramus tomorrow."<quote/><p/>
F08 113 <p_>As recently as the early '70s, experts in the psychiatric 
F08 114 community stated that there were only 1 to 5 cases of incest per 
F08 115 one million people. When I began work on this article, I thought 
F08 116 that maybe one person in a hundred was an incest victim. How wrong 
F08 117 I was. Sometimes called 'rape by extortion,' incest is about 
F08 118 betrayal of trust, and it accounts for most child sexual abuse by 
F08 119 far. To be specific: In 1977, Diana E.H. Russell, Ph.D., professor 
F08 120 emeritus at Mills College in Oakland, California, and author of 
F08 121 <tf_>The Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women<tf/> 
F08 122 and <tf_>Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse and 
F08 123 Workplace Harassment<tf/>, questioned 930 San Francisco women and 
F08 124 found that 38 percent had been sexually abused by the time they had 
F08 125 reached the age of 18. She further found that of those women who 
F08 126 were victims, 89 percent were abused by relatives or family 
F08 127 acquaintances. Using Russell's figures as my guide - they are 
F08 128 widely cited by other authorities in the field and have been 
F08 129 duplicated in other studies - the estimate of the incidence of 
F08 130 incest that I came up with is one in three; which is to say that 
F08 131 incest happens to about one person in three before the age of 
F08 132 18.<p/>
F08 133 <p_>Incestuous acts range from voyeurism and exhibitionism to 
F08 134 masturbation, to rape and sodomy, to bestiality, to ritualized 
F08 135 torture in cults. Incest may or may not include penetration, may or 
F08 136 may not be violent. It may happen only once or continue for 
F08 137 decades. It usually exists in secret, but not always.<p/>
F08 138 <p_>Kim Shaffir was four and a half years old when her divorced 
F08 139 mother remarried. Her stepfather, John Hairsine, showed Kim 
F08 140 pornographic photographs and read aloud to her from pornographic 
F08 141 novels. He took Polaroids of himself and Kim's mother having sex 
F08 142 and showed Kim the pictures. He arranged for her to watch him and 
F08 143 her mother having intercourse; he told her when they would be doing 
F08 144 it and left the door open. Hairsine kept Kim quiet with the threat 
F08 145 that if she told anyone, her mother would send her away.<p/>
F08 146 <p_>From exhibitionism and voyeurism, Hairsine moved on to 
F08 147 fondling. He made Kim perform oral sex on him. Then he forced her 
F08 148 to have anal sex. As he had photographed himself with her mother, 
F08 149 he now photographed himself with Kim.<p/>
F08 150 <p_>When Kim was 13 her mother discovered the blurred backings of 
F08 151 the Polaroid pictures of her husband and Kim. She broke the camera 
F08 152 as a symbolic statement. <quote_>"We're going to put it all behind 
F08 153 us,"<quote/> she announced. But she was wrong.<p/>
F08 154 <p_>Hairsine made peepholes throughout their Maryland house so he 
F08 155 could spy on Kim. He drilled through the bathroom door. Kim 
F08 156 repeatedly stuffed the hole with soap and toilet paper, which he 
F08 157 would remove and she would replace. For three years she tried to 
F08 158 avoid showering when her mother was out of the house.<p/>
F08 159 <p_>Every morning, under the guise of waking her for school, 
F08 160 Hairsine entered her room and masturbated in her presence. Kim, now 
F08 161 30 and living in Washington, D.C., says, <quote_>"That's how I'd 
F08 162 wake up, to him coming into a dish towel as he stood by my 
F08 163 bed."<quote/><p/>
F08 164 <p_>One reason for the imprecise nature of the incest statistics is 
F08 165 that when children try to tell, they aren't believed. Another is 
F08 166 that many victims don't recognize certain behaviors as abusive. My 
F08 167 parents would never have let anyone abuse me - if they had known. 
F08 168 They didn't know because I didn't know to tell them.<p/>
F08 169 <p_>Small children understand very little about sex. Even kids who 
F08 170 use 'dirty' words often don't understand what those words mean. And 
F08 171 as little as they know about normal sex, they know less about 
F08 172 deviant sex. They simply trust that whatever happens to them at the 
F08 173 hands of those who take care of them is supposed to happen. 
F08 174 Children know that adults have absolute power over them, and even 
F08 175 in the face of the most awful abuse, they will obey.<p/>
F08 176 <p_>The victim who does tell is almost always asked: Why didn't you 
F08 177 tell sooner? The answers are:<p/>
F08 178 <p_>I didn't know anything was wrong.<p/>
F08 179 <p_>I didn't know it was illegal.<p/>
F08 180 <p_>I didn't know who to tell.<p/>
F08 181 <p_>I did tell and no one believed me.<p/>
F08 182 <p_>I was ashamed.<p/>
F08 183 <p_>I was scared.<p/>
F08 184 <p_>The abuser keeps the incest secret through threats:<p/>
F08 185 <p_>If you tell, I will kill you.<p/>
F08 186 <p_>If you tell, you'll be sent away.<p/>
F08 187 <p_>If you tell, I'll kill your little sister.<p/>
F08 188 <p_>If you tell, I'll molest your little brother.<p/>
F08 189 <p_>If you tell, I'll kill your dog.<p/>
F08 190 <p_>If you tell, it will kill your mother.<p/>
F08 191 <p_>If you tell, no one will believe you.<p/>
F08 192 <p_>If you tell, then you will go to the insane asylum.<p/>
F08 193 <p_>If you tell, I'll go to jail and you'll starve.<p/>
F08 194 <p_>If you tell, they'll give you to someone who will really hurt 
F08 195 you.<p/>
F08 196 <p_>If you tell, you'll go to hell.<p/>
F08 197 <p_>If you tell, I won't love you anymore.<p/>
F08 198 <p_>Many abusers make good on their threats, but most don't need 
F08 199 to. <quote_>"Small creatures deal with overwhelming threat by 
F08 200 freezing, pretending to be asleep, and playing possum,"<quote/> 
F08 201 says Dr. Roland Summit, the Harbor-UCLA Medical Center psychiatrist 
F08 202 who, in a paper titled 'The Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation 
F08 203 Syndrome,' sets forth a widely accepted explanation of how children 
F08 204 behave when molested.<p/>
F08 205 
F08 206 
F09   1 <#FROWN:F09\><h_><p_>NO WOMAN'S LAND<p/>
F09   2 <p_>80 PERCENT OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES ARE WOMEN AND CHILDREN. HOW 
F09   3 DO WE MAKE THEM VISIBLE? AND HOW DO WE CHANGE BAND-AID RESPONSES 
F09   4 INTO REAL SOLUTIONS?<p/>
F09   5 <p_>by Marcia Ann Gillespie<p/><h/>
F09   6 <p_>IMAGINE THAT YOU ARE STANDING ON a mountaintop, looking out on 
F09   7 a vast plain where as many as 20 million people stand, bodies 
F09   8 touching. As far as your eye can see, there are people, their 
F09   9 numbers more than the combined populations of Los Angeles and New 
F09  10 York City. An estimated 20 million who have one thing in common: 
F09  11 they are all known as refugees. Now add the 23 million displaced 
F09  12 within their homelands. Homeless: Liberians fleeing civil war and 
F09  13 tribal persecutions, Cambodians who fled the killing fields. 
F09  14 Haitian and Vietnamese boat people running from hunger, running for 
F09  15 freedom. Muslims (and some Christians) forced out of Bosnia and 
F09  16 Herzegovina by Serbs calling for 'ethnic cleansing.' Palestinians 
F09  17 in limbo for more than 40 years. Somalis, Ethiopians, and Sudanese 
F09  18 driven out by war and drought. Afghans, from a country that became 
F09  19 a political pawn now warring against itself. Among this vast sprawl 
F09  20 of humanity are people belonging to ethnic and tribal groups few in 
F09  21 the industrialized world have ever heard of: the Hmong, the Karen, 
F09  22 the Mon, the Saharawi, the Afar, the Tutsi. People from countries 
F09  23 many of us might be hard-pressed to locate on a map: Rwanda, 
F09  24 Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Guatemala, Eritrea.<p/>
F09  25 <p_>According to the United Nations Convention Relating to the 
F09  26 Status of Refugees, a refugee is a <quote_>"person who owing to 
F09  27 well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, 
F09  28 religion, nationality, or political opinion, or belonging to a 
F09  29 particular social group, is outside the country of his [sic] 
F09  30 nationality."<quote/> Developed in response to the upheavals of 
F09  31 World War II, that definition fails to define all the circumstances 
F09  32 that conspire to create refugees: political gamesmanship, civil 
F09  33 wars, tribal conflicts, patriarchal 'customs,' homophobic 
F09  34 persecution, repression, oppression, drought, famine, acts of 
F09  35 genocide, economics, a knock at midnight ...<p/>
F09  36 <p_>Bad enough that the definition fails to account for many of the 
F09  37 key reasons people must flee their homes; worse that the Western 
F09  38 nations that drafted the convention refused to incorporate the 
F09  39 universal right to asylum. As a result, politics plays a key role 
F09  40 in the decision<?_>-<?/>making process. For example, people fleeing 
F09  41 Communist regimes during the Cold War were almost automatically 
F09  42 welcomed by the West, particularly the United States - which 
F09  43 remains disinclined to grant asylum to those fleeing repressive 
F09  44 regimes it supports.<p/>
F09  45 <p_>While the West has reserved the right to pick and choose what 
F09  46 individuals and groups would legally be allowed to cross or remain 
F09  47 within its borders, the Organization of African Unity, an 
F09  48 organization representing some of the world's poorest nations, 
F09  49 adopted a convention in 1969 expanding the definition of refugees 
F09  50 and the reasons why they flee. Yet the United Kingdom and the 
F09  51 United States during the last 25 years have blatantly pursued 
F09  52 policies directed at keeping refugees out. Now Germany, once noted 
F09  53 for its open-door policy, has adopted a similar drawbridge 
F09  54 approach. Facing the task of rebuilding the East, its economy no 
F09  55 longer booming, Germany has moved to bar refugees and deport those 
F09  56 deemed illegal immigrants. Violence and hate campaigns directed 
F09  57 toward immigrants and refugees continue to rise in France, Germany, 
F09  58 and the U.K., and in the U.S., 'America firsters' cry for walls, 
F09  59 electrified fences, and shoot-to-kill polices to close off the 
F09  60 southern border.<p/>
F09  61 <p_>Yet the number of refugees continues to soar. And more than 80 
F09  62 percent of them are women and children. Now you see them, now you 
F09  63 don't. Here, a Somalian woman, eyes numbed by grief and fear and 
F09  64 hunger. There, a Cambodian woman, walking cautiously down a Los 
F09  65 Angeles street with a white cane. She has witnessed loved ones 
F09  66 murdered before her eyes; in a form of self<?_>-<?/>protection, her 
F09  67 mind no longer allows her eyes to see. Rarely do these women ever 
F09  68 seem to speak for themselves, especially the vast majority who live 
F09  69 in the world's refugee camps. Those who do, tell terrifying stories 
F09  70 about the situations that forced them to flee, about the journey of 
F09  71 flight itself.<p/>
F09  72 <p_><tf_><quote_>"I first saw the Nicaraguan woman coming across 
F09  73 the lawn from the south security post. She walked quickly, at a 
F09  74 shopkeeper's purposeful pace. Her skirt, which was still wet at the 
F09  75 hem from crossing the river, was too long and her low-heeled pumps 
F09  76 were stretched out of shape by the journey, gapped at the instep 
F09  77 ....<p/>
F09  78 <p_>"In the security of white uniforms and the smell of 
F09  79 antiseptics, [she] told of her experience on the other side of the 
F09  80 border, of the men who had violated her, of how she had wept and 
F09  81 bled and wandered for a month, alone at first, then working here 
F09  82 and there while the physical wounds healed and the shame receded 
F09  83 and she made herself ready to try again to cross the river ....<p/>
F09  84 <p_>"The nurse's aide ... said that there are places in Mexico on 
F09  85 the way to the border where every woman who passes through is 
F09  86 raped."<quote/> (Excerpted from 'Latinos: Biography of a People,' 
F09  87 by Earl Shorris; W.W. Norton, 1992.)<tf/><p/>
F09  88 <p_>When individuals, families, or groups are targeted, women's 
F09  89 bodies become the battleground. Women are routinely tortured and 
F09  90 maimed, and rape is often used as a primary terror tactic. At one 
F09  91 Bosnian refugee center, 40 Muslim women told a New York 
F09  92 <tf|>Newsday reporter that they had been attacked by Serb forces 
F09  93 who were under orders to rape them. Females of all ages are preyed 
F09  94 upon by guards at borders and at refugee camps, armed men in and 
F09  95 out of uniform, officials, pirates, male refugees.<p/>
F09  96 <p_>All too often the volatile conditions that create refugees 
F09  97 occur in some of the world's poorest places. Neighboring countries 
F09  98 are often ill-equipped to provide for the large numbers of people 
F09  99 pouring across their borders. Some are unable or unwilling to 
F09 100 absorb them, or remain hostile to their presence. But the world's 
F09 101 wealthy nations are even less hospitable these days. In Geneva in 
F09 102 1989, 60 countries gathered to design the Comprehensive Plan of 
F09 103 Action. Taking their lead from British policy, the assembled 
F09 104 nations decided that some people were 'economic' rather than 
F09 105 genuine refugees - and as such could, in effect, be forcibly 
F09 106 returned if voluntary repatriation failed. Adapted specifically to 
F09 107 aid Singapore, Thailand, and Hong Kong (which wanted to reverse the 
F09 108 tide of Vietnamese refugees), this very calculated closed-door 
F09 109 policy has since been used by other nations. But the United States 
F09 110 took it one step further, when it moved to intercept and return 
F09 111 boatloads of Haitian refugees, unilaterally deciding - without 
F09 112 benefit of hearings - that all fleeing Haitians were automatically 
F09 113 'economic refugees.'<p/>
F09 114 <p_>If the door to asylum is closing in the industrialized world to 
F09 115 those classified as 'economic refugees,' it has never truly opened 
F09 116 to women fleeing gender persecution or those who break social 
F09 117 taboos, or refuse to honor certain 'cultural traditions.' Women's 
F09 118 well-founded fears of sexual abuse, of rape, and their knowledge 
F09 119 that these are frequent methods of gender-directed 'repression' are 
F09 120 not normally considered just grounds for asylum. Take the case of 
F09 121 Catalina Mejia. Accused of being a guerrilla in El Salvador, she 
F09 122 was raped by a soldier; twice more during an 18-month period she 
F09 123 was stopped at military checkpoints and accused of being a 
F09 124 guerrilla. But her application for political asylum in the United 
F09 125 States was denied by a judge who concluded that her being raped was 
F09 126 not an act of persecution. Last year, France's Commission for 
F09 127 Appeals of Refugees became the first in modern history to 
F09 128 acknowledge 'female circumcision' as a form of persecution under 
F09 129 the Geneva Conventions (which offer protection from 'torture' only 
F09 130 if it is administered by the state). But no asylum was given to 
F09 131 Aminata Diop (see <tf|>Ms., January/February 1992), the woman who 
F09 132 filed the appeal. Diop, a Malian, was denied because she'd failed 
F09 133 to seek help form the very same authorities in her own country who, 
F09 134 by not outlawing it, effectively sanction female mutilation.<p/>
F09 135 <p_>Refugee camps are usually situated by the host country in 
F09 136 bleak, sparsely populated areas close to the border. The 
F09 137 prison-like settings of many camps serve as a constant reminder 
F09 138 that the people being housed are unwanted. Some camps are enclosed 
F09 139 compounds surrounded by barbed wire fencing, with armed guards at 
F09 140 the perimeters. Unrelated families, traditional enemies, 
F09 141 unprotected women and children, are forced to share sleeping areas. 
F09 142 The newer the camp, the harsher the conditions. Sanitation 
F09 143 facilities are often minimal; the stench from latrines and open 
F09 144 refuse trenches pollutes the air. The circumstances that forced 
F09 145 people to flee and the rigors of the journey itself often result in 
F09 146 refugees arriving at these camps severely debilitated. Many arrive 
F09 147 in advanced stages of starvation, as was the case this summer when 
F09 148 Somalian and Sudanese refugee children were literally dying while 
F09 149 waiting in food lines in camps in northern Kenya.<p/>
F09 150 <p_>More than half of the world's refugees are totally dependent on 
F09 151 relief agencies for the basic necessities. The remoteness of 
F09 152 campsites, the numbers of refugees and their rate of flight, 
F09 153 turmoil in the surrounding region, money, internal and external 
F09 154 politics - are all factors in the relief efforts. If refugees are 
F09 155 lucky, what they receive provides enough for bare subsistence. And 
F09 156 in today's world the largess of major donor countries has 
F09 157 diminished. Private funding of relief work relies heavily on the 
F09 158 compassion of the general public in the wealthy nations. Donor 
F09 159 fatigue is increasing in part because of economic fears at home, as 
F09 160 well as in reaction to the waves of appeals. Adding to the problem 
F09 161 is the spotlight effect that happens when media attention is 
F09 162 diverted from one refugee crisis to another. As funding shrinks, 
F09 163 agencies are hard-pressed to provide even minimal supplies. One 
F09 164 study this year indicated that the nutritional value of refugee 
F09 165 rations is less than what dogs are fed in the industrialized world. 
F09 166 Is it any wonder that the principal cause of death in refugee camps 
F09 167 is malnutrition?<p/>
F09 168 <p_>Even when food is available, women and children are often 
F09 169 malnourished. Given that food in these situations is a source of 
F09 170 power and control, it should come as no surprise to learn that 
F09 171 usually men are the ones consulted on food distribution. Women, who 
F09 172 traditionally do the cooking and are most aware of their families' 
F09 173 nutritional needs, are rarely consulted, much less put in charge. 
F09 174 If by tradition women and children are expected to eat after the 
F09 175 men do, and the supply is inadequate, they go without. It is not 
F09 176 uncommon to find women being forced to submit to sexual demands in 
F09 177 exchange for food.<p/>
F09 178 <p_>The health problems women and children routinely experience in 
F09 179 the 'developing world' are magnified here. Children are affected by 
F09 180 outbreaks of scurvy and pellagra. Anemic pregnant women are at high 
F09 181 risk of hemorrhaging during childbirth, and their infants often 
F09 182 have low birth weights and suffer from a host of deficiencies. 
F09 183 Sometimes babies just fail to thrive. And because women and 
F09 184 children are usually the water carriers, they are particularly 
F09 185 vulnerable to waterborne diseases, such as cholera and 
F09 186 dysentery.<p/>
F09 187 <p_>But because women's health needs are addressed mainly in the 
F09 188 context of pregnancy, childbirth, and mothering, other problems 
F09 189 often go undetected or ignored. It is not uncommon for sexually 
F09 190 transmitted diseases, precancerous and cancerous conditions, 
F09 191 infections, genital mutilations, and other traumas to go 
F09 192 undetected. AIDS education and testing, as well as rape counseling, 
F09 193 are virtually nonexistent in many refugee settings. Family planning 
F09 194 services and birth control are often unavailable, as are female 
F09 195 health providers.<p/>
F09 196 <p_>The most effective health programs focus on preventive medicine 
F09 197 and build a strong base of community programs. For example, the 
F09 198 United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) for Palestine 
F09 199 Refugees in the Near East has created programs that specifically 
F09 200 address maternal and child health care, provide immunization and 
F09 201 supplementary feeding, and family planning programs, as well as 
F09 202 health education and improved sanitation. Key to UNRWA's success 
F09 203 has been the emphasis on the needs of women and children, and its 
F09 204 involvement in empowering communities, and women specifically, to 
F09 205 speak, plan, and act in their own behalf.<p/>
F09 206 <p_><tf_>According to 'World Refugee Survey,' a study of 111 
F09 207 Central American refugee women conducted by the International 
F09 208 Catholic Child Bureau in Washington, D.C., found <quote_>"85 
F09 209 percent to have been the victims of at least one traumatic event in 
F09 210 their home country, and the average woman to have experienced 3.3 
F09 211 events.
F09 212 
F09 213 
F10   1 <#FROWN:F10\><h_><p_>CHEATING FATE<p/>
F10   2 <p_>At death's door, some people mysteriously take a turn for the 
F10   3 better. What does the body know that medicine can't explain?<p/>
F10   4 <p_>BY STEPHEN S. HALL<p/><h/>
F10   5 <p_>STANLEY GERBACICH staggered into the Veterans Administration 
F10   6 Medical Center in West Haven, Connecticut, one day in January 1967, 
F10   7 desperately ill with a raging fever of about 104 degrees. He was a 
F10   8 quiet, balding man of 52 years, a jewelry repairman, married with 
F10   9 one child, and, as he would soon learn, dying of a terrible 
F10  10 disease.<p/>
F10  11 <p_>His West Haven doctors poked him and prodded him and ran all 
F10  12 the usual tests. They quickly discovered that his blood count was 
F10  13 perilously low, and when they slipped a needle into his pelvic 
F10  14 bone, they found that the body's blood-making apparatus, the 
F10  15 marrow, was overrun with rogue cancer cells known as blasts. The 
F10  16 attending physician on the case was Rose Papac, and as she reviewed 
F10  17 all the test results, everything added up to a diagnosis of a quick 
F10  18 and deadly cancer of the blood known as acute myelomonocytic 
F10  19 leukemia. Papac, trained as a hematologist and oncologist, knew 
F10  20 only too well that Stanley Gerbacich's chances of survival were 
F10  21 nil.<p/>
F10  22 <p_><quote_>"Without response to treatment, three months was the 
F10  23 median survival rate,"<quote/> Papac recalled recently, sitting in 
F10  24 her office at the Yale University School of Medicine, where she is 
F10  25 a professor of oncology. <quote_>"With a complete response to 
F10  26 treatment, the prognosis would be about one year."<quote/><p/>
F10  27 <p_>Papac decided to try to buy Gerbacich a little time with 
F10  28 chemotherapy. So the following day, the West Haven doctors started 
F10  29 him on two drugs considered the treatment of choice in those days, 
F10  30 6-mercaptopurine and prednisone - now known to be, at best, 
F10  31 minimally effective in slowing the disease.<p/>
F10  32 <p_>The orders were for 50 milligrams 'q.i.d.' (meaning 
F10  33 <foreign_>quarter in die<foreign/>, or four times a day), and no 
F10  34 one was terribly surprised when Gerbacich's condition failed to 
F10  35 improve the following week. Indeed, his disease was progressing 
F10  36 exactly as predicted - rapidly and lethally. But then there 
F10  37 occurred a serendipitous (and perhaps even irrelevant) turn of 
F10  38 events.<p/>
F10  39 <p_><quote_>"When a new intern took over the case ten days later, 
F10  40 he read the treatment orders as 'q.d.,' or once a day, instead of 
F10  41 four times a day,"<quote/> says Papac, recalling how, his doctors 
F10  42 unaware, Gerbacich ended up with one-fourth the recommended dose. 
F10  43 <quote_>"But then his blood counts came up to normal, and he was 
F10  44 less anemic, and we became aware that he was getting 
F10  45 better."<quote/> Over the next two weeks, his fever broke and color 
F10  46 returned to his face. The most startling transformation, however, 
F10  47 could be glimpsed only with a microscope: All those abnormal cells 
F10  48 choking Stanley Gerbacich's bone marrow had simply vanished. 
F10  49 <quote_>"A once-in-a-lifetime experience,"<quote/> Papac says, 
F10  50 remembering the sight.<p/>
F10  51 <p_>Two months later, having received a quarter of the normal dose 
F10  52 of an almost useless medication for an incurable disease, Stanley 
F10  53 Gerbacich walked out of the VA hospital and embarked on the second 
F10  54 part of his life. <quote_>"He has never relapsed,"<quote/> Papac 
F10  55 says. Twenty-five years later, Stanley Gerbacich is alive and well 
F10  56 and still exchanging Christmas cards with Rose Papac every year.<p/>
F10  57 <p_>Such rare and improbable medical reversals go by the name of 
F10  58 spontaneous regression or spontaneous remission. They are medical 
F10  59 flukes, unpredictable and inexplicable, bright isolated shafts of 
F10  60 sunlight cutting across the grim, gray statistical tables of 
F10  61 survival rates. To many doctors, they are distracting and 
F10  62 bothersome aberrations; says one prominent oncologist, <quote_>"I 
F10  63 think you'd have a better chance of getting struck by lightning 
F10  64 than of having a spontaneous remission of cancer."<quote/> To 
F10  65 others, they are <quote_>"whispers of nature,"<quote/> infrequent 
F10  66 but tantalizing clues about the ways the human body can rally 
F10  67 itself to fend off mortal disease. If only we had the ears to 
F10  68 discern these whispers, goes the argument, we might discover 
F10  69 revolutionary new approaches to medical treatment and healing.<p/>
F10  70 <p_>But at this juncture in the popular re<?_>-<?/>telling of 
F10  71 cases, the plot typically takes one of two turns, both of them dead 
F10  72 ends. Many physicians simply dismiss the original diagnosis as 
F10  73 flawed; it wasn't a case of spontaneous remission, they conclude, 
F10  74 the doctors just blew the diagnosis. In the other direction lie the 
F10  75 <quote_>"cancer quacks,"<quote/> as Rose Papac calls them, those 
F10  76 who precipitately attribute these miraculous cures to herbal 
F10  77 remedies or vitamin therapy or, all too often, a superhumanly 
F10  78 'positive' mental attitude displayed by the patient. To talk 
F10  79 seriously about spontaneous regression, Papac says, is to walk 
F10  80 <quote_>"a thin line between doubt and quackery."<quote/> Which is 
F10  81 precisely what Papac did when she gave a Grand Rounds talk on the 
F10  82 subject at the Yale School of Medicine a couple of years ago.<p/>
F10  83 <p_>Asked to prepare the talk in 1989, in part to refute some of 
F10  84 the more preposterous claims, Papac sorted through three decades of 
F10  85 her clinical practice and realized she had encountered at least 
F10  86 eight, and possibly ten, cases of spontaneous remission. The most 
F10  87 remarkable, in her opinion, was the story of Stanley Gerbacich. His 
F10  88 case not only embodied all the medical mystery that bedevils 
F10  89 spontaneous remission, it gives little comfort to either the 
F10  90 medical profession's reflexive skepticism or the charlatans' facile 
F10  91 explanations.<p/>
F10  92 <p_><quote_>"Lots of people doubted it and said, 'You must have 
F10  93 misdiagnosed the case in the first place,'"<quote/> Papac recalls 
F10  94 with a smile. <quote_>"But when they saw our evidence, they agreed 
F10  95 that the diagnosis of leukemia was correct."<quote/><p/>
F10  96 <p_>And how would Papac characterize Gerbacich's attitude? Was he 
F10  97 upbeat? Was he combative and feisty? Did he, in the words of 
F10  98 best-selling mind-body guru Bernie Siegel, see his disease not 
F10  99 <quote_>"as a sentence but a new beginning?"<quote/><p/>
F10 100 <p_><quote_>"I wouldn't rank his attitude as the most positive of 
F10 101 any we've seen,"<quote/> she says after a pause, choosing her words 
F10 102 carefully. <quote_>"He was a very frightened person, very fearful. 
F10 103 He was paralyzed by the thought that death was 
F10 104 imminent."<quote/><p/>
F10 105 <p_>MISS X, as she was called in the literature, suffered no less 
F10 106 dire a prognosis than Stanley Gerbacich. A woman of 31, she lived 
F10 107 in Baltimore, and her medical problems began, she believed, 
F10 108 following a tumble off a bicycle. She visited her physician, 
F10 109 complaining of a lump and pain in her right breast. Several weeks 
F10 110 later, the cancer-ridden breast as well as the nearby lymph nodes 
F10 111 were removed by surgeons at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Miss X remained 
F10 112 healthy for approximately one year. Then her condition began to 
F10 113 deteriorate.<p/>
F10 114 <p_>She started to lose vision in her right eye, a problem caused 
F10 115 by a second tumor apparently spread by the original. She lost more 
F10 116 and more weight. A lump developed in the other breast, and then a 
F10 117 new tumor poked up like a bony outgrowth from her sternum. 
F10 118 Bedridden with pain, barely able to breathe, Miss X had little to 
F10 119 look forward to beyond her six daily grains of morphine.<p/>
F10 120 <p_><quote_>"I saw her twice, and in May her condition seemed 
F10 121 really desperate,"<quote/> her physician later recalled. <quote_>"I 
F10 122 left for England shortly afterwards, and, of course, did not expect 
F10 123 to find her alive on my return."<quote/> But during the summer and 
F10 124 fall of 1899, Miss X steadily improved. The pains subsided, the 
F10 125 awkward tumor rising out of her breastbone just as mysteriously 
F10 126 melted away, and by October of 1900, Miss X had recovered enough to 
F10 127 drive the one and a half miles to the train station to meet her 
F10 128 very surprised physician. <quote_>"She had improved,"<quote/> Sir 
F10 129 William Osler observed, <quote_>"in every way."<quote/><p/>
F10 130 <p_>Just as Osler has been credited with ushering in the modern era 
F10 131 of American medicine, his account of Miss X is among the first 20th 
F10 132 century descriptions of what in fact is a very ancient phenomenon. 
F10 133 As he noted in a 1901 article, these cases are <quote_>"among the 
F10 134 most remarkable which we witness in the practice of medicine, and 
F10 135 illustrate the uncertainty of prognosis, and the truth of the 
F10 136 statement that no condition, however desperate, is quite 
F10 137 hopeless."<quote/> Spontaneous remissions have occurred - 
F10 138 <quote_>"without any obvious reason,"<quote/> in Osler's perplexed, 
F10 139 faintly protestant phrase - for centuries.<p/>
F10 140 <p_>One of the earliest recorded anecdotes dates back 700 years, to 
F10 141 a time when a reformed politician and anti-papist in central Italy 
F10 142 named Peregrine Laziosi became a Servite monk and priest, traveled 
F10 143 far and wide doing good works, and ultimately developed a 
F10 144 debilitating and unsightly cancer on his foot. Facing amputation of 
F10 145 his foot, the monk prayed during the night before the operation and 
F10 146 dreamed that the tumor disappeared. He awoke to find it gone and 
F10 147 lived to the age of 80, dying in 1345. His miraculous recovery 
F10 148 earned him canonization as St. Peregrine, and he became known as 
F10 149 the patron saint of those with cancer and malignant diseases. 
F10 150 William Boyd, a prominent Canadian pathologist, later suggested 
F10 151 that cancerous masses that similarly regress without adequate 
F10 152 explanation be called 'St. Peregrine's Tumors.'<p/>
F10 153 <p_>But by what mysterious mechanism does spontaneous remission 
F10 154 occur? As Boyd would write in the 1950s, <quote_>"A moment's 
F10 155 thought is sufficient to convince us that in biology, as in other 
F10 156 fields of science, nothing is really spontaneous, for every event 
F10 157 must have a cause."<quote/> But the cause, the <tf|>biology of 
F10 158 spontaneous regression, eludes researchers. Without it, spontaneous 
F10 159 remission might just as well be called St. Peregrine's Curse.<p/>
F10 160 <p_>AMONG THOSE who have tried to solve the puzzle were two 
F10 161 surgeons at the University of Illinois College of Medicine in 
F10 162 Chicago, Tilden Everson and Warren Cole. In the mid-1950s, Everson 
F10 163 and Cole began a landmark analysis of reports of spontaneous 
F10 164 remission of cancer, which they defined as <quote_>"a partial or 
F10 165 complete disappearance of a malignant tumor in the absence of 
F10 166 treatment that ordinarily is considered capable of producing 
F10 167 regression."<quote/> The two surgeons excluded lymphomas and 
F10 168 leukemias (cancers of the immune system and blood), as well as the 
F10 169 skin cancers known as squamous cell carcinomas, because all three 
F10 170 forms of cancer vary greatly in growth rates. Even so, Everson and 
F10 171 Cole compiled a total of 176 instances of spontaneous remission of 
F10 172 cancer and published the results in a famous 1966 monograph.<p/>
F10 173 <p_>One of the most remarkable cases was that of a 30-year-old 
F10 174 woman diagnosed with malignant melanoma, a particularly aggressive 
F10 175 form of skin cancer that nonetheless seems associated with 
F10 176 instances of spontaneous remission. When doctors attempted to 
F10 177 remove a grape-sized nodule from the woman's shoulder, it ruptured 
F10 178 and had to be taken out in pieces, with the likelihood that some 
F10 179 malignant material escaped removal. Even so, not only did the wound 
F10 180 heal, but all metastatic spread of her cancer disappeared. Four 
F10 181 years later, a 28-year-old male melanoma patient was purposely 
F10 182 given a transfusion of this woman's blood. Although the man 
F10 183 suffered from widely disseminated cancer in his head, thigh, 
F10 184 buttocks, and armpit lymph nodes, within six weeks all the 
F10 185 metastatic tumors disappeared.<p/>
F10 186 <p_>Like Osler and everyone since him, Everson and Cole were at a 
F10 187 loss to explain how these mysterious events occurred. They did note 
F10 188 that such cases have always been marked by intriguing, ambiguous, 
F10 189 and often contradictory factors that hint at biological mechanisms, 
F10 190 not miracles. Cole, a former president of both the American Cancer 
F10 191 Society and the American College of Surgeons whose every phrase and 
F10 192 sentence betrayed a reluctance to speculate, believed that 
F10 193 regression most likely occurs because the patient somehow marshals 
F10 194 a heightened immunologic response to malignancy.<p/>
F10 195 <p_>For instance, the disappearance of tumors has often been 
F10 196 accompanied by a concurrent bacterial or viral infection and fever, 
F10 197 a link that prompted William Coley, a surgeon at Memorial Hospital 
F10 198 in New York around the turn of the century, to experimentally 
F10 199 induce bacterial infections in cancer patients; those experiments 
F10 200 continue to this day, with mixed results. In the early experiments, 
F10 201 vaccines that were made up of killed bacteria, which became known 
F10 202 as 'Coley's toxins,' caused some tumors to shrink or disappear. 
F10 203 Suspecting that the vaccines triggered some natural anticancer 
F10 204 agent, researchers sought and ultimately discovered tumor necrosis 
F10 205 factor. Isolated in the early 1970s, the powerful tumor-killing 
F10 206 molecule is produced as part of the body's immune and inflammatory 
F10 207 response, and is now being tested against cancer.<p/>
F10 208 <p_>In many other cases, tumors seem to melt away following biopsy 
F10 209 procedures or similar surgical insult, possibly by prompting a 
F10 210 local immune response.
F10 211 
F10 212 
F11   1 <#FROWN:F11\><h_><p_>SPECIAL HEALTH REPORT By Carl Sherman<p/>
F11   2 <p_>Is It Just a Mood or Real Depression?<p/><h/>
F11   3 <p_>Barbara L., age 30, remembers the suffocating feeling that 
F11   4 descended on her as she struggled through her second year of 
F11   5 college. Plagued by a sense of utter worthlessness, she was 
F11   6 convinced that if she were gone, no one would miss her - no one at 
F11   7 all. <quote_>"Someone might be standing right in front of me, 
F11   8 saying, 'I <tf|>do care about you. I <tf|>do love you,' but the 
F11   9 words couldn't reach me."<quote/> Desperate and in unbearable 
F11  10 emotional pain, she attempted suicide with a handful of pills.<p/>
F11  11 <p_>For Millie G., 34, the downward spiral began with the end of a 
F11  12 relationship. Then her plans to buy a co-op fell through. She 
F11  13 started waking up at 4 A.M. with a terrible sense of doom. She 
F11  14 became 'abrasive' with everyone, lost friends and began to fear for 
F11  15 her job. <quote_>"I was constantly crying in front of my staff. I 
F11  16 couldn't concentrate. Every memo I wrote was filled with 
F11  17 mistakes."<quote/><p/>
F11  18 <p_>Diana T. was 50 years old when her world caved in on her. Her 
F11  19 two sons were in college, and after an absence of 20 years she had 
F11  20 returned to teaching, a job she loved. Yet she felt constantly 
F11  21 oppressed by <quote_>"a physical feeling, a sinking sensation in my 
F11  22 body that I couldn't stand. I stopped eating,"<quote/> she recalls. 
F11  23 <quote_>"I couldn't sleep. I cried all the time."<quote/> Nothing - 
F11  24 reading, watching TV - could distract her or give her the least bit 
F11  25 of pleasure. She thought about suicide. <quote_>"I didn't have the 
F11  26 guts to do it. I hoped I would just die a natural 
F11  27 death."<quote/><p/>
F11  28 <p_>What these women have in common is depression. Not just a blue 
F11  29 mood, but an <tf|>illness potentially more disabling than arthritis 
F11  30 or heart disease - an illness that in its severest form drives 15 
F11  31 percent of its victims to commit suicide. (For a list of symptoms, 
F11  32 see 'Are You Depressed?' <tf_>at right<tf/>.) Five percent of 
F11  33 Americans suffer the mental and physical torments of depression - 
F11  34 and almost two out of three of them are women.<p/>
F11  35 <p_>Unfortunately, an estimated two-thirds of depressed people 
F11  36 never seek treatment, according to Robert Hirschfeld, M.D., 
F11  37 chairman of the department of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at 
F11  38 the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston. Because of the 
F11  39 fear and stigma that still surround mental illness, and the 
F11  40 hopeless, helpless feeling that <quote_>"nothing can be 
F11  41 done,"<quote/> a lot of people end up suffering alone.<p/>
F11  42 <p_>What's worse, just half of those who do see doctors are 
F11  43 accurately diagnosed and adequately treated. People may seek help 
F11  44 for the fatigue and other physical symptoms - backaches, headaches, 
F11  45 stomach problems - that accompany depression, but they stop short 
F11  46 of talking about their feelings. The hurried doctor never hears 
F11  47 about the sleeplessness, the sadness, the oppressive thoughts. The 
F11  48 family physician or internist - the doctor most likely to see 
F11  49 depression - all too frequently misses the diagnosis, according to 
F11  50 Kenneth B. Wells, M.D., of Rand, a nonprofit research group in 
F11  51 Santa Monica, California; in prepaid health plans (like HMO's), 
F11  52 depression was spotted only 42 percent of the time. 
F11  53 <quote_>"Patients have to take an active role,"<quote/> urges Dr. 
F11  54 Hirschfeld. <quote_>"If you say, 'I think I may be depressed,' 
F11  55 you're more likely to get the attention you need."<quote/><p/>
F11  56 <p_>When should you suspect that you might be suffering from 
F11  57 depression? Blue moods come and go. It's natural to feel down if 
F11  58 you lose your job or to grieve when a loved one dies. But clinical 
F11  59 depression is another story. It's a <tf_>mental and physical<tf/> 
F11  60 illness that can disrupt sleep and appetite, inflict physical pain 
F11  61 and distort thoughts into a continuous night of helpless despair. 
F11  62 'Business as usual' becomes impossible: Work, friendships and 
F11  63 family life suffer.<p/>
F11  64 <p_><quote_>"I was devastated when my mother died,"<quote/> Diana 
F11  65 T. remembers. <quote_>"But that was different. I had the same 'I 
F11  66 can't stand it' feeling, but it wasn't constant, and it gradually 
F11  67 went away."<quote/><p/>
F11  68 <h_><p_>Diagnosing Depression<p/><h/>
F11  69 <p_>Doctors have come to recognize several basic types of 
F11  70 depression. According to Darrel Regier, M.D., director of the 
F11  71 division of clinical research at the National Institute of Mental 
F11  72 Health (NIMH) in Washington, D.C., nearly 6 percent of the 
F11  73 population has suffered episodes of <tf_>major depressive 
F11  74 illness<tf/>. The primary symptoms are sadness, anxiety or 
F11  75 emptiness; hopelessness or pessimism; feelings of worthlessness, 
F11  76 helplessness or guilt; restlessness or irritability; a loss of 
F11  77 interest in activities; trouble sleeping; changes in appetite or 
F11  78 weight; fatigue and thoughts of death or suicide. Bouts of 
F11  79 depression often recur.<p/>
F11  80 <p_>About 1 out of 100 Americans has had episodes of <tf|>bipolar, 
F11  81 or <tf_>manic-depressive, illness<tf/>, characterized by periods of 
F11  82 high energy and excitement - manic states - that may alternate with 
F11  83 depression.<p/>
F11  84 <p_>But depression isn't always disabling. <quote_>"In its mildest 
F11  85 form, people say: 'I'm well fed, I'm well clothed ... and yet why 
F11  86 do I feel so awful?'"<quote/> says Jay Amsterdam, M.D., the 
F11  87 director of the depression research unit at the University of 
F11  88 Pennsylvania. The same symptoms are there - and these often include 
F11  89 sleeplessness and a change in appetite - but in weaker form.<p/>
F11  90 <p_>A chronic kind of depression, <tf|>dysthymia, is less daunting 
F11  91 than a major episode but persists for years. Its victims may spend 
F11  92 decades or a lifetime under a cloud, struggling constantly with low 
F11  93 energy and poor self-esteem. They get through life, but with little 
F11  94 joy. People affected by dysthymia can hold a job - they're 
F11  95 typically overconscientious employees - but a lack of drive causes 
F11  96 them to be permanent underachievers, says James Kocsis, M.D., 
F11  97 associate professor of psychiatry at New York Hospital-Cornell 
F11  98 Medical Center. Many don't date and never marry, or end up trapped 
F11  99 in bad marriages, without the energy to fix the relationship or get 
F11 100 out.<p/>
F11 101 <p_>No one knows for sure what causes depression, but it is now 
F11 102 recognized as both biochemical and psychological in nature. On the 
F11 103 biochemical level, suggests Karl Rickels, M.D., professor of 
F11 104 psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, it reflects an 
F11 105 imbalance among the <tf|>neurotransmitters - chemicals that 
F11 106 regulate and harmonize activity throughout the brain. In 
F11 107 particular, the chemical <tf|>serotonin appears to be in short 
F11 108 supply. The biochemical predisposition to depression can be 
F11 109 inherited; if a parent has suffered from it, your chances rise 
F11 110 fourfold.<p/>
F11 111 <p_>Depression can attack without apparent reason, but some 
F11 112 episodes appear to be triggered by emotional turmoil or high-stress 
F11 113 periods at home or work. In both men and women, <quote_>"It may be 
F11 114 that there's an interaction,"<quote/> says Ellen McGrath, Ph.D., 
F11 115 chair of the American Psychological Association's National Task 
F11 116 Force on Women and Depression. <quote_>"For someone who is 
F11 117 biologically vulnerable, enough accumulated stress may throw brain 
F11 118 biochemistry out of balance."<quote/><p/>
F11 119 <p_>Increasingly, experts believe that women may unintentionally 
F11 120 <tf|>accelerate depression by focusing on their emotions, and may 
F11 121 also deepen it by sharing it with a sympathetic friend. According 
F11 122 to Bonnie Strickland, Ph.D., professor of psychology at the 
F11 123 University of Massachusetts at Amherst, it's good to unburden your 
F11 124 feelings, but sitting around and rehashing the sense of inadequacy 
F11 125 and self-blame that come with depression won't make you feel any 
F11 126 better. What <tf|>can help, though, is taking action. If 'talking 
F11 127 it out' spurs you to make positive moves to develop new job skills 
F11 128 or start an exercise program, for example, it can be worth it, Dr. 
F11 129 McGrath says.<p/>
F11 130 <p_>Of course, depression is nothing you can snap yourself out of; 
F11 131 it requires treatment. Fortunately, says Dr. Hirschfeld, 
F11 132 <quote_>"we now have a whole range of medications and 
F11 133 psychotherapies that have made a huge difference."<quote/> With 
F11 134 today's arsenal, an estimated 85 to 90 percent of people with 
F11 135 depression - no matter how severe - can be treated successfully.<p/>
F11 136 <h_><p_>Treatment Alternatives<p/><h/>
F11 137 <p_>How can depression be most effectively treated - with therapy 
F11 138 or drugs or a combination of both? Interestingly, a recent National 
F11 139 Institute of Mental Health study showed that for relatively mild 
F11 140 depression, two short-term forms of therapy work as well as 
F11 141 medication. <tf_>Cognitive behavior<tf/> therapy teaches patients 
F11 142 how negative thinking habits promote and maintain depression, and 
F11 143 helps people replace them with other patterns that generate 
F11 144 positive feelings. <tf|>Interpersonal psychotherapy helps to 
F11 145 explore relationships, resolve conflicts and teach the skills that 
F11 146 will strengthen bonds.<p/>
F11 147 <p_>For more severe depression, drug treatment has been found to be 
F11 148 more effective than psychotherapy, according to Dr. Amsterdam. Many 
F11 149 psychiatrists believe that antidepressants should be used whenever 
F11 150 a patient's symptoms (such as eating and sleeping problems, fatigue 
F11 151 and physical pain) suggest a true biochemical depression.<p/>
F11 152 <p_>Drugs also work well for <tf_>chronic depression<tf/>, which 
F11 153 was once considered too deeply rooted in the personality to change. 
F11 154 In a recent study of people who had remained chronically depressed 
F11 155 despite years of psychotherapy, nearly two-thirds got better with 
F11 156 an antidepressant. Some stayed well even after the drugs were 
F11 157 discontinued, Dr. Kocsis says.<p/>
F11 158 <p_>Nowadays doctors have a bagful of antidepressants to choose 
F11 159 from. The oldest ones, the <tf|>tricyclics, include Tofranil, 
F11 160 Elavil and Sinequan, and generally are the most effective. 
F11 161 <tf_>Monoamine oxidase inhibitors<tf/> (MAOI's), such as Parnate 
F11 162 and Nardil, are frequently prescribed when tricyclics don't help. 
F11 163 <tf|>Lithium works against both the manic and depressive episodes 
F11 164 of bipolar disorder.<p/>
F11 165 <p_>All drugs have their drawbacks, however. The side effects of 
F11 166 tricyclics - which may include dry mouth, sleepiness, dizziness, 
F11 167 constipation and weight gain - are difficult for some to tolerate. 
F11 168 MAOI's require strict diet control: Patients must avoid long lists 
F11 169 of foods, including cheese, wine, bananas and chocolate, that can 
F11 170 cause a dangerous interaction. <quote_>"These older antidepressants 
F11 171 act on a number of brain chemicals at once, and may cause sweeping 
F11 172 physical effects - many unpleasant - throughout the body,"<quote/> 
F11 173 Dr. Rickels says.<p/>
F11 174 <p_>One new drug, <tf|>fluoxetine (trade name: Prozac), appears to 
F11 175 represent a real advance because it only boosts serotonin. 
F11 176 Scientists believe that low levels of this neurotransmitter are 
F11 177 primarily responsible for depression. Prozac has fewer side effects 
F11 178 than previous therapies, although a few have been reported. 
F11 179 Recently, after investigating sporadic reports of Prozac-related 
F11 180 violence and suicide attempts, an advisory committee of the Food 
F11 181 and Drug Administration concluded that there is no evidence that 
F11 182 the drug is riskier than other antidepressants. But like all 
F11 183 powerful drugs, the committee stressed, it must be used with 
F11 184 care.<p/>
F11 185 <p_>Solid improvement usually takes two to four weeks, and is often 
F11 186 not dramatic. <quote_>"I don't do somersaults all day, but I can 
F11 187 handle things better,"<quote/> says Millie G., who has been taking 
F11 188 Prozac for several months. <quote_>"I'm not always fighting back 
F11 189 tears."<quote/> Before, every day seemed like <quote_>"climbing a 
F11 190 mountain without a foothold."<quote/> With the antidepressant, 
F11 191 <quote_>"I feel safer,"<quote/> she says.<p/>
F11 192 <p_>With thorough treatment - which usually means continuing on 
F11 193 medication for several months after symptoms are alleviated - 
F11 194 depression often disappears completely. But it may recur - two, 
F11 195 five or ten years later. If you're prone to recurrent attacks, you 
F11 196 may need to stay on a low 'maintenance' dose of antidepressants for 
F11 197 protection.<p/>
F11 198 <p_>Even the newest drugs don't work for all patients. If symptoms 
F11 199 remain dangerously severe despite treatment - the risk of suicide 
F11 200 is high, for example - doctors may consider electroconvulsive 
F11 201 therapy (ECT), inducing brain seizures with electricity, which (for 
F11 202 reasons that no one truly understands) is often effective against 
F11 203 depression where medication fails, according to Dr. Rickels. 
F11 204 Despite its frightening image, today's ECT is far safer than in the 
F11 205 past: Smaller doses of electricity are used, anesthetics and muscle 
F11 206 relaxants eliminate discomfort, and the only serious side effect - 
F11 207 memory loss - is almost always temporary.<p/>
F11 208 <p_>If you suspect you suffer from depression, start by talking to 
F11 209 your doctor. Now that easy-to-use medications are available, the 
F11 210 condition can often be treated by a family doctor or internist. 
F11 211 Before embarking on a treatment program, though, a physician will 
F11 212 probably want to rule out medical problems (certain thyroid 
F11 213 conditions, for example) that can cause similar symptoms.<p/>
F11 214 <p_>If you get no response from your doctor or see little 
F11 215 improvement after you've been treated for a month or so, it may be 
F11 216 time to call in a specialist. When consulting a mental-health 
F11 217 professional, bear in mind that psychiatrists, who are medical 
F11 218 doctors, are licensed to prescribe drugs, whereas psychologists, 
F11 219 social workers and other psychotherapists are not. A particularly 
F11 220 difficult case of depression may require the advanced skills of a 
F11 221 psycho<?_>-<?/>pharmacologist, a super-specialist trained to use 
F11 222 drug combinations that may succeed where standard treatments 
F11 223 fail.<p/>
F11 224 
F11 225 
F11 226 
F12   1 <#FROWN:F12\><h_><p_>ETHICS<p/>
F12   2 <p_>A Matter of Survival<p/>
F12   3 <p_>By Rushworth M. Kidder<p/>
F12   4 <p_>Our ethical responsibilities are increasing as we wield ever 
F12   5 more powerful technologies. But ethical standards have suffered in 
F12   6 an age of tolerance.<p/><h/>
F12   7 <p_>Several years ago, I was - as far as I can tell - the first 
F12   8 Western journalist to visit the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. I 
F12   9 was taken there on a tour in the company of several engineers 
F12  10 called in after the April 1986 explosion to clean it up. I learned 
F12  11 that, on the night of the accident, two electrical engineers were 
F12  12 <quote_>"playing around"<quote/> with reactor #4 in what the 
F12  13 Soviets later described as an unauthorized experiment. The two 
F12  14 engineers wanted to see how long a turbine would freewheel if they 
F12  15 took the power off it. That meant shutting down reactor #4.<p/>
F12  16 <p_>To do so, they had to override six separate computer-driven 
F12  17 alarm systems. The first system came on and said, <quote_>"Stop, go 
F12  18 no further, terribly dangerous."<quote/> And they shut off the 
F12  19 alarm rather than the experiment, and went on to the next level. 
F12  20 They even padlocked valves in the open position so that they would 
F12  21 not shut automatically and stop the experiment. Think for a minute 
F12  22 about who these people were. In the context of the Soviet Union, 
F12  23 jobs like those at Chernobyl were plum jobs. They went to the 4.0 
F12  24 averages, the 800 SATs, the Phi Beta Kappas of the Soviet Union. 
F12  25 These men were not <tf|>dumb. Then what was missing? What they 
F12  26 lacked, apparently, was the sense of responsibility, the moral 
F12  27 understanding, the sense of conscience, the understanding of ethics 
F12  28 - however you want to put it - that somehow would have prevented 
F12  29 them from going forward.<p/>
F12  30 <p_>Before you can override a computer-alarm system, you have first 
F12  31 got to engage some kind of an ethical override in your own 
F12  32 consciousness. You've first got to block out that little voice that 
F12  33 says, <quote_>"Don't do this, it's dangerous!"<quote/> Somehow, the 
F12  34 two engineers at Chernobyl were capable of turning aside and 
F12  35 shutting down that voice. And that shutdown is not a question of 
F12  36 technology. It's a matter of ethics.<p/>
F12  37 <h_><p_>Technology and Ethics<p/><h/>
F12  38 <p_>Think back to the nineteenth century. What do you suppose we 
F12  39 could have put two people in front of, saying <quote_>"Do whatever 
F12  40 you want, in as unethical a way as you wish,"<quote/> that could 
F12  41 have produced the damage caused by Chernobyl? Suppose we loaded up 
F12  42 the biggest ship of the nineteenth century and put a drunken 
F12  43 captain in charge, so he could run it aground in Prince William 
F12  44 Sound; could it possibly do the kind of damage the Exxon 
F12  45 <tf|>Valdez did? Where do you find in the nineteenth century a 
F12  46 financial structure as big and as complicated and as powerful as 
F12  47 today's savings-and-loan business in the United States that would 
F12  48 have allowed a group of unethical bankers to produce the damage the 
F12  49 current S&L crisis has produced?<p/>
F12  50 <p_>And we're still only in the twentieth century. Shift your 
F12  51 thinking forward into the early years of the twenty-first century 
F12  52 and ask yourself about the kinds of ethical questions that will 
F12  53 arise there. Perhaps the biggest and most complex arise from the 
F12  54 Human Genome Project - not because it will be a big <tf|>medical 
F12  55 issue, but because it will be a big <tf|>employment issue.<p/>
F12  56 <p_>Suppose your genetic 'book' can be read. It tells me, your 
F12  57 potential employer, that at such-and-such an age you are liable to 
F12  58 develop this-or-that problem, and I am going to have to foot the 
F12  59 bill for the problem. So what is my interest in hiring you as 
F12  60 compared with somebody whose book is a bit cleaner? How does 
F12  61 society cope with such an issue? We have no record at all as a 
F12  62 society of willingly choosing not to know what is knowable. So it 
F12  63 is inconceivable that we will choose <tf|>not to know our 
F12  64 employees' genomes. This will be one of the largest privacy 
F12  65 questions that we will face in the twenty-first century, and it's 
F12  66 essentially a question of ethics.<p/>
F12  67 <p_>The point here is simply that our technology has leveraged our 
F12  68 ethics in ways that we never saw in the past. Why is that? Isn't it 
F12  69 largely because we spend tremendous amounts of effort in our 
F12  70 educational system teaching about the nature of technology - and 
F12  71 virtually no time at all talking about the moral, ethical 
F12  72 consequences of that technology?<p/>
F12  73 <p_>Yet, for all of our advanced systems and for all of our 
F12  74 artificial intelligence, the decision-making stream continues to 
F12  75 focus ever more pointedly, as it always has, on the thinking of one 
F12  76 or two or half a dozen individuals sitting at the apex of that 
F12  77 technology. That hasn't changed. What has changed is only the 
F12  78 capacity to do terrific damage because of that decision making.<p/>
F12  79 <p_>Fortunately, those structures can change - because the values 
F12  80 system underlying the social systems can change. Futurist Earl 
F12  81 Joseph suggests that, <quote_>"as we gain new knowledge, values can 
F12  82 be improved. Therefore, on the average, the deeper we penetrate the 
F12  83 future, the better our values and ethics should become."<quote/><p/>
F12  84 <h_><p_>Recapturing a Sense Of Standards<p/><h/>
F12  85 <p_>In the nineteenth century, one of the highest goals of Western 
F12  86 nations was a sense of standards. We took our standards out into 
F12  87 the rest of the world, colonized other regions, and imposed those 
F12  88 standards. Were we tolerant of what we found there? Not at all. If 
F12  89 the people whom we were trying to 'civilize' didn't want to get 
F12  90 'civilized,' we went out and 'civilized' them anyway! At the end of 
F12  91 a gun, or however we had to do it, but we civilized them. Why? To 
F12  92 bring them up to our standards.<p/>
F12  93 <p_>By the 1960s, this attitude had shifted 180 degrees. Tolerance 
F12  94 was what mattered most. As long as somebody said, <quote_>"Yes, 
F12  95 this is what I stand for, this is what I want to do,"<quote/> one 
F12  96 was expected to be wholly tolerant of any conceivable value 
F12  97 structure.<p/>
F12  98 <p_>The job of the twenty-first century is not to forget the 
F12  99 terrific progress we've made toward tolerance, because it has been 
F12 100 invaluable in creating and incorporating a pluralistic society. At 
F12 101 the same time, however, we must begin within that context to 
F12 102 recapture a sense of the standards that in many cases appears to 
F12 103 have been lost.<p/>
F12 104 <p_>One of the places this lack of standards shows up is in the 
F12 105 U.S. education system. Let me cite a few statistics. These are not 
F12 106 statistics that tell you how awful it is that the United States 
F12 107 somehow can't compete with the Japanese and the Germans on math and 
F12 108 literature. These speak to the ethical sense of American students. 
F12 109 Sixty-five percent of high<?_>-<?/>school students admit that they 
F12 110 would cheat to pass an important exam. A similar percentage are 
F12 111 ready to inflate their expense accounts when they enter the 
F12 112 corporate world, or lie to achieve a business objective.<p/>
F12 113 <p_>Remember, these are not merely students we're talking about. 
F12 114 They are, in fact, Western culture's middle managers in 2015 and 
F12 115 its CEOs in 2030. These are the people who are going to administer 
F12 116 <tf|>your pension plans.<p/>
F12 117 <p_>A recent Louis Harris poll for the Girl Scouts asked 5,000 
F12 118 American students where they would look to find the greatest 
F12 119 authority in matters of truth. Where would they turn for that sense 
F12 120 of authority? The answers that came back are very interesting. At 
F12 121 the bottom are the media and the sciences. A few percentage points 
F12 122 higher come parents and religion. Can you guess what the bulk of 
F12 123 those students say is the greatest authority in matters of truth? 
F12 124 <quote|>"Me." The student himself or herself. These students tell 
F12 125 us that there is no source of authority beyond their own 
F12 126 experience. <quote_>"I have not seen anyone out there that I can 
F12 127 trust,"<quote/> they're saying. <quote_>"I've got to go by my gut 
F12 128 instinct. I've got to do whatever feels right, whatever turns me 
F12 129 on, whatever is situational, relative, negotiable."<quote/> That 
F12 130 reply speaks volumes about the ethical standards that we are now 
F12 131 seeing.<p/>
F12 132 <h_><p_>Tracking Value Shifts<p/><h/>
F12 133 <p_>Fortunately, as the century closes, this entire subject of 
F12 134 ethics is becoming a very serious concern for an awful lot of 
F12 135 people. That's why the Institute for Global Ethics was recently 
F12 136 founded. It aims to track value shifts as we move into the next 
F12 137 century.<p/>
F12 138 <p_>The first issue of <tf_>Insights on Global Ethics<tf/>, our 
F12 139 monthly newsletter, leads with a story from Mexico, looking at the 
F12 140 Mexican public's changing attitude toward corruption. Mexico is no 
F12 141 longer the business-as-usual, corruption-as-usual place we've all 
F12 142 assumed it to be. There seems to be a groundswell of public opinion 
F12 143 saying, <quote_>"We can't live this way. We must change."<quote/> 
F12 144 Future issues will look at things like the question of marriage 
F12 145 versus cohabitation in Sweden, the work ethic in Japan, and values 
F12 146 education in Ukraine.<p/>
F12 147 <p_>Of course, we could wait until the twenty-first century, and 
F12 148 then we could read the results of these ethical changes in the 
F12 149 economic and social data. Or we can get at them now and begin to 
F12 150 track the values shifts that are already occurring. Why is that 
F12 151 important? Because any meaningful social and political and economic 
F12 152 change is preceded by a change in values. If we want to devote our 
F12 153 energies to looking into the changes that are most going to dictate 
F12 154 the future, we must look at the questions of ethics in the 
F12 155 twenty-first century.<p/>
F12 156 <p_>One thing seems clear: We will not survive the twenty-first 
F12 157 century with the twentieth century's ethics. The dangers are simply 
F12 158 too great - and the ethical barometer is simply too low.<p/>
F12 159 
F12 160 <h_><p_>Business in the 21st Century<p/>
F12 161 <p_>By Edith Weiner<p/>
F12 162 <p_>Businesses must master the 'forgetting curve' to cope with new 
F12 163 challenges such as environmentalism and an emerging 'cyberpunk' 
F12 164 society.<p/><h/>
F12 165 <p_>Some years ago, I saw a marvelous cartoon depicting an alien 
F12 166 spaceship that had been observing life on Earth. The alien scouts 
F12 167 reported the following conclusions: Earth is inhabited by metallic 
F12 168 creatures called cars, and each car owns at least one two-legged 
F12 169 slave who cares for it. Each morning, the slave goes outside its 
F12 170 home and wakes up the car. The car is taken for its nourishment to 
F12 171 what is called a gas station, and then it goes to its social club 
F12 172 to be with other cars. The club is called a parking lot. Meanwhile, 
F12 173 the slave goes to work to earn money to take care of the car. At 
F12 174 the end of the slave's work day, the car bids farewell to its 
F12 175 friends at the parking lot and the slave takes it back to its home. 
F12 176 On days when the slave is not making money for the car, it washes 
F12 177 the car, or takes it for a drive and shows it a lot of different 
F12 178 places.<p/>
F12 179 <p_>This cartoon cleverly points out that, viewed by new eyes, 
F12 180 alien eyes, the world can be interpreted in very different ways. 
F12 181 Businesses that hope to thrive in the next decade and beyond must 
F12 182 seek out new perspectives. Too many enterprises are currently based 
F12 183 on outdated interpretations of the world, its inhabitants, its 
F12 184 social structures, and the ways that markets behave.<p/>
F12 185 <p_>Pretend for a moment that we are aliens - that we are not 
F12 186 loaded down with the baggage of memory, of experience, of 
F12 187 preconceived ideas about what is and what should be.<p/>
F12 188 <p_>Suppose we were to invent the financial-services sector today, 
F12 189 from scratch. This sector includes life insurance, disability 
F12 190 insurance, pensions, and savings and investment vehicles. What do 
F12 191 we see with our new eyes? We observe the huge numbers of working 
F12 192 women, and particularly single or divorced working mothers, and we 
F12 193 see the enormous numbers of women who outlive men in their very old 
F12 194 years. We also see many more women taking care of disabled men than 
F12 195 men taking care of disabled women. Thus, we conclude that the 
F12 196 primary market for all forms of financial services should be women, 
F12 197 and we start from there. The reality is, however, that the modern 
F12 198 financial-services business grew up over the course of 200 years 
F12 199 and evolved with a male-oriented market; only in the past 20 years 
F12 200 has it <tf|>begun to recognize women as a serious market.<p/>
F12 201 <h_><p_>Mastering the Forgetting Curve<p/><h/>
F12 202 <p_>Let's look at retailing.
F12 203 
F12 204 
F13   1 <#FROWN:F13\><h_><p_>Vaccination programs, procedures for producing 
F13   2 top quality pullets<p/>
F13   3 <p_>The purposes and methods of vaccination programs for pullets 
F13   4 are explained along with blood test results for evaluations.<p/>
F13   5 <p_>By George D. Boggan, V.M.D.<p/><h/>
F13   6 <p_>Vaccinations of poultry flocks are carried out with the 
F13   7 intention to prevent serious disease outbreaks. Properly 
F13   8 administered, vaccinations help the chicken's immune system to 
F13   9 produce antibodies that greatly reduce or eliminate the chances of 
F13  10 disease. A proper vaccination is a relatively harmless and 
F13  11 inexpensive method of disease control and prevention. Vaccinations 
F13  12 also go a long way toward eliminating the spread of more virulent 
F13  13 forms of disease.<p/>
F13  14 <h_><p_>How vaccinations work<p/><h/>
F13  15 <p_>The mechanisms of action for most viral vaccines depends on the 
F13  16 normal immune system of the chicken. The goal of vaccination is to 
F13  17 fool the bird's immune system into believing that there has been an 
F13  18 actual viral exposure to a disease-causing virus. This process is 
F13  19 achieved by vaccinating with extremely mild 'avirulent' strains of 
F13  20 the virus or by using a virus which has been inactivated (killed). 
F13  21 In both situations, the bird's body recognizes the virus, or 
F13  22 antigen, and starts producing the appropriate antibodies to fight 
F13  23 off the infection.<p/>
F13  24 <p_>Antibody continues to be produced until the vaccine virus has 
F13  25 been completely inactivated or overwhelmed. The result of this 
F13  26 stimulation is the production of a reserve pool of 
F13  27 anti<?_>-<?/>bodies that is capable of immediate response in the 
F13  28 event of re-exposure to the same virus or the disease-causing agent 
F13  29 in this case.<p/>
F13  30 <p_>With time, however, antibody levels will naturally decline so 
F13  31 it is necessary to restimulate or boost the immune system with 
F13  32 subsequent vaccinations. The goal of maintaining the high antibody 
F13  33 levels (titers) is to allow a very quick immune response in the 
F13  34 event of a field exposure and subsequently resist infection.<p/>
F13  35 <p_>Inactivated or killed vaccines stimulate immunity even though 
F13  36 the killed virus cannot multiply. Since the killed virus is unable 
F13  37 to reproduce itself, a large amount of it must be present along 
F13  38 with an adjuvant (usually an oil emulsion). After administration of 
F13  39 the killed vaccine, some of the rival antigen causes an initial 
F13  40 immune response. The adjuvant then releases the remainder of the 
F13  41 antigen over a long period of time to allow the immune response to 
F13  42 continue.<p/>
F13  43 <p_>It should be noted that killed vaccines normally require a 
F13  44 'priming' or prior administration of a live vaccine for the disease 
F13  45 you are vaccinating against.<p/>
F13  46 <h_><p_>Vaccination factors<p/><h/>
F13  47 <p_>It is important to remember that vaccination is only one aspect 
F13  48 of disease prevention and should be used in conjunction with 
F13  49 optimal biosecurity, sanitation and good management and husbandry 
F13  50 practices. Care should also be exercised to avoid introducing live 
F13  51 vaccine viruses to areas where a particular disease problem is not 
F13  52 known to occur. Likewise, indiscriminate use of antibiotics and 
F13  53 drugs should be avoided. Vaccination schedules and disease control 
F13  54 programs should always be designed under the direction of a 
F13  55 qualified poultry veterinarian familiar with the disease problems 
F13  56 in your area.<p/>
F13  57 <p_>Your vaccination program must protect your flocks from diseases 
F13  58 that are common to your area. In many cases, these diseases would 
F13  59 include Marek's, IBD, Newcastle, bronchitis, and AE. However, this 
F13  60 situation varies between localities. For this reason, blanket 
F13  61 recommendations for vaccination programs are ill advised and 
F13  62 impractical.<p/>
F13  63 <p_>There are several basics on which to build your vaccination 
F13  64 programs. You must know the immune status or serology of the parent 
F13  65 stock from which your birds were hatched. This is an especially 
F13  66 important point in regards to IBD as we shall see later in this 
F13  67 discussion.<p/>
F13  68 <p_>Timing of vaccinations is also very important. We must view 
F13  69 vaccination as a stress on the flock. Thus, the stress of 
F13  70 vaccination should not be combined with other stresses such as beak 
F13  71 trimming or moving. We should also realize that in some cases 
F13  72 parental immunity may not dissipate until two to four weeks after 
F13  73 hatching. If vaccines (especially attenuated ones) are given while 
F13  74 strong parental immunity is still present the effectiveness of the 
F13  75 vaccination will be significantly reduced. In fact, it may not even 
F13  76 give the desired effect.<p/>
F13  77 <p_>Also, the age at which a flock is exposed to a certain disease 
F13  78 can be a determining factor. For example, chicks could be exposed 
F13  79 to fowl pox as soon as they arrive at the brooder house, making a 
F13  80 pox vaccination at the hatchery necessary.<p/>
F13  81 <p_>As with many products, it is important to always follow label 
F13  82 directions when using vaccines. Never try to 'stretch' or dilute 
F13  83 the vaccine. You should always strive to use one dose of vaccine 
F13  84 per bird. Anything less can be considered as 'penny wise and pound 
F13  85 foolish.' Finally, always vaccinate an entire house on the same 
F13  86 day.<p/>
F13  87 <p_>Once vaccination has been completed, destroy and discard all 
F13  88 empty vaccine bottles, caps, and unused vaccine. These materials 
F13  89 should never be left where there is a danger of chickens or people 
F13  90 coming in contact with them.<p/>
F13  91 <h_><p_>Vaccination records<p/><h/>
F13  92 <p_>Detailed record keeping plays an important part in a sound 
F13  93 vaccination program.<p/>
F13  94 <p_>Vaccination records should include:<p/>
F13  95 <p_>1. The disease the flock was vaccinated for.<p/>
F13  96 <p_>2. Method of administration (i.e., water, spray, wing web, 
F13  97 intraocular, injection, etc.).<p/>
F13  98 <p_>3. Quantity of doses used and the number of birds 
F13  99 vaccinated.<p/>
F13 100 <p_>4. Serial number and expiration date of the lot of vaccine 
F13 101 used. (Never use any vaccine beyond its expiration date as its 
F13 102 potency will be impaired and it may not produce the desired 
F13 103 effect.)<p/>
F13 104 <p_>5. Where the vaccine was purchased.<p/>
F13 105 <p_>6. Date and time of vaccination.<p/>
F13 106 <p_>7. The age of the flock.<p/>
F13 107 <p_>8. The flock's strain and/or breed.<p/>
F13 108 <p_>9. Farm and house numbers.<p/>
F13 109 <p_>10. Names of the people who performed the vaccination.<p/>
F13 110 <p_>11. Any reactions to the vaccination that have been 
F13 111 observed.<p/>
F13 112 <p_>All of this information will be especially useful in 
F13 113 troubleshooting any health problems that may arise.<p/>
F13 114 <h_><p_>Emphasis on IBD<p/><h/>
F13 115 <p_>A key to the effectiveness of your vaccination program is the 
F13 116 successful control of IBD or Gumboro disease. An outbreak of IBD 
F13 117 will severely damage the immune system of susceptible chicks. As a 
F13 118 consequence, IBD infected chicks won't respond properly to 
F13 119 vaccinations for other diseases. Egg producers should be especially 
F13 120 mindful of controlling IBD as this disease is generally more 
F13 121 serious in layers than it is in broilers. The point to keep in mind 
F13 122 above all is that prevention of IBD is a must, because attempting 
F13 123 to treat it will prove futile.<p/>
F13 124 <p_>There are several steps to producing immunity to IBD. The 
F13 125 process of achieving immunity in the offspring actually begins with 
F13 126 the parent flock. To protect their offspring, the breeders should 
F13 127 be vaccinated at approximately 18 weeks of age with a killed oil 
F13 128 emulsion vaccine. When such a vaccination is properly administered 
F13 129 to the breeder flock, it will produce a high level of antibodies. 
F13 130 This then provides for the passive transfer of maternal antibodies 
F13 131 to the chick. These maternal antibodies are essential to the 
F13 132 prevention of early IBD infections. Chicks from well immunized 
F13 133 breeders may resist these early infections for two to four 
F13 134 weeks.<p/>
F13 135 <p_>Even with the presence of maternal antibodies, this is just one 
F13 136 step in establishing an IBD resistant flock. It is also important 
F13 137 to provide good sanitation in the brooder house as a means of 
F13 138 reducing the level of IBD infection.<p/>
F13 139 <p_>As the chick's maternal antibodies begin to decline, we must 
F13 140 address the question of IBD vaccination for our young flock. The 
F13 141 vaccine to be used must be strong enough to overcome any residual 
F13 142 maternal antibodies, so a more attenuated vaccine may not be 
F13 143 effective. Therefore, it is important to wait until the point is 
F13 144 reached where the vaccine can overcome the maternal antibodies. In 
F13 145 most cases, this will occur at about three weeks of age. After the 
F13 146 dissipation of the maternal antibodies, vaccination with a live 
F13 147 virus IBD vaccine by way of drinking water or the intraocular route 
F13 148 is the best method of developing immunity in young chicks.<p/>
F13 149 <h_><p_>Marek's disease<p/><h/>
F13 150 <p_>For purposes of this discussion, let's assume that the Marek's 
F13 151 disease vaccination has been executed properly at the hatchery. 
F13 152 However, even when chicks have been vaccinated properly for 
F13 153 Marek's, the possibility of an out<?_>-<?/>break still exists.<p/>
F13 154 <p_>The trick to preventing Marek's out<?_>-<?/>breaks is to avoid 
F13 155 early exposure of the chicks to the Marek's virus. The first step 
F13 156 is to clean and disinfect the brooder house before the chicks 
F13 157 arrive. It is especially important to ensure that all dust and 
F13 158 dander be removed as the Marek's virus can survive for years in 
F13 159 this material. Single age brooding and strict biosecurity at the 
F13 160 brooder farm or complex will aid greatly in preventing Marek's 
F13 161 problems. Generally, careful sanitation and management in the early 
F13 162 stages of the flock's life will reduce the chances of a Marek's 
F13 163 infection.<p/>
F13 164 <h_><p_>Water vaccination<p/><h/>
F13 165 <p_>Water vaccination involves live virus vaccines, is fast and 
F13 166 cost effective, but may be the least reliable form. The major 
F13 167 points to successful water vaccination are proper distribution of 
F13 168 the vaccine and preventing the inactivation of the virus in the 
F13 169 vaccine.<p/>
F13 170 <p_>To avoid inactivation of the virus, store the vaccine 
F13 171 containers in a refrigerator at 45 degrees F (7 degrees C) until 
F13 172 ready to use. Vaccine containers shouldn't be exposed to heat or 
F13 173 left in the direct rays of the sun. Knowing the status of your 
F13 174 water quality in respect to hardness, pH, organic matter, heavy 
F13 175 metals, and chlorine content is also important. Powdered milk added 
F13 176 to the vaccine solution will act as a buffer against the materials 
F13 177 that may reduce the potency of the vaccine. Once the vaccine has 
F13 178 been prepared, it should be given to the flock within one hour. All 
F13 179 drinking vessels should be clean before the vaccine solution is 
F13 180 added.<p/>
F13 181 <h_><p_>Spray vaccination<p/><h/>
F13 182 <p_>Application by spray has replaced water vaccination in some 
F13 183 instances. Spray vaccination can be more effective than water 
F13 184 application provided it is executed correctly.<p/>
F13 185 <p_>The spray vaccine should be placed in a clean container that is 
F13 186 used only for vaccine application. The container should not be used 
F13 187 for other applications such as spraying pesticides. In addition, 
F13 188 the vaccine container should never <}_><-|>the<+|>be<}/> cleaned 
F13 189 with a sanitizer or possible damage to the vaccine may result. Be 
F13 190 sure to use a spray that produces the particle or droplet size 
F13 191 recommended for the particular vaccine.<p/>
F13 192 <p_>Close up the house for 20 to 30 minutes during and after a 
F13 193 spray vaccination to prevent the mist from escaping before it can 
F13 194 be inhaled by the birds. Of course, in very hot weather, the 
F13 195 duration of this closing will have to be lessened.<p/>
F13 196 <p_>Before mixing the vaccine, plan one dose per bird and use 
F13 197 approximately 120-130 cc's of distilled water per 1,000 doses of 
F13 198 vaccine. It is important that distilled water be used to avoid 
F13 199 impairing the potency of the vaccine. Spray the mist just above the 
F13 200 birds' heads and be sure to cover the entire house. For best 
F13 201 results, precede a spray vaccination by about three weeks with a 
F13 202 water vaccination for the same disease.<p/>
F13 203 <h_><p_>Intraocular and intranasal<p/><h/>
F13 204 <p_>These two vaccination applications can be very effective. 
F13 205 However, these are very time and labor intensive and experienced 
F13 206 crews are required for best results. The same precautions that 
F13 207 apply to other vaccination methods should be followed. Some 
F13 208 intraocular vaccines are supplied with their own diluent and this 
F13 209 is what should be used when preparing these vaccines.<p/>
F13 210 <p_>Each bird must be handled and no bird should be released until 
F13 211 it is certain that it has received its dose of vaccine. This can be 
F13 212 confirmed when the drop of vaccine disappears into the bird's eye 
F13 213 or into the nostril, as the case may be.<p/>
F13 214 <h_><p_>Wing web vaccination<p/><h/>
F13 215 <p_>Wing web vaccination is used mainly for fowl pox but can be 
F13 216 used for avian encephalomyelitis (AE) (in combination with fowl or 
F13 217 pigeon pox), reovirus or live fowl cholera vaccines.<p/>
F13 218 <p_>Always use the applicator needles that come with the vaccine 
F13 219 package. These applicators will have been sized properly by the 
F13 220 vaccine manufacturer for the job intended. Ensure that the 
F13 221 applicator needles remain clean. Avoid letting the applicators 
F13 222 contact dirty surfaces or contamination may result. To prevent 
F13 223 contamination of mixture, don't dip the applicator handle or other 
F13 224 foreign objects into the vaccine.<p/>
F13 225 <p_>Never allow pox vaccines to touch the eyes, mouth or feathers 
F13 226 of the birds as this may result in a case of wet pox.
F13 227 
F13 228 
F13 229 
F14   1 <#FROWN:F14\><h_><p_>The Burial Society<p/>
F14   2 <p_>By Daniel E. Troy<p/><h/>
F14   3 <p_>IT IS a truism that we moderns are uncomfortable dealing with 
F14   4 death - and especially uncomfortable dealing with dead bodies. 
F14   5 Troubled by the very idea of our own mortality, we try to avoid its 
F14   6 reminders, among which an actual dead person is certainly the most 
F14   7 powerful. So it is no wonder that among modern Jews, knowledge of, 
F14   8 and interest in, the <foreign_>hevra kedisha<foreign/> (literally, 
F14   9 holy society) - the group of lay volunteers who prepare a Jewish 
F14  10 body for burial - has declined over time, or that membership in 
F14  11 such a society, although considered by Jewish religious law to be 
F14  12 among the most laudable of activities, is now often thought to be 
F14  13 exclusively the province of the black-garbed ultra-Orthodox.<p/>
F14  14 <p_>This is unfortunate, because Jewish law relating to the newly 
F14  15 dead has much to teach us, as I myself have learned from 
F14  16 experience. Ever since my best and oldest childhood friend died 
F14  17 suddenly eight years ago, my interest had been piqued by the 
F14  18 <foreign_>hevra kedisha<foreign/>. Until I married, however, my 
F14  19 inclination to join such a group was dampened by my general 
F14  20 squeamishness concerning medical matters, as well as by my 
F14  21 uncertainty about the level of religious observance required for 
F14  22 membership. (Although I attend an Orthodox synagogue, keep kosher, 
F14  23 and observe the Sabbath, I do not adhere to every jot and tittle of 
F14  24 Jewish law.)<p/>
F14  25 <p_>My wife's family, however, holds membership in the 
F14  26 <foreign|>hevra in high regard. Her maternal grandfather 
F14  27 participated in one in Germany, and her maternal grandmother was a 
F14  28 member in Kansas City. (Men are allowed to attend only to dead men. 
F14  29 Women technically are permitted to prepare both men and women for 
F14  30 burial but, as a practical matter, women attend to women 
F14  31 exclusively.) This heritage provided the impetus I needed, and thus 
F14  32 one day I found myself volunteering on what I told myself was 
F14  33 purely a trial basis. The rabbi assured me that one need not be a 
F14  34 <foreign|>tzaddik - an especially righteous person - to join, only 
F14  35 a committed Jew willing to do his best.<p/>
F14  36 <p_>This tolerant approach may reflect the relatively late 
F14  37 development of the <foreign_>shevra kedisha<foreign/> as an 
F14  38 organized institution. The earliest mention is in the Talmud, which 
F14  39 reports that Rav Hamnuna (ca. 290-320 C.E), arriving in a city 
F14  40 where someone had recently died, observed the inhabitants going 
F14  41 about their business. Irate, he threatened to excommunicate them 
F14  42 for violating the injection that burial of the dead takes 
F14  43 precedence over all else. But then, upon hearing that burial 
F14  44 societies existed in the town, Rav Hamnuna concluded that ordinary 
F14  45 citizens were indeed permitted to continue work. Rav Hamnuna's 
F14  46 ruling made the establishment of a <foreign_>hevra 
F14  47 kedisha<foreign/> a top priority in most European communities. When 
F14  48 Jews came to the United States, this was among the first 
F14  49 institutions they established.<p/>
F14  50 <p_>In Washington, where I live, many synagogues have their own 
F14  51 <foreign|>hevra, contacted when a member of the community dies. 
F14  52 Thus, a few weeks after my conversation with the rabbi, I was 
F14  53 called upon to assist in my first <foreign|>tahara, or 
F14  54 purification. When I arrived at the funeral parlor, I was told that 
F14  55 the sixtyish man we were to prepare for burial weighed over 350 
F14  56 pounds, and had died of 'chronic obesity.' I guiltily squelched an 
F14  57 adolescent urge to grin, and was doubly chastened as I watched Ben, 
F14  58 our team leader, a physician in his early thirties, call around 
F14  59 asking for a few more volunteers to help us deal with the 
F14  60 difficulties created by the weight of the <foreign|>met (dead 
F14  61 person). His tone in discussing the <foreign|>met was intensely 
F14  62 respectful, and this set the stage for what I was to learn was the 
F14  63 paramount directive in this experience: to show reverence for the 
F14  64 person who has departed.<p/>
F14  65 <p_>Judaism has always considered burying deceased loved ones to be 
F14  66 a <foreign|>mitzvah, a religious duty and good deed, of supreme 
F14  67 importance. Traditionally this view is based on Abraham's actions 
F14  68 upon the death of his wife Sarah, when he turned to the neighboring 
F14  69 sons of Heth and said, <quote_>"A stranger and a sojourner am I 
F14  70 with you; give me the possession of a burying place with you, that 
F14  71 I may bury my dead from before me."<quote/> This verse, the rabbis 
F14  72 held, placed the responsibility for internment first on the family, 
F14  73 and from there on the community as a whole. By the period of the 
F14  74 Second Temple (ca. 465 BCE.-70 C.E.), according to the testimony of 
F14  75 Josephus, to <quote_>"let anyone lie unburied"<quote/> was 
F14  76 considered inhumane under Jewish law.<p/>
F14  77 <p_>Jews try to bury their dead immediately, as befits a people 
F14  78 whose origins were in the desert, where bodies decompose rapidly. 
F14  79 The rabbinic teaching is that, unless necessary for the honor of 
F14  80 the dead, <quote_>"no corpse is to remain unburied 
F14  81 overnight."<quote/> Today, in most cases, a Jew is buried within a 
F14  82 day after having died. This custom allows the family to begin 
F14  83 coming to terms with the loss as soon as possible. Anyone who has 
F14  84 experienced the death of a loved one knows that the time before 
F14  85 burial is essentially a period of 'limbo' (in Jewish tradition this 
F14  86 condition is called <foreign|>aninut), and that only after the 
F14  87 funeral can a family proceed with the difficult task of 
F14  88 mourning.<p/>
F14  89 <p_>AS WE walked to the room in the basement of the funeral parlor 
F14  90 where we were to perform the <foreign|>tahara, we passed the 
F14  91 <foreign|>shomer, or watcher, a man who stays with the recently 
F14  92 deceased at all times. There are both practical and religious 
F14  93 explanations for the constant presence of a <foreign|>shomer - as 
F14  94 there are, incidentally, for most of the <foreign|>hevra's ancient 
F14  95 procedures. Practically, the <foreign|>shomer was originally needed 
F14  96 to ward off mice and other animals that might inflict indignities 
F14  97 on the corpse. He also may have helped guard against thieves who 
F14  98 trafficked in dead bodies.<p/>
F14  99 <p_>Today, when such considerations are less pressing, the 
F14 100 <foreign|>shomer continues to serve a vital function. In the 
F14 101 interval right after death and before burial, the deceased is 
F14 102 especially vulnerable, having not yet reached a permanent 'resting 
F14 103 place' either in body or, so far as we know, in soul. (I well 
F14 104 recall that when my friend died, his mother begged me to ensure 
F14 105 that he was <quote_>"not alone"; she did not want any further harm 
F14 106 to befall his mortal remains.) The <foreign|>hevra has thus 
F14 107 traditionally served to reassure the family that their loved one is 
F14 108 being protected and cared for, a function reinforced by the custom 
F14 109 of having the <foreign|>shomer be a respected and, presumably, 
F14 110 well-known member of the community.<p/>
F14 111 <p_>But this concern about the 'address' of the newly dead is not 
F14 112 solely for the sake of the surviving family. (Nor is it exclusively 
F14 113 Jewish, as we can see in the proliferation of lawsuits against 
F14 114 funeral parlors which confuse or switch bodies.) Judaism's regard 
F14 115 for the body itself lies behind the determination to ensure that 
F14 116 it, in its wholeness, be accorded a place after death. This is but 
F14 117 one of the many reasons why Jewish law prohibits cremation. Aside 
F14 118 from manifesting a disregard for God's handiwork, incinerating a 
F14 119 body leaves it without any definable, knowable location in the 
F14 120 world.<p/>
F14 121 <p_>Although I was aware of some of these Jewish laws and customs 
F14 122 concerning the body, I had never seen a dead person before. I was 
F14 123 therefore quite fearful as I followed Ben and the four other 
F14 124 members of our team down to the purification room in the funeral 
F14 125 room. The room in which the <foreign|>tahara took place was in the 
F14 126 basement, immediately adjacent to the embalming room. It was stark 
F14 127 and relatively small, with two sinks, a cabinet, a drain in the 
F14 128 middle of the floor, and a steel table that tilted for drainage 
F14 129 purposes. Ben noticed my trepidation and reassured me: nothing was 
F14 130 expected of a beginner other than to watch. I was free to do only 
F14 131 what I felt comfortable doing and to leave any time I wanted. Ben 
F14 132 warned us that smoking, eating, drinking, unnecessary talking and 
F14 133 praying near the body were all forbidden. Nothing was to distract 
F14 134 us from the primary task at hand - preparing the <foreign|>met for 
F14 135 eternal rest.<p/>
F14 136 <p_>We entered the room, and there was the <foreign|>met, covered 
F14 137 in a sheet, lying on a table. Ben explained the fundamental rules. 
F14 138 As much of the body as possible is to be kept covered at all times, 
F14 139 even while being washed. It is particularly important that the face 
F14 140 and the genitals be shielded. At no time is it permitted to place 
F14 141 the body face down. It is absolutely forbidden to pass anything 
F14 142 over the body - a sign of profound disrespect, and a violation of 
F14 143 the 'personal space' of the <foreign|>met; if we had to give an 
F14 144 item to someone on the other side of the table, we were to walk 
F14 145 around and hand it to him.<p/>
F14 146 <p_>The prohibition against passing objects over the <foreign|>met 
F14 147 affirms the humanity of the person whose body is lying before us; 
F14 148 it seeks to ensure that the members of the <foreign|>hevra continue 
F14 149 to accord a dead person the respect normally given to those still 
F14 150 alive. This consideration is by no means peculiar to Jews: for 
F14 151 essentially the same reasons, people visiting a cemetery are 
F14 152 reluctant to step directly on the spot where someone is buried. But 
F14 153 in Jewish tradition the space above a <foreign|>met is reserved for 
F14 154 him not only in the immediate vicinity but all the way <quote_>"up 
F14 155 to the heavens,"<quote/> so that his path to the divine will not be 
F14 156 impeded. This suggests that we should respect a dead person even 
F14 157 more than we do a living one, precisely because, in death, the 
F14 158 <foreign|>met is thought to come face to face with his Maker and 
F14 159 Judge.<p/>
F14 160 <p_>After Ben's explanation of the procedures, we began by reciting 
F14 161 the <foreign|>hamol ('forgiveness') prayer, which asks God to take 
F14 162 mercy on the <foreign|>met, pardon his transgressions, and allow 
F14 163 him to rest with our fathers Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as well as 
F14 164 the other righteous of Israel. Jewish prayers often characterize 
F14 165 God as the reviver of the dead (in the time of the messiah); 
F14 166 unusually, the <foreign|>hamol prayer adds that it is God Who 
F14 167 causes the living to die.<p/>
F14 168 <p_>Stealing glances during the prayer, I was surprised to observe 
F14 169 that the <foreign|>met had a large tatoo. Since Jews are expressly 
F14 170 forbidden by the Torah to tatoo their bodies, it seemed that this 
F14 171 man had been far removed from Judaism in his life. And the distance 
F14 172 became even more palpable when I heard his name - Yehudah 
F14 173 <foreign|>ben (son of) Herman. In other words, Yehudah's family did 
F14 174 not even know his father's Hebrew name. Yet here he was, tatoo and 
F14 175 all, being prepared for burial just as his ancestors had been for 
F14 176 millennia. The stark contrast between Yehudah's apparently 
F14 177 irreligious life and his choice to be buried in the ancient Jewish 
F14 178 manner, in a shroud and in a closed, plain pine box, moved and 
F14 179 confused me.<p/>
F14 180 <p_>BEN assigned me the simple task of filling buckets with 
F14 181 lukewarm water. The requirement that the water be set at the 
F14 182 temperature at which most people feel comfortable taking a bath 
F14 183 seemed yet another reminder that the <foreign|>met should be 
F14 184 treated as sensitively as possible. Ben explained that the goal in 
F14 185 a <foreign|>tahara is to replicate the immersion of the body in a 
F14 186 <foreign|>mikvah (ritual bath). There are, again, at least two 
F14 187 reasons for this ceremony. The first is ritual: to remove 
F14 188 symbolically any impurity which the <foreign|>met might have 
F14 189 brought upon himself during his lifetime. Humans can assist in 
F14 190 eliminating this type of pollution, because it has arisen at the 
F14 191 hand of man - i.e., the deceased. (The inherent impurity that comes 
F14 192 from being a dead body, however, can be removed only by God.) The 
F14 193 other reason is related to the vulnerability of the newly dead and 
F14 194 the role of the <foreign|>shomer. Death completes the cycle of 
F14 195 life. Practically the first experience of a baby is being washed 
F14 196 and wrapped in swaddling clothes. It is fitting that this 
F14 197 experience be mirrored in death.<p/>
F14 198 <p_>Performing the <foreign|>tahara is uncomplicated. First, the 
F14 199 entire body is fully washed, from head to toe, with water poured 
F14 200 from a ladle back-handed, to indicate the sadness of the situation 
F14 201 and that things are not 'normal.'
F14 202 
F14 203 
F15   1 <#FROWN:F15\><h_><p_>IN THE WORLD OF OLD-BOY POLITICS, THIS WOMAN 
F15   2 CALLS THE SHOTS<p/>
F15   3 <p_>THE MATALIN FACTOR<p/>
F15   4 <p_>BUSH'S SECRET WEAPON<p/><h/>
F15   5 <p_>In college, the girls would have called her a 'smart chick'; in 
F15   6 politics, the boys would say she's 'a guy's kind of girl'; in a 
F15   7 tough election year, she's exactly the person George Bush needs on 
F15   8 his side.<p/>
F15   9 <p_><quote_>"There's a little to-do about all this woman 
F15  10 stuff,"<quote/> concedes Mary Matalin, aware that her role as 
F15  11 national political director for the Bush campaign makes her not 
F15  12 only the top woman on the president's re-election team but also a 
F15  13 'peg' for the media. She is, in fact, a rare species in politics: a 
F15  14 woman who knows how a familiar story will get played out; a 
F15  15 behind-the-scenes force who comes quickly to the point. <quote_>"It 
F15  16 doesn't matter if you're a Martian,"<quote/> she says of her 
F15  17 position, <quote_>"as long as you perform."<quote/><p/>
F15  18 <p_>Matalin is sitting in her Washington office, in a swivel chair, 
F15  19 wearing a dark<?_>-<?/>green wool dress; the phone rings 
F15  20 constantly; her assistant Lisa Greenspan, reports on developments 
F15  21 in the South; her return-call list gets longer; and George Bush, 
F15  22 Jr., is arriving in an hour. Matalin calls, <quote_>"Hey, Lisa? 
F15  23 Does Junior have a phone in his office?"<quote/> Junior is one of 
F15  24 Matalin's closest allies - and his father's familiar 
F15  25 troubleshooter. <quote_>"I only talk to Junior 17 times a 
F15  26 day,"<quote/> she says wryly, <quote_>"but this is his first foray 
F15  27 into town. We're so bunked-in over here, there's not even a 
F15  28 cubbyhole for him."<quote/><p/>
F15  29 <p_>To listen to Matalin is to hear the voice of someone who came 
F15  30 out of the Midwest, who is happier in jeans than a dress, and who, 
F15  31 by some instinctive apprehension of the rudiments of old-boy 
F15  32 politics, figured out how to move within the system, rather than 
F15  33 oppose it solely on the assumption that power might be a white male 
F15  34 thing, and so, beyond her reach. That she might hit the glass 
F15  35 ceiling does not seem to have occurred to her.<p/>
F15  36 <p_><quote_>"For as long as I've worked, which is since age 11, 
F15  37 I've never liked the notion of anything coming to someone because 
F15  38 of gender. It's degrading to the recipient,"<quote/> says Matalin, 
F15  39 who is 38. <quote_>"I don't come to the table with 'the woman's 
F15  40 point of view.' I come from a blue-collar family on the south side 
F15  41 of Chicago. And nobody at the table comes from what I thought 
F15  42 Republicans were."<quote/><p/>
F15  43 <p_>Indeed, in Matalin, the men in the Bush campaign may have found 
F15  44 their secret weapon: a woman whose candor deflects stereotypes of 
F15  45 nerdy Republicans; whose gut instincts for politics are so close to 
F15  46 the surface that she reacts decisively; and whose opinions, style, 
F15  47 and wit amount to a breath of fresh air in a hot-winded horse race. 
F15  48 <quote_>"She has,"<quote/> says Tony Snow, a White House speech 
F15  49 writer, <quote_>"a great b.s. meter."<quote/><p/>
F15  50 <p_>In early March, it's on full alert. Greenspan sticks her head 
F15  51 in the door, bringing primary news from one of the southern states. 
F15  52 Matalin frowns. <quote_>"I need somebody in headquarters who has 
F15  53 two brain cells to rub together."<quote/> She reaches for a 
F15  54 Marlboro Light.<p/>
F15  55 <p_>Since New Hampshire, the media has dogged the Bush camp with 
F15  56 criticism that its organization and ads have produced lackluster 
F15  57 primary results. <quote_>"Today, for instance, I'm trying to 
F15  58 explain that 13,000 out of 199,000 Republicans voted for an 
F15  59 uncommitted slate of delegates,"<quote/> says Matalin on the 
F15  60 morning after the South Dakota primary. <quote_>"This isn't a 
F15  61 lackluster performance. We have more than 200 delegates; Buchanan 
F15  62 has nine. Next week it's winner-take-all in four of the eight 
F15  63 states,"<quote/> she says, referring to Super Tuesday. 
F15  64 <quote_>"What are we doing here? We're counting 
F15  65 delegates."<quote/><p/>
F15  66 <p_>It the media sees it differently, Matalin understands, having 
F15  67 weathered the 1988 campaign, when she organized the GOP's state-by 
F15  68 state 'ground war' of voter turnout - and having been the subject 
F15  69 herself of stories about her romance with James Carville, a 
F15  70 consultant to Governor Bill Clinton. Political reporters, she says, 
F15  71 <quote_>"always pick out their Bruce Babbitt. They've already 
F15  72 picked out Clinton. They can always fall back on blind sources, as 
F15  73 in 'sources close to the president said.' They could be talking to 
F15  74 Millie the dog. So we know what kind of environment we're in. But 
F15  75 it's frustrating because I know the mechanics, and I know we're 
F15  76 winning."<quote/><p/>
F15  77 <p_>It's the mechanics - the nuts and bolts of campaigning - that 
F15  78 define her interest in politics. <quote_>"What I have is the 
F15  79 ability to keep a lot of plates spinning,"<quote/> she explains. 
F15  80 That's a neat way of saying that when a campaign director in 
F15  81 Michigan has a problem or when Junior needs a solid opinion, they 
F15  82 call Matalin. <quote_>"Politics always operates on the squeaky 
F15  83 hinge theory,"<quote/> she admits. <quote_>"Whoever gets to me 
F15  84 first gets the job done."<quote/><p/>
F15  85 <p_>But if there's one thing she learned from her mentor, the late 
F15  86 Lee Atwater - campaign manager for Bush '88 - it is to spread the 
F15  87 power around to her staff. <quote_>"I don't want to hear about a 
F15  88 problem unless there's blood on the floor,"<quote/> she says. 
F15  89 <quote_>"And we've all worked together long enough to know the 
F15  90 difference between blood and a hang nail."<quote/><p/>
F15  91 <p_>Maybe what Matalin brings to the Bush camp is levity. She grew 
F15  92 up first near Chicago's 93rd and Commercial, later in suburban 
F15  93 Burnham; her mother was a Democrat in the Kennedy-Roosevelt 
F15  94 tradition and her father, the son of Yugoslavian immigrants, was a 
F15  95 <quote_>"sort of anarchist-libertarian"<quote/> who worked his way 
F15  96 up to superintendent at U.S. Steel - Matalin herself worked there 
F15  97 during school breaks. <quote_>" I understand the language of real 
F15  98 people,"<quote/> she says. <quote_>"If you read <tf_>The New York 
F15  99 Times<tf/> or <tf_>The Washington Post<tf/> every day, you get 
F15 100 sucked into the rhetoric of economics. But real people don't talk 
F15 101 about capital gains. They want to know what it means if they sell 
F15 102 their houses."<quote/><p/>
F15 103 <p_>Distrustful of big government, Matalin says it was her family's 
F15 104 work ethic that attracted her to the GOP. <quote_>"Not to be corny, 
F15 105 but I believe in the notion of individual responsibility,"<quote/> 
F15 106 she says. And so, in 1980, while in graduate school, she took her 
F15 107 first crack at politics in the Illinois Senate race, working for 
F15 108 Republican David E. O'Neal. O'Neal lost but Matalin met the first 
F15 109 of several mentors, Maxene Fernstrom, then O'Neal's campaign 
F15 110 manager. <quote_>"She is a great woman and a killer at 
F15 111 politics,"<quote/> says Matalin. It was Fernstrom, now a small 
F15 112 business consultant, who got Matalin a job in Washington at the 
F15 113 Republican National Committee (RNC). Two years later Matalin was 
F15 114 made executive assistant to Rich Bond, then deputy chairman of the 
F15 115 RNC. <quote_>"I liked the cut of her jib,"<quote/> observes Bond, 
F15 116 now RNC chairman. <quote_>"Mary can be charming. Mary can be 
F15 117 tough."<quote/> Or, as Tony Snow says, <quote_>"She is at her best 
F15 118 when things are going fast and you need quick 
F15 119 decisions."<quote/><p/>
F15 120 <p_>Perhaps no event defines Matalin's career better than the 1988 
F15 121 Michigan caucuses, when Bush nearly lost to Pat Robertson. 
F15 122 <quote_>"She stayed in Lansing for months,"<quote/> says Governor 
F15 123 John Engler. <quote_>"She was the link between Michigan and 
F15 124 Washington."<quote/> Michigan was also the unlikely beginning of 
F15 125 her deep friendship with Atwater - unlikely because Bond and 
F15 126 Atwater did not see eye-to-eye, and Matalin was Bond's deputy. 
F15 127 <quote_>"But Michigan turned into such a Beirut, Lee had to talk to 
F15 128 me,"<quote/> she recalls. <quote_>"We just clicked."<quote/><p/>
F15 129 <p_>In listening to Matalin, one develops a sense of how politics 
F15 130 works; that it isn't strictly about numbers and delegates but 
F15 131 loyalty, raillery - and something close to passion. In Atwater, 
F15 132 Matalin found her opposite and her mirror image. <quote_>"He was 
F15 133 this wacky, iconoclastic guy,"<quote/> she says. <quote_>"He loved 
F15 134 music and books... "<quote/> She pauses. <quote_>"I have never met, 
F15 135 and never will, a person who can crystalize human nature in a 
F15 136 phrase like he could."<quote/><p/>
F15 137 <p_>In Carville, another flamboyant Southerner, Matalin found 
F15 138 someone who spoke her language. Unfortunately, their bipartisan 
F15 139 romance - now on hold - provoked intense curiosity in the press. 
F15 140 Several articles suggested Matalin's involvement with Carville 
F15 141 posed a liability to the Bush campaign. <quote_>"It's demeaning 
F15 142 that the authors of these stories professed to be writing them 
F15 143 because they thought I was getting pressured [into cooling the 
F15 144 relationship], which was untrue,"<quote/> says Matalin hotly. 
F15 145 <quote_>"Yet they all cast me as a victimized female. And on a 
F15 146 personal level, it's nobody's damn business."<quote/><p/>
F15 147 <p_>In any event, she now has other things to worry about, not the 
F15 148 least of which is getting Bush re<?_>-<?/>elected. But if Matalins' 
F15 149 days extend into nights, if her pulse quickens on caffeine and 
F15 150 conflict, she has also begun to ponder what to do after the 
F15 151 campaign. <quote_>"I've only thought this: that it's time to think 
F15 152 about it,"<quote/> she says. <quote_>"About things I might have 
F15 153 considered sooner, like having kids and finding a real 
F15 154 man."<quote/> She dismisses the notion that her job is preparing 
F15 155 her for a new role in government. <quote_>"I know a lot of people 
F15 156 and I've got a gut. What does that prepare me for?"<quote/> she 
F15 157 asks. <quote_>"To have to wear panty<?_>-<?/>hose every day, put on 
F15 158 a dress, and set my hair..."<quote/> She laughs. <quote_>"That kind 
F15 159 of structure is too unproductive for me. My all-time favorite 
F15 160 position was my first field job, when I could sit at home in jeans, 
F15 161 smoke cigarettes, drink coffee, and just work the phone."<quote/> 
F15 162 Somehow, she is not entirely believable. <quote_>"Mary,"<quote/> 
F15 163 says Fernstrom, <quote_>"is prepared for anything."<quote/>
F15 164 
F15 165 <h_><p_>PICASSO'S STILL CENTER<p/>
F15 166 <p_>DOMESTIC PLEASURES FROM THE GREAT MASTER. A MAJOR EXHIBITION 
F15 167 REVEALS THE PAINTER'S MANY MOODS.<p/><h/>
F15 168 <p_>The cabbie driving me into Cleveland on a dank February 
F15 169 afternoon asked what I was in town for, and I said a show at the 
F15 170 Cleveland Museum of Art of Pablo Picasso's still lifes ('Picasso & 
F15 171 Things,' now at the Philadelphia Museum of Art through August and 
F15 172 to open at the Grand Palais in Paris in September). <quote_>"I 
F15 173 gotta see them!"<quote/> the cabbie said. <quote_>"Those are what 
F15 174 he did before he went crazy, right?"<quote/><p/>
F15 175 <p_>Everybody in the world knows Picasso, though some might get his 
F15 176 myth cross-wired with Vincent Van Gogh's and construe 'still life' 
F15 177 as a type of art that is precariously levelheaded. I relayed the 
F15 178 remark to Jean Sutherland Boggs, the exhibition's main curator and 
F15 179 the author of its majestic catalog. <quote_>"I hope you told him 
F15 180 Picasso was always crazy,"<quote/> she said, smiling. Yet another 
F15 181 cabbie during my three freezing days in Cleveland, which I spent 
F15 182 attending an international symposium convened for the occasion, 
F15 183 declared that he, too, would make a point of seeing the show. Why? 
F15 184 <quote_>"Picasso is part of history,"<quote/> he explained solemnly 
F15 185 as we drove through falling snow.<p/>
F15 186 <p_>Picasso! Right up there with the Statue of Liberty and the 
F15 187 Eiffel Tower as a monument and must-see. Picasso, the 20th 
F15 188 century's other mascot genius, with Albert Einstein. Picasso, 
F15 189 <quote_>"that great and proprietary Spaniard"<quote/> - as art 
F15 190 historian Robert Rosenblum termed him in his lecture - who could 
F15 191 seem to consume most of modern art's oxygen, leaving other artists 
F15 192 gasping. Picasso, the Zeus-like lady-killer whose love life 
F15 193 retrospectively remains as exciting to gossip about as that of any 
F15 194 current Hollywood rou<*_>e-acute<*/>. Picasso, the academic 
F15 195 industry summoning busy scholars to freezing Ohio.<p/>
F15 196 <p_>John Richardson was on hand. Friend of the artist and singular 
F15 197 scholar-raconteur, fresh from the triumph of the first volume of 
F15 198 his projected four-volume biography, <tf_>A Life of Picasso<tf/> 
F15 199 (Random House). Richardson begged off giving a lecture, but his 
F15 200 presence lent some stardust to the proceedings. Eager professors 
F15 201 queried him about volume two. It is roughly half done, Richardson 
F15 202 said wearily, plainly daunted by the life sentence this mammoth 
F15 203 work has become for him.<p/>
F15 204 <p_>In the symposium, one professor related Picasso's Surrealist 
F15 205 period to academic theorists' latest fashion, the apocalyptic sex 
F15 206 and death thematics of Georges Bataille, the late French author of 
F15 207 <tf_>Literature and Evil<tf/>. It was heavy sledding, as was 
F15 208 another scholar's strenuous attempt to impute radical political 
F15 209 content to the self<?_>-<?/>absorbed anarchism of Picasso in the 
F15 210 years leading to cubism. Academe is academe, equal to muffling the 
F15 211 liveliest material. In context, flamboyant philosopher Lydia 
F15 212 Gasman's ecstatic speculations were refreshing.<p/>
F15 213 <p_>Curator Boggs told a suddenly captivated audience that Picasso 
F15 214 loved to watch professional wrestling on television.<p/>
F15 215 <p_>The legacy of Picasso is so intimidatingly grand that many of 
F15 216 us enjoy making light of him when not subjecting him to high-handed 
F15 217 analysis - but then we are back looking at his work and the game is 
F15 218 up.
F15 219 
F15 220 
F16   1 <#FROWN:F16\><h_><p_>Coming Back To Religion:<p/>
F16   2 <p_>What It Can Add to Your Life<p/>
F16   3 <p_>BY DAN WAKEFIELD<p/><h/>
F16   4 <p_>I joined church the week I turned 50, after studiously avoiding 
F16   5 any connection with organized religion since my sophomore year at 
F16   6 Columbia University. I had been one of those intense collegiate 
F16   7 atheists, a proud 'convert' to existential angst, Freudian 
F16   8 salvation through psychoanalysis, and Hemingway's brand of macho 
F16   9 courage (aided by booze) in the face of despair. But all those 
F16  10 systems that saw me through youth and early middle age seemed to 
F16  11 collapse in a midlife crisis of physical, professional and 
F16  12 emotional strain.<p/>
F16  13 <p_>In the course of one year, both my parents died, my 
F16  14 relationship with a woman I had loved for seven years came to an 
F16  15 end, I left the television work I had been doing in Los Angeles, 
F16  16 moved out of my home and found myself broke for the first time in 
F16  17 my life. Faced with a top-10 list of life's greatest stresses, I 
F16  18 found myself muttering the 23rd Psalm: <quote_>"He leadeth me 
F16  19 beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul..."<quote/> Those 
F16  20 words spoke more to my condition as I neared my own half-century 
F16  21 mark than anything by Hemingway, Freud or Sartre.<p/>
F16  22 <p_>When I look back at the past decade, one of the most fulfilling 
F16  23 times of my life thus far, I cannot imagine it without the richness 
F16  24 that has flowed from my return to church. Many of us who, in youth, 
F16  25 drifted away from our spiritual roots - whether Christian, Jewish 
F16  26 or any other faith of our forebears - have found the homecoming 
F16  27 especially rewarding. Most people are comforted by the framework of 
F16  28 the faith in which they were raised; hymns, prayers or chants 
F16  29 return with reassuring familiarity. Those who plug into some new 
F16  30 and different system of shared spiritual values also may find that 
F16  31 they can add a powerful new dimension to their mature years.<p/>
F16  32 <p_>My first intimations of mortality arose in my doctor's office, 
F16  33 where I was advised to lose weight and cut down on drinking to slow 
F16  34 a racing pulse. This light brush with reality brought me face to 
F16  35 face with the big questions I hadn't thought about since college 
F16  36 philosophy classes and late<?_>-<?/>night bull sessions: <tf_>What 
F16  37 does it all mean? What am I here for?<tf/><p/>
F16  38 <p_>Although serious adult religious questing doesn't provide any 
F16  39 pat answers, it offers a context, a lens through which to look at 
F16  40 the mystery of the universe and our own infinitesimal part in it. I 
F16  41 began to view the stories and poetry of the Bible - like the psalm 
F16  42 I instinctively turned to in time of crisis - as a legacy that has 
F16  43 been passed down through thousands of years, speaking in language 
F16  44 that still addresses the deepest issues of the heart and soul.<p/>
F16  45 <p_>Looking anew at the oldest questions of existence can be an 
F16  46 invigorating and surprising experience. Religious concepts that 
F16  47 once seemed naive or irrelevant to the latest fashion in social 
F16  48 behavior may, with the hard-won wisdom of a half-century of 
F16  49 experience, suddenly strike one as remarkably helpful.<p/>
F16  50 <p_>As I started to study familiar and unfamiliar psalms, I found 
F16  51 that these ancient cries of anguish, triumph, love and loss echoed 
F16  52 my own experience, helping to heal my unresolved pain. Lines from 
F16  53 the 139th Psalm made me feel that even in direst despair, a guiding 
F16  54 force was with me; that God is as much in the pain as in the joy of 
F16  55 life and is with us in the dark as well as the bright times: 
F16  56 <quote_>"Wither shall I go from thy Spirit? or whither shall I flee 
F16  57 from thy presence? ... The darkness and the light are both alike to 
F16  58 thee."<quote/> As I reflected on the most turbulent years of my 
F16  59 life, that psalm calmed my memory, bringing peace and closure.<p/>
F16  60 <p_>My search grew deeper on a weekend retreat, when other 
F16  61 parishioners and I contemplated those dark nights of the soul. A 
F16  62 man my age who had also returned to church after a midlife crisis 
F16  63 wrote in one of our exercises: <quote_>"I celebrate the darkness in 
F16  64 which I grope."<quote/> He wondered if perhaps it is only in the 
F16  65 darkness that <quote_>"we discover our true selves, because we are 
F16  66 too distracted in the light."<quote/> His insight broadened my own 
F16  67 perspective, and I felt a camaraderie greater than <quote_>"man to 
F16  68 man,"<quote/> of humans in a common quest for spiritual meaning.<p/>
F16  69 <p_>Prayer and contemplation in maturity can bring a sense of 
F16  70 harmony and connection with the natural world. After a class in 
F16  71 'spiritual direction,' I followed what seemed a simple, 
F16  72 child<?_>-<?/>like exercise: sitting down to look at a tree for 20 
F16  73 minutes, considering why God created such a thing. I felt I 
F16  74 actually <tf|>saw the tree for the first time, not as mere 
F16  75 background to my own personal soap opera but as an intricate, 
F16  76 miraculous creation. Returning to the same spot, I mediated on 
F16  77 grass, trees, flowers, insects, birds - the whole amazing web of 
F16  78 life around me - and experienced a deep and satisfying sense of 
F16  79 belonging to nature.<p/>
F16  80 <p_>Prayer often leads to action, in community service that is not 
F16  81 just perfunctory volunteerism but a vibrant opportunity to live 
F16  82 one's faith. When a friend in church remembered that I used to make 
F16  83 chili for small neighborhood gatherings, she asked me to prepare it 
F16  84 for 40 people at a congregation supper. (<quote_>"All you have to 
F16  85 do is quadruple the recipe,"<quote/> she assured me.) The day I 
F16  86 shed onion tears and chopped tomatoes in the kitchen of the parish 
F16  87 house, a special sense of community permeated my flesh and bones as 
F16  88 well as my heart and mind.<p/>
F16  89 <p_>When I went with other church members to serve dinner at a 
F16  90 local homeless shelter, I was humbled by the realization that the 
F16  91 people who held out their plates were the same as me - it was only 
F16  92 a trick of fate that put me that night on the other side of the 
F16  93 table. Performing this small service, I viewed the dispensing and 
F16  94 sharing of food with those who needed it as a true expression of 
F16  95 communion.<p/>
F16  96 <p_>My belated spiritual journey has not consisted of lightning 
F16  97 flashes and thunderous voices from above but of the gradual, quiet 
F16  98 'turning' that comes with small steps. Accustomed to looking at 
F16  99 success in terms of bigness and high book sales, I was disappointed 
F16 100 when I turned up one rainy night for Bible study and found only our 
F16 101 seminarian and one other parishioner present. Then the words came 
F16 102 to mind, <quote_>"Where two or three are gathered together in my 
F16 103 name, there am I in the midst of them."<quote/> I smiled and 
F16 104 relaxed, enjoying an aura of warmth and light, made more precious 
F16 105 by the wind and rain outside. I was learning a serenity far removed 
F16 106 from the racing<?_>-<?/>pulse days of my late midlife crisis.<p/>
F16 107 <p_>I've found that the real fruits of the spirit tend to multiply 
F16 108 as the receiver passes them on. After taking a class in religious 
F16 109 autobiography, I designed a similar workshop that I now lead at 
F16 110 adult-education centers and churches across the country. In so 
F16 111 doing, I am learning the stories of other people revitalized by 
F16 112 their own spiritual quests.<p/>
F16 113 <p_>In a Seattle workshop, for example, Helen Stout wrote on the 
F16 114 eve of her 79th birthday, <quote_>"My paintings grow smaller, my 
F16 115 dance steps slower, my words more and faster, my thoughts and 
F16 116 dreams richer."<quote/><p/>
F16 117 <p_>Dennis Dahill, who worked for a bank in Boston, described 
F16 118 feeling impatient at first when he went on a spiritual retreat and 
F16 119 was asked to recollect how God had worked in and through his life. 
F16 120 He eventually began to see patterns, and <quote_>"by the second 
F16 121 night, as I lay on my bed, a great comfort and peace came over me. 
F16 122 I hadn't gone to sleep that easily in months."<quote/> Reflection 
F16 123 and spiritual guidance had led him to affirmation and 
F16 124 appreciation.<p/>
F16 125 <p_>When I went back to church I was delighted to see people I 
F16 126 knew, neighbors and friendly acquaintances who I hadn't realized 
F16 127 followed any religious belief or practice. They weren't 
F16 128 proselytizers and so hadn't mentioned their involvement to me 
F16 129 (someone who had expressed no interest or even had showed hostility 
F16 130 toward religion). Now, whether I was among old or new friends, I 
F16 131 felt an unspoken bond with men and women I joined in prayer. We 
F16 132 gathered to worship (or simply to seek) God, to tune in to some 
F16 133 force greater than our own egos. The word 'amen' not only signified 
F16 134 the end of a prayer but also sealed a mutual understanding among 
F16 135 those who uttered it, a common acknowledgment of our own frailty 
F16 136 and our desire to look beyond ourselves for guidance and 
F16 137 sustenance.<p/>
F16 138 <p_>Tolstoy turned to religious in his later years: After becoming 
F16 139 the greatest novelist in Russia, he was left with the feeling 
F16 140 <quote_>"So what?"<quote/> The rewards of a lifetime's work did not 
F16 141 fill his spiritual yearning, the human hunger for that elusive 
F16 142 something <tf_>more, other, beyond<tf/>. That interior gap, often 
F16 143 covered over in the rush and clamor of the middle years, becomes 
F16 144 achingly apparent when the bustle of career and family raising is 
F16 145 over. Reflection suddenly becomes unavoidable.<p/>
F16 146 <p_><tf|>Thirst is what I felt when I finally sought the religious 
F16 147 experience I'd avoided for so many years. This was slaked by Sunday 
F16 148 worship services, classes, discussions and Bible study offered at 
F16 149 the parish house during the week. <quote_>"I'm as eager to come to 
F16 150 these programs as I would have been twenty years ago if you were 
F16 151 throwing a series of free martini parties!"<quote/> I wrote in a 
F16 152 note of thanks to the minister. (People like myself who once drank 
F16 153 to excess find that engaging in a spiritual search helps satisfy a 
F16 154 need we may have once blotted out with booze.)<p/>
F16 155 <p_>An editor friend who heard I'd gone back to church once told 
F16 156 me, with the unconscious condescension that men in their 30s 
F16 157 sometimes display for people past 50, <quote_>"I can see why 
F16 158 someone of <tf|>your age would get interested in religion."<quote/> 
F16 159 But he didn't see at all. He thought I was preparing for death and 
F16 160 hoping to get in good with God.<p/>
F16 161 <p_>What I really sought and found through religion was not a 
F16 162 comfortable accommodation with death but a larger vision of life, a 
F16 163 fuller participation in it. Rather than lulling us with some misty 
F16 164 notion of the hereafter, religion can give us a greater engagement 
F16 165 with the challenges of living.<p/>
F16 166 <p_>In the ripeness of age, the spirit can bloom.<p/>
F16 167 
F16 168 <h_><p_>Ladies and Gentlemen:<p/>
F16 169 <p_>Gray is beautiful ...<p/>
F16 170 <p_>BY LINDA BURNHAM<p/><h/>
F16 171 <p_>What is gray hair, anyway? As drab a prospect as the paint job 
F16 172 on a battleship? Not at all. The mix of white with your original 
F16 173 color is as individual and provocative as ever, so long as you 
F16 174 avoid those gray clich<*_>e-acute<*/>s and style it with 
F16 175 expression.<p/>
F16 176 <h_><p_>MODERNIZING YOUR HAIRCUT<p/><h/>
F16 177 <p_>Women and their hairstylists used to equate gray hair with 
F16 178 short hair. They also opted for permanents to control 'frizziness' 
F16 179 or to 'fluff up' baby-fine hair. The sad result was that too many 
F16 180 women looked too much alike, and most looked older than their 
F16 181 years.<p/>
F16 182 <p_>But as more women choose to show their graying hair, new 
F16 183 attitudes toward style and cut have emerged. For example, not 
F16 184 everyone's hair texture changes, and even when it does, the 
F16 185 newfound body or silkiness can allow for new hairstyles.<p/>
F16 186 <p_>For frizziness, stylist Carmine Minardi advises <quote_>"the 
F16 187 least layering possible."<quote/> He adds, <quote_>"A lot of women 
F16 188 past sixty believe that their hair should be brushed upward, but 
F16 189 exposing the hairline, ears and nape of the neck is not always the 
F16 190 best thing to do."<quote/> Minardi likes to see gray hair chin 
F16 191 length or longer, depending on your height: Women taller than 5 
F16 192 feet 5 inches look good with hair an inch past the shoulder, cut 
F16 193 bluntly and set into waves for special occasions, he believes.<p/>
F16 194 <p_>Another nontraditional suggestion is bangs. <quote_>"They bring 
F16 195 focus to the eyes, which only get more interesting with 
F16 196 age,"<quote/> says Minardi. <quote_>"Just be sure the bangs are 
F16 197 soft and wispy, and long enough to be brushed to one side. The 
F16 198 mistake with bangs is cutting them too short, <*_>a-grave<*/> la 
F16 199 Mamie Eisenhower, or too straight, like Prince Valiant."<quote/><p/>
F16 200 
F16 201 
F17   1 <#FROWN:F17\><h_><p_>TRAVELER'S JOURNAL<p/>
F17   2 <p_>Carpe Your Diem In Harvard Square<p/>
F17   3 <p_>Here's a visitor's guide to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where 
F17   4 seldom is heard a politically incorrect word, and the zeitgeist is 
F17   5 not cloudy all day.<p/>
F17   6 <p_>by Patricia Harris and David Lyon<p/><h/>
F17   7 <p_>LIKE PUBLIC Television, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is a 
F17   8 cross<?_>-<?/>roads of high culture and counterculture. Situated in 
F17   9 the upper lefthand corner of the American imagination near 
F17  10 Greenwich Village and the Land of Oz, it's easy to find. Just make 
F17  11 a left at every fork in the road. Or take the Red Line to Harvard 
F17  12 Square.<p/>
F17  13 <p_>When most people speak of Cambridge, Harvard Square is what 
F17  14 they mean. The 40-acre tract adjacent to the brick-and-ivy halls of 
F17  15 Harvard College is the urban counterpart of a tropical rainforest - 
F17  16 an ecosystem of unparalleled diversity. Every esoteric life-form - 
F17  17 and life-style - flourishes here. The sidewalks bustle with a 
F17  18 peculiar mix of patrician and plebeian, professor and panhandler. 
F17  19 The scene is American Fellini played out on a human-scale stage.<p/>
F17  20 <p_>But the Square is more than mere milieu. It's a habit of mind 
F17  21 that out<?_>-<?/>siders, frankly, find a little askew. This is 
F17  22 where cult movies begin, where restaurants refer to serving staff 
F17  23 as 'waitrons,' where volunteers seek petition signatures for 
F17  24 fifth-party candidates, where light poles are papered with lecture 
F17  25 announcements such as 'Deconstruction: Has It Fallen Apart?' Street 
F17  26 singers out<?_>-<?/>number boomboxes and people don't fight - they 
F17  27 challenge each other to chess duels. Eccentric as the city may 
F17  28 seem, it's open to converts - or even to day<?_>-<?/>trippers 
F17  29 sampling the local zeitgeist. The guiding ethic is that anything 
F17  30 worth doing is worth overdoing. Here's how to experience the 
F17  31 quintessential Cambridge:<p/>
F17  32 <h_><p_>HOOF IT<p/><h/>
F17  33 <p_>A DIORAMA OF THE Square in 1936 at Harvard's Widener Library 
F17  34 depicts a traffic jam; some of those cars still haven't budged. 
F17  35 Pedestrians own the streets, but first-time visitors should cross 
F17  36 against the walk light or dance through the traffic at midblock 
F17  37 only in the company of an experienced local.<p/>
F17  38 <p_>The Square was built for walkers, and if the crusading 
F17  39 conservationists of the Harvard Square Defense Fund prevail, it 
F17  40 will always be so. Says president Gladys 'Pebble' Gifford, 
F17  41 <quote_>"Pedestrian life makes Harvard Square tick."<quote/> The 
F17  42 fund fights for small-scale buildings, open patches of greenery, 
F17  43 and <quote_>"sidewalk treatments"<quote/> that encourage people to 
F17  44 <quote_>"gather and interact."<quote/> The architectural canyons of 
F17  45 down<?_>-<?/>town Boston are Gifford's worst nightmare: <quote_>"If 
F17  46 you don't have sunlight, people stay away."<quote/><p/>
F17  47 <p_>The information booth at the mouth of the subway supplies maps 
F17  48 and tickets for walking tours.<p/>
F17  49 <h_><p_>IGNORE HISTORY<p/><h/>
F17  50 <p_>IN CAMBIDGE WHAT'S past is prologue. Sure, George Washington 
F17  51 slept here - when he took command of the Continental Army and 
F17  52 forced the British to evacuate Boston. He worshiped at Christ 
F17  53 Church, the modest Episcopal structure across from the Cambridge 
F17  54 Common. His headquarters was a confiscated Tory house, later owned 
F17  55 by the Good Gray Poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The Longfellow 
F17  56 House (105 Brattle St.; $2 per person; 617-876-4491) offers an 
F17  57 out<?_>-<?/>standing interpretive tour.<p/>
F17  58 <p_>Harvard, too, has its Byzantine history (free guided tours 
F17  59 depart from Holyoke Center). Cambridge was the birthplace of the 
F17  60 player piano, and the first phone call over a distance was made 
F17  61 between Cambridge and Boston. But that was then, and this is now. 
F17  62 Carpe diem.<p/>
F17  63 <h_><p_>HIT THE BOOKS<p/><h/>
F17  64 <p_>THE 100,000 Discounted titles at WordsWorth Books (30 Brattle 
F17  65 St.) constitute a bibliophile's paradise with a checkout line - and 
F17  66 WordsWorth is only one of six large, full-service 
F17  67 book<?_>-<?/>stores in the Square. Given that dedication to the 
F17  68 life of the mind is de rigueur, as many as 17 other specialty book 
F17  69 dealers also thrive - often tucked away on side streets or upper 
F17  70 levels.<p/>
F17  71 <p_>At the Grolier Poetry Book Shop (6 Plympton St.), Louisa Solano 
F17  72 wedges 15,000 titles into a store the size of a front parlor. 
F17  73 Around the corner, Herb Hillman of Pangloss (65 Mount Auburn St.) 
F17  74 has supplied Cambridge academics with used and out-of-print books 
F17  75 since 1957. <quote_>"Sooner or later every scholar in the world 
F17  76 worth his salt"<quote/> comes to the Square, Hillman says. Science 
F17  77 fiction, horror, and fantasy are specialties at Pandemonium (8 JFK 
F17  78 St.), where Tyler Stewart subdivides the shelves because 
F17  79 <quote_>"You know, some people are into werewolves and others like 
F17  80 vampires."<quote/> Schoenhof's Foreign Books (76-A Mount Auburn 
F17  81 St.) services more worldly aliens with reading materials in 160 
F17  82 languages.<p/>
F17  83 <h_><p_>CONNECT WITH THE WORLD<p/><h/>
F17  84 <p_>THE NEWS OF THE planet spills into the Out of Town News kiosk 
F17  85 in the center of Harvard Square: newspapers from 150 foreign 
F17  86 countries, nearly 200 from around North America. Out of Town is the 
F17  87 spot for <tf|>Pravda and Mexican <tf|>Vogue. The diminished Iron 
F17  88 Curtain has meant a flood of Eastern European journals too.<p/>
F17  89 <h_><p_>LINGER OVER A CAFFE<p/><h/>
F17  90 <p_>THE UNASSUMING Coffee Connection in the Garage mall between JFK 
F17  91 and Dunster streets may serve the best cup of coffee, but the true 
F17  92 Cambridge caffeine scene is Eurostyle: Caf<*_>e-acute<*/> Pamplona 
F17  93 (12 Bow St.), Caffe Paradiso (1 Eliot Sq.), Patisserie 
F17  94 Fran<*_>c-cedile<*/>aise (54 JFK St.), Caf<*_>e-acute<*/> Fiorella 
F17  95 (50 Church St.), and the Algiers Coffee House and Blacksmith House 
F17  96 Bakery and Caf<*_>e-acute<*/> (40 and 56 Brattle St., 
F17  97 respectively). At press time, those in the know were choosing caffe 
F17  98 latte and espresso over cappuccino.<p/>
F17  99 <p_>The Blacksmith House takes its name from Longfellow's 
F17 100 'under-the-spreading-chestnut-tree' poem, but the pastry is pure 
F17 101 Viennese. Au Bon Pain (Holyoke Plaza) is the closest thing to 
F17 102 golden arches permitted by the Square's restrictive zoning. The 
F17 103 out<?_>-<?/>door scene varies from a bustle of local 'types' to a 
F17 104 sometimes-abrasive tableau of hustlers and punk pretenders. For $2, 
F17 105 chessmaster Murray Turnbull will play anyone who can muster enough 
F17 106 concentration amid the commotion.<p/>
F17 107 <h_><p_>CHOW DOWN OR DINE FINE<p/><h/>
F17 108 <p_>Harvard Square eateries outnumber bookstores four to one and 
F17 109 exhibit the multinational range of Out of Town News. Some, like the 
F17 110 Wursthaus (4 JFK St.; 617-491-7110), are Cambridge institutions. 
F17 111 For a moderate meal, try the specialty pizzas at Bertucci's (21 
F17 112 Brattle St.; 617-864-4748) or the excellent burgers from the 
F17 113 Casablanca and Harvest Bar menus.<p/>
F17 114 <p_>Tablecloth dining is a better choice. College parents treat 
F17 115 their offspring to continental cuisine at Peacock (5 Craigie 
F17 116 Circle; 617-661-4073), while hungry poets favor the hearty Iberian 
F17 117 fare of Iru<*_>n-tilde<*/>a (56 JFK, rear; 617-868-5633).<p/>
F17 118 <p_>The top dining rooms - Upstairs at the Pudding (10 Holyoke St.; 
F17 119 617-864-1933) and Rarities (at the Charles Hotel; 617-864-1200, 
F17 120 x1214) - are worth a splurge. Both are inventive proponents of New 
F17 121 American cuisine. Rarities is elegant and modern, Upstairs at the 
F17 122 Pudding often has a homey fire. The Pudding permits early diners to 
F17 123 assemble a light meal of appetizer, dessert, and glass of wine.<p/>
F17 124 <h_><p_>CHOOSE SIDES IN THE ICE CREAM WAR<p/><h/>
F17 125 <p_>HE OPENED HIS FIRST store in neighboring blue-collar Somerville 
F17 126 almost 20 years ago, but Steve Herrell remains the guru of 
F17 127 homemade<?_>-<?/>style ice cream. His name is separated in the 
F17 128 Square because he sold his company (Steve's, 31 Church St.) and got 
F17 129 out of the business for a few years, only to rejoin the industry 
F17 130 under his surname (Herrell's, 15 Dunster St.). Try both. 
F17 131 Cantabrigians debate ice cream the way Burgundians discuss wine.<p/>
F17 132 <h_><p_>POWER TO THE PEOPLE<p/><h/>
F17 133 <p_>PROGRESSIVE POLITICS is central to Cambridge's identity, 
F17 134 although Republican governor William Weld does reside near Brattle 
F17 135 Street. The city has one of the toughest smoking regulations 
F17 136 anywhere (if in doubt, don't light up) and requires bars and 
F17 137 restaurants to furnish condom machines in all rest rooms to slow 
F17 138 the spread of AIDS.<p/>
F17 139 <p_>The city has a paid Peace Officer and offers sanctuary to 
F17 140 political refugees. Although visitors can't vote on the numerous 
F17 141 local referenda, they can sign petitions to support political, 
F17 142 social, environmental, or animal rights. Just look for the earnest 
F17 143 people with clipboards.<p/>
F17 144 <h_><p_>PUT A BUCK IN THE HAT<p/><h/>
F17 145 <p_>CAMBRIDGE IS <quote_>"ONE OF the five best cities in the world 
F17 146 for street performers,"<quote/> says Stephen Baird, political 
F17 147 puppeteer, musician, and founder/director of the international 
F17 148 Street Artist Guild - a task he calls <quote_>"organizing 
F17 149 anarchists."<quote/> The street scene really catches fire on warm 
F17 150 summer nights, but some stalwart entertainers ply their trade in 
F17 151 colder seasons as well. Singing in the Square is such a venerable 
F17 152 tradition that in 1990, the city council passed a resolution 
F17 153 honoring street performers - and an ordinance limiting their volume 
F17 154 to 80 decibels.<p/>
F17 155 <p_>The best spots are staked out early by performers from around 
F17 156 the globe, ranging from a Haitian tenor performing Piaf to an 
F17 157 Ecuadoran troupe with panpipes and armadillo<?_>-<?/>shell 
F17 158 mandolins. Tracy Chapman, Joan Baez, and Bonnie Raitt are all 
F17 159 alleged to have started their careers here. Among the more colorful 
F17 160 characters is Brother Blue, an erstwhile doctor of education who is 
F17 161 the Official Storyteller of Cambridge and Boston.<p/>
F17 162 <h_><p_>HAVE A SERIOUS NIGHT OUT<p/><h/>
F17 163 <p_>STREET SINGERS Sometimes come in from the cold to play Passim 
F17 164 (47 Palmer St.; 617-492-7679), a relic of the 1960s folk revival 
F17 165 and a top stop on the current acoustic music circuit. Old-timers 
F17 166 may recollect hearing an unknown Bob Dylan here, but take it with a 
F17 167 grain of sea salt.<p/>
F17 168 <p_>Other evening entertainment leans toward the highbrow. The 
F17 169 American Repertory Theater (64 Brattle St.; 617-547-8300) is an 
F17 170 avant-garde theater of international repute. Love it or hate it - 
F17 171 but argue passionately. Regattabar in the Charles Hotel (1 Bennett 
F17 172 St.; 617-661-5000/846-1200) is one of the top jazz rooms in the 
F17 173 Northeast, booking both classic club acts and up-and-coming 
F17 174 artists. The music, like ART's plays, requires focused attention. 
F17 175 Film buffs can analyze the stylistic flourishes of bygone directors 
F17 176 at the Brattle Theater (40 Brattle St.; 617-876-6837). Once a 
F17 177 performing stage for Hollywood and Broadway blacklistees, the 
F17 178 Brattle is a fine repertory film house and serves real butter on 
F17 179 the popcorn. The Bogart revival began here.<p/>
F17 180 <h_><p_>SEE AND BE SEEN<p/><h/>
F17 181 <p_>THE BAR AT Casablanca (below the Brattle Theater; 617-876-0999) 
F17 182 features murals of the movie scenes and is the place to spot local 
F17 183 celebs. Play the Cambridge version of naming the faces on the Sgt. 
F17 184 Pepper album jacket - the best<?_>-<?/>selling lawyer, the 
F17 185 detective novelist, the not-quite-famous actor, the Nobel laureate. 
F17 186 Look for the literati a few doors down at the Harvest Bar (44 
F17 187 Brattle St.; 617-492-1119).<p/>
F17 188 <h_><p_>SAMPLE THE TREASURES<p/><h/>
F17 189 <p_>HARVARD'S MUSEUMS are as varied as the university's 
F17 190 scholarship, and not even Cantabrigians try to see them all at 
F17 191 once. The glass flowers at the Museum of Comparative Biology (26 
F17 192 Oxford St.; 617-495-2248) are perennial favorites of visiting 
F17 193 great-aunts. These botanical teaching models represent the zenith 
F17 194 of the glassblower's art. Recent makeovers have thrust two other 
F17 195 museums into the spotlight. The Hall of the American Indian in the 
F17 196 Peabody Museum (down<?_>-<?/>stairs from the flowers) has been 
F17 197 renovated along politically correct, post-<tf_>Dances with 
F17 198 Wolves<tf/> lines.<p/>
F17 199 <p_>The Busch-Reisinger Museum's striking German Expressionist 
F17 200 artworks have a new home in Werner Otto Hall, which is grafted onto 
F17 201 Harvard's main art museum, the Fogg (32 Quincy St.; 617-495-9400). 
F17 202 Enter from above the Fogg's ever-impressive Italian Renaissance 
F17 203 courtyard. The Sackler Museum (485 Broadway; 617-495-9400) houses 
F17 204 Harvard's Classical and Asian art. It's isolated across Broadway 
F17 205 from the Fogg because Cambridge neighborhood groups blocked 
F17 206 construction of a connecting bridge. One ticket gains entry to all 
F17 207 the natural history museums, another to the art museums. All are 
F17 208 free on Saturday mornings; the natural history museums from 9:00 to 
F17 209 11:00; art from 10:00 to noon.<p/>
F17 210 <h_><p_>BED DOWN IN STYLE<p/><h/>
F17 211 <p_>GENERATIONS OF Parents visiting their Harvard and Radcliffe 
F17 212 progeny have favored the Sheraton Commander (16 Garden St.; 
F17 213 617-547-4800). But the overstuffed New England comforts of the 
F17 214 Commander gained a sleek and modern competitor in 1985 - the 
F17 215 Charles Hotel (1 Bennett St.; 617-864-1200). Last October saw the 
F17 216 debut of the Inn at Harvard (1201 Massachusetts Ave.; 
F17 217 617-491-2222), a small inn with rooms ringing an airy central 
F17 218 atrium. Windows in 25 of the rooms look down Mass. Ave. to the 
F17 219 Square. With the room key comes a venerable Harvard privilege: 
F17 220 Masquerade in rumpled tweeds and dine across the street at the 
F17 221 Harvard Faculty Club.<p/>
F17 222 
F17 223 <h_><p_>THE LONGEST-RUNNING STORY IN BOSTON<p/>
F17 224 <p_>This month, at the age of 84, Johnny Kelley will run in the 
F17 225 Boston Marathon for the 61st time.<p/>
F17 226 <p_>by Todd Balf<p/><h/>
F17 227 <p_>I WAS AFRAID OF THIS. I LOOK at Johnny Kelley, in pink togs and 
F17 228 candy-cane tights, and he beams the charged look of a boy. It isn't 
F17 229 at all hard to imagine the Irish youngster from Watertown whose 
F17 230 mother always said he'd rather run than eat.
F17 231 
F17 232 
F18   1 <#FROWN:F18\><h_><p_>FILM, RECEPTION, AND CULTURAL STUDIES<p/>
F18   2 <p_>By Janet Staiger<p/><h/>
F18   3 <p_>ON THE AGENDA for understanding film or television as culture 
F18   4 is addressing the question of how spectators and social audiences 
F18   5 comprehend, respond to, and interpret cultural texts and events. As 
F18   6 has been pointed out in reception aesthetics or reader-response 
F18   7 theorizing (prevalent in literary studies), textual analysis is all 
F18   8 fine and good but people are not always versed in the subtleties of 
F18   9 unraveling ironies, finding latent pre-oedipal narrative 
F18  10 structures, or deconstructing fallacious binary oppositions which 
F18  11 structure propositions. People do not always read cultural texts 
F18  12 the way scholars do; audiences are not ideal readers. But for 
F18  13 understanding society and the effects of popular culture, knowing 
F18  14 how people read culture can be extremely important.<p/>
F18  15 <p_>One approach to considering how people actually read texts has 
F18  16 been the work of the British Cultural Studies scholars. As I shall 
F18  17 suggest, I find the ideas of these individuals extremely valuable. 
F18  18 However, I also will argue that certain of their assumptions have 
F18  19 inhibited the breadth of observations they might make. Instead, I 
F18  20 think that a revised historical materialist approach to reception 
F18  21 research can provide richer information, and perhaps some answers, 
F18  22 to understanding how people think and feel when they confront 
F18  23 cultural productions. Such an approach has at least the following 
F18  24 features: (1) Immanent meaning in a text is denied. (2) 'Free 
F18  25 readers' do not exist. (3) Contexts of social formations and 
F18  26 constructed identities of the self in relation to historical 
F18  27 conditions explain the interpretive strategies and affective 
F18  28 responses of readers. In this model, interpretations need to be 
F18  29 related to specific historical conditions rather than essentialized 
F18  30 (e.g., labeled conservative or progressive). (4) The means for 
F18  31 analyzing these interpretative strategies exist in 
F18  32 post-structuralist, feminist, and ideological analysis.<p/>
F18  33 <p_>Although much variance exists among the people associated with 
F18  34 British cultural studies research, in general these writers 
F18  35 emphasize that interpretations and uses of texts connect to 
F18  36 ideologies and cultural, social, and political power. Theories of 
F18  37 communication and cultural discourses are numerous. Some scholars 
F18  38 assume communication is neutral - the transmittal of messages which 
F18  39 may or may not hold ideological content (often called the 
F18  40 'transportation' model). Such a position is expressed in one strand 
F18  41 of communication theory deriving from the work of Paul Lazersfeld, 
F18  42 Kurt Lewin, Harold Lasswell, Carl Hovland, and Wilbur Schramm. This 
F18  43 model also occurs when formalist aesthetics separates form and 
F18  44 content.<p/>
F18  45 <p_>Other scholars of communication and culture such as James Carey 
F18  46 take the position that communication is a social or cultural 
F18  47 ritual, <quote_>"a sharing, participation, association, 
F18  48 fellowship."<quote/> Horace Newcomb and Paul Hirsch extend and 
F18  49 revise that notion by conceptualizing commercial broadcast 
F18  50 television as a <quote_>"cultural forum"<quote/> which provides 
F18  51 individuals not merely information but also a process for 
F18  52 <quote_>"understanding who and what we are."<quote/><p/>
F18  53 <p_>Yet other theorists such as Lev Vygotsky and V. N. Volosinov 
F18  54 assume that communication is a tool. Like other means of 
F18  55 production, communication is produced by and for its users: 
F18  56 communication transforms reality for the benefit of human beings. 
F18  57 But as with other means of production, not everyone has equal 
F18  58 access to technology; thus, communication can function as a tool of 
F18  59 domination. Signs and their signifieds are not neutral but sites of 
F18  60 power. Representations are developed in social circumstances and 
F18  61 bear the ideological marks of the class or group that controls 
F18  62 meanings. This obviously has tremendous leverage in organizing 
F18  63 social existence for people. Thus, as Volosinov writes: the sign 
F18  64 <quote_>"becomes an arena of the class struggle."<quote/> 
F18  65 Controlling representations and meanings is as much a part of the 
F18  66 fight for equity as any political battle.<p/>
F18  67 <p_>This notion of communication as a tool does not imply a 
F18  68 functionalist theory of society, assuming a drift toward 
F18  69 equilibrium within a social formation. Instead it posits a Marxist 
F18  70 thesis that social orders are structured in contradictions and 
F18  71 overdetermination. Nor, however, does this model assume 
F18  72 conspiratorial repression by the dominant class; indeed, 
F18  73 communication systems may function so well for the dominant class 
F18  74 that hegemony often exists. Yet as advocates of this understanding 
F18  75 of language caution: the very 'common sense' or 'naturalness' of 
F18  76 discourses of meanings is a strong indicator of power at work. It 
F18  77 is this theory of communication and cultural discourses which I 
F18  78 shall consider to be held by those individuals working in British 
F18  79 cultural studies. In this essay, then, I shall be arguing against 
F18  80 the positivism of some of their cultural studies research and for a 
F18  81 contextual approach to understanding reception. While I believe 
F18  82 that the British cultural studies scholars offer important gains in 
F18  83 considering how audiences interpret cultural products, we need to 
F18  84 recognize that history creates the audiences as well as the texts 
F18  85 and both texts and readers need to be investigated in context.<p/>
F18  86 <p_>British cultural studies is a particular version of Marxism 
F18  87 developed through debates, mainly in Britain, from the mid-1950s. 
F18  88 Several histories exist, detailing a sequence of theoretical 
F18  89 problematics from orthodox Marxism through culturalist Marxism 
F18  90 (including the work of Raymond Williams and E. P. Thompson) and 
F18  91 structuralist Marxism (particularly Louis Althusser) to what 
F18  92 Richard Johnson calls <quote|>"ideological-cultural" Marxism - a 
F18  93 label that never stuck. This problematic<&|>sic! is, though, a 
F18  94 combination of aspects of cultural and structural Marxism as 
F18  95 proposed by scholars at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural 
F18  96 Studies at the University of Birmingham. People associated with the 
F18  97 Centre's work include Johnson, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and John 
F18  98 Hartley. I shall also discuss the work of Charlotte Brundson, David 
F18  99 Morley, and John Fiske as having connections to these views. As is 
F18 100 common among scholars, much disagreement exists within the 
F18 101 propositions forwarded by the various people. However, several 
F18 102 general tenets have gained considerable following, and while many 
F18 103 members of the original group now work apart, the standard phrase 
F18 104 British cultural studies continues to describe the common aspects 
F18 105 of the work. I would underline that other Marxist theories of 
F18 106 cultures and their study also exist as well as non-Marxist cultural 
F18 107 studies.<p/>
F18 108 <p_>Generally, British cultural studies accept the advances of 
F18 109 structuralist Marxism as most notably proposed in Louis Althusser's 
F18 110 essay, 'Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses' (and in other 
F18 111 similar ways by other Marxists). Base and superstructure are 
F18 112 theorized as distinct concepts, with elements of the superstructure 
F18 113 having potential effect but also <quote_>"relative 
F18 114 autonomy"<quote/> from other determinants. In capitalism (and 
F18 115 perhaps other modes of production), the economic aspects of a 
F18 116 social formation <quote_>"in the last instance"<quote/> are causal, 
F18 117 but economic structures are not sufficient to explain many specific 
F18 118 features of a social formation. For one thing, development is 
F18 119 uneven. Because the economic base (the mode of production) is 
F18 120 contradictory, superstructural features display that history moves 
F18 121 through class struggle. Althusser splits the superstructural 
F18 122 features into two groups. Repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) 
F18 123 include the government, armies, police, courts, prisons. RSAs 
F18 124 function primarily on behalf of the dominant class and often 
F18 125 through violence or repression; they are public and generally 
F18 126 overdetermined in an effort to repress change disadvantageous to 
F18 127 the dominant class. Ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) are all 
F18 128 sorts of other institutions and groups such as religions, 
F18 129 educational systems, families, political parties, and communication 
F18 130 and cultural media. ISAs are plural and function primarily by 
F18 131 ideology. Consequently, contradictions and overdeterminations 
F18 132 proliferate among the competing discourses, with all classes 
F18 133 struggling through the ISAs. Ideology is defined relationally and 
F18 134 materially: it <quote_>"represents the imaginary relationship of 
F18 135 individuals to their real conditions of existence"<quote/> (162). 
F18 136 Ideology exists in the RSAs and ISAs; it exists in practices. The 
F18 137 structured relations invite or <quote|>"interpellate" an individual 
F18 138 to take up a position as a <quote|>"subject" in that imaginary 
F18 139 relationship: positions of occupation, social status, gender - 
F18 140 whatever constructed but imaginary sense of the self that is useful 
F18 141 for the reproduction of the mode of production and the maintenance 
F18 142 of the dominant class. This imaginary subject position has, 
F18 143 however, very real consequences for individuals.<p/>
F18 144 <p_>Interpellation is a tricky notion, often defined as 
F18 145 <quote|>"hailing" the individual, calling out for the individual to 
F18 146 recognize him or herself as being the subject who belongs in a 
F18 147 role. For example, reverently singing 'The Star-Spangled Banner' is 
F18 148 taking up the ideological position of the nationality of being a 
F18 149 United States citizen. The song has interpellated, hailed its 
F18 150 subject to position him or herself into that constructed and, 
F18 151 hence, imaginary identity. Such an interpellation, however, may 
F18 152 produce an extremely contradictory condition for an individual who 
F18 153 is, of course, the site at which multiple subject positions may 
F18 154 concurrently exist. While one might accept the position of being a 
F18 155 citizen of the United States, one might also resist the policies of 
F18 156 the government in power. Interpellation as it is more closely 
F18 157 examined becomes a theoretical description of an activity or 
F18 158 process which is complicated by the difference between thinking of 
F18 159 a coherent theoretical notion such as a subject position but 
F18 160 recognizing that in reality people are not so neatly 'taken up' by 
F18 161 ideological discourse.<p/>
F18 162 <p_>This much of structuralist Marxism is relatively uncontested by 
F18 163 British cultural studies. Where disagreement develops is whether 
F18 164 the human individual has volition or a consciousness that is other 
F18 165 than 'false.' This is significant for Marxists' calls for political 
F18 166 action and change; the idea of struggle implies a need for 
F18 167 conscious actions on the part of people, and the issues of force 
F18 168 and consent are significant. Part of the dispute with structuralist 
F18 169 Marxism over this point derives from Althusser's use of Lacanian 
F18 170 psychoanalysis to describe interpellation. British cultural studies 
F18 171 scholars argue that Lacan presents a trans<?_>-<?/>historical and 
F18 172 universal theory of the development of the subject; furthermore, 
F18 173 that in Althusser's model, the psychoanalytical unconscious (rather 
F18 174 than economics) becomes the primary determinant developing 
F18 175 individuals. Such a model is unacceptable to these writers because 
F18 176 to them the model becomes ahistorical and change impossible to 
F18 177 explain.<p/>
F18 178 <p_>I believe, however, that at least some Freudian-based 
F18 179 psychologies can offer social and historical models of psychic 
F18 180 development. I also do not think Althusser's model conflicts with a 
F18 181 historical reading of Freudian theories. For one thing, in 
F18 182 Althusser, ISAs such as family relations are <tf_>as ISA<tf/>s 
F18 183 structured in contradiction; their ideologies have some (uneven) 
F18 184 relationship to the in-the-last-instance determinant of the mode 
F18 185 production. Family structures are social, historical, and 
F18 186 contradictory ideological sites, and some writers such as Charlotte 
F18 187 Perkins Gilman have made strong arguments connecting family 
F18 188 structures such as patriarchy to economic situations such as 
F18 189 capitalism. Thus, I do not agree that Althusser's use of Freudian 
F18 190 psychology necessarily produces a trans<?_>-<?/>historical, 
F18 191 universal, or totally determined subject. I would also emphasize 
F18 192 that Freudian psychology never suggested that the unconscious 
F18 193 constituted all of the subject; in fact, in Freud's theoretical 
F18 194 framework the ego is often in conflict with the id (or the 
F18 195 superego) because of social and public contradictions. A somewhat 
F18 196 more sympathetic reading of Freud is not at odds with concerns in 
F18 197 Marxism that historical events indicate the need to represent an 
F18 198 individual as also having conscious intentions, understandings, and 
F18 199 volition. Freudian psychologies just remind readers that the 
F18 200 consciousness is not all of what people as human organisms are and 
F18 201 that heterogeneity and conflict are part of people's psychological 
F18 202 dynamics. Freudianism is a historical theory of the individual as 
F18 203 individual and social being. In this matter, the issue of Lacan is 
F18 204 less clear, but while Althusser's original proposition employs 
F18 205 Lacanian language, I am not at all sure that Althusser's model 
F18 206 requires that language for it to work.<p/>
F18 207 <p_>In summary, the rejection of psychoanalytic theory by British 
F18 208 cultural studies may also reject a viable contribution to the 
F18 209 understanding of the subject and an explanation of some types of 
F18 210 affect and pleasure. In fact, some members of the group are now 
F18 211 considering the possibilities of Freudian psychologies, 
F18 212 particularly in relation to narration and subjectivity.<p/>
F18 213 <p_>At any rate, while temporarily eliminating psychoanalytical 
F18 214 theory, British cultural studies theorists paid particular 
F18 215 attention to Althusser's use of Gramsci's concept of hegemony to 
F18 216 account for the reproduction of ideologies without repeating the 
F18 217 universally automatic response they perceive existing in the 
F18 218 interpellation thesis. Thus, British cultural studies attempts to 
F18 219 synthesize Althusser and Gramsci. People are not <tf_>tabula 
F18 220 rasa<tf/> but exist in contradictory experiences so that while 
F18 221 ideological hegemony often exist, opposition or at least deviation 
F18 222 from the dominant does too. This can happen, they argue, because 
F18 223 the base is contradictory and class continues to be the most 
F18 224 significant determinant of human action.<p/>
F18 225 
F18 226 
F18 227 
F19   1 <#FROWN:F19\><h_><p_>The Politics of Performance: From Theater 
F19   2 Licensing to Movie Censorship in Turn-of-the-Century New York<p/>
F19   3 <p_>DANIEL CZITROM<p/>
F19   4 <p_>Mount Holyoke College<p/><h/>
F19   5 <p_>THE MOVIES WERE BORN IN THE CITY. WHILE HISTORIANS OF EARLY 
F19   6 film have begun to pay more attention to special issues such as 
F19   7 technology, patent wars, industrial practice, and the movie's 
F19   8 aesthetic debt to earlier forms of cultural expression, there has 
F19   9 been little analysis of the specifically urban world that made 
F19  10 motion pictures the most popular form of commercial entertainment 
F19  11 by World War I. The political, legal, and economic wrangles 
F19  12 surrounding the nascent movie business in New York City established 
F19  13 the template for the ownership and control of the mature industry, 
F19  14 as well as the basic pattern for film censorship. In the first 
F19  15 center of movie production and exhibition during the early part of 
F19  16 the century, the especially knotty issues involving the licensing 
F19  17 and censoring of movies -who could show them and what could they 
F19  18 show -were fiercely contested. These battles over the regulation of 
F19  19 representation need to be understood against the historical 
F19  20 backdrop of urban cultural politics.<p/>
F19  21 <p_>Movies reinforced and reconfigured a set of controversies that, 
F19  22 since the mid-nineteenth century, had been fought out largely over 
F19  23 the licensing and regulation of theatrical space. These issues 
F19  24 included the alleged dangers commercial entertainments posed to 
F19  25 children, disputes over Sunday blue laws, the licensing authority 
F19  26 of the police department, and the connections between plebeian 
F19  27 culture and the underworld. The process that determined which 
F19  28 entertainments were licensed and which were licentious had always 
F19  29 been fundamentally political and volatile. The continual 
F19  30 controversies over commercial enterprises loosely described as 
F19  31 'theatrical' involved complicated relations among entrepreneurs, 
F19  32 the licensing authority of the state, the police power, and 
F19  33 neighbourhood audiences.<p/>
F19  34 <p_>By 1908, the movie business faced a crisis of exhibition: the 
F19  35 older traditions of theater licensing proved inadequate for 
F19  36 regulating the emergent new medium. Progressive reformers, movie 
F19  37 exhibitors, and movie producers sought to split movies off from 
F19  38 such live urban entertainments as vaudeville, burlesque, and 
F19  39 concert saloons. Progressive social service agencies and activists 
F19  40 embraced movies as an alternative to older entertainment traditions 
F19  41 closely allied with machine politics and the urban vice economy. 
F19  42 Movie entrepreneurs cultivated the new alliance with reformers as a 
F19  43 way to shed the stigma of the street, attract a middle class 
F19  44 patronage, and increase their profits. For their part, reformers 
F19  45 saw that alliance as a way to achieve what John Collier, general 
F19  46 secretary of the National Board of Censorship, called <quote_>"the 
F19  47 redemption of leisure."<quote/> New York's movie wars -fought over 
F19  48 theaters and screens, in the courts and the streets -illuminate a 
F19  49 crucial transformation: the supplanting of locally based, 
F19  50 municipally licensed cheap theater by the nationally organized, 
F19  51 industrial oligopoly that came to dominate our popular culture.<p/>
F19  52 <p_>The whole question of what, precisely, constituted a theatrical 
F19  53 performance had remained ambiguous ever since the New York State 
F19  54 Legislature passed the first comprehensive licensing act in 1839. 
F19  55 That act, a response to intense lobbying by the Society for the 
F19  56 Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents (SRJD), had rested on the 
F19  57 strongly held belief in a direct, causal relationship between the 
F19  58 theater and delinquent or criminal behavior. It required any 
F19  59 <quote_>"theater, circus, or building, garden or grounds, for 
F19  60 exhibiting theatrical or equestrian performances"<quote/> in New 
F19  61 York City to obtain a license from the mayor, with all collected 
F19  62 fees to be forwarded to the SRJD. The law also set a penalty of 
F19  63 $500 for every violation, and it authorized the society, as an 
F19  64 agent of the state, to sue and collect on those penalties. During 
F19  65 the Civil War the city experienced a boom in 'concert saloons,' and 
F19  66 the explosive issue of separating prostitution and alcohol from 
F19  67 entertainment spaces led the state legislature in 1862 to pass a 
F19  68 new act to <quote_>"Regulate Places of Public Amusement."<quote/> 
F19  69 Its key features banned alcoholic beverages on the premises of a 
F19  70 performance and made illegal the employment of females to wait on 
F19  71 spectators.<p/>
F19  72 <p_>Over the next four decades, two kinds of regulation coexisted 
F19  73 in the highly profitable yet unstable world of New York popular 
F19  74 amusements. One was an internal supervision within the 
F19  75 entertainment business itself, led by the trade press and certain 
F19  76 entrepreneurs who sought to expand their audience by distancing 
F19  77 their attractions from associations with alcohol and prostitution. 
F19  78 The most influential figure in this process was Tony Pastor, often 
F19  79 called the father of American vaudeville. Although Pastor gained 
F19  80 his first notoriety during the concert saloon boom of the early 
F19  81 1860s, he soon moved to create a 'high class variety' by freeing 
F19  82 the entertainment from its earlier associations. By 1881 he had 
F19  83 become the leading variety theater manager in the city, as he moved 
F19  84 into his Fourteenth Street Theater located on the ground floor of 
F19  85 the new Tammany Hall. Pastor embodied the urge toward 
F19  86 respectability and wider commercial success, and his theater is 
F19  87 rightly viewed as the prototype for the mainstream vaudeville that 
F19  88 dominated the American popular stage from the 1880s until the rise 
F19  89 of radio. He regulated his theater with an eye toward increasing 
F19  90 profit, making special efforts to attract a female clientele.<p/>
F19  91 <p_>Yet there were hundreds of other entertainment entrepreneurs 
F19  92 who did not follow this path, retaining their ties to the concert 
F19  93 saloon traditions and struggling to survive within the competitive 
F19  94 world of New York amusements. An uneasy alliance of the police 
F19  95 department, the mayor's office, private moral reform societies, and 
F19  96 neighbourhood groups performed a continuous cultural surveillance 
F19  97 on entertainment spaces that included dime museums, concert 
F19  98 saloons, and vaudeville and burlesque houses. Success or failure in 
F19  99 obtaining and keeping a license from the mayor's office proved a 
F19 100 key not only to staying in business, but also for moving into a 
F19 101 more profitable realm in the continuum of amusement respectability. 
F19 102 To thrive, an entrepreneur had to negotiate a treacherous terrain 
F19 103 that included autocratic police captains, ever-vigilant moral 
F19 104 reformers, outraged clerics, and organized neighborhood citizens. 
F19 105 No one, finally, could say with any certainty what constituted a 
F19 106 theater, or what the difference was between a theater and a concert 
F19 107 hall. Indeed many entrepreneurs sought both theater and concert 
F19 108 licenses since the city charter authorized the police department to 
F19 109 permit the sale of liquor in concert halls.<p/>
F19 110 <p_>An 1875 'List of Theaters, Halls, Concert Rooms' counted 
F19 111 fifty-seven licensed places for that year, a figure that remained 
F19 112 basically constant for the next two decades. These were about 
F19 113 evenly divided between places presenting straight drama, opera, 
F19 114 music concerts, and circuses and the newer concert saloons and 
F19 115 variety theaters. They were clustered mainly in three entertainment 
F19 116 districts: the Bowery and the Lower East Side; Fourteenth Street 
F19 117 and Union Square; and 'the Tenderloin,' roughly from Twenty-third 
F19 118 to Fourty-second Streets, between Sixth and Eighth Avenues. By this 
F19 119 time several newer private groups, such as the Society for the 
F19 120 Suppression of Vice, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
F19 121 Children, and the Society for the Prevention of Crime, had joined 
F19 122 the SRJD in making active interventions in the licensing 
F19 123 process.<p/>
F19 124 <p_>Consider, for example, the Belvidere Variety Theater at 23 
F19 125 Bowery, licensed by the city since at least 1875. Its owner, John 
F19 126 Schroeder, probably opened it first as a saloon room, adding a 
F19 127 small stage with rough scenery facing tables and chairs. Upon 
F19 128 orders of the local police captain in early 1879, Schroeder erected 
F19 129 a seven-foot high wooden partition to separate the bar room from 
F19 130 the stage area, thus technically complying with the law requiring 
F19 131 separation of theatrical performance from the serving of alcohol. 
F19 132 In April 1879, two agents from the recently formed Society for the 
F19 133 Suppression of Vice (SSV), founded by Anthony Comstock, visited the 
F19 134 Belvidere and filed depositions with the mayor's office, protesting 
F19 135 against a renewal of license. One described the scene at the 
F19 136 Belvidere as follows:<p/>
F19 137 <p_><quote_>At the tables were seated about twelve girls and women 
F19 138 with a number of men, engaged in drinking and conversation .... On 
F19 139 entering the saloon deponent seated himself near the door and was 
F19 140 soon approached by one of the women and asked what [he] would have 
F19 141 to drink and if she could drink with him. Seating herself at the 
F19 142 table the drinks, lager beer and lemonade, were brought by a 
F19 143 waiter. While drinking the woman asked deponent to go with her to 
F19 144 one of the rooms on the side of the stage. Deponent consented and 
F19 145 going to the room was again asked to treat which he did. In the 
F19 146 course of the conversation which followed the woman urged deponent 
F19 147 to take her into one of the rooms up stairs, which was more private 
F19 148 and had better accommodations, and where they could have a bottle 
F19 149 of wine together and would only cost three dollars. Upon deponent's 
F19 150 remarking that it cost pretty high and whether anything else was 
F19 151 given for the money, the woman replied that they would have a good 
F19 152 time, that she would give him a nice diddle, pulled up her dress, 
F19 153 showed her leg above the knee, made use of every persuasion and 
F19 154 said she would get one dollar of the money and the other two 
F19 155 dollars would go to the proprietor -the whole of which offers the 
F19 156 deponent declined.<quote/><p/>
F19 157 <p_>In response, Schroeder vigorously denied the <quote_>"false, 
F19 158 malicious, and untrue"<quote/> statements in the SSV depositions, 
F19 159 claiming that <quote_>"such practices are not permitted on the 
F19 160 premises."<quote/> He defended the arrangements in his place, 
F19 161 stressing the makeshift wall separating bar room from theater as 
F19 162 <quote_>"similar to the front partitions used at Miner's theater, 
F19 163 Volks Garden, and theaters of like character on the 
F19 164 Bowery."<quote/> He admitted that <quote_>"the greater portion of 
F19 165 the upper part of the building is let out weekly to male lodgers 
F19 166 and the balance thereof to transient lodgers of the same 
F19 167 sex."<quote/> Schroeder also submitted a supporting petition from 
F19 168 eight neighboring businessmen. These clothing merchants, hatters, 
F19 169 and picture framers all affirmed that the Belvidere was not 
F19 170 disorderly, <quote_>"nor is it a source of disturbance or annoyance 
F19 171 to us during the day or night or in our Judgment the cause of 
F19 172 annoyance or grievance to the travelling public."<quote/> Like so 
F19 173 many other places on the Bowery, in Union Square, and in the 
F19 174 Tenderloin, the Belvidere continued to operate for years, a protean 
F19 175 urban space defined and redefined by various elements of the 
F19 176 metropolis. It qualified as a legitimate entertainment enterprise 
F19 177 as long as owner John Schroeder coughed up regular tribute to the 
F19 178 local police captain. He maintained the Belvidere as a legal and 
F19 179 moderately successful business, catering to local working people 
F19 180 and tourists, and providing employment for musicians and other 
F19 181 variety performers. At least some of the women found there earned 
F19 182 money by hustling drinks from customers and splitting the money 
F19 183 with Schroeder. Whether or not they received a wage is unclear. 
F19 184 Some of them may have also engaged in casual prostitution with 
F19 185 customers looking for that. But as both police and private 
F19 186 investigators found, one had to agree to move through a series of 
F19 187 coded encounters first: letting a woman sit with you, treating her, 
F19 188 moving to a side room, treating again, allowing her onto your lap, 
F19 189 moving upstairs to a private room. Even there, the real profit 
F19 190 resulted from using sex to sell liquor rather than the reverse. For 
F19 191 the Society for the Suppression of Vice, the Belvidere was a low 
F19 192 <quote|>"dive," frequented only by thieves and prostitutes. It was 
F19 193 <quote|>"disorderly" precisely because it blurred the boundaries 
F19 194 between respectable and unrespectable social behavior.<p/>
F19 195 <p_>During its infancy, roughly from 1896 to 1906, the motion 
F19 196 picture established itself largely within venues more respectable 
F19 197 than the Belvidere. Movies became the single most popular act in 
F19 198 American vaudeville, the latest in a long line of visual novelty 
F19 199 acts -'living picture' tableaux, lantern slides, shadowography 
F19 200 -that could be fit neatly into an established format organized 
F19 201 around discrete, unrelated 'turns'. Vaudeville managers 
F19 202 aggressively promoted brief travelogues, 'local actualities', news 
F19 203 films, and the occasional comedy or drama to gain an edge over 
F19 204 their competitors. Hundreds of vaudeville theaters across the 
F19 205 country provided the most important market for the fledgling, 
F19 206 mostly undercapitalised movie makers.<p/>
F19 207 <p_>Beginning around 1905 the rapid growth of nickelodeon theaters, 
F19 208 devoted exclusively to exhibiting motion pictures, created the 
F19 209 industry's first great boom.
F19 210 
F19 211 
F19 212 
F20   1 <#FROWN:F20\>Others, most of them, embraced the new trends and 
F20   2 tried to make the best of it in white-collar jobs, with more 
F20   3 education, in newer homes with larger yards out in the suburbs. But 
F20   4 both groups had a passion for the polka and wanted to hold on to 
F20   5 that. It could not be done individually. There were ample signs 
F20   6 that a fresh approach had to be found. Take the case of the missing 
F20   7 young people as an example. Those actively involved in keeping the 
F20   8 polka alive are always measuring their success not only by how many 
F20   9 people come out to a dance but also by whether the youth 
F20  10 participate. The falling off of polka interest among the young is 
F20  11 always pointed out as a sign that the polka is in trouble. 
F20  12 <quote_>"We noticed that the youngsters did not go for polka 
F20  13 music,"<quote/> said Schafer. <quote_>"Rock-and-roll was their 
F20  14 thing. When we were young, polka dancing was the big thing. We just 
F20  15 had a ball going to the dances and picnics. There was nothing 
F20  16 better. So, we've got to do something; we've got to get these kids 
F20  17 interested."<quote/><p/>
F20  18 <p_>It was a matter of realism. The IPA would promote the polka in 
F20  19 a constantly developing ethnic situation. Using a form that exists 
F20  20 throughout Polonia, the ever present not-for-profit organization 
F20  21 and club, the founders of the IPA moved to institutionalize fan and 
F20  22 industry cooperation because the polka and what kept it alive had 
F20  23 begun to decline, and individual promoters could not turn this 
F20  24 situation around.<p/>
F20  25 <p_>The seriousness and intensity with which the IPA pushed both 
F20  26 the convention and the polka business over the next decade are 
F20  27 reflected in the dense 84-page 1976 <tf_>Souvenir Program of the 
F20  28 IPA Convention and Festival<tf/>. Roughly the first third of the 
F20  29 booklet is devoted to the program of the festival, the schedule of 
F20  30 events, biographies and pictures of Hall of Fame and annual Polka 
F20  31 Music Award winners, and pictures of bands appearing in the 
F20  32 festival, followed by lists of their sponsors, both commercial and 
F20  33 fraternal. The rest comprises advertisements from businesses that 
F20  34 support the polka and in turn are supported by the fans. The 
F20  35 souvenir program is obviously another fund raiser. It advertises 
F20  36 polka bands, the famous ballrooms of the northern Midwest, the 
F20  37 equally legendary bars of the industrial heartland, the record 
F20  38 companies unknown to anyone but polka lovers, and a list of 247 
F20  39 contributing 'Well Wishers.' But it also boosts commitment to the 
F20  40 polka field as a whole. An introduction to this field for budding 
F20  41 enthusiasts, it exudes solidarity and is full of information about 
F20  42 the small-scale economics (promotions, advertising, sponsorship), 
F20  43 status competition, and polka commitments on which the entire polka 
F20  44 world depends. It is a <tf_>Who's Who<tf/> of the polka world, 
F20  45 referred to by fans throughout the year.<p/>
F20  46 <p_>The program is especially informative in presenting the 
F20  47 organization. All the officers and directors of the IPA are 
F20  48 represented by individual photographs and their places of residence 
F20  49 given. Brief histories of the IPA and of the Polka Music Hall of 
F20  50 Fame are presented by Leon Kozicki, first president of the IPA, 
F20  51 acting chairman of the board of trustees of the Hall of Fame, and 
F20  52 generally acknowledged leading light of the IPA from its very 
F20  53 beginning. Listed also are all inductees since the Hall of Fame's 
F20  54 inception in 1968, and deceased members of the association (under 
F20  55 the title 'Lest We Forget'). This concern to explain to the public 
F20  56 what the IPA is and how it came about, and to celebrate its own 
F20  57 members and the work they do, suggests a self<?_>-<?/>reflective 
F20  58 and highly motivated organization. It is the first Polonian 
F20  59 volunteer organization focusing on the polka to make a serious bid 
F20  60 for a central place in the life of the ethnic community.<p/>
F20  61 <p_>Here is a summary of purposes as it appears in the language of 
F20  62 the charter and is reproduced in the souvenir program: The IPA is 
F20  63 <quote_>"an educational and social organization for the 
F20  64 preservation, promulgation, and advancement of polka 
F20  65 music"<quote/>; its goals are <quote_>"to promote, maintain, and 
F20  66 advance public interest in polka entertainment; to advance the 
F20  67 mutual interests and encourage greater cooperation among its 
F20  68 members who are engaged in polka entertainment; and to encourage 
F20  69 and pursue the study of polka music, dancing and traditional 
F20  70 folklore."<quote/> Through popular vote of its delegates, the IPA 
F20  71 also accepted <quote_>"the challenge of responsibility"<quote/> to 
F20  72 establish a professional academy and selection procedure and to 
F20  73 raise funds for the Polka Music Hall of Fame in order <quote_>"to 
F20  74 bestow proper honor and recognition to performers, Djs, and others 
F20  75 who have rendered years of faithful service to the polka 
F20  76 entertainment industry."<quote/><p/>
F20  77 <p_>Without quite saying it, the program defines the IPA as a 
F20  78 professional association, a badge of pride and legitimacy. The role 
F20  79 of the polka musician in the Polish-American community is governed 
F20  80 largely by community rather than by professional standards, and 
F20  81 this relationship of tension and balance between the specialized 
F20  82 network of musicians, promoters, disc jockeys, bar owners, and the 
F20  83 ethnic community is reflected in the variety of terms used to 
F20  84 describe the polka complex: polka industry, polka field, polka 
F20  85 world, polka lover, polka people, polka entertainment, polka power. 
F20  86 Each term emphasizes a different aspect of the complex, and each 
F20  87 one remains unsatisfactory if taken alone. Some terms echo 
F20  88 populism; others point to professionalism and specialization - it 
F20  89 is the mix that is essential to the IPA. The fans are included 
F20  90 right next to the musicians: <quote_>"engaged in polka 
F20  91 entertainment"<quote/> is an identification broad enough to include 
F20  92 the entire polka-loving community and reflects the balance between 
F20  93 'professionalism' and 'community' that keeps the polka alive.<p/>
F20  94 <p_>Although musicians may be called 'artists' from time to time 
F20  95 and composers of popular new polkas are recognized as such, the IPA 
F20  96 does not generally glorify polka music as 'art' and polka musicians 
F20  97 as 'artists' or 'composers.' There is no fetishizing of 'music' and 
F20  98 'art,' only a pragmatic concern for the health of polka music. The 
F20  99 recognition that the polka needs serious study, however, responds 
F20 100 to the realities of the situation and is a message of 
F20 101 self-affirmation to bruised polka identities. The IPA seems to be 
F20 102 saying, <quote_>"Chopin is fine, but our polkas are worthy of 
F20 103 serious study and honored preservation too."<quote/> This 
F20 104 affirmation is aimed not only at the non-polka, non-ethnic 
F20 105 community but also at that image-conscious and 'gatekeeping' 
F20 106 section of the Polish-American community which, until quite 
F20 107 recently, has not wanted to acknowledge the polka people's 
F20 108 existence at all.<p/>
F20 109 <p_>The Polka Music Hall of Fame is part of the IPA's struggle 
F20 110 against the belittlement of polka music from both outside and 
F20 111 inside the ethnic community. The Hall of Fame is an appropriate 
F20 112 mark of seriousness and success, not only to those who make 
F20 113 unconscious or conscious comparisons with the acceptance, 
F20 114 popularity, and unassailability of baseball and country music but 
F20 115 also to the vast majority of Polonians who tend to recognize virtue 
F20 116 in an organization only when they see it materialize in a building, 
F20 117 a landmark of substance. In this desire to put the polka on the 
F20 118 map, the two themes of ethnic pride and class pride are 
F20 119 interwoven.<p/>
F20 120 <p_>A long-standing member of the IPA emphasizes this point:<p/>
F20 121 <p_><O_>interview<O/><p/>
F20 122 <p_>Museums and halls of fame, like other visible institutions, are 
F20 123 respected in Polonia, U.S.A. But respect never comes unadulterated. 
F20 124 By the time an organization is doing something clearly enough to 
F20 125 command respect, it has also crystallized an opposition that is 
F20 126 eloquent on the subject of its demerits. The Polish-American's deep 
F20 127 sense that nothing gets done without many people pulling together, 
F20 128 without organization, cooperation, communal work, and appropriate 
F20 129 institutions, is threatened by enduring rifts in the community. On 
F20 130 the one hand Am-Poles claim to love freedom and democracy so much 
F20 131 that they cannot compromise on such important issues; on the other, 
F20 132 they say they 'cannot agree on anything.' What Helena Znaniecki 
F20 133 Lopata calls 'status competition' is taken for granted. 'Jealousy' 
F20 134 is the word for it, and it is the most prevalent explanation for 
F20 135 unresolved disputes between people who are not divided by 
F20 136 substantial conflicts of interest. 'Jealousy,' assumed to motivate 
F20 137 any criticism, is deprecated when it seems to be the main 
F20 138 motivating force in a person's behavior. In fact, however, in a 
F20 139 community where status competition and having a pleasant time in a 
F20 140 companionable group are such prevalent motivations for social 
F20 141 activity, both jealousy and good common sense unite behind the 
F20 142 following crucial questions: What's the leadership in it for? 
F20 143 What's happening to the money? Is this a democratic, open 
F20 144 (noncliquish) organization with legitimate procedures? Are the 
F20 145 leaders active? Are they doing something for the community?<p/>
F20 146 <p_>These are perennial questions through which every old and new 
F20 147 organization is scrutinized in Polonia. The standards of 
F20 148 selflessness, scrupulous handling of money, and legitimate 
F20 149 procedures are extremely high. While leniency in these matters may 
F20 150 be possible toward an individual member, strict skepticism fuels 
F20 151 the examination of anyone who presumes to act in an official 
F20 152 capacity.<p/>
F20 153 <p_>Since polka activity is expected to pay for itself, those who 
F20 154 assume organizational positions are usually adept at handling the 
F20 155 economy that sustains the polka. Such talented individuals are 
F20 156 admired yet scrutinized. The fans are practical and accept as a 
F20 157 matter of course that in helping the music survive, polka 
F20 158 professionals are also working for their own futures; they point to 
F20 159 this interdependence as an intelligent compromise between private 
F20 160 and public welfare. Greed, however, is an ever present threat. 
F20 161 Concern for monetary profit only is completely out of place within 
F20 162 a polka ideal that demands cheerful service to the public. Sharp 
F20 163 gossip is constantly used to limit excessive profit seeking.<p/>
F20 164 <p_>While the IPA cannot avoid the skepticism that readily 
F20 165 accompanies financial success, it has managed to put its best foot 
F20 166 forward. Most of its functions are benefits for the Polka Music 
F20 167 Hall of Fame and Museum. The IPA makes contributions to charitable 
F20 168 organizations such as the March of Dimes. Through a calendar of 
F20 169 such affairs the IPA ensures adequately paid work and good 
F20 170 publicity for the polka businesses of its members (bands, halls, 
F20 171 bars, caterers, and so on). Such moderate compensation, however, 
F20 172 falls within the limits of what the practical polka public consider 
F20 173 reasonable. And there is nothing like donating money to the 
F20 174 community to allay suspicions of personal gain. Furthermore, the 
F20 175 IPA is run completely by volunteer labor, and the <tf_>IPA 
F20 176 Bulletin<tf/> maintains a high standard of open information about 
F20 177 finances and meetings. Nonetheless, there are jokes. Elections are 
F20 178 greeted by a jovial response: <quote_>"Fixed - do it 
F20 179 again!"<quote/> Most of the time, these jokes are good-humored - 
F20 180 people poking fun at themselves and exorcizing the ever present 
F20 181 suspicion and danger of crookedness - but may include a pointed 
F20 182 challenge to the legitimacy, the fairness of selection: 
F20 183 <quote_>"How come your cousin won, Stan?"<quote/> This is why the 
F20 184 broad membership in the academy of electors for the Annual Polka 
F20 185 Music Awards and the professionalism of the consulting firm that 
F20 186 tabulates the votes represent a solid base from which the 
F20 187 legitimacy of the IPA decisions can be defended.<p/>
F20 188 <p_>Although the association's purpose and activities are 
F20 189 remarkably coherent, there is one gnawing inconsistency in its 
F20 190 stated goal. The IPA proclaims itself international, yet in many 
F20 191 important ways it has always been a Polish-American organization. 
F20 192 Some fans see this contradiction as an indication of bad faith in 
F20 193 the very nature of the organization, but most ignore it or 
F20 194 interpret it as a pious wish that for practical reasons has not yet 
F20 195 been fulfilled. The feeling in polkaland is always 'the more, the 
F20 196 merrier,' and everyone within the polka world is aware that the 
F20 197 polka is a true international phenomenon.<p/>
F20 198 <p_>Like other active members of the IPA, Chet Schafer accepts this 
F20 199 dual nature of the association as a pragmatic reality, the way 
F20 200 things have actually worked out. The IPA came to life out of the 
F20 201 experience of the polka people in Chicago's Polonia; hence, it is 
F20 202 not only a Polish organization in its membership, its leadership, 
F20 203 and the cultural ideals it embodies but, more specifically, a 
F20 204 Chicago Polonian organization. Nevertheless, as Schafer puts it, 
F20 205 irrespective of the original and present membership, <quote_>"the 
F20 206 idea is to unite all the ethnic groups interested in preserving the 
F20 207 polka."<quote/>
F20 208 
F21   1 <#FROWN:F21\>When the many greenhouse gases are introduced into the 
F21   2 free atmosphere, they begin to combine with one another, thereby 
F21   3 producing another set of complicated interactions with the 
F21   4 radiation balance of the system. Scientists recognize that a full 
F21   5 representation of each gas is needed to properly account for the 
F21   6 radiative effects of the many trace gases. But in an attempt to 
F21   7 simplify this complex situation, the equivalent CO2 values remain 
F21   8 in wide use by climatologists working with the greenhouse 
F21   9 effect.<p/>
F21  10 <p_>Equivalent CO2 levels were approximately 290 ppm at the 
F21  11 beginning of the Industrial Revolution; by 1900, the equivalent CO2 
F21  12 had risen to about 310 ppm. Although the estimates in the 
F21  13 scientific literature vary (e.g., Tricot and Berger, 1987; 
F21  14 Sch<*_>o-umlaut<*/>nwiese and Runge, 1991), the best estimate of 
F21  15 equivalent CO2 for 1990 is over 430 ppm - since the beginning of 
F21  16 the Industrial Revolution, we have increased the equivalent CO2 by 
F21  17 approximately 50 percent (Houghton et al., 1990). And over the past 
F21  18 100 years, we have seen the equivalent CO2 levels increase by 40 
F21  19 percent. Given the pattern of the past 100 years, we can expect to 
F21  20 reach the 600 ppm equivalent CO2 value (often used as the value for 
F21  21 a doubling of CO2) between 2035 and 2040.<p/>
F21  22 <p_>The concept of equivalent CO2 is a critical component to much 
F21  23 of this book. Most of the predictions associated with the 'popular 
F21  24 vision' are for a time when we have doubled CO2 (or equivalent 
F21  25 CO2). Yet, as can be seen in Figure 10, we have already gone 
F21  26 halfway to an equivalent CO2 doubling, and in the past 100 years, 
F21  27 we have witnessed a 40 percent increase in this value. We are lucky 
F21  28 that over the same 100-year period, relatively good records have 
F21  29 been kept regarding the climate of the earth. If large, 
F21  30 catastrophic changes in climate are going to occur for a doubling 
F21  31 of equivalent CO2, we should expect to see some of these changes 
F21  32 being revealed for a 40-50 percent increase in the equivalent CO2. 
F21  33 Understanding how our climate responded to the observed increase in 
F21  34 equivalent CO2 will certainly provide insight into how the climate 
F21  35 will ultimately respond to a doubling of CO2.<p/>
F21  36 <h_><p_>3<p/>
F21  37 <p_>THE NUMERICAL MODELS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE<p/><h/>
F21  38 <p_>It is widely recognized that the atmospheric concentrations of 
F21  39 the various anthropogenic greenhouse gases are increasing and that 
F21  40 they will continue to increase into the next century. As we saw 
F21  41 earlier, the doubling of equivalent CO2 (actually, when we reach 
F21  42 600 ppm) will likely occur near the year 2040; obviously, any 
F21  43 number of social, technological, political, and economic unknowns 
F21  44 can alter the exact time. However, most scientists agree that some 
F21  45 time in the middle of the next century, the earth's atmosphere will 
F21  46 reach the 600 ppm level for equivalent carbon dioxide.<p/>
F21  47 <p_>For a long time, climatologists have attempted to determine 
F21  48 what the climate of the earth would be like in a world of doubled 
F21  49 CO2. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, many scientists were 
F21  50 conducting research on the radiative and absorptive properties of 
F21  51 gases in the atmosphere. Following in this trend, Svante Arrhenius 
F21  52 presented a paper to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1895 
F21  53 that showed a doubling of CO2 would lead to a rise in global 
F21  54 temperature of about 6.0<*_>degree<*/>C (10.8<*_>degree<*/>F); the 
F21  55 paper was later published by the <tf_>Philosophical Magazine<tf/> 
F21  56 (Arrhenius, 1896). By the 1930s, G. S. Callendar, of London's 
F21  57 Imperial College of Science, had calculated the amount of CO2 
F21  58 humans had emitted into the atmosphere. Callendar (1938) concluded 
F21  59 that the observed rate of CO2 increase could lead to a 
F21  60 1.1<*_>degree<*/>C (2.0<*_>degree<*/>F) warming per century. 
F21  61 Several decades later, Johns Hopkins University scientist Gilbert 
F21  62 Plass (1956) determined that a doubling of CO2 would force the 
F21  63 planetary temperature to rise by 3.6<*_>degree<*/>C 
F21  64 (6.5<*_>degree<*/>F). By the early 1960s, M<*_>o-umlaut<*/>ller 
F21  65 (1963) was developing very simplistic models of the atmosphere; his 
F21  66 research led to an estimate of a 1.5<*_>degree<*/>C 
F21  67 (2.7<*_>degree<*/>F) rise in temperature for a 300 ppm rise in 
F21  68 atmospheric CO2. The calculations were becoming increasingly 
F21  69 intricate and complex by the end of the 1960s; the modern numerical 
F21  70 models of global climate were becoming an important part of the CO2 
F21  71 research. Nonetheless, the early 'pioneering' work by Arrhenius, 
F21  72 Callendar, Plass, and M<*_>o-umlaut<*/>ller led them to conclusions 
F21  73 that are remarkably consistent with the predictions of some of the 
F21  74 most complex climate models.<p/>
F21  75 <h_><p_>WHAT ARE NUMERICAL CLIMATE MODELS?<p/><h/>
F21  76 <p_>Models are idealized representations of reality, and in the 
F21  77 context of numerical global climate models, they are mathematical, 
F21  78 theoretical, deductive, and deterministic representations of the 
F21  79 climate. The goal of the numerical modelers is to generate models 
F21  80 that are based on the physics governing the mass, momentum, and 
F21  81 energy flows and exchanges in the atmospheric system. For example, 
F21  82 in Chapter 1 an equation was given for calculating the effective 
F21  83 temperature of the earth. In a very simplistic form, that equation 
F21  84 could be considered a numerical model of climate. The equation was 
F21  85 obviously mathematical, it can be derived from relatively simple 
F21  86 theory, and its derivation was deductive. We started with the 
F21  87 theory, then built the equation, as opposed to measuring the solar 
F21  88 constants and various effective temperatures of the planets and 
F21  89 moons and then finding an equation that matched our observations. 
F21  90 The effective temperature equation is also deterministic - the most 
F21  91 basic forcing functions of global temperature are explicitly 
F21  92 represented in the model. If we were to calculate the effective 
F21  93 temperature for the various planets and moons of the solar system, 
F21  94 and then compare the estimated effective temperature with the 
F21  95 actual mean temperatures of these bodies, we would be close in many 
F21  96 cases and quite in error in other cases. Nonetheless, we would 
F21  97 still have a numerical model capable of simulating, with some 
F21  98 limited degree of accuracy, the mean global temperature of bodies 
F21  99 in the solar system.<p/>
F21 100 <p_>The effective temperature 'model,' which is clearly at the 
F21 101 lower end of the spectrum of model complexity, is an example of a 
F21 102 zero<?_>-<?/>dimensional model (Schneider and Dickinson, 1974; 
F21 103 Fraedrick, 1978). It is called zero-dimensional because it does not 
F21 104 resolve any of the latitudinal, longitudinal, or vertical patterns 
F21 105 in the climate system. Given the extreme limitations in using such 
F21 106 a zero-dimensional model, one may conclude that the only useful 
F21 107 climate models must be three<?_>-<?/>dimensional. However, a number 
F21 108 of one-dimensional models have proved useful in CO2-climate 
F21 109 research.<p/>
F21 110 <p_>Imagine a vertical line running from the surface of the earth 
F21 111 straight out to the very top of the atmosphere. At many points 
F21 112 along the line, we could specify various physically based equations 
F21 113 that could simulate the transfer of solar energy, the transfer of 
F21 114 infrared energy from the earth and atmosphere, the vertical 
F21 115 movement of air via convective processes, and even some basic cloud 
F21 116 physics (e.g., Manabe and Wetherald, 1967; Manabe, 1983). The 
F21 117 influence of various gases could be carefully specified in such a 
F21 118 radiative-convective model, and as the concentrations of these 
F21 119 gases are altered, the effects on energy transfers, temperatures, 
F21 120 convection, and clouds could be determined. Such a one-dimensional 
F21 121 model is surprisingly well suited to the greenhouse problem, and 
F21 122 although its one-dimensional character would seem very limiting, 
F21 123 these models have been used successfully in green<?_>-<?/>house 
F21 124 research (e.g., Manabe and Wetherald, 1967; Schneider, 1975; Watts, 
F21 125 1980).<p/>
F21 126 <p_>Another type of popular one-dimensional model resolves 
F21 127 latitudinal differences in climate as opposed to the vertical 
F21 128 structure of the atmosphere. Sellers (1969) and Budyko (1969) 
F21 129 independently developed two of the most widely used one-dimensional 
F21 130 energy balance models that have been applied to the greenhouse 
F21 131 question. However, these models are largely used in classroom 
F21 132 exercises, and have not continued to be utilized in many recent 
F21 133 greenhouse experiments. Two-dimensional models (e.g., Sellers, 
F21 134 1973) combining a vertical coordinate with latitude or including 
F21 135 only longitude and latitude are uncommon, and have not played a 
F21 136 significant role in the greenhouse research.<p/>
F21 137 <p_>Within the hierarchy of models (Schneider and Dickinson, 1974; 
F21 138 Gal-Chen and Schneider, 1976), the three-dimensional models are 
F21 139 clearly at the top, and these three-dimensional models are central 
F21 140 to the greenhouse debate. These models attempt to resolve the 
F21 141 latitudinal, longitudinal, and vertical components of the 
F21 142 earth-atmosphere system. To visualize how many of these models 
F21 143 operate, think about a grid of points over the earth's surface. 
F21 144 Although the models vary in terms of spatial resolution, a grid of 
F21 145 approximately 500 km by 500 km (300 by 300 miles) is common. Even 
F21 146 at the rather sparse spatial resolution of the 500-km squares, one 
F21 147 should realize that several thousand of these squares are needed to 
F21 148 cover the globe. Because the three<?_>-<?/>dimensional models 
F21 149 contain a vertical component, these several thousand squares 
F21 150 defined at the surface have layers of boxes above. Most of the 
F21 151 modern three-dimensional models have approximately ten vertical 
F21 152 layers, and therefore, the earth-atmosphere system is represented 
F21 153 by over 20,000 boxes.<p/>
F21 154 <p_>An intricate and complex set of equations is solved for each 
F21 155 grid point or box to determine time and space changes in mass, 
F21 156 energy, and momentum. The equations are written to carefully 
F21 157 simulate changes in atmospheric pressure, fluxes of incoming solar 
F21 158 energy, outgoing infrared radiant energy, thermal patterns, wind 
F21 159 vectors, moisture levels, precipitation, clouds, ice and snow, and 
F21 160 on and on. If there is not enough complexity already, the models 
F21 161 should simulate oceanic circulations and allow a coupling between 
F21 162 the oceans and the atmosphere. Because many of the 
F21 163 three-dimensional models are based fundamentally upon the equations 
F21 164 governing the wind patterns of the planet, these three-dimensional 
F21 165 models are often referred to as general circulation models or 
F21 166 GCMs.<p/>
F21 167 <p_>All modelers are confronted with finding a balance between the 
F21 168 physical representation of the climate elements and speed of 
F21 169 computation (in fact, to maximize computational efficiency, some 
F21 170 'spectral' models do not have grids and boxes, but rather produce 
F21 171 all calculations for a series of harmonic waves). Ideally, modelers 
F21 172 seek to represent all of the processes with theoretically based 
F21 173 equations generated from the underlying physics. However, this goal 
F21 174 is compromised at times to allow the computer program making up the 
F21 175 model to run more quickly.<p/>
F21 176 <p_>Many processes operating within the earth-atmosphere system can 
F21 177 be represented with more simplified equations that are based on 
F21 178 observed statistical relations. These simplified equations may have 
F21 179 great accuracy in representing some process in the atmosphere, but 
F21 180 they are not equations that reflect the physics of the process. 
F21 181 These 'fast physics' relations are referred to as 
F21 182 parameterizations. They keep the computation time down, but the 
F21 183 parameterizations reduce the scientific purity of the model. Many 
F21 184 parameterizations used in the earlier models are fortunately being 
F21 185 replaced by more explicit and physically based equations in the 
F21 186 latest generation of climate models. Convective processes, heat 
F21 187 flow in the soil, sea ice processes, and the structure of the cloud 
F21 188 deck are examples of recent improvements in the models. However, 
F21 189 sub-grid-scale phenomena, such as thunderstorms operating at a 
F21 190 scale less than the 500 km grid spacing, continue to be 
F21 191 parameterized in the models.<p/>
F21 192 <p_>Imagine that the computer program is written and ready for a 
F21 193 climate simulation. The surface conditions, including basic 
F21 194 geography and topography, are specified along with starting 
F21 195 conditions in the atmosphere; obviously, detailed information about 
F21 196 the sun and the orbit of the earth can be specified in the model. 
F21 197 The equations that make up the model are written in a form that 
F21 198 allows the change in surface and atmospheric conditions to be 
F21 199 calculated for a given change in time (time steps near 30 minutes 
F21 200 are common). The models are started or initialized with the surface 
F21 201 and atmospheric conditions, and all equations are solved for the 
F21 202 change in the atmospheric and surface components over one time-step 
F21 203 interval. This produces a new set of conditions, and the model 
F21 204 equations are once again solved for another time step. After 
F21 205 several years of simulated time in the model, the calculations 
F21 206 stabilize, and outputs can be generated for a large number of 
F21 207 simulated surface and atmospheric conditions (Meehl, 1984).<p/>
F21 208 <p_>These models represent enormously complex computer programs 
F21 209 that are tremendous achievements in computing, applied mathematics, 
F21 210 and atmospheric physics. Many of the best minds in climatology have 
F21 211 been used to construct these models, which require the power of the 
F21 212 world's biggest and fastest computers. In the late 1960s and early 
F21 213 1970s, the climate models were typically constructed by just one or 
F21 214 two investigators (e.g., Sellers, 1969; Budyko, 1969; Manabe and 
F21 215 Wetherald, 1975).
F21 216 
F21 217 
F22   1 <#FROWN: F22\><h_><p_>Writing 'True' Crime: Getting Forensic Facts  F23   1 <FROWN:F23\><h_><p_>Our Disappearing Common Culture<p/>
F22   2 Right<p/>                                                           F23   2 <p_>THE FORBIDDEN TOPIC<p/>
F22   3 <p_>by Steven Scarborough<p/><h/>                                   F23   3 <p_>Some conservatives don't want to know about the link between 
F22   4 <p_>THE STORY READS LIKE THIS: Mitch Sharp, the skillful detective, F23   4 multiculturalism and immigration<p/>
F22   5 solves the 'Casino Slasher Case' by tracing cloth fibers and a drop F23   5 <p_>Lawrence Auster<p/><h/>
F22   6 of saliva found at the murder scene to the stealthy criminal.<p/>   F23   6 <p_>ACROSS the country, America's mainstream identity is being 
F22   7 <p_>What's wrong with the facts in this scenario? This simply can't F23   7 dismantled in the name of 'inclusion.' Half of last summer's New 
F22   8 be done. The evidence is scien<?_>-<?/>tifically dubious. When is a F23   8 York City Shakespeare Festival was given over to Spanish and 
F22   9 case plausible, and when does it stretch reality? A writer can know F23   9 Portuguese translations of Shakespeare. Christmas has been replaced 
F22  10 only by examining the type of forensic evidence necessary for the   F23  10 in many schools by a non-denominational Winterfest or by the new 
F22  11 events of the story and then by doing the appropriate research.<p/> F23  11 African-American holiday Kwanza, while schools in areas with large 
F22  12 <h|>Fingerprints                                                    F23  12 Hispanic populations celebrate Cinco de Mayo. The exemplary figures 
F22  13 <p_>Fingerprints are the most conclusive form of forensic evidence; F23  13 of American history have been excised from school textbooks, 
F22  14 they are the only type of evidence that does not require            F23  14 replaced by obscure minorities and women. Despite massive additions 
F22  15 corroborative proof. Though the probability of finding that elusive F23  15 of material on non-Western societies, school texts are still being 
F22  16 fingerprint or that single strand of hair is low, it can be woven   F23  16 stridently attacked as 'Eurocentric,' and much more radical changes 
F22  17 into your story if you include the proper background. Fingerprint   F23  17 are in the works.<p/>
F22  18 pro<?_>-<?/>cessing of a toenail and an eyeball of a murder victim  F23  18 <p_>Yet even as the multiculturalist revolution rolls through the 
F22  19 in <tf_>The Red Dragon<tf/> is not only technically correct, but it F23  19 land, there is still profound disagreement about its meaning, its 
F22  20 also lends a gritty credence to Thomas Harris' novel.<p/>           F23  20 aims, and most of all its origins. Mainstream media and 
F22  21 <p_>Fingerprints command the most attention in court, and they      F23  21 educationalists describe the diversity movement as, in part, an 
F22  22 should get equal billing in our crime story. In a city of about     F23  22 effort to be more inclusive of America's historic minorities; in 
F22  23 300,000, finger<?_>-<?/>prints lead to the identification, arrest,  F23  23 its larger dimensions, however, they see it as a response to the 
F22  24 or con<?_>-<?/>viction of nearly one person every day. <p/>         F23  24 prodigious changes that are occurring in America's ethnic 
F22  25 <p_>While fingerprints are readily retrieved from glass, shiny      F23  25 composition. America is rapidly becoming multi<?_>-<?/>racial and 
F22  26 metal, and paper, they are difficult to recover from fabric,        F23  26 white-minority, and, these observers say, our national identity is 
F22  27 textured objects, or fin<?_>-<?/>ished furniture. Surface to        F23  27 changing in response. If that is true - and it is stated or implied 
F22  28 surface, the methods to recovery differ, so the writer should know  F23  28 in almost every news story on the subject - then it is also true 
F22  29 the proper processes for recovering incriminating fingerprints. It  F23  29 that the massive Third World immigration is itself the ultimate 
F22  30 will make a story both interesting and accurate.<p/>                F23  30 driving force behind multiculturalism.<p/>
F22  31 <p_>In <tf>Presumed Innocent<tf/>, Scott Turow gives us an          F23  31 <p_>Virtually alone in resisting these assumptions is the 
F22  32 impressive account of the questioning of a fingerprint witness in   F23  32 conservative establishment, particularly the neoconservatives. 
F22  33 court. His only lapse is in describing blue fingerprints developed  F23  33 Liberals, who <tf|>support both unrestricted immigration and 
F22  34 on glass with ninhydrin powder. Ninhydrin, a liquid chemical        F23  34 multiculturalism, do not hesitate to point out a causal link 
F22  35 brushed on paper, produces a purplish fingerprint. The common       F23  35 between the two; indeed, they appeal to the inevitability of 
F22  36 graphite powder method is used on slick surfaces such as glass.<p/> F23  36 continued Third World immigration as an unanswerable argument for 
F22  37 <p_>A dramatic punch to your story might be to recover prints from  F23  37 multiculturalism. Traditional conservatives like Pat Buchanan, who 
F22  38 one of your victims, and it can be done. Iodine fumes are blown     F23  38 with equal consistency <tf|>oppose both multiculturalism and Third 
F22  39 over the body with a small glass tube and a silver plate is pressed F23  39 World immigration, also have no difficulty in seeing the causal 
F22  40 against the skin to lift the print. However, at this time prints    F23  40 connection. Neoconservatives, by contrast, have dissociated these 
F22  41 can be recovered only within two hours from a live person and       F23  41 two issues, leading the fight against multiculturalism while 
F22  42 within about twelve hours from a deceased one.<p/>                  F23  42 passionately clinging to the ideal of unrestricted immigration. 
F22  43 <p_>Is your antagonist trying to incriminate some<?_>-<?/>one else? F23  43 Their pro-immigration stand, based on a conviction of both its 
F22  44 Maybe he has considered forging a fingerprint? Forget it, his       F23  44 economic necessity and its political morality, compels them to 
F22  45 attempts are sure to be futile. It is nearly impossible to recreate F23  45 ignore - or ritually dismiss - the mounting evidence that the 
F22  46 an ac<?_>-<?/>curate die of someone's fingerprint. A cast can be    F23  46 sea-change in America's ethnic identity is fueling the 
F22  47 made, provided he has a willing or dead hand to cast. Yet, even the F23  47 cultural-diversity movement. To keep immigration from coming under 
F22  48 resulting print will be reversed or backward if transferred to an   F23  48 attack, they are forced to hunt for alternative explanations for 
F22  49 object.<p/>                                                         F23  49 multiculturalism.<p/>
F22  50 <p_>A fingerprint expert cannot testify to how long a fingerprint   F23  50 <p_>This approach was brought into focus last summer in articles by 
F22  51 will last on an object. General rules suggest that a fingerprint    F23  51 Irving Kristol in the <tf_>Wall Street Journal<tf/>, by Nathan 
F22  52 will last days, not weeks, outside in the weather; weeks but not    F23  52 Glazer in <tf_>The New Republic<tf/>, and by Midge Decter in 
F22  53 months in a residence; and a month would not be long for a          F23  53 <tf|>Commentary. Despite wide differences on the effects of 
F22  54 fingerprint left on a mirror, especially if en<?_>-<?/>cased in a   F23  54 multiculturalism (Kristol thinks it's a threat to the West equal to 
F22  55 drawer or a safe. Fingerprints have been chemically recovered years F23  55 Nazism and Stalinism; Glazer thinks it's no big deal), they reached 
F22  56 later on the pages of a book.<p/>                                   F23  56 startlingly similar conclusions about its causes.<p/>
F22  57 <p_>When tracing someone from latent fingerprints, the investigator F23  57 <p_>Multiculturalism, they argued, has essentially nothing to do 
F22  58 must have the suspect's name and fingerprint record on a file to    F23  58 with America's increasing ethnic diversity; at bottom, it is a 
F22  59 make a positive match. Lawrence Block captures the essence of       F23  59 desperate, misguided attempt to overcome black educational 
F22  60 fingerprints in <tf_>The Burglar Who Painted Like Mondrian<tf_>:<p/>F23  60 deficiencies - an effort that radicals have opportunistically 
F22  61 <p_><quote>... you can't really run a check on a single print       F23  61 seized upon to advance their separatist and anti-West agenda. 
F22  62 unless you've already got a suspect. You need a whole set of        F23  62 <quote_>"Did these black students and their problems not exist, we 
F22  63 prints, which we wouldn't have, even if whoever it was left prints, F23  63 would hear little of multiculturalism,"<quote/> Irving Kristol 
F22  64 which they probably didn't. And they'd have to have been            F23  64 declared. Assimilation, he believes, is proceeding apace: 
F22  65 fingerprinted anyway for a check to reveal them ....<quote/> <p/>   F23  65 <quote_>"Most Hispanics are behaving very much like the Italians of 
F22  66 <p_>Historically, fingerprints have been filed using a ten-print    F23  66 yesteryear; most Orientals, like the Jews of yesteryear."<quote/> 
F22  67 classification system; without recover<?_>-<?/>ing latent           F23  67 Nathan Glazer agreed: <quote_>"[I]t is not the new immigration that 
F22  68 fingerprints of all ten fingers, a per<?_>-<?/>son could not be     F23  68 is driving the multicultural demands."<quote/><p/>
F22  69 identified. In the 1980s, the AFIS (Automated Fingerprint           F23  69 <h_><p_>Down with Eurocentrism<p/><h/>
F22  70 Identification System) computer was introduced, enabling            F23  70 <p_>IRONICALLY, on the same day Irving Kristol was denying that 
F22  71 jurisdictions with access to the computer to link a single latent   F23  71 Hispanics are pushing for multiculturalism, the <tf_>New York 
F22  72 fingerprint to a suspect previously fingerprinted. Writers should   F23  72 Times<tf/> ran this typical item: <quote_>"Buoyed by a growing 
F22  73 remember the AFIS computers cost over a million dollars, and your   F23  73 population and by a greater presence on local school boards, 
F22  74 quaint Ver<?_>-<?/>mont village will not have one. The              F23  74 Hispanic Americans have begun pressing text<?_>-<?/>book publishers 
F22  75 well<?_>-<?/>connected fictional investigator should know someone   F23  75 and state education officials to include more about Hispanic 
F22  76 at a large agency or the FBI for a record check.<p/>                F23  76 contributions in the curriculums of public schools,"<quote/> as 
F22  77 <p_><h_>Body fluids<h/><p/>                                         F23  77 well as to correct 'stereotypes' - a familiar code for the 
F22  78 <p_>Fingerprints may be the most positive form of identification,   F23  78 elimination of Eurocentrism.<p/>
F22  79 but what if your perpetrator does not leave any? In the absence of  F23  79 <p_>A spate of letters to the <tf_>Wall Street Journal<tf/> 
F22  80 fingerprints, body fluids are a common type of evidence found at a  F23  80 protesting Kristol's view offered a revealing glimpse into 
F22  81 crime scene. If an intact sample of adequate size is recovered,     F23  81 mainstream opinion on the subject. The chief factor in 
F22  82 body fluids can be analyzed to ob<?_>-<?/>tain a DNA genetic        F23  82 multiculturalism, wrote Martha Farnsworth Riche of the Population 
F22  83 profile that can be compared with the suspect's or examined for     F23  83 Reference Bureau, is that <quote_>"racially and ethnically, 
F22  84 blood type.<p/>                                                     F23  84 America's school<?_>-<?/>age population is increasingly unlike its 
F22  85 <p_>Blood, semen, and saliva are all excellent media for            F23  85 past generations. ... This ensures that the school-age population 
F22  86 determining a DNA match. DNA (deox<?_>-<?/>yribonucleic acid) is    F23  86 will become even less a product of what we call 'Western 
F22  87 the blueprint of a person's genetic makeup and is absolutely unique F23  87 civilization' in the future."<quote/> Multiculturalism, said 
F22  88 for each individual. Contrary to common belief, hair will not       F23  88 another correspondent, <quote_>"is not an attempt to address the 
F22  89 reveal a person's DNA pattern. Have your victim yank out a clump of F23  89 social problems of African-Americans. Latin Americans and 
F22  90 hair with the skin cells to make a DNA match.<p/>                   F23  90 Asian-Americans have been equally involved."<quote/> From the 
F22  91 <p_>The equipment necessary to analyze DNA is highly specialized    F23  91 cultural Left, Gregory K. Tanaka said that as a result of the 
F22  92 and costly. Again, if your story is set in a quaint village, it may F23  92 increasing proportion of non-whites in America, <quote_>"it is 
F22  93 not be feasible to run a DNA check. It also may take months to get  F23  93 becoming clear that our Western 'common' culture no longer works. 
F22  94 results from one of the few laboratories that do DNA analysis. This F23  94 What Mr. Kristol overlooks is that this decline of Westernism 
F22  95 need not be a negative; think of the desperation, the agony, of     F23  95 leaves us no surviving basis for social order."<quote/><p/>
F22  96 waiting for results while your killer still stalks.<p/>             F23  96 <p_>While it might be tempting to dismiss these views as 
F22  97 <p_>Body fluids can be analyzed by the local crime lab to help your F23  97 multiculturalist propaganda, the clincher is that Nathan Glazer 
F22  98 detective. An important factor associated with body fluids,         F23  98 himself, after at first denying that the increase of non-European 
F22  99 including blood types, is secretor status. A secretor puts out,     F23  99 groups is propelling multiculturalism, turned around and admitted 
F22 100 i.e., secretes, his AB0 blood types into peripheral body fluids     F23 100 it: <quote_>"I do not see how school systems with a majority of 
F22 101 such as semen, perspiration, etc. It is possible for your fictional F23 101 black <tf_>and Latino<tf/> students, with black <tf_>or Latino<tf/> 
F22 102 serial rapist to avoid any link to his body fluids by being one of  F23 102 leadership at the top ... can stand firmly against the 
F22 103 the 15 per cent that are non-secretors.<p/>                         F23 103 multiculturalist thrust ... <tf_>demographic and political 
F22 104 <p_>What does blood type tell the investigator? Normally a blood    F23 104 pressures change the history that is to be taught<tf/>."<quote/> 
F22 105 type places a person in a broad por<?_>-<?/>tion of the general     F23 105 (Italics added.) It was in this same article that Glazer, to the 
F22 106 population. A community might have 45 per cent of its members with  F23 106 great consternation of his neoconservative allies, announced his 
F22 107 0 blood, 20 per cent with A blood, and so on. Therefore, if         F23 107 reluctant support for Thomas Sobol's radical curriculum reforms in 
F22 108 standard AB0 typing is done, the results are of little value        F23 108 New York state. That Glazer subscribed to the 
F22 109 because of the large population with that blood type.<p/>           F23 109 demographics-multiculturalism link in the very act of surrendering 
F22 110 <p_>Additional blood grouping techniques, specifically enzyme and   F23 110 to the new curriculum supports my point that once multiculturalism 
F22 111 protein analyses, enable the forensic chemist to assign a suspect   F23 111 is accepted, the key role of immigration and ethnic diversity in 
F22 112 to a nar<?_>-<?/>rower population. Your fictional crime lab should  F23 112 driving multiculturalism loses its stigma and can be freely 
F22 113 not give your detective a match on blood from the crime scene. They F23 113 acknowledged.<p/>
F22 114 can limit only the number of people in your town that have that     F23 114 <p_>To this, conservatives reply that Glazer is not admitting a 
F22 115 type of enzyme blood groups.<p/>                                    F23 115 forbidden truth but is simply adopting the multiculturalists' 
F22 116 <p_>The special equipment needed for thorough blood group analysis  F23 116 fallacious 'demographic inevitability' argument. In <tf_>The New 
F22 117 is costly, and it is probable that numerous crimes go unsolved      F23 117 Criterion<tf/>, Heather McDonald agrees that demographic changes 
F22 118 because suf<?_>-<?/>ficient testing is either too expensive or      F23 118 are <quote|>"fueling" multiculturalism, but criticizes Glazer for 
F22 119 neglected.<p/>                                                      F23 119 <quote_>"[mistaking] the actual for the inevitable."<quote/> In 
F22 120 <h_><p_>Other evidence<h/><p/>                                      F23 120 other words, neoconservatives will concede that multiculturalism 
F22 121 <p_>Hair can be of forensic value. Strands found at the scene of    F23 121 has been adopted because of our society's increasing diversity; 
F22 122 the crime can be compared to a suspect's for similarities in color, F23 122 but, they insist, this was not 'logical.' Since immigration is only 
F22 123 shape, and tex<?_>-<?/>ture, but it is difficult to determine race  F23 123 the 'actual' cause and not the 'logical' cause, we should leave 
F22 124 or even sex. An author can write that some of the suspects were     F23 124 immigration alone.<p/>
F22 125 eliminated because analysis concluded that their hair was not       F23 125 <p_>One can't help being reminded of the people who say that the 
F22 126 similar or consistent with the hair found at the crime scene.<p/>   F23 126 failures of Marxism do not prove its <tf|>theoretical unsoundness. 
F22 127 <p_>Footwear prints, recovered photographically, fall into the      F23 127 Just as one cannot persuade a devoted Marxist that Marxism must 
F22 128 class category. Except for the excep<?_>-<?/>tional case,           F23 128 lead to tyranny and poverty, one cannot logically demonstrate to an 
F22 129 shoeprints can only be said to be made by the same type of shoe.    F23 129 open-borders conservative that precipitately changing an 
F22 130 Footwear, or any class type evidence (hair, fiber, AB0 blood type)  F23 130 historically European-majority country into a multi<?_>-<?/>racial, 
F22 131 by itself would normally not be enough to convict your suspect in a F23 131 white minority country must result in a breakdown of the common 
F22 132 court of law.<p/>                                                   F23 132 culture. Nevertheless, whether logical or not, that is what is 
F22 133 <p_>Handwriting cases rarely get into court. A handwriting expert   F23 133 happening.<p/>
F22 134 renders an opinion after ex<?_>-<?/>amining several varying         F23 134 <p_>Here neoconservatives fall back on the familiar argument that 
F22 135 factors, such as letter height ratio and slant. If the writing is   F23 135 it is only the ethnic activists, not the great bulk of the 
F22 136 similar, then degrees of match probability are reported.<p/>        F23 136 immigrant groups, who are pushing for multiculturalism, a case 
F22 137 <p_>Criminals usually disguise their writing. It is unlikely that a F23 137 advanced most recently by Linda Chavez in <tf_>Out of the 
F22 138 kidnappers's ransom note, written in block letters, will lead to    F23 138 Barrio<tf/>. But as Tamar Jacoby has pointed out, Miss Chavez's own 
F22 139 the identity of your brutish villain. Words in blood dribbled on a  F23 139 evidence suggests quite the opposite conclusion: that Hispanics of 
F22 140 wall may provide a strong clue and add color to your story but they F23 140 all classes are eagerly embracing the call to cultural separatism. 
F22 141 will not enable a handwriting ex<?_>-<?/>aminer to point to your    F23 141 According to one study cited by Miss Chavez, a large and rising 
F22 142 murderer.<p/>                                                       F23 142 percentage of Hispanics describe themselves as 'Hispanic 
F22 143 <p_>Striations on a bullet are unique, much like the ridges of a    F23 143 first/American second' - a preference made clear by the Hispanic 
F22 144 fingerprint. Therefore, a bullet can be traced to a gun using the   F23 144 majority in San Jos<*_>e-acute<*/>, California, who angrily 
F22 145 scratches or lands and grooves imprinted on it by the barrel of a   F23 145 protested, as a 'symbol of conquest,' a statue commemorating the 
F22 146 gun. Unfortunately, if the barrel is damaged or changed, or if the  F23 146 raising of the American flag in California during the Mexican 
F22 147 bullet is mangled, the examina<?_>-<?/>tion will be inconclusive.   F23 147 War.<&|>sic!<p/>
F22 148 Careful scrutiny is necessary before including a firearms match in  F23 148 <p_>But even if it were true that most of the new ethnics didn't 
F22 149 your murder mystery.<p/>                                            F23 149 'want' multiculturalism, it is undeniable that their swelling 
F22 150 <p_>Thomas Harris was very skillful in weaving his forensic         F23 150 numbers empower the group<?_>-<?/>rights movement by adding to its 
F22 151 research throughout his novel. FBI Agent Will Graham explores the   F23 151 clientele. Scott McConnell has pointed out in the <tf_>New York 
F22 152 gamut of forensic evidence from fingerprints to blood typing to     F23 152 Post<tf/> that as soon as minority immigrants arrive in this 
F22 153 bite marks. <tf_>The Red Dragon<tf/> could be used as a             F23 153 country, they become grist for the affirmative-action mill, 
F22 154 foren<?_>-<?/>sic model for crime writers.<p/>                      F23 154 eligible for an elaborate web of preferences. To imagine that we 
F22 155 <p_>The increasing sophistication of today's readers is a two-edged F23 155 can turn back the multiculturalist and group-rights ideology by 
F22 156 sword: Readers are no longer satisfied with, 'He was the only one   F23 156 persuasion alone, while continuing the large-scale immigration that 
F22 157 tall enough who had a motive.' A Writer trying to add more realism  F23 157 feeds that ideology, is like pouring liquor down a man's throat 
F22 158 to a story need not shy away from scien<?_>-<?/>tific evidence, but F23 158 while 'advising' him to stay sober.<p/>
F22 159 he must check his forensic facts for accuracy. Credibility is the   F23 159 <p_>Apart from ideology, it is important to understand that massive 
F22 160 key to a successful crime novel. Just as a character's action may   F23 160 deculturation is occurring as a direct result of the demographic 
F22 161 lead the reader to say, 'He wouldn't do that,' an                   F23 161 changes themselves. Commenting on the impact of the huge Hispanic 
F22 162 er<?_>-<?/>roneous forensic fact can turn off the reader. Do your   F23 162 presence in California, an Hispanic academic tells the <tf_>New 
F22 163 research well, and readers will be clamoring for your next          F23 163 York Times<tf/>: <quote_>"What is threatened here is intellectual 
F22 164 authentic crime story.<p/>                                          F23 164 life, the arts, museums, symphonies. How can you talk about 
F22 165 <h_><p_>Writing A Publishable Health Article<p/>                    F23 165 preserving open space and establishing museums with a large 
F22 166 <p_>by JOAN LIPPERT<p/>                                             F23 166 undereducated underclass?"<quote/> The program director of the 
F22 167 <p_><quote_>"Your very lack of expertise in the health field makes  F23 167 Brooklyn Academy of Music speaks matter-of-factly about the 
F22 168 you ideal as a health writer."<quote/><p/><h/>                      F23 168 inevitable displacement of Western music as the Academy gears its 
F22 169 <p_>IF ONLY YOU WERE A doctor, researcher, dietitian, or other      F23 169 programs to the cultural interests and traditions of Brooklyn's 
F22 170 health professional - you would be truly qualified to write about   F23 170 intensely heterogeneous, Third World population.<p/>
F22 171 health, right?<p/>                                                  F23 171 <p_>Another consequence of this profound population shift is an 
F22 172 <p_>If you're none of these, you have a delightful surprise coming: F23 172 intensification of white guilt. Since in our emerging multi-racial 
F22 173 Your very lack of expertise in the health field makes you ideal as  F23 173 society any all<?_>-<?/>white grouping is increasingly seen as 
F22 174 a health writer. You wonder about the same things your readers      F23 174 non-representative (and presumptively 'racist'), the same 
F22 175 wonder about, and you express the answers in simple words the       F23 175 assumption gets insensibly projected onto the past. The resulting 
F22 176 reader can understand. Consider well-known health writer Jane       F23 176 loss of sympathetic interest in Western historical figures, lore, 
F22 177 Brody. She is not a doctor, nor does she have a doctorate in any    F23 177 and achievements creates a ready audience for the multiculturalist 
F22 178 medical subject: she's just a journalist like you and me, a very    F23 178 rewriting of history. When we can no longer employ traditional 
F22 179 thorough reporter who knows how to translate the esoterica of       F23 179 reference points such as 'our Western heritage' because a critical 
F22 180 medicine into language that Aunt Enid in Hicksville can understand. F23 180 number of us are no longer from the West; when we cannot speak of 
F22 181 She is a professional writer who thinks of her audience first. It's F23 181 'our Founding Fathers' because the expression is considered 
F22 182 qualities like these that can endear you to editors.<p/>            F23 182 racially exclusive; when more and more minorities complain that 
F22 183 <p_>What besides a sense of your audience will you need to write    F23 183 they can't identify with American history because they 
F22 184 about health? With an objective and intense interest in the way the F23 184 <quote_>"don't see people who look like themselves"<quote/> in that 
F22 185 body works, a good medical dictionary, and the pointers that        F23 185 history, then the only practical way to preserve a simulacrum of 
F22 186 follow, you can probably find an opening in the                     F23 186 common identity is to redefine America as a centerless, 
F22 187 health<?_>-<?/>writing field.<p/>                                   F23 187 multicultural society.<p/>
F22 188 <p_><tf_>Start small.<tf/> If you have not written about health     F23 188 <p_>Multiculturalism, in sum, is far more than a radical ideology 
F22 189 before, consider a short news item as your first project.           F23 189 or misconceived educational reform; it is a <tf|>mainstream 
F22 190 Fortunately, proposing one health news item or even a group of them F23 190 phenomenon, a systematic dismantling of America's unitary national 
F22 191 does not have to mean a big investment of your item or the time of  F23 191 identity in response to unprecedented ethnic and racial 
F22 192 a busy doctor. You can write a few sentences about a medical        F23 192 transformation. Admittedly, immigration reform aimed at stabilizing 
F22 193 advance - enough to get a go<?_>-<?/>ahead from an editor - simply  F23 193 the country's ethnic composition is no panacea; the debunking of 
F22 194 from reading a health journal, an abstract (article                 F23 194 multiculturalism must also continue. But if immigration is not cut 
F22 195 sum<?_>-<?/>mary or preview), press release or speech. Once you     F23 195 back, the multiculturalist thrust will be simply unstoppable.<p/>
F22 196 have a go-ahead from an editor for the sub<?_>-<?/>ject you         F23 196 <p_>What explains the conservatives' refusal to face the 
F22 197 propose, you can go after the interview. (Many doctors will not     F23 197 demographic dimensions of multiculturalism? Martha Farnsworth Riche 
F22 198 take the time to speak with you until you have an actual            F23 198 believes the reason is psychological: <quote_>"The older white 
F22 199 assignment, and many editors prefer a short query to an unsolicited F23 199 academics are facing a shift in power. They're denying that reality 
F22 200 submission.) Magazines typically pay little for news items, and     F23 200 by saying, in effect, that minorities 'should' assimilate; they 
F22 201 newspapers even less, but it is a good place for a novice to        F23 201 don't want to face the fact that their world is 
F22 202 start.<p/>                                                          F23 202 disappearing."<quote/> More to the point, they are evading the 
F22 203 <p_>Another way to break into the health-writing field is with a    F23 203 uncomfortable necessity of dealing with the racially charged 
F22 204 personal experience piece: how you lost the weight, climbed the     F23 204 immigration issue.<p/>
F22 205 mountain, figured out what was ailing you, for example. A number of F23 205 <p_>Indeed, the conservatives' greatest reason for not allowing a 
F22 206 magazines publish first-person articles. On the down side, you will F23 206 fundamental debate on immigration is their understandable fear of 
F22 207 probably need good photog<?_>-<?/>raphy to illustrate your story,   F23 207 opening up a forum for racist attitudes. But as last year's 
F22 208 and most of us do not have a leica loaded with slide film as a      F23 208 election in Louisiana suggests, the establishment's refusal to take 
F22 209 constant companion.                                                 F23 209 seriously Middle America's legitimate concerns about cultural 
F22 210                                                                     F23 210 displacement only makes it more likely that those concerns will be 
F22 211                                                                     F23 211 taken up by extremists. If opposition to racism is not to become a 
F22 212                                                                     F23 212 destructive ideological crusade, then racism must be defined 
F23 214 in this world. Understood in a non-utopian sense, racial justice 
F23 215 means that the majority in a country treats minorities fairly and 
F23 216 equally; it does not mean that the majority is required to turn 
F23 217 <tf|>itself into a minority. If it does mean the latter, then 
F23 218 nation-states, in effect, have no right to preserve their own 
F23 219 existence, let alone to control their borders.<p/>
F23 220 <p_>The immigration restrictions of the early 1920s, discriminatory 
F23 221 though they plainly were (and against the group to which this 
F23 222 writer belongs), reduced ethnic hatreds, greatly eased the 
F23 223 assimilation of white ethnics, and kept America a culturally 
F23 224 unified nation through the mid twentieth<&|>sic! century. The 
F23 225 falloff in cheap immigrant labor also encouraged capital-intensive 
F23 226 investment and spurred the great middle-class economic expansion of 
F23 227 the 1920s. It is ironic, therefore, that our open-borders advocates 
F23 228 constantly appeal to the turn-of-the-century immigration as a model 
F23 229 for us to follow today, since one of the key reasons the earlier 
F23 230 immigration turned out, in retrospect, to be such a remarkable 
F23 231 success was that it was <tf|>halted. The same caveat applies even 
F23 232 more strongly to our present, uncontrolled influx from the Third 
F23 233 World.<p/>
F23 234 
F23 235 
F23 236 
F24   1 <FROWN:F24\><h_><p_>IN BIKINI LAGOON LIFE THRIVES IN A NUCLEAR 
F24   2 GRAVEYARD<p/>
F24   3 <p_>Text by JOHN L. ELIOT<p/>
F24   4 <p_>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SENIOR WRITER<p/>
F24   5 <p_>Photographs by BILL CURTSINGER<p/>
F24   6 <p_>Blasted to the bottom like a steel guinea pig, the U.S. 
F24   7 submarine <tf|>Pilotfish was among 21 vessels sunk during two 
F24   8 atomic tests at the end of World War II. This nuclear ghost fleet 
F24   9 belongs to the people of Bikini, still marooned far from their 
F24  10 radioactive Pacific island. Could these longtime symbols of 
F24  11 destruction become a marine park to attract sport divers and aid 
F24  12 the Bikinians?<p/><h/>
F24  13 <p_>As if worshiping a higher power, sailors drill on the flight 
F24  14 deck of the U.S. carrier <tf|>Saidor (opposite) for a momentous 
F24  15 test: code name, Able. Later that day, July 1, 1946, a B-29 would 
F24  16 drop an experimental weapon over a fleet of ships moored amid the 
F24  17 tranquil waters of Bikini Lagoon. These support personnel practice 
F24  18 protecting their eyes from the ungodly incandescence to be created 
F24  19 by an explosion equal to 20,000 tons of TNT.<p/>
F24  20 <p_>Less than a year earlier, the first wartime atom bombs had laid 
F24  21 waste Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Now, military analysts wanted to 
F24  22 know, what would happen to a navy attacked by this seemingly 
F24  23 irresistible force? So a massive exercise called Operation 
F24  24 Crossroads brought some 42,000 men, 242 ships, and 10,000 
F24  25 instruments to Bikini. There two nuclear blasts were unleashed, the 
F24  26 first of 23 such tests performed at Bikini through 1953. The first, 
F24  27 Able, was detonated in midair. Three weeks later a second test, 
F24  28 Baker, was touched off underwater.<p/>
F24  29 <p_>To permit the dawn of the nuclear age there, a painful 
F24  30 sacrifice had been made earlier by the 167 Bikinians who lived on 
F24  31 that tropical atoll. A devout and trusting people, they agreed to 
F24  32 give up their home for a project that they were told was for the 
F24  33 good of mankind. Thus began their woeful saga as nuclear nomads 
F24  34 repeatedly relocated to other Pacific islands, where they have 
F24  35 found only unhappiness.<p/>
F24  36 <p_>With the Bikinians removed, the military assembled more than 90 
F24  37 vessels, including landing craft, as targets. Many of the ships, 
F24  38 among them a few Japanese and German war prizes, had fought crucial 
F24  39 battles in the just ended war, and a few had served in the previous 
F24  40 one.<p/>
F24  41 <p_>The five battleships included <tf|>Arkansas, a World War I 
F24  42 veteran. In 1944 she supported the Allied invasion of Normandy, as 
F24  43 did <tf|>Nevada, heavily damaged at Pearl Harbour but raised and 
F24  44 repaired to fight again. <tf|>Nagato, the Japanese battleship that 
F24  45 coordinated the Pearl Harbour attack, was berthed at Bikini out of 
F24  46 vengeance. A dozen destroyers and eight submarines with Pacific 
F24  47 battle scars from Midway to Guadalcanal were added.<p/>
F24  48 <p_>Of four cruisers, Germany's <tf|_>Prinz Eugen<tf/> had sortied 
F24  49 with the famed battleships <tf|>Bismarck and <tf|>Scharnhorst - 
F24  50 both sunk in the Atlantic theater - before being surrendered to the 
F24  51 U.S. But the sentimental star was <tf|>Saratoga, completed in 1927, 
F24  52 one of the first U.S. carriers. She survived Able but was doomed by 
F24  53 Baker. Its bomb hangs suspended 90 feet under a landing ship 
F24  54 (below) between <tf|>Saratoga, background, and <tf|>Arkansas, both 
F24  55 nearly in final position.<p/>
F24  56 <h_><p_>BIKINI LAGOON<p/><h/>
F24  57 <p_>In the path of a staggering force that would blow her 800 yards 
F24  58 away atop a 43-foot wave, <tf|>Saratoga sits at the edge of the 
F24  59 Baker blast a half second after detonation. <p/>
F24  60 <p_>Seven and a half hours later <quote_>"she died like a queen - 
F24  61 proudly,"<quote/> eulogized a <tf_>New York Times<tf/> 
F24  62 correspondent. Six other large ships were also lost, including the 
F24  63 battleships <tf|>Arkansas and <tf|>Nagato and submarines 
F24  64 <tf|>Pilotfish and <tf|>Apogon. Some were sunk by the two million 
F24  65 tons of water and sediment that was hurled more than a mile upward, 
F24  66 then fell to batter the ships.<p/>
F24  67 <p_>Yet the bombs' most insidious danger was revealed in the ships 
F24  68 that remained afloat or were salvaged: They seethed with radiation. 
F24  69 Bewildered men improvised decontamination efforts against an 
F24  70 invisible enemy. Permitted aboard some ships for only minutes, 
F24  71 sailors washed, scrubbed, foamed, and painted 'hot' steel, with 
F24  72 little effect. <quote_>"In the end the Navy ... is going to feel a 
F24  73 lot like Br'er Rabbit when he got mixed up with the Tar 
F24  74 Baby,"<quote/> physician David Bradley, a Crossroads veteran, 
F24  75 observed at the time.<p/>
F24  76 <p_>Of 12 large vessels sunk by Able and Baker, most lie within a 
F24  77 thousand yards of the blasts (above). Just as radiation exiled the 
F24  78 Bikinians, it also caused a confused exodus of the surviving ships. 
F24  79 After initial decontamination efforts failed, most were towed 200 
F24  80 miles to Kwajalein Atoll - where the <tf|>Prinz Eugen<tf/> 
F24  81 foundered - for further countermeasures. When those didn't work, 
F24  82 many of the derelicts were sunk in target practice off Kwajalein, 
F24  83 Hawaii, and the U.S. West Coast.<p/>
F24  84 <h|>SARATOGA
F24  85 <p_>She had survived two torpedoes and five kamikazes and had 
F24  86 served in bloody Pacific campaigns at Wake Island, Guadalcanal, and 
F24  87 Iwo Jima, but <tf|>Saratoga could not survive nuclear fission. In 
F24  88 1945, before the Bikini tests, the beloved carrier took part in 
F24  89 Operation Magic Carpet (left), ferrying 29,204 veterans home from 
F24  90 the Pacific.<p/>
F24  91 <p_>Nearly 50 years later <tf|>Saratoga's massive bow dwarfs the 
F24  92 U.S. National Park Service divers who invited me along. Their team, 
F24  93 the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit (SCRU), spent several weeks 
F24  94 drawing the ships in great detail and evaluating their park 
F24  95 potential. <tf|>Saratoga would be the centerpiece.<p/>
F24  96 <p_>The world's only aircraft carrier accessible to divers, the 
F24  97 ship's depth ranges from 50 feet at the top of its island - the 
F24  98 tallest structure, which includes the bridge - to 180 feet on the 
F24  99 lagoon's bottom. In between lie fascinating relics such as a Navy 
F24 100 Helldriver aircraft (left) and 500-pound bombs (below) 130 feet 
F24 101 deep on the hangar deck.<p/>
F24 102 <p_>Although much ammunition is live, both Navy experts and SCRU 
F24 103 team leader Dan Lenihan feel that the risk to divers is minimal - 
F24 104 <quote_>"unless they attack the ordnance with a hammer,"<quote/> 
F24 105 says Lenihan. And there is essentially no danger from radiation in 
F24 106 the water, according to William L. Robinson, a scientist at the 
F24 107 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California.<p/>
F24 108 <p_>Some of the atomic violence is shocking. <tf|>Saratoga's 
F24 109 starboard side, which faced the Baker blast, is dented six feet 
F24 110 deep in places. The gargantuan funnel, as tall as a four-story 
F24 111 building, collapsed and spewed sections writhing with internal 
F24 112 pipes. Even more amazing is the aft half of the flight deck. It is 
F24 113 no longer flat. Through it runs a canyon 200 feet long, 70 feet 
F24 114 wide, and 12 to 20 feet deep, probably created by seawater and 
F24 115 sediment hurtling back down from the sky. Said my diving partner, 
F24 116 naval historian Jim Delgado, <quote_>"It's like Godzilla stomped on 
F24 117 the flight deck."<quote/><p/>
F24 118 <h|>NAGATO
F24 119 <p_>Dreaded warlord of the Pacific, <tf|>Nagato (left) was the only 
F24 120 Japanese battleship still afloat when the war ended - nine others 
F24 121 had been sunk. <quote_>"In less than four years, this great war 
F24 122 machine fell from glory to oblivion,"<quote/> wrote naval historian 
F24 123 Masanori Ito. After Japan bowed in 1945, U.S. forces symbolically 
F24 124 captured <tf|>Nagato in Tokyo Bay to mark the final surrender of 
F24 125 the Imperial Japanese Navy. She was taken to Bikini - her death 
F24 126 sentence.<p/>
F24 127 <p_>In 1941 <tf|>Nagato served as flagship for Adm. Isoroku 
F24 128 Yamamoto, who planned and directed the attack on Pearl Harbour 
F24 129 aboard the battleship from distant Japanese waters. Pacing her 
F24 130 bridge on December 7, Yamamoto heard one pilot's electrifying radio 
F24 131 transmission - <tf_>to ra, to ra, to ra!<tf/> - surprise 
F24 132 achieved.<p/>
F24 133 <p_><tf|>Nagato, the first battleship armed with 16-inch guns 
F24 134 (below), may have played an additional role at Pearl Harbor. Some 
F24 135 of Yamamoto's carrier<?_>-<?/>launched aircraft were equipped with 
F24 136 <tf|>Nagato's 16-inch shells, specially modified to be dropped as 
F24 137 bombs- and some historians believe that one of them sank the 
F24 138 battleship <tf|>Arizona.<p/>
F24 139 <p_>If so, then the Baker bomb repayed <tf|>Nagato. Upside down on 
F24 140 the bottom, she raises one of her four screws as if in 
F24 141 capitulation.<p/>
F24 142 <p_>A frenzy of gray reef and other sharks feed near photographer 
F24 143 Bill Curtsinger's boat. Such dizzying numbers of predators suggest 
F24 144 that, despite man's worst efforts at annihilation, marine life has 
F24 145 returned to normal.<p/>
F24 146 <p_>It was not so after the tests. <quote_>"Our first netful of 
F24 147 sand ... proved to be so radioactive that in a panic I had the 
F24 148 whole catch thrown overboard,"<quote/> wrote Crossroads physician 
F24 149 David Bradley in his best-seller, <tf_>No Place to Hide<tf/>. 
F24 150 <quote_>"Small reef fish feed on coral ... predatory fish eat more 
F24 151 and more of the smaller fish who are sick with the disease of 
F24 152 radioactivity."<quote/><p/>
F24 153 <p_>Within weeks most radiation had dissipated from the lagoon. But 
F24 154 in the topsoil of Bikini Island, the fallout remains, especially a 
F24 155 dangerous substance called cesium 137. Little of it actually came 
F24 156 from the Cross<?_>-<?/>roads bombs. They were nuclear popguns 
F24 157 compared with Bravo, a 1954 hydrogen explosion 750 times stronger, 
F24 158 set off on the lagoon's northwest side. A wind shift rained fallout 
F24 159 on Bikini, including cesium. Its levels remain too high for the 
F24 160 Bikinians to return permanently, because it is absorbed by the 
F24 161 coconuts and pandanus they grow for food. However, a test using 
F24 162 potassium compounds to block cesium uptake by plants on the island 
F24 163 has been successful.<p/>
F24 164 <p_>Could a marine park of warships draw recreational divers to 
F24 165 Bikini? Not all the diving would be deep - shallow reefs laden with 
F24 166 giant clams and coral (left) beckon even snorkelers. In 
F24 167 recommending the concept, Dan Lenihan of SCRU says, <quote_>"We 
F24 168 hope that the Bikinians someday can take the source of their 
F24 169 problems - the ships - and make them a source of 
F24 170 income."<quote/><p/>
F24 171 <p_>The Bikinians have expressed some interest, but their main 
F24 172 concern is to escape Kili, the island 500 miles to the southeast 
F24 173 where they were relocated in 1948. Many, like Joji Laijo (right), 
F24 174 visit Bikini to work at its field station, operated by the 
F24 175 Department of Energy. But there has long been a cloud over these 
F24 176 people, and they have heard many conflicting stories from many 
F24 177 different experts. Last November they declared their intent to have 
F24 178 all 1.3 million cubic yards of radioactive topsoil scraped from 
F24 179 Bikini, somehow disposed of, and somehow replaced.<p/>
F24 180 <p_>Liabilities and logistics may well dim that plan, but not their 
F24 181 desire to return. Visiting his father's grave on Bikini, Kilon 
F24 182 Bauno, an aged <tf_>iroij lablab<tf/>, or paramount chief, said 
F24 183 <quote_>"I don't want anyone to stay on Kili. If we hear this 
F24 184 island is safe to live on, we will <tf|>swim from Kili to the big 
F24 185 boats to take us back."<quote/><p/>
F24 186 <h_><p_>RUSSIA'S LAKE BAIKAL<p/>
F24 187 <p_>The World's Great Lake<p/>
F24 188 <p_>Crown jewel of Russia's natural inheritance, Baikal is the 
F24 189 world's oldest and deepest lake - an environmental battleground and 
F24 190 a godsend in hard times.<p/>
F24 191 <p_>By DON BELT<p/>
F24 192 <p_>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SENIOR STAFF<p/><h/>
F24 193 <p_>SERGEI VASILIEV, captain of the <tf|>Albatross, still wonders 
F24 194 if he would have found the courage to speak his mind that fateful 
F24 195 July in 1954. But not once during their mysterious two-week cruise 
F24 196 around Lake Baikal did the government official ask his opinion of 
F24 197 their plan - and to volunteer one would have been unthinkable. 
F24 198 Barely a year had passed since Stalin's death, and the dictator's 
F24 199 lifeless hand still lay heavy on the land.<p/>
F24 200 <p_>All this came up one afternoon as Vasiliev, a slight and 
F24 201 gentle-spoken man widely known as the greatest of the Lake Baikal 
F24 202 ship captains, was reminiscing about his career on <tf|>Albatross, 
F24 203 a scientific-research ship. In the middle of a long, hair-raising 
F24 204 story about a great storm south of the Ushkani Islands, his memory 
F24 205 turned a corner, taking his narrative into deeper and more 
F24 206 troubling waters than he had intended.<p/>
F24 207 <p_><quote_>"I remember too clearly for my own good,"<quote/> he 
F24 208 said sadly, shaking his head.<p/>
F24 209 <p_>And he began to explain. He knew little about those officials 
F24 210 at first - only that they were <quote_>"very serious, very powerful 
F24 211 men,"<quote/> who had arranged to use his vessel for their first 
F24 212 look at Lake Baikal. They were, of course, well informed about the 
F24 213 great lake in south-central Siberia. All Soviet schoolchildren were 
F24 214 taught that Baikal is special: It is the most ancient lake on earth 
F24 215 and the deepest, measuring 1,637 meters from top to bottom, more 
F24 216 than a mile. It holds one-fifth of the planet's fresh water and 80 
F24 217 percent of the former Soviet Union's - more water than all of North 
F24 218 America's Great Lakes combined. In school these men traced the 
F24 219 lake's elegant shape, like a sliver of moon, and learned to call it 
F24 220 the Pearl of Siberia or the Sacred Sea, as Russians have for 
F24 221 generations.
F24 222 
F24 223 
F25   1 <FROWN:F25\><h_><p_>Women and Literacy: Promises and Constraints<p/>
F25   2 <p_>By Nelly P. Stromquist<p/><h/>
F25   3 <p_>ABSTRACT: In almost every country, illiteracy rates are higher 
F25   4 among women than among men. This gender disparity can be explained 
F25   5 in terms of (1) the sexual division of labor that assigns women 
F25   6 many domestic tasks, especially, among poor and rural families, 
F25   7 time-consuming chores, and (2) men's control of women's sexuality, 
F25   8 which creates both physical and psychological constraints in 
F25   9 women's lives. Research has identified various benefits of literacy 
F25  10 for women, such as better maternal behaviors regarding child health 
F25  11 and child rearing, and effective family planning. Although women 
F25  12 could use literacy to increase their access to new knowledge, most 
F25  13 literacy programs do not encourage this because their curricula are 
F25  14 still designed along sexually stereotyped lines that emphasize 
F25  15 women's roles as mothers and household managers. This article 
F25  16 argues that these messages do not convey emancipatory knowledge and 
F25  17 may solidify values and attitudes that cause women to accept 
F25  18 current gender relations rather than to question them.<p/>
F25  19 <p_>ILLITERACY is generally considered to be a major impediment to 
F25  20 the understanding of one's world and to the securing of a good 
F25  21 place in it. The role of literacy as a prerequisite for the 
F25  22 acquisition of other skills and the development of more rational 
F25  23 attitudes is universally accepted. In today's rapidly advancing 
F25  24 technological society, the written word has become the dominant 
F25  25 mode of complex communication; those without the ability to read 
F25  26 and write will be condemned to the lowest roles in society.<p/>
F25  27 <p_>And yet illiteracy is far from being eliminated throughout the 
F25  28 world. It is estimated that in less than 10 years from now, the 
F25  29 world will have 1 billion illiterates, 98 percent of whom will be 
F25  30 in developing regions.<p/>
F25  31 <p_>Illiteracy is far from being a mere technical problem, that is, 
F25  32 the inability to decode and encode the written word. It is linked 
F25  33 to contextual factors in which social-class distinctions, 
F25  34 linguistic affiliations, general levels of socioeconomic 
F25  35 development, and marginalization of certain groups play important 
F25  36 and mutually supportive roles.<p/>
F25  37 <p_>While there is diversity in the causes operating in any given 
F25  38 country, a persistent phenomenon observed in most societies is that 
F25  39 women constitute the majority of illiterates. Moreover, the numbers 
F25  40 of illiterate women have been increasing not only in absolute but 
F25  41 also in relative terms: according to data from the United Nations 
F25  42 Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), they 
F25  43 represented 63 percent of the illiterates in 1983, up from 58 
F25  44 percent in 1960. Two of every three adult women in Africa and one 
F25  45 of every two in Asia are illiterate. In the African and Asian areas 
F25  46 there is a literacy gap of 21 percentage points in favor of men 
F25  47 (Table 1), a gap that clearly spells out economic and social 
F25  48 inequality for many women.<p/>
F25  49 <h_><p_>UNDERSTANDING THE SUBORDINATION OF WOMEN<p/><h/>
F25  50 <p_>Observers of literacy programs note that neither adult literacy 
F25  51 studies nor 'women in development' studies have focused on women's 
F25  52 literacy. From a theoretical perspective, the conditions of women's 
F25  53 illiteracy can be easily explained in the context of women's 
F25  54 overall inferior status in society. For a variety of historical and 
F25  55 technological reasons, industrialization brought with it a division 
F25  56 of social life into public and private spheres. Soon, a patriarchal 
F25  57 ideology that defined women as inferiors and subordinate to men 
F25  58 developed in most countries. This ideology was promptly codified in 
F25  59 the laws of the emerging nation-states through regulations 
F25  60 affecting institutions such as the family, work, landownership, and 
F25  61 voting rights. Although these institutions have undergone 
F25  62 modification over time, the two essential mechanisms for the 
F25  63 persistence of patriarchal ideologies - the sexual division of 
F25  64 labor and the control of women's sexuality by men - continue in 
F25  65 effect. Although these forces are substantially modified by class 
F25  66 position, the country's level of technological development, and 
F25  67 cultural beliefs, the influence of gender is strong and remarkably 
F25  68 stable across societies.<p/>
F25  69 <h_><p_>The sexual division of labor<p/><h/>
F25  70 <p_>According to statistics of the International Labor 
F25  71 Organization, women account for two-thirds of the working hours in 
F25  72 the world. Poor women in rural areas perform heavy and arduous 
F25  73 tasks daily to ensure family subsistence. In Africa, women provide 
F25  74 60 to 80 percent of the labor in food production and a considerable 
F25  75 contribution to cash agricultural production. In Asia and Latin 
F25  76 America, men contribute a greater share than in Africa to 
F25  77 agricultural work, but the domestic burden of women remains 
F25  78 considerable. Given the demands of rural domestic life in many 
F25  79 developing countries - which includes walking long distances to 
F25  80 obtain water and wood for fuel, growing subsistence crops and 
F25  81 processing foods that require a considerable investment of physical 
F25  82 energy and time, and facing pregnancy and related illnesses with a 
F25  83 minimum of medical technologies - women and girls in rural areas 
F25  84 face a daily existence that is indisputably more demanding than 
F25  85 that experienced by men. Social beliefs that women should take care 
F25  86 of children and home lead poor social groups to consider education 
F25  87 - even literacy - an element less crucial than others to the 
F25  88 everyday survival of the family.<p/>
F25  89 <h_><p_>Control of women's sexuality<p/><h/>
F25  90 <p_>In addition to the sexual division of labor that places poor 
F25  91 women in inescapable domestic servitude, men's control of women's 
F25  92 sexuality places additional constraints on women's lives. This 
F25  93 sexuality control, which operates mainly in Asian and Latin 
F25  94 American countries, is manifested in strict supervision of women's 
F25  95 movement outside the home and of the friendships they develop with 
F25  96 members of the opposite sex. In many societies, it is also 
F25  97 manifested by the withdrawal of daughters from school as soon as 
F25  98 they reach puberty for fear that the young girls may lose their 
F25  99 virginity.<p/>
F25 100 <p_>A more serious manifestation of the control of women's 
F25 101 sexuality is wife beating, which creates among women an attitude of 
F25 102 conflict avoidance, which in turn produces a reluctance to engage 
F25 103 in any action that might trigger the husband's attack. That this 
F25 104 may have a bearing on decisions such as attendance in literacy 
F25 105 classes has been documented through life-history methods. The 
F25 106 existence of intensive domestic work coupled with conflictual 
F25 107 family dynamics renders literacy an unattainable dream for a large 
F25 108 number of women and merely a dream for some of their children - 
F25 109 particularly their daughters, who early in life tend to be assigned 
F25 110 the same domestic and subsistence roles that their mothers 
F25 111 perform.<p/>
F25 112 <p_>Control of women's sexuality affects their participation in 
F25 113 literacy programs because often the places available for classes 
F25 114 are considered unsuitable in terms of safety and accessibility for 
F25 115 women. Reports from India indicate that obstacles imposed by family 
F25 116 members, particularly husbands and in-laws, prevent women from 
F25 117 participating in literacy programs. The experience of a recent 
F25 118 national literacy campaign in Ecuador detected similar effects.<p/>
F25 119 <p_>These two fundamental causes, the sexual division of labor and 
F25 120 the control by men of women's sexuality, are socially constructed 
F25 121 realities. They exist by virtue of social understandings rather 
F25 122 than because they are the only ways in which societies can exist. 
F25 123 In traditional societies and, to a surprising degree, even in 
F25 124 modern nations, women are defined primarily as mothers and wives 
F25 125 rather than as autonomous citizens or workers. Women attain 
F25 126 legitimacy when they marry and form families. Subsequent legitimacy 
F25 127 is gained when they produce children, especially sons.<p/>
F25 128 <p_>Patriachal ideologies are generally supported by 
F25 129 religiocultural norms, even though within a given religion 
F25 130 variations may be found as a result of historical differences that 
F25 131 have led to different interpretations of sacred texts. Islam and 
F25 132 Hinduism tend to be more gender restrictive than either 
F25 133 Christianity or Buddhism regarding social norms. In India, for 
F25 134 instance, the traditional laws of Manu make women noneligible for 
F25 135 all scholastic activities. The three countries in West Asia with 
F25 136 the lowest rates of female literacy and the highest gender gap in 
F25 137 literacy are Muslim: Yemen, Syria, and Afghanistan. Confucianism, a 
F25 138 cohesive set of moral precepts, is also highly oppressive of women, 
F25 139 and its legacy is still evident in rural areas of today's socialist 
F25 140 China.<p/>
F25 141 <h_><p_>WOMEN AND LITERACY<p/><h/>
F25 142 <p_>Not only is illiteracy higher among women than men, but it is 
F25 143 higher in less industrialized and in agrarian societies than in 
F25 144 urban societies. One explanation for the low levels of literacy 
F25 145 among women in nonindustrial societies is that in these societies 
F25 146 the maternal roles do not require high levels of education. 
F25 147 Literacy indeed may not be necessary if the main reproductive and 
F25 148 productive tasks that women carry out - having babies, raising 
F25 149 children, managing a low-budget household, growing subsistence 
F25 150 crops - can be learned through informal, oral-tradition methods. In 
F25 151 all countries, illiteracy rates are higher in rural than in urban 
F25 152 areas. UNESCO data for 15 Latin American countries show that rural 
F25 153 areas have greater levels of illiteracy than urban areas regardless 
F25 154 of sex, although women have a slightly greater disadvantage 
F25 155 compared to men - a 27.5 percent illiteracy gap exists between 
F25 156 urban and rural women compared to a 25.4 percent gap between urban 
F25 157 and rural men. It is striking, however, to observe that the gender 
F25 158 gap in rural areas is almost double that in urban areas - 12.0 
F25 159 versus 6.3 percentage points. The disadvantage of rural women is 
F25 160 most likely due to the sexual division of labor that places upon 
F25 161 them major burdens for domestic work, subsistence production, and 
F25 162 various family responsibilities.<p/>
F25 163 <p_>With the expansion of schooling, poor families today are more 
F25 164 inclined than former generations to allow their daughters to be 
F25 165 educated. Girls' enrollment rates in primary school are gradually 
F25 166 reaching parity with those of boys in many developing countries. 
F25 167 Yet the early withdrawal of girls from school, as happens in many 
F25 168 African and Asian countries, does not allow the retention of 
F25 169 literacy skills. Three or four years of schooling characterized by 
F25 170 numerous absences do not amount to much education for the girls; 
F25 171 thus a significant loss of literacy skills follows. As adults, 
F25 172 their limited physical mobility, their contacts mostly with women 
F25 173 of their own community - who tend to be illiterates like them - and 
F25 174 their own socialization into accepting the norm that women do not 
F25 175 need as much education as do men create a strong mind<?_>-<?/>set 
F25 176 among women that further prevents them from seeking basic literacy 
F25 177 skills.<p/>
F25 178 <h_><p_>BENEFITS OF LITERACY FOR WOMEN<p/><h/>
F25 179 <p_>Do women benefit from access to literacy? There have been 
F25 180 relatively few studies measuring the impact of literacy per se - as 
F25 181 opposed to levels of schooling - and even fewer studies focusing on 
F25 182 literacy while controlling for other, confounding variables.<p/>
F25 183 <p_>We have substantial evidence about the positive effect of 
F25 184 education on a number of individual and maternal outcomes, but such 
F25 185 studies are based mainly on examinations of the impact of years of 
F25 186 schooling. Nonetheless, it could be inferred that literacy - a 
F25 187 critical component of formal education - also offers the same 
F25 188 benefits. Several findings support this inference. First, mother's 
F25 189 schooling has been found to have a monotonically negative 
F25 190 relationship with infant and child mortality rates and fertility 
F25 191 rates. This suggests that every amount of additional schooling - of 
F25 192 which literacy represents the first step - makes a difference. 
F25 193 Second, because education makes a difference even in places where 
F25 194 the quality of education is low, the effects of schooling are 
F25 195 probably less due to the curriculum or the instructional program 
F25 196 than to <quote_>"something very general about schooling."<quote/> 
F25 197 This general factor could be literacy since most schooling 
F25 198 experiences at least provide literacy skills. Third, if we 
F25 199 conceptualize adult literacy as the precursor to the establishment 
F25 200 of literate practices - that is, regular access to the printed word 
F25 201 - then the effects of literacy should be akin to those of the 
F25 202 number of years of schooling.<p/>
F25 203 <p_>In numerous countries, education is so strongly associated with 
F25 204 reduced fertility and decreased infant and child mortality that it 
F25 205 is accepted now as a causal factor. Some of the critical mechanisms 
F25 206 that account for the literacy-fertility relationship have been 
F25 207 found to be knowledge of and access to birth control and increased 
F25 208 husband-wife communication. Not surprisingly, the level of 
F25 209 education of women has an effect on fertility that is three times 
F25 210 stronger than that of men. Regardless of social class, the more 
F25 211 educated a woman is, the fewer children she will have; this effect 
F25 212 seems to be stronger in urban than in rural areas. Education seems 
F25 213 to have more positive effects when the society in which people live 
F25 214 is also literate; Cochrane's review of data for 23 countries found 
F25 215 that the inverse relation between education and fertility was 
F25 216 strongest in societies where the aggregate literacy was at least 40 
F25 217 percent.
F25 218 
F25 219 
F26   1 <#FROWN:F26\><h_><p_>'The Jell-O Syndrome': Investigating Popular 
F26   2 Culture/Foodways<p/>
F26   3 <p_>SARAH E. NEWTON<p/><h/>
F26   4 <p_>Research in American foodways can lead one into sometimes 
F26   5 strange and exotic byways, and the subject of this paper - the 
F26   6 folklore and cultural meanings of the popular gelatin food product 
F26   7 Jell-O - is one of them. Questions of cultural dynamics as well as 
F26   8 many kinds of lore - from children's folklore to personal 
F26   9 narratives to food contamination stories to jokes and folk 
F26  10 performance - are evoked by the amazingly versatile Jell-O. Thus 
F26  11 study of the folklore of Jell-O as it intersects popular culture 
F26  12 can give insight into this food's cultural presence and meaning for 
F26  13 the American folk. Further, the case of Jell-O suggests a possible 
F26  14 model for the investigation of that intersection of folklore and 
F26  15 culture via the vector of popular commercial American foods.<p/>
F26  16 <p_>Certainly little work, aside from nutritional studies, has been 
F26  17 done on popular foods. In the case of Jell-O, this 
F26  18 <quote|>"national" food, this <quote_>"princess in the fairy tale 
F26  19 ... as good as it is beautiful"<quote/> (<tf_>Today ... What 
F26  20 salad<tf/> n.p.) has attracted virtually no serious notice from 
F26  21 folklorists, social historians, anthropologists, cultural 
F26  22 commentators, or even home economists. Although Jones, Giuliano & 
F26  23 Krell (1981) give a brief nod to the ordinary Oreo cookie in their 
F26  24 ground-breaking <tf_>Foodways and Eating Habits<tf/>, the much more 
F26  25 dynamic and interesting Jell-O is ignored. Other important foodways 
F26  26 studies continue this oversight. For instance, Jell-O plays no role 
F26  27 in Brown and Mussel's (1984) study of ethnic and regional foodways; 
F26  28 nor have Humphrey and Humphrey (1989) yet studied the significance 
F26  29 of Jell-O as an important symbolic and social factor in small group 
F26  30 festive gatherings (such as potlucks and birthdays). And reference 
F26  31 to Jell-O does not appear, as far as this writer can determine, in 
F26  32 Charles Camp's <tf_>American Foodways: What, When, Why and How We 
F26  33 Eat in America<tf/> (1989). Indeed, if Jell-O is not the what, 
F26  34 when, why and how of America, what is?<p/>
F26  35 <p_>Jell-O is in many ways the ideal subject for seeing some of the 
F26  36 rich connections between folklore and popular culture. For one 
F26  37 reason, Jell-O is perhaps the one commercial food in America that 
F26  38 has not only crossed all regional and ethnic lines but continues to 
F26  39 ignore them. Certainly enough documentation exists to argue 
F26  40 convincingly that Jell-O holds place as perhaps America's one 
F26  41 'national' commercial food. A survey of compiled cookbooks 
F26  42 (fund-raising cookbooks) from across the nation and both north and 
F26  43 south supplies proof of Jell-O's national citizenship. Across 
F26  44 America Jell-O is a major ingredient in innumerable salads and 
F26  45 desserts (so much so that to most American cooks the 
F26  46 folk/vernacular term and spelling 'Jello' or 'jello' has come to be 
F26  47 synonymous with the generic term 'gelatin'). Thus the sheer number 
F26  48 of recipes is unequivocal evidence of immense popularity 
F26  49 nationwide. For example, in <tf_>Recipes for Making Your Honeymoon 
F26  50 Last<tf/> (1987), a compiled cookbook published by the National 
F26  51 Bridal Service, 33% of the salad recipes use Jell-O; in <tf_>The 
F26  52 Stan Hywet Cook Book<tf/> (n.d. Akron, Ohio) 20 of 37 salads, or 
F26  53 54%, cite Jell-O as an ingredient. Other evidence abounds. In 1989, 
F26  54 Grand Rapids, Michigan, was declared America's Jell-O Capital for 
F26  55 consuming 82% more Jell-O than the average American marketing area 
F26  56 (that was 25.5 servings per household per year versus the average 
F26  57 of 13.5 servings) (Viets 1989:50). And over the years, the test 
F26  58 kitchens of General Foods have <quote_>"developed no fewer than 
F26  59 1,733 ways to prepare Jell-O"<quote/> (Kleiman 1989:C 1). It would 
F26  60 seem that America has pretty much an insatiable appetite for the 
F26  61 salad/dessert that jiggles.<p/>
F26  62 <p_>Thus a second reason for using Jell-O to study the connections 
F26  63 between folklore and popular culture is that virtually every 
F26  64 American has had some experience with the <quote_>"ubiquitous 
F26  65 Jello"<quote/> (Ireland 1981:108). Some Jell-O recipe is very often 
F26  66 an essential ingredient in our national festive life, both public 
F26  67 and private. Jell-O dishes, from a simple sheet of lime Jell-O with 
F26  68 bananas to towering, layered, whipped-creamed creations, have 
F26  69 signaled to countless Americans times of gathering or celebration - 
F26  70 funerals, potlucks, family re<?_>-<?/>unions, church suppers, baby 
F26  71 and wedding showers, Christmas and Thanksgiving. It is no accident 
F26  72 that Garrison Keillor stars a Jell-O dessert (cherry Jell-O with 
F26  73 mandarin oranges and tiny marshmallows) in the Lake Wobegon story 
F26  74 of Mrs. Lena Johnson and 'Bruno the Fishing Dog,' at the baptism of 
F26  75 Bob and Marlette Johnson's little girl Lindsey (of which more 
F26  76 later). To many of us, Jell-O <tf|>is America - or certainly at 
F26  77 least the Mid-West, which to food marketing executives may amount 
F26  78 to the same thing.<p/>
F26  79 <p_>That people have a strong emotional bond with this otherwise 
F26  80 commercial and corporate product has not escaped the notice of 
F26  81 Jell-O's manufacturer, Kraft General Foods. In the 1970s, General 
F26  82 Foods' advertising agency, Young & Rubicam, interviewed consumers 
F26  83 and discovered, not surprisingly, that <quote_>"Jell-O's appeal lay 
F26  84 in its emotional connotations rather than its cost or 
F26  85 versatility."<quote/> As the president of Young & Rubicam U.S.A. 
F26  86 stated, <quote_>"There's a lot of affection for Jell-O. It's the 
F26  87 name. It's Jack Benny (a longtime Jell-O advertiser). It's your 
F26  88 mother serving it."<quote/> And of course it is also fun, as the 
F26  89 subsequent Young & Rubicam campaign emphasized: ads showed 
F26  90 <quote_>"large, middle<?_>-<?/>class families gathered together for 
F26  91 either a reunion or an anniversary. To the beat of spunky 
F26  92 background music, the whole clan - from toddlers to grandparents - 
F26  93 downs endless, multi-hued mounds of Jell-O. 'We're not going to 
F26  94 have dessert,' exclaims one jovial character. 'We're going to have 
F26  95 fun!'"<quote/> (Wallach 1981:206)<p/>
F26  96 <p_>The original 'target consumer' for Jell-O was the American 
F26  97 housewife who was assured that this product would please her family 
F26  98 (be both tasty and 'fun'), make her somehow a better wife and 
F26  99 mother, and allow her to exercise kitchen creativity. Certainly 
F26 100 Jell-O's invention is tied with wholesomeness, purity, and 
F26 101 domesticity. Although gelatin had been used by housewives for 
F26 102 years, Jell-O's origin is usually put at 1897 in the LeRoy, New 
F26 103 York, kitchen of Pearl B. Wait and his wife May. May, so the story 
F26 104 goes, complained that the old<?_>-<?/>fashioned sheets of gelatin 
F26 105 were difficult to use. Couldn't they be powdered? Pearl B., a cough 
F26 106 syrup inventor, took the problem in hand: May named it Jell-O; they 
F26 107 sold out to a neighboring entrepreneur for $450.00 and the rest is 
F26 108 history (Whitman and Schmidt 1966:13; Kato 1989:B 6). By the turn 
F26 109 of the century, Jell-O was on its way to being a million-dollar 
F26 110 business and a way for women to show creativity in the kitchen, 
F26 111 nurturance of the family, and a clever if innocent sophistication. 
F26 112 A 1933 Jell-O cookbook titled <quote_>"What Mrs. Dewey did with the 
F26 113 NEW JELL-O!"<quote/> begins with Mrs. Dewey simply amazed at the 
F26 114 rapid setting up of the pretty Jell-O dessert she, good mother that 
F26 115 she is, made for little Nancy (this was because the 'new' Jell-O 
F26 116 could be dissolved in warm rather than boiling water). The little 
F26 117 book ends with the recipes for <quote_>"Mrs. Dewey's smartest 
F26 118 salads!"<quote/> and a color illustration of well dressed and 
F26 119 coiffed ladies - Mrs. Dewey and her friends - sitting at a luncheon 
F26 120 table and facing shiny molded lime green salads. Obviously Mrs. 
F26 121 Dewey, in addition to being the ideal mother, is quite the 
F26 122 <quote|>"smart" up-to-date lady, and Jell-O is the culmination of 
F26 123 sophisticated elegance. All of these points were important messages 
F26 124 to American women.<p/>
F26 125 <p_>Informants today confirm the importance of Jell-O as the 
F26 126 one<?_>-<?/>time culinary centerpiece of woman's creativity. Says 
F26 127 one, <quote_>"When I was a young woman, it [molded Jell-O] really 
F26 128 was the most sophisticated thing you could do. There wasn't 
F26 129 anything as elegant. It was the center of the table."<quote/> And 
F26 130 over the years dozens of the well-known Jell-O cookbooks, most 
F26 131 often titled the <tf_>Joys of Jell-O<tf/>, have helped women create 
F26 132 such dishes as 'Under-the-Sea Salad,' 'Ring-Around-the-Tuna,' and 
F26 133 'Broken Window Glass Cake' - just three of those 1,733 recipes - to 
F26 134 the awe and perhaps astonishment of their families. Housewives can 
F26 135 play, too.<p/>
F26 136 <p_>In contrast to this past, Young & Rubicam's 1990 advertising 
F26 137 campaign for Jell-O targeted children directly. Young & Rubicam 
F26 138 developed a new animated character, a cartoon hero named Agent LL-O 
F26 139 (that's double L-O) who, with his canine sidekick Wobbly, champions 
F26 140 the rights of kids to eat Jell-O, particularly when their dessert 
F26 141 has been made off with by bullies or jealous sisters (Dale 1990:7). 
F26 142 This advertising raises the eating of Jell-O to drama. Jell-O, the 
F26 143 food of Democracy, is added to the Bill of Rights, at least of 
F26 144 children. Enemies of Jell-O and Jell-O-eating kids are to be 
F26 145 frustrated by a hero modeled on James Bond's 007. American 
F26 146 television carries the message that eating Jell-O is not only fun 
F26 147 but patriotic, and advertisers are well aware of the power of 
F26 148 television to affect our tastes as well as beliefs. As one 
F26 149 informant says in a parody of commercial rhetoric, 
F26 150 <quote_>"Wiggily, jiggily, cool and fruity, television tells us 
F26 151 everything about Jello. Just ask Bill [Cosby]"<quote/> (Stevenson 
F26 152 1990).<p/>
F26 153 <p_>Since Jell-O, then, connects folklore and popular culture, any 
F26 154 number of these interstices could lead to insights about the food 
F26 155 behavior of Americans vis <*_>a-grave<*/> vis this undeniably 
F26 156 national food. What follows here is a brief survey of some of those 
F26 157 connections and some hints of the cultural and folkloric 
F26 158 implications. Although I have segregated my data into categories, 
F26 159 the alert reader will see that, like Jell-O itself, the categorical 
F26 160 boundaries are sometimes shifting and permeable.<p/>
F26 161 <h_><p_>Children's Folklore<p/><h/>
F26 162 <p_>As Mechling, Sutton-Smith and others have convincingly shown, 
F26 163 children form a significant folk group within which important 
F26 164 cultural data is communicated face to face. Children share jokes, 
F26 165 techniques of forbidden play, and other traditional rules or 
F26 166 beliefs that allow them to come together as group. Playing with 
F26 167 food - by learning the 'rules' for eating Oreo cookies or spaghetti 
F26 168 or Jell-O - quickly becomes part of a child's repertoire of play 
F26 169 behavior. Although this food play is not approved of in most 
F26 170 households, often adults and children have a tacit understanding 
F26 171 about Jell-O: Jell-O for dessert is license to play. How children 
F26 172 both learn and practice play techniques with food is most generally 
F26 173 from one another. Comments from a survey of college students 
F26 174 emphasize the shared joy of Jell-O play. As one informant says, 
F26 175 <quote_>"Jell-O is neat because it's like looking through colored 
F26 176 glasses. You can see the bottom of the bowl but it's a different 
F26 177 color. It's also fun to see how much you can shake a plate of it 
F26 178 without it losing its shape."<quote/> Many informants described 
F26 179 shared techniques for eating it. One informant recollected, it was 
F26 180 <quote_>"fun to squish Jell-O between your teeth,"<quote/> and 
F26 181 another says, <quote_>"I used to swish it around in my mouth to 
F26 182 liquify it and then swallow it. It drove my mother crazy."<quote/> 
F26 183 Children also learn what does not work as play, as in this case: 
F26 184 <quote_>"My friend Laurie once tried to stick it [Jell-O] up her 
F26 185 nose but found it was impossible (in jellied form)"<quote/> 
F26 186 (Stevenson 1990). Every child or adult interviewed shared similar 
F26 187 traditional 'forbidden' techniques for playing with and eating 
F26 188 Jell-O and indicated that often they had learned the practices from 
F26 189 brothers or sisters or other children.<p/>
F26 190 <p_>Personal memories and recollections have also had an important 
F26 191 role in persuading people to see Jell-O as a traditional food. 
F26 192 Virtually every child and grown-up to whom one mentions Jell-O has 
F26 193 some nostalgic if sometimes sheepish childhood memories of the food 
F26 194 product. This by a female college junior is typical:<p/>
F26 195 <p_><quote_><tf_>Jello is one of my fondest childhood memories .... 
F26 196 When I see or think of jello, I remember back to my pre-school 
F26 197 days. I saw on TV the other day a commercial with Bill Cosby and 
F26 198 some kids, eating Jello that were [sic] in different shapes, like 
F26 199 stars and fish. I said, 'Wow, I want to get some.' I love 
F26 200 jello<quote/> (Stevenson 1990).<tf/><p/>
F26 201 <p_>These recollections often trigger descriptions of traditional 
F26 202 family customs, such as these: <quote_>"My grandma used to make it 
F26 203 for me when I was sick, with Cool Whip on top,"<quote/> or 
F26 204 <quote_>"When I would get sick when I was little, my mother would 
F26 205 mix up some red jello and put it in the freezer. She didn't let it 
F26 206 congeal - she gave it to me in a glass with one of those funky 
F26 207 loopy straws to drink it with.
F26 208 
F26 209 
F26 210 
F26 211 
F27   1 <#FROWN:F27\><h_><p_>Imagery, Reality, and Policy Principles<p/><h/>
F27   2 <p_>At the end of the 1980s, the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas 
F27   3 City reported that over half (56 percent) of government farm 
F27   4 program payments went to farmers with net profits in excess of 
F27   5 $100,000 (Duncan 1989). Even more striking, a report issued by the 
F27   6 Economic Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture 
F27   7 stated that in 1988, some 18 percent of the farms of the nation 
F27   8 (the larger farms producing program crops) received approximately 
F27   9 90 percent of direct government payments; another 18 percent of the 
F27  10 farms (smaller farms producing program crops) received only 10 
F27  11 percent of direct government payments; and some 64 percent of the 
F27  12 farms of the nation received no government payments at all (USDA 
F27  13 1990). This highly skewed system of commodity and income price 
F27  14 support is one of the least understood mechanisms of public policy 
F27  15 in the U.S.government. It has existed for years, continuing to 
F27  16 reward those farmers (and nonfarm landowners) the most who bought 
F27  17 or inherited large tracts of farmland, and who agree to produce 
F27  18 those crops for which the government pays large subsidies through 
F27  19 the commodity price and income support programs<p/>
F27  20 <p_>Sadly, the American public is largely unaware of how different 
F27  21 farming is from the imagery of the past. A great gap exists between 
F27  22 these images and the reality of farm activity today. In this 
F27  23 chapter, we discuss five images that mask the reality of how the 
F27  24 commodity programs really operate.<p/>
F27  25 <h|>Imagery
F27  26 <p_>The <tf_>New Yorker<tf/> magazine several years ago depicted an 
F27  27 East Coast perspective on the continental United States. The great 
F27  28 middle of the country was essentially a blank. It began somewhere 
F27  29 after the Hudson River, with Iowa vaguely centered between the 
F27  30 foreground of Manhattan and the distant point of Los Angeles. The 
F27  31 myopia depicted was at once accurate and self-congratulatory. A 
F27  32 similar cartoon soon appeared on the West Coast, showing the same 
F27  33 view, but with Los Angeles in the fore<?_>-<?/>ground.<p/>
F27  34 <p_>The concentration of population, media influence, and popular 
F27  35 culture on the East and West Coasts creates a sort of informational 
F27  36 dumbbell, in which what goes on in between appears in narrower and 
F27  37 less accurate terms in many journalistic and media accounts. 
F27  38 Scholarly studies have confirmed the existence of this bias. John 
F27  39 Borchert, the distinguished geographer, reports that the upper 
F27  40 Midwest <quote_>"is a blank on the mental maps of most 
F27  41 Americans"<quote/> (Borchert 1987). The major metropolitan area of 
F27  42 Minneapolis-St. Paul becomes <quote_>"a vague, inexplicable anomaly 
F27  43 amid the wastelands, glaciers, and boondocks."<quote/> This lack of 
F27  44 awareness about America between the coasts has a stifling effect on 
F27  45 treatments of farming and farm policy, giving rise to a variety of 
F27  46 false images about how it really operates.<p/>
F27  47 <p_>The first image is that there exists an undifferentiated land 
F27  48 mass of red barns and tall corn or golden wheat growing in flat, 
F27  49 featureless landscapes collectively described as 'farm states.' 
F27  50 While some areas conform to type (making them favorite visuals for 
F27  51 the occasional nightly news story on farm policy), the reality is 
F27  52 strikingly different. Obviously, the great middle is a highly 
F27  53 diverse landscape. In addition to the flat, fertile soils of Iowa 
F27  54 and Illinois, which are the prototypical agricultural landscapes, 
F27  55 there is also great diversity, from the rolling hills and woodlands 
F27  56 of southwest Wisconsin or the Ohio Valley to the wet, humid 
F27  57 semi-tropics of the Mississippi delta; from the arid High Plains of 
F27  58 Kansas and Nebraska to the uncropped grazing lands of the 
F27  59 mountainous West. In this vast land area a wide range of crops and 
F27  60 livestock are grown and raised, although it is less diverse, as we 
F27  61 shall see, than in the past.<p/>
F27  62 <p_>Each state's agriculture is sufficiently different that very 
F27  63 broad generalizations are needed to sustain any picture of a 
F27  64 'typical' farm state. Perhaps more importantly, the economies of 
F27  65 the great middle of America, while heavily dependent on 
F27  66 agriculture, are less so today than ever before. The Federal 
F27  67 Reserve Bank of Kansas City reported in 1987, for example, that 
F27  68 fewer than 12 percent of rural families received the majority of 
F27  69 their income from farming (Drabenstott, Henry, and Gibson 1987). In 
F27  70 the upper Midwest, a pattern of regional service centers has 
F27  71 emerged, focused on medium-sized cities such as Rochester, 
F27  72 Minnesota; Iowa City, Iowa; or Billings, Montana. Although farming 
F27  73 itself serves as a diminishing source of employment, agricultural 
F27  74 processing, finance and services are substantial employers, 
F27  75 including international companies headquartered in 'farm states' 
F27  76 like Hormel, International Multifoods, Pillsbury, and General 
F27  77 Mills.<p/>
F27  78 <p_>The first image, then, is that commodity programs are the 
F27  79 product of general farm state interests, with benefits that are 
F27  80 widely distributed to the residents of this undifferentiated land 
F27  81 mass. In reality, the interests (and politics) of farm programs 
F27  82 break down along lines of specific commodities and regions, each 
F27  83 with its own features and peculiarities. Farmers are a distinct 
F27  84 minority in every 'farm state,' and in every congressional district 
F27  85 in these states. The most 'agricultural' congressional district in 
F27  86 the country, Minnesota's second, has only 25 percent of its 
F27  87 population engaged in full<?_>-<?/>time farming. Reliance on 
F27  88 agriculture has increasingly come to mean <tf|>part<?_>-<?/>time 
F27  89 reliance, with other employment in processing or service sectors. 
F27  90 It is a particular irony of the midwestern 'farm state' illusion 
F27  91 that California is the biggest farm state of all, with net farm 
F27  92 income of $6.0 billion in 1989, compared with $2.4 billion for 
F27  93 Iowa, $2.1 billion for Nebraska, and $1.1 billion for Kansas 
F27  94 (USDA/ERS 1991a).<p/>
F27  95 <p_>To understand agricultural policy, therefore, it is not enough 
F27  96 to understand 'typical' farm state interests. The student of policy 
F27  97 must grasp an intricate web of specific commodity and geographic 
F27  98 interests, and a complex historical evolution of farm programs. 
F27  99 Faced with this complexity, it is easy to see why the urbane 
F27 100 President Kennedy is reported to have said to his newly designated 
F27 101 secretary of agriculture, Orville Freeman, <quote_>"I don't want to 
F27 102 hear about agriculture from anyone but you .... Come to think of 
F27 103 it, I don't want to hear very much about it from you 
F27 104 either."<quote/><p/>
F27 105 <p_>A second image characteristic of many treatments is what might 
F27 106 be called the picture of a 'Little House on the Prairie.' This 
F27 107 soft-focus view of rural life, while conceivably part of a romantic 
F27 108 past, is not of the present. Laura Ingalls Wilder's own life 
F27 109 history, on which the recent television series was based, suggests 
F27 110 that her rootless frontier experiences in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
F27 111 the territories was anything but bucolic. The image of a 'family 
F27 112 farm' associated with the little house is reinforced by a 
F27 113 democratic conception of a majority of farmers providing a stable 
F27 114 basis for an agrarian republic. This Jeffersonian idealism, despite 
F27 115 its powerful hold on the political traditions of our nation, began 
F27 116 a long decline in its actual relevance to American political life 
F27 117 as early as Jefferson's own time, when the Hamiltonian conception 
F27 118 of a manufacturing-based economy began to take hold.<p/>
F27 119 <p_>Today, the majority of families who farm are incorporated as 
F27 120 businesses and file farm income form F-1040 with the IRS. A large 
F27 121 share of the profits in this business, including government 
F27 122 commodity payments, go to a small percentage of those categorized 
F27 123 as 'farmers.' As we shall see, the commodity programs tend to 
F27 124 aggravate this skewed distribution of benefits. Those farmers who 
F27 125 do live on relatively smaller farms, because of the way these 
F27 126 government programs are structured, receive the least in payments. 
F27 127 Earl Butz, President Nixon's secretary of agriculture, was famous 
F27 128 for his proclamation that to survive, farmers had to 'get big or 
F27 129 get out.' Yet it is the commodity programs, as well as market 
F27 130 forces, that have rewarded the bigger land owners. Their reward is 
F27 131 not just for efficiency, but because they own more acres. This 
F27 132 contributes, as we shall document, to the cannibalization of the 
F27 133 small by the big. This reality is a far cry from the Jeffersonian 
F27 134 ideal, or the symbolism of Laura Ingalls Wilder.<p/>
F27 135 <p_>The third image, related to the first two, is that farmers in 
F27 136 general are 'stewards of the land,' and that agriculture is an 
F27 137 environmentally benign and naturally healthy activity. In reality, 
F27 138 agriculture is increasingly dependent on chemical and mechanical 
F27 139 inputs that, when left uncontrolled, have contributed in major ways 
F27 140 to environmental pollution of lakes, streams, and groundwater. As 
F27 141 more and more farmers have left the land, the fewer, bigger farmers 
F27 142 that remain increasingly rely on larger and larger machinery to 
F27 143 till their soil and chemicals to maintain its fertility and protect 
F27 144 it from weeds and pests. Commodity programs have rewarded the 
F27 145 specialized cultivation of crops that are particularly prone to 
F27 146 erosion, and encouraged heavy use of fertilizer and chemicals to 
F27 147 keep yields high so that larger government payments can be 
F27 148 garnered. Heavy equipment, long hours, and steady exposure to 
F27 149 hazardous materials also make modern agriculture one of the 
F27 150 riskiest businesses in America, with accidents and occupational 
F27 151 mortality and morbidity rates among the highest of any major 
F27 152 occupational category. Some of the most dangerous features of 
F27 153 modern agriculture, we shall argue, are aggravated and encouraged 
F27 154 by commodity programs that reward behavior which is inconsistent 
F27 155 not only with the health and safety of farmers, but with the health 
F27 156 of the larger consuming population that eats what these farmers 
F27 157 produce.<p/>
F27 158 <p_>The fourth image is that American agriculture remains a 
F27 159 domestic industry, for which domestic policies, such as the 
F27 160 five-year farm bill, are most important. In reality, American 
F27 161 agriculture in the postwar period has emerged as the quintessential 
F27 162 export industry, highly dependent on foreign markets and 
F27 163 international market forces over which domestic commodity and 
F27 164 economic policies have comparatively little influence. Far from 
F27 165 being isolated between two coasts, the great middle of America 
F27 166 depends upon, and looks to, global markets for its survival and 
F27 167 livelihood. Part of what New Yorkers and Los Angeleno's miss when 
F27 168 they look west or east is that vast quantities of American 
F27 169 agricultural exports are moving south to New Orleans on Mississippi 
F27 170 barges, or north through the Port of Duluth and Great Lakes, to 
F27 171 destinations all over the world. Nearly half of many fields of 
F27 172 corn, wheat, and soybeans in the Midwest are destined for these 
F27 173 markets. Farm incomes and assets of Iowa and Nebraska farmers 
F27 174 depend, daily, on the quoted prices in Rotterdam. The modern farmer 
F27 175 is thus increasingly a global trader, with an increasingly 
F27 176 sophisticated grasp of international commerce, logistics, and 
F27 177 transport. A major trading firm located in Minneapolis and serving 
F27 178 this market is estimated to be the largest privately held company 
F27 179 in the world.<p/>
F27 180 <p_>The fifth and final image is that the number of farmers leaving 
F27 181 the land is so great, and the remaining survivors so beleaguered by 
F27 182 debt, crop failure, and hardship that farmers amount to an 
F27 183 endangered species. In this view, no expense is too great to 
F27 184 preserve and protect them from the hostile march of corporate 
F27 185 takeovers. They must be preserved by farm programs so that the 
F27 186 other images cited above can also be maintained. The reality is 
F27 187 that farm programs have actually hurried the exodus of farmers from 
F27 188 the land, by encouraging large farmers to buy up their smaller 
F27 189 neighbors. In records kept of farmland purchases in Minnesota going 
F27 190 back to 1910, the distinguished economist Philip M. Raup has 
F27 191 observed a consistent and steady pattern of farm enlargement, not 
F27 192 of corporate takeovers from outside, but of neighbors buying out 
F27 193 neighbors. During the period 1981-88, 89 percent of all farmland 
F27 194 purchases in Minnesota were made by buyers living within 50 miles 
F27 195 and 74 percent within 10 miles of the land they purchased. In the 
F27 196 same period, 75 percent of all purchases were to expand existing 
F27 197 farms, and only 12 percent were bought by investors (Schwab and 
F27 198 Raup 1989).<p/>
F27 199 <p_>It is true that millions of farmers have left the land, and 
F27 200 those remaining constitute only about 1.5 percent of the American 
F27 201 electorate. But those that remain are hardly poor. And farm 
F27 202 programs, as currently structured, do almost nothing to help those 
F27 203 who are the poorest and most disadvantaged.<p/>
F27 204 <p_>Related to this endangered species image of American farmers, 
F27 205 is the fear on the part of many urban consumers that their food 
F27 206 supply may in some way be impaired. The idea is often expressed: 
F27 207 'If farmers keep going out-of-business who will produce our food?'
F27 208 
F27 209 
F28   1 <FROWN:F28\><h_><p_>Sleeping with Ghosts: Myth and Public Policy in 
F28   2 Connecticut, 1634-1991<p/>
F28   3 <p_>By Christopher Collier<p/><h/>
F28   4 <h_><p_>Statement of the Case<p/><h/>
F28   5 <p_>Central to the image of New England - in the eyes not only of 
F28   6 New Englanders themselves but of Americans generally, perhaps of 
F28   7 all the world - is the independent town. The <quote|>"township," 
F28   8 proclaimed Alexis de Tocqueville in 1835, <quote_>"seems to come 
F28   9 directly from the hand of God"<quote/> and <quote_>"forms the 
F28  10 common center of interests and affections of the [New England] 
F28  11 citizens."<quote/> After describing the constitutionally limited 
F28  12 sphere of town activity, the French observer then went on to 
F28  13 express the central myth: <quote_>"I believe that not a man is to 
F28  14 be found who would acknowledge that the state has any right to 
F28  15 interfere in their town affairs."<quote/> But in Massachusetts and 
F28  16 Connecticut the colony/state government constantly regulated town 
F28  17 affairs and had since the 1630s. The constitutional and legal 
F28  18 history of the relations between periphery and center, village and 
F28  19 commonwealth, was always one of agent and principal. Thus in 1864 
F28  20 the Connecticut Supreme Court declared that town powers 
F28  21 <quote_>"instead of being inherent or reversed, have been delegated 
F28  22 and controlled by the supreme legislative power of the state from 
F28  23 its earliest organization."<quote/><p/>
F28  24 <p_>This split between constitutional reality and popular 
F28  25 perception is as alive today as it was when Tocqueville wrote in 
F28  26 1835. But today myth and reality collide with increasing regularity 
F28  27 and greater public confusion, as modern life permits no islands and 
F28  28 all social problems cross town boundaries. Matters of waste 
F28  29 disposal land use and zoning, mass transportation, segregated 
F28  30 housing and schools, and environmental protection, to name a few, 
F28  31 routinely create inter-town conflicts that call for state 
F28  32 intervention. And every time a town discovers anew the limits of 
F28  33 its range of independent activity, some one is sure to protest 
F28  34 state intrusion.<p/>
F28  35 <p_>In our generation the myth frequently extends beyond popular 
F28  36 impression to breathe life into the actions of municipal officials 
F28  37 and their deputies at the bar who prepare briefs asserting the 
F28  38 inherent authority of towns to perform - or refuse to perform - 
F28  39 this or that public function. That lawyers on the state's side are 
F28  40 still required to demonstrate that towns in Connecticut not only 
F28  41 have no inherent powers today but never have had them reveals a 
F28  42 good deal about the power of ideological tradition.<p/>
F28  43 <p_>Over and over again state and national courts have driven what 
F28  44 they hoped was the final stake through the specter of the myth of 
F28  45 New England town autonomy. But specters do not die, especially when 
F28  46 riven with stakes. So popular perception and legal determination 
F28  47 travel often parallel but frequently colliding paths into the 
F28  48 twenty-first century.<p/>
F28  49 <p_>Even those individuals who recognize the juridical 'truth' 
F28  50 often have hearts committed to the idea of town autonomy. This 
F28  51 prevailing dichotomy - it is more than mere ambivalence - was 
F28  52 nicely summed up by a delegate to the abortive Connecticut 
F28  53 Constitutional Convention of 1902. <quote_>"Connecticut towns are 
F28  54 not independent units,"<quote/> he admitted. <quote_>"The modern 
F28  55 historian has proved that to his satisfaction, and the Supreme 
F28  56 Court has announced such to be the law. But, sir, 'As a man 
F28  57 thinketh, in his heart so is he.'... I suppose we must admit we are 
F28  58 not little states in ourselves. But the towns believed that they 
F28  59 were... and to this day we ourselves feel that the towns are 
F28  60 miniature commonwealths."<quote/><p/>
F28  61 <p_>From their interception in 1634, the Connecticut towns were 
F28  62 continuously subject to superior government, but before the 
F28  63 twentieth century most citizens were so remote from the seat of 
F28  64 colony and state government that few had any concrete relations 
F28  65 with it. And for a couple of generations in the ante-bellum era, 
F28  66 the General Assembly was so apt to let towns go their own ways that 
F28  67 intrusion from the legislature came as a surprise to the insular 
F28  68 farmer. When the state supreme court spoke on the issue over the 
F28  69 course of the nineteenth century, Connecticut citizens heard and 
F28  70 understood but did not absorb its judgments. Thus conflicting views 
F28  71 of towns' rights continue to endure side by side, one serving the 
F28  72 constitutional needs of a modern state, the other serving the 
F28  73 emotional needs of a conservative and provincial society, and both 
F28  74 serving the needs of politicians who, like necrophiliacs, lie down 
F28  75 with the ghost to give body to public policy.<p/>
F28  76 <h_><p_>The Historical Evidence<p/><h/>
F28  77 <p_>There is today a universal consensus among academic historians 
F28  78 that Massachusetts towns were the creation of the General Court in 
F28  79 the first years of settlement after 1630. The initial settlement of 
F28  80 Connecticut between 1634 and 1636 was carried out under the 
F28  81 umbrella of the Massachusetts government and under the same 
F28  82 institutional assumptions. The three River Towns were treated as a 
F28  83 collectivity; Connecticut was a settlement of people, not towns.<p/>
F28  84 <p_>Before 1639, when the Fundamental Orders codified the 
F28  85 governmental structure of the colony, Connecticut passed through 
F28  86 three organizational stages: six months under the administration of 
F28  87 William Westwood, a constable appointed by the Massachusetts 
F28  88 government; a year under the Massachusetts Bay Commission; and 
F28  89 nearly two years under the Connecticut General Court, nominally 
F28  90 under Massachusetts jurisdiction but de facto unregulated. During 
F28  91 this entire period, the settlements on the river were treated as a 
F28  92 single unit; the towns at no time exercised any authority 
F28  93 independent of the colony government.<p/>
F28  94 <p_>The adoption of the Fundamental Orders in 1639 did not alter 
F28  95 but only made explicit the towns' relationship to the General 
F28  96 Court. The towns were to serve as administrative units for the 
F28  97 election and jurisdiction of constables and the election of 
F28  98 deputies to the General Court. The orders proclaimed that the 
F28  99 General Courts shall be <quote_>"the supreme power of the 
F28 100 Commonwealth, and only they shall have power to make lawes or 
F28 101 repeal them, to graunt levyes, to admitt of Freemen, to dispose of 
F28 102 lands undisposed of, to severall Townes or 
F28 103 <}_><-|>prsons<+|>persons<}/>... and also may deale in any other 
F28 104 matter that concerns the good of this common welth."<quote/><p/>
F28 105 <p_>In 1662 a royal charter legitimated the government established 
F28 106 by the Fundamental Orders. The charter mentions towns only as 
F28 107 electoral districts for the General Court and vests all 
F28 108 governmental authority in the <quote_>"Governour and Company of the 
F28 109 English Collony of Connecticut in New England"<quote/> to 
F28 110 <quote_>"Make, Ordaine and Establish All manner of wholesome and 
F28 111 reasonable Lawes Statutes, Ordinances, Directions and 
F28 112 Instructions."<p/>
F28 113 <p_>During the colonial period the General Court delegated most 
F28 114 local administration to the towns and concerned itself largely with 
F28 115 regulating relations among the towns as well as with other colonies 
F28 116 and the imperial government. It interfered in local affairs only 
F28 117 when town activities had wider ramifications. Though it intruded 
F28 118 into town affairs quite often in the Revolutionary and federal 
F28 119 eras, the state relaxed that practice in the early nineteenth 
F28 120 century, when there was no longer a need for the statewide 
F28 121 coordination required to free and establish the nation. Towns 
F28 122 settled into rustic isolation and the General Assembly adopted a 
F28 123 laissez-faire attitude. Only when towns took actions that had no 
F28 124 legal basis or when their activities impinged on state policy or 
F28 125 administration did the General Assembly intrude to maintain order 
F28 126 or administrative coherence.<p/>
F28 127 <p_>The constitution of 1818 did not in any way alter the functions 
F28 128 of towns or their relationship to the state. Towns figure in that 
F28 129 document, as they did in the Fundamental Orders and Charter of 
F28 130 1662, only as electoral districts and the demographic basis for 
F28 131 representation in the General Assembly. The first revision of the 
F28 132 statutes under the Constitution of 1818, that of 1821 by Zephaniah 
F28 133 Swift, the state's leading jurist acting at the behest of the 
F28 134 General Assembly, included the great body of law allowing and 
F28 135 obligating the towns to perform numerous acts of local 
F28 136 administration. But, as always, these acts were privileges and 
F28 137 duties, not rights.<p/>
F28 138 <p_>Though the General Assembly, the lower house of which was made 
F28 139 up of representatives from the towns, was lax in its oversight of 
F28 140 town responsibilities and often legitimated deviations from the 
F28 141 law, the courts acted otherwise. In the federal era and the early 
F28 142 nineteenth century, courts compelled the assembly to enact 
F28 143 legislation authorizing activities in which the towns had been 
F28 144 engaged for generations. For instance, in 1796, the state supreme 
F28 145 court insisted that the General Assembly authorize the towns to 
F28 146 establish ordinances regulating wandering livestock, though such 
F28 147 local by-laws had been in effect for a century and a half by then. 
F28 148 Judges' opinions laid down the policy that only the state had 
F28 149 rights of eminent domain; it could order selectmen to lay out local 
F28 150 highways and require towns to tax themselves to indemnify owners 
F28 151 for land seized even over the protests of the selectmen and the 
F28 152 town. Selectmen, declared the court, were agents of the state, not 
F28 153 of the towns. Furthermore, town and city charters were no different 
F28 154 from private incorporations and must be strictly interpreted.<p/>
F28 155 <h_><p_>The Myth Rises and Is (Temporarily) Defeated<p/><h/>
F28 156 <p_>As the courts began to restrict the authority of town meetings 
F28 157 and town officials, the proponents of town autonomy - the folk 
F28 158 version - rose to defend what they thought was the legitimate 
F28 159 tradition. Out of the experience of two or three generations of 
F28 160 parents and grandparents, who pursued the simple life in 
F28 161 Connecticut's isolated antebellum towns, grew the defenders' 
F28 162 perception that their towns were at least semi-autonomous. From 
F28 163 among these defenders would soon arise Connecticut's new 
F28 164 mythmakers.<quote/><p/>
F28 165 <p_>The popular offensive against the historical bulwark of state 
F28 166 supremacy, buttressed after 1818 by an awakening judiciary, began 
F28 167 in 1855. In that year Gideon Hollister, himself a lawyer and 
F28 168 politician, sent to press the first solid history of Connecticut to 
F28 169 be published since the 1790s. Hollister described towns as 
F28 170 <quote_>"recognized and independent municipalities. They are the 
F28 171 primary centres of power, older than the Constitution [i.e., the 
F28 172 Fundamental Orders] - the makers and builders of the 
F28 173 state."<quote/> Hollister continued: the towns <quote_>"have given 
F28 174 up to the State a part of their corporate powers, as they received 
F28 175 them from the free planters, that they may have a safer guarantee 
F28 176 for the keeping of the rest. Whatever they have not given up, they 
F28 177 hold in absolute right."<quote/><p/>
F28 178 <p_>Hollister's confederation theory of Connecticut's origins was 
F28 179 developed in an era dominated nationally by the debate over states' 
F28 180 rights. Though Hollister's assertions had no basis in historical 
F28 181 fact, they provided what looked like grist for the brief of a young 
F28 182 lawyer, Charles B. Andrews, hired by the town of Harwinton to 
F28 183 defend it against charges of illegal activity. <tf_>Webster v. 
F28 184 Harwinton<tf/> grew out of the town practice, common throughout the 
F28 185 North during the Civil War, of offering bonuses to local sons who 
F28 186 enlisted or were drafted into the Union army. Taxpayers in several 
F28 187 towns challenged the right of their town meetings to tax for this 
F28 188 purpose. Andrews's fundamental theory was <quote_>"That as in a 
F28 189 democratic government ultimate sovereignty resides with the people, 
F28 190 the simplest municipal organization, viz., the towns, being the 
F28 191 most purely democratic and voluntary, possess all power with which 
F28 192 they have not expressly parted."<quote/><p/>
F28 193 <p_>The judicial mill ground Andrews's hulks and spit them out. The 
F28 194 court, dominated by Republicans in the midst of a war fought at 
F28 195 least in part against confederation theories, could not accept 
F28 196 Andrews's logic. The provision relating to towns in the Fundamental 
F28 197 Orders, wrote Chief Justice Thomas Butler for the court,<p/>
F28 198 <p_><quote_>was both a grant and a limitation of vital power, and 
F28 199 was intended to embrace towns thereafter created (as they were in 
F28 200 fact) by law, and is utterly inconsistent with the idea of a 
F28 201 reserved sovereignty, or of any absolute right in the towns, and 
F28 202 constituted the towns corporations, and the continuance of it has 
F28 203 continued them so; ...and thus their powers, instead of being 
F28 204 inherent or reserved, have been delegated and controlled by the 
F28 205 supreme legislative power of the state from its earliest 
F28 206 organization.<quote/><p/>
F28 207 <p_>This, then, is the defining statement of town powers in the 
F28 208 constitutional system of Connecticut. No court majority has 
F28 209 contested it since its articulation in 1864.<p/>
F28 210 <p_>In the decades after <tf|>Webster, voters at town meetings must 
F28 211 have been surprised to learn that they had no inherent power to tax 
F28 212 but must receive state permission for each kind of tax they chose 
F28 213 to levy. And they must tax whether they chose to or not in order to 
F28 214 fulfill local obligations imposed by the state.
F28 215 
F28 216 
F28 217 
F29   1 <#FROWN:F29\><h_><p_>Lexical Lasagna and Semantic Stew<p/>
F29   2 <p_>BY RON GLOWEN<p/><h/>
F29   3 <p_>Like the person who was surprised to learn that he had been 
F29   4 speaking prose all his life, I've discovered that I'm a 
F29   5 technologist with the appropriate skills to perform my particular 
F29   6 craft. No, it has nothing to do with changing spark plugs or 
F29   7 fathoming the cosmic implications of differential gears; nor do I 
F29   8 require the intervention of any Neo-Luddites to rid me of my 
F29   9 afflictions. Rather, the nature of my talent was revealed to me in 
F29  10 the course of my - ahem - professional activities of research and 
F29  11 writing. <tf|>Technology derives from the Greek <foreign|>techne 
F29  12 (an art or pertaining to art) and <foreign|>logos (word or 
F29  13 discourse); therefore technology means to write or talk about art, 
F29  14 or perhaps to write or talk artfully. <tf|>Skill means 
F29  15 <quote_>"discernment, knowledge, reason."<quote/> <tf|>Craft means 
F29  16 <quote_>"device, artifice or expedient."<quote/> <tf|>Art in its 
F29  17 original Latin means <quote_>"to fit"<quote/> or <quote_>"to 
F29  18 join"<quote/>; in Greek it means <quote_>"to arrange."<quote/> (All 
F29  19 definitions in this case come from the Oxford Universal 
F29  20 Dictionary.)<p/>
F29  21 <p_>Needless to say, that's not how we define or use these terms 
F29  22 today, particularly in a colloquial sense. My idle pursuit of word 
F29  23 origins, which resulted in the discovery of the true meaning of 
F29  24 technology (Eureka!), was not without some purpose, because I now 
F29  25 have a new word to lay on you, if you haven't heard it already.<p/>
F29  26 <p_><tf|>Craftart. If ever there was a word that defines itself, 
F29  27 this is it. Two root words expediently joined, or as we say in 
F29  28 Greek, 'arranged.' I cannot, nor do I want to, claim authorship of 
F29  29 this neologism, however. It was extracted from the title of a 
F29  30 conference I attended recently, the First National Symposium on 
F29  31 Criticism in the Craftarts held at New York University. Certainly 
F29  32 there have been other conferences on criticism and the crafts (I 
F29  33 recall the 1985 Oakland gathering <tf_>Art/Culture/Future<tf/> 
F29  34 sponsored by the American Craft Council). But maybe with a new term 
F29  35 for the designation of the former crafts (or <tf_>medium<tf/>-based 
F29  36 art, which incidentally means <quote_>"an intervening 
F29  37 substance"<quote/>), a whole new light might be shed on this musty 
F29  38 subject.<p/>
F29  39 <p_>It was not to be. In fact, the panel of critics and editors who 
F29  40 convened for the purpose of <tf_>Getting Our Terms Straight: The 
F29  41 Language of Criticism<tf/> completely missed the mark. The only 
F29  42 solid proposal was put forth on another panel by sculptor Winifred 
F29  43 Lutz, who urged the replacement of 'craft' with 'work' (taking her 
F29  44 cue from a book by Russell Pye, with the word <quote|>"Workmanship" 
F29  45 in the title). Etymologically speaking, this put us on firmer 
F29  46 ground - <tf|>work means <quote_>"something that is done"<quote/> - 
F29  47 but the desire here for substitution in hopes of erasing the old 
F29  48 'art and craft' dichotomy is just as prone to the language problems 
F29  49 of existing colloquial usage. In fact, Harold Rosenberg published 
F29  50 an essay entitled 'Art and Work' in 1965, an expanded version of a 
F29  51 talk he gave at the First World Congress of Craftsmen in 1964 (so 
F29  52 much for staking a claim to being first!), which addressed the very 
F29  53 same issue.<p/>
F29  54 <p_>In his essay, Rosenberg made the prescient remark that 
F29  55 <quote_>"art criticism seems to be much slower than art itself in 
F29  56 casting off the spell that identifies the artist with making and 
F29  57 the maker."<quote/> To most makers, and the audience at NYU was 
F29  58 filled with those who regard 'making' as a high calling [<tf|>make: 
F29  59 a matched fit; to do or act], this statement amounts to heresy. 
F29  60 From all indications, what is desired is the reversal of the 
F29  61 present state of affairs; quoting again from Rosenberg, 
F29  62 <quote_>"... art goes against its past as a making of things and 
F29  63 takes on the characteristics of action,"<quote/> by which he meant 
F29  64 <quote_>"... the primitive motive of art as magic and 
F29  65 celebration."<quote/> Action, in Rosenberg's lexicon, meant 
F29  66 self<?_>-<?/>development; and he concluded his essay by declaring 
F29  67 that <quote_>"... self-development shall [ideally] be the motive of 
F29  68 all work,"<quote/> and when that prevails <quote_>"... the 
F29  69 distinction between the arts and other human enterprises will 
F29  70 become meaningless."<quote/><p/>
F29  71 <p_>While there are 'art workers' who oppose the identity of 
F29  72 'artist' on the basis of ideological, social or cultural 
F29  73 difference, virtually all of the 'crafters,' 'craft workers' or 
F29  74 'craftartists' that I've encountered seek the meaningful 
F29  75 distinction of being called an 'artist.' Perhaps in the future, the 
F29  76 crafters will become the artists, and artists will become ... 
F29  77 something else. How strange that this hierarchical separation, 
F29  78 still enforced in some quarters, was cooked up from the semantic 
F29  79 stew that has given us an inverted lexical lasagna in which one 
F29  80 thing originally meant its opposite. Unfortunately, I have not 
F29  81 offered much clarity to the matter. But I am going to start calling 
F29  82 myself a 'technologist' rather than an 'art writer' so that I can 
F29  83 apply for grants from 'industry' (<foreign|>industria: diligence, 
F29  84 skill, a crafty expedient).<p/>
F29  85 
F29  86 <h_><p_>The Last Romantic: Part II<p/>
F29  87 <p_>BY FRED MARTIN<p/><h/>
F29  88 <p_>Scheherazade said, <quote_>"come back tonight ..."<quote/> and 
F29  89 disappeared in the middle of a sentence during my early morning 
F29  90 reverie at the National Council of Art Administrators last November 
F29  91 in Minneapolis, disappeared with <quote_>"You [Romantics like me] 
F29  92 are all as far from a worthwhile work ... as you were a hundred and 
F29  93 fifty years before. ..."<quote/> I knew that Scheherazade never 
F29  94 finished anything and always reappeared when night came. So, when 
F29  95 night did fall in that gloomy Minneapolis hotel room, I was not 
F29  96 surprised when Scheherazade reappeared and went right on as if 
F29  97 nothing had happened:<p/>
F29  98 <p_>As it had been for the post-Impressionists, the 
F29  99 C<*_>e-acute<*/>zannes, Gauguins and van Goghs, certain of the 
F29 100 first generation Abstract Expressionist artists were taken up by 
F29 101 perceptive dealers and sold to a 1950s version of the same audience 
F29 102 that had bought C<*_>e-acute<*/>zanne during the early twentieth 
F29 103 century. And, as C<*_>e-acute<*/>zanne et al. were followed by the 
F29 104 Picassos and Matisses, so the Abstract Expressionists were followed 
F29 105 by the Warhols, the Stellas, the Olitzkis and the Rauschenbergs. 
F29 106 And also, as it had been ever since the early nineteenth century, 
F29 107 these mid-to later-twentieth century artists worked for the 
F29 108 'cultural elite,' the art world of a couple thousand influential 
F29 109 'tastemakers,' while all of the other image<?_>-<?/>makers in 
F29 110 society worked for everyone else, the 250 million people who 
F29 111 constituted society as a whole.<p/>
F29 112 <p_>The fine artist worked for the art world; the popular artist 
F29 113 worked for the people. The fine artists' work reached its audience 
F29 114 through the art dealer and museum curator; the work of the popular 
F29 115 artist reached its audience through the recording company and the 
F29 116 radio station, the film studio and the movie theater or television 
F29 117 set. And as time passed, the work of visual fine art, largely 
F29 118 static and more cult object of social status than guiding vision of 
F29 119 human life, gave way in power and influence to popular art, which 
F29 120 was vital, engaged all the senses, moved in time and, like 
F29 121 television and the movies, brighter than life, or like recordings, 
F29 122 louder and with no wrong notes.<p/>
F29 123 <p_>That is why [Scheherazade said] you fine artists have come at 
F29 124 the end of the twentieth century to the question of your place and 
F29 125 the place of your work in a world that is evolving today and 
F29 126 tomorrow. As the art world has continued to evolve in its own 
F29 127 isolation from the major needs of the society in which you exist, 
F29 128 you speak more and more only to one another, in a dialogue ever 
F29 129 more distant from the great issues of human life, ever more 
F29 130 representative of those issues only as they may exist in the 
F29 131 individual experience of you artists yourselves, for yourselves, to 
F29 132 yourselves.<p/>
F29 133 <p_>When the Romantics began in the early nineteenth century, they 
F29 134 were leisured aristocrats who had lost their role in society. You 
F29 135 are the same. You are only Romantics, two hundred years too late. 
F29 136 <quote_>"And, dear boy,"<quote/> Scheherazade concluded, 
F29 137 <quote_>"that is the end of your story. You are worthless. The 
F29 138 world has no use for you nor any place for your works. Get 
F29 139 lost."<quote/><p/>
F29 140 <p_>Months passed after those last words from the woman who had 
F29 141 after all finished my story, and she had gone off to amuse a sultan 
F29 142 before I could strangle her with her veil, stab at her heart. Then 
F29 143 one day recently I saw a headline in a local tabloid: THE 
F29 144 PROSECUTION OF THE LYRIC POET. I think Scheherazade was the 
F29 145 Prosecutor: <quote_>"Brought before the bar of justice, accused by 
F29 146 a society in chaos of the crime of self-indulgence when the 
F29 147 services of every person are needed to promote the general welfare 
F29 148 and pursue the common good, the Lyric Poet was questioned by the 
F29 149 Prosecution:<p/>
F29 150 <p_>Q. What is your service?<p/>
F29 151 <p_>A. My service is speaking.<p/>
F29 152 <p_>Q. Why were you chosen?<p/>
F29 153 <p_>A. Because I have the talent.<p/>
F29 154 <p_>Q. For whom do you speak?<p/>
F29 155 <p_>A. I speak for the mute.<p/>
F29 156 <p_>Q. What do you say?<p/>
F29 157 <p_>A. Because I am a child, I speak for the vulnerable, the 
F29 158 frightened, the abused. I speak for the children who dream and 
F29 159 those who played the fairy stories of long ago, who play Barbie and 
F29 160 Ken and GI Joe and Transformer today ...<p/>
F29 161 <p_>Because I am an outcast, I speak for the rejected, the sinners, 
F29 162 the publicans, the whores; I speak for the poor and the homeless 
F29 163 because I am that ...<p/>
F29 164 <p_>Because I am male, I speak for men the words they cannot say: 
F29 165 the caring their machismo hides, the raging phallicism their fear 
F29 166 of homosexuality hides, the fear of age their youth disguises, the 
F29 167 fear of failure each knows but never admits ...<p/>
F29 168 <p_>Because I am female, I speak for women the rage at their 
F29 169 impotence and servitude, their repression for three hundred 
F29 170 centuries; I speak for their care for children and a love so deep 
F29 171 that it can nurture or smother, sustain or kill ...<p/>
F29 172 <p_>Because I am man/woman-woman/man, I speak all hungers of the 
F29 173 flesh for the other that is itself, I speak all lusts that are the 
F29 174 statements of despair ...<p/>
F29 175 <p_>Because I am of color, I speak all rage against the whites 
F29 176 where I project the power over my weakness; because I am white, I 
F29 177 speak all fear of the energy and sensuality which I project upon 
F29 178 the dark ...<p/>
F29 179 <p_>Because I am all, multivalent, every-faced, all age and all 
F29 180 life ... desert and mountain, breaking surf and clouds of every 
F29 181 kind, you hear me in the surging of the shore, and in hands cupped 
F29 182 hollow to your ears ...<p/>
F29 183 <p_>And because the child, the out<?_>-<?/>cast, the man, the 
F29 184 woman, the gay and lesbian, the dark and light, the desert even and 
F29 185 the mountain, sea and sky, because they are all in you, Mr. 
F29 186 Prosecutor, I speak for you ...<p/>
F29 187 <p_>Today and yesterday, tomorrow and in all days to come, I speak 
F29 188 what you cannot say; I say the world you live but cannot make - 
F29 189 until beyond the dust of now, when other times other worlds, other 
F29 190 languages other lives, your need forever remains and my service 
F29 191 forever is called.<p/>
F29 192 <p_>The Prosecution rested; the Lyric Poet had given a defense; the 
F29 193 Judge passed sentence:<p/>
F29 194 <p_><quote_>"To the Lyric Poet: Yes, show your work, speak your 
F29 195 poem, make your gift however, whenever you can. But also, return to 
F29 196 your origin to help those who begin as you once did, help children 
F29 197 learn to sing in the free chorus of the world. Show at the local 
F29 198 art festival and be proud when your work hangs on the walls of 
F29 199 lovers' bedrooms; teach at the local school and be proud when 
F29 200 second graders paint their first world. The Romantic Artist is 
F29 201 dead, long live the Lyric Poet."<quote/><p/>
F29 202 
F29 203 <h_><p_>Blame It on Columbus<p/>
F29 204 <p_><tf_>Beyond 1992<tf/> at the Berkeley Art Center<p/>
F29 205 <p_>BY BRUNO FAZZOLARI<p/><h/>
F29 206 <p_>During the course of this year just about every sector of the 
F29 207 art and media worlds will perform a ritual homage and analysis of 
F29 208 the Columbus Quincentennial. That such institutions as 
F29 209 <tf|>Newsweek have raised doubts about the heroic stature of 
F29 210 Columbus indicates more about the current cultural climate than 
F29 211 about Columbus himself, however. To take an example from 
F29 212 <tf_>Beyond 1992<tf/>, currently at the Berkeley Art Center, the 
F29 213 image of Columbus readily calls forth the man and his entire 
F29 214 colonial legacy, but it is unlikely that the man himself would 
F29 215 recognize his own likeness, for the portrait we know was produced 
F29 216 long after his death.<p/>
F29 217 
F29 218 
F29 219 
F30   1 <#FROWN:F30\><p_>Delegation of educational authority, then, is a 
F30   2 product of specialization, but it is equally a function of the 
F30   3 extrinsicality of an important purpose of the major. The success of 
F30   4 a department that regards itself as preparing students for practice 
F30   5 or further study is measured by the relevant success of its 
F30   6 students, a fact that has an effect on its decisions. One such 
F30   7 external influence on the major is informal and often subjective, 
F30   8 consisting as it does of the sum total of departmental beliefs 
F30   9 about how success is achieved out there in the world, with the 
F30  10 evidence fragmentary and anecdotal. The upshot tends to be the 
F30  11 principle, <tf_>when in doubt, include<tf/>, since the failure of 
F30  12 even a small number of students to reach their goal is vastly more 
F30  13 obvious than the harm of a one-sided education for a much larger 
F30  14 number.<p/>
F30  15 <p_>The aim of a second influence is more precise and steady. 
F30  16 Often, graduate departments, professional schools, employers, and - 
F30  17 especially for professional majors - accrediting and licensing 
F30  18 agencies are quite explicit in their demands, to the point of 
F30  19 specifying courses. Entrance requirements or preferences, personnel 
F30  20 officers' guidelines to school placement officers, or conditions 
F30  21 for accreditation all leave their mark on the curricula of majors. 
F30  22 The prerogatives of expertise and the demands of external agencies 
F30  23 thus tend to crowd out the determination of majors by faculties of 
F30  24 particular institutions. And because these forces also suppress 
F30  25 attention to potentially intrinsic pedagogic values of the major, a 
F30  26 closer look at the relationship between the stage that prepares and 
F30  27 those it prepares for is important.<p/>
F30  28 <p_>For many students, of course, the undergraduate major is 
F30  29 followed by related advanced study or by employment that calls for 
F30  30 the knowledge and skills acquired. Undoubtedly, this orderly 
F30  31 sequence occurs more consistently in job-related undergraduate 
F30  32 professional programs, such as engineering, nursing, or education, 
F30  33 than for arts and sciences majors, though there will be differences 
F30  34 among the latter. That the major prepares is not fiction. Insofar 
F30  35 as undergraduate education in America can be regarded as a bridge 
F30  36 from variability of talent and schooling to postbaccalaureate 
F30  37 education and professional employment (where relatively uniform 
F30  38 professionwide standards prevail), majors are the main girders of 
F30  39 that bridge.<p/>
F30  40 <p_>Accordingly, it is quite appropriate for undergraduate 
F30  41 institutions to look outside for guidance in the design of certain 
F30  42 of their programs. But for educational institutions with pedagogic 
F30  43 goals of their own, some modes of looking are more fitting than 
F30  44 others. Even the few broad principles to be suggested here, 
F30  45 however, will call for different policies in different professions 
F30  46 and fields.<p/>
F30  47 <p_>One must distinguish, to begin with, between students making 
F30  48 their entrance into that next stage and functioning within it once 
F30  49 inside. To the ears of a faculty, the keepers of portals have by 
F30  50 far the most audible voices: campus recruiters, personnel officers, 
F30  51 deans of admission, licensing agencies. And while these 
F30  52 representatives speak for their institutions, they nevertheless 
F30  53 bring to their tasks special perspectives of their own. The success 
F30  54 of company recruiters and personnel officers, for example, is 
F30  55 measured primarily by the degree of satisfaction of the first 
F30  56 supervisors of the new employees, whether or not this forecasts a 
F30  57 longer-run flourishing of the employee. Admissions officers, given 
F30  58 their task of dealing with large numbers of applicants, tend toward 
F30  59 the use of indicators that permit decisions to be made efficiently 
F30  60 - that is, relatively rapidly, and without too much 'subjective' 
F30  61 discretion by the decision makers.<p/>
F30  62 <p_>Since the accomplishments of students who do not get through 
F30  63 the door will not then be further tested, the preparing faculty 
F30  64 must, of course, pay heed to such entrance requirements. But, as 
F30  65 educators, they must also look beyond that portal to the 
F30  66 functioning of their students over a longer career. Just as we 
F30  67 expect a law school to prepare students for a career in the law 
F30  68 (and not just for the bar exam), so the faculty in charge of an 
F30  69 undergraduate program must base its curricular decisions on an 
F30  70 understanding of a longer and deeper trajectory. Bluntly put, 
F30  71 <tf|>faculties must make the educational decisions, not recruiters 
F30  72 and admission officers.<p/>
F30  73 <p_>A bureaucratic point that has considerable pedagogic 
F30  74 consequences corroborates this fundamental principle. For the sake 
F30  75 of convenience, requirements are often stated in the language of 
F30  76 courses. Required: one semester of calculus; one year of 
F30  77 accounting; one course in design; a year of organic chemistry; and 
F30  78 so on. But what is actually needed on the job or in advanced study 
F30  79 is never a <tf|>course but certain substantive <tf|>knowledge and 
F30  80 certain broad or specific <tf|>skills, expected to be acquired in 
F30  81 those courses.<p/>
F30  82 <p_>No doubt they usually are, and no doubt much more is, as well. 
F30  83 Courses are packages, with the selection of contents a function of 
F30  84 the structure of the field, of habit, history, and convenience. It 
F30  85 remains open as to whether, when a course is specified, what is 
F30  86 substantively needed includes all that is required. Where a 
F30  87 discipline's internal organization does not dictate the package's 
F30  88 components, it can easily happen that a broader <tf|>educational 
F30  89 decision is made for the sake of a narrower <tf|>admissions need. 
F30  90 When a conventional course is required for the sake of a certain 
F30  91 ability or quality of mind, an educational decision might suggest a 
F30  92 quite different road toward that goal.<p/>
F30  93 <p_>This theme - that the faculty responsible for a major must 
F30  94 translate external demands into decisions of its own - becomes 
F30  95 central when the issue of the major as preparation is placed in the 
F30  96 broadest perspective. We are moving in realms in which much more is 
F30  97 to be learned in preparation for the next stage than there is time 
F30  98 for. As a result, on-the-job training and continuing education 
F30  99 within the workplace have become very big business, indeed. Such 
F30 100 activities range from informal (but time-consuming) on-the-job 
F30 101 training, to instruction in company-specific practices, to 
F30 102 technical courses and workshops that closely resemble those of the 
F30 103 academy, to instruction that is indistinguishable from that 
F30 104 provided in colleges and universities, right up to 
F30 105 degree<?_>-<?/>granting corporate institutions. In short, 
F30 106 everywhere the growth of knowledge has been such that students must 
F30 107 embark on that next stage before being fully prepared for it.<p/>
F30 108 <p_>At best, the undergraduate major can only do part of the job of 
F30 109 preparing, even if it had no other goals; the faculty cannot avoid 
F30 110 selecting what is to be included and what will be left to be 
F30 111 learned later. Three broad principles should govern such choices; 
F30 112 the fact that they are virtually self-evident most certainly does 
F30 113 not assure that they are observed. First, where learning one thing 
F30 114 builds on the prior knowledge of something else, that dependency 
F30 115 dictates an order of learning. Because this simple logic has 
F30 116 immediate pedagogic consequences, it is in general, though by no 
F30 117 means always, adhered to. But since the adverse consequences of 
F30 118 violating either of the other two principles do not become manifest 
F30 119 until long after the undergraduate years, an equivalent 
F30 120 simpleminded logic does not have analogous coercive force.<p/>
F30 121 <p_>Institutional setting may make a big difference as to how 
F30 122 adequately some material is taught or whether it can be taught at 
F30 123 all. Some teaching should take place in colleges and universities, 
F30 124 asserts this second principle, because it can only be taught there 
F30 125 or can be taught much better there than elsewhere. Other knowledge 
F30 126 or skills are more readily acquired in the environment of the 
F30 127 postbaccalaureate stage. Where needed as part of preparation, the 
F30 128 first of such subjects should be included in the major, in place of 
F30 129 subjects that might be acquired elsewhere, while one ought to omit 
F30 130 those in the second category, even in the face of pressures from 
F30 131 students who want to get there faster.<p/>
F30 132 <p_>A recent study of professional education analyzes the notion of 
F30 133 professional competence into six components, to take a single 
F30 134 example. One, called <quote_>"contextual competence,"<quote/> 
F30 135 <quote_>"signifies an understanding of the broad social, economic, 
F30 136 and cultural setting in which the profession is practiced."<quote/> 
F30 137 Since it is unlikely that all six components can be adequately 
F30 138 acquired in the course of an undergraduate professional program, it 
F30 139 makes sense to include material that takes advantage of the 
F30 140 availability, at an institution of higher education, of such 
F30 141 departments as economics, sociology, anthropology, say, not to 
F30 142 mention broad library holdings. On the other hand, and for a number 
F30 143 of reasons, if the intention is indeed to focus history and the 
F30 144 social sciences on the profession being studied, such 
F30 145 <quote_>"contextual competence"<quote/> is much more difficult to 
F30 146 acquire 'on the job.' Suitability of place, absolutely or 
F30 147 comparatively, suggests that <quote_>"contextual 
F30 148 competence"<quote/> be given some priority in the design of a 
F30 149 major.<p/>
F30 150 <p_>On the other side, the point has been made with some force that 
F30 151 schools will never succeed in educating teachers in such a way that 
F30 152 they are good teachers when they <tf|>start teaching. Programs that 
F30 153 aim at preparing teachers should therefore teach <tf_>how to learn 
F30 154 to teach<tf/> and leave the job of actually becoming good teachers 
F30 155 to the years of beginning practice. Wherever such an observation is 
F30 156 taken seriously, important <tf|>curricular decisions follow.<p/>
F30 157 <p_>Finally, there is the power of time. Some things not learned 
F30 158 early are later learned with much greater difficulty at best. The 
F30 159 <quote_>"interpersonal communication competence"<quote/> called for 
F30 160 in that study on professional education is surely best acquired 
F30 161 when young. For reasons rooted in psychological, if not biological 
F30 162 truths about human development, the cost of postponement can be 
F30 163 high. Other studies are best engaged in earlier rather than later 
F30 164 for economic or sociological reasons. For what one is free to 
F30 165 explore at an earlier stage may later be precluded by increasing 
F30 166 pressure to specialize and by economic constraints. Options open in 
F30 167 youth that might, in principle, be recaptured later tend, in 
F30 168 practice, to remain out of reach.<p/>
F30 169 <p_>That these truths have long been known is no assurance that 
F30 170 they are incorporated in educational programs. They are, however, 
F30 171 of particular relevance to the design of majors, insofar as they 
F30 172 are intended to provide an adequate preparation for stages beyond 
F30 173 the undergraduate years.<p/>
F30 174 <h_><p_>THE PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES OF THE MAJOR<p/><h/>
F30 175 <p_>We have been concerned up to now with the educational 
F30 176 effectiveness of the major as preparation for specific future 
F30 177 stages, without attending to the educational function of the 
F30 178 undergraduate major for those who do not take that road. While 
F30 179 there is a paucity of statistical evidence on the careers of 
F30 180 students after college, it is widely known that for many of them, 
F30 181 the major is not at all followed by related advanced study or 
F30 182 employment.<p/>
F30 183 <p_>First, quite a few undergraduate majors simply do not prepare 
F30 184 for some designated next step. Often this is obvious to students 
F30 185 and faculty alike, but at times both groups, especially students, 
F30 186 suffer from misapprehensions. Many interdisciplinary majors have no 
F30 187 graduate counterparts, nor are there specific jobs for someone who 
F30 188 has completed a program in ancient civilizations, say. But, more 
F30 189 insidiously, some professional-sounding majors are wrongly believed 
F30 190 to qualify the graduate for a position in that profession. Many 
F30 191 bachelors in journalism, for example, will be disappointed not to 
F30 192 be hired as reporters; the fact that some undergraduate economics 
F30 193 majors like to call themselves economists does not make it so when 
F30 194 they are on the lookout for jobs. This perspective on the major not 
F30 195 only raises questions about effective communication with students 
F30 196 but about the very ethos of the major as preparation.<p/>
F30 197 <p_>Second, for at least two reasons, numerous students who intend 
F30 198 to use the major as a road to relevant advanced study or employment 
F30 199 never get there. Even where a <tf|>program prepares, many 
F30 200 individual students simply do not do well enough to make it. In 
F30 201 some areas, the standards for success are so high that the number 
F30 202 who fail to reach the next stage is large. Think of the biology 
F30 203 majors who are not admitted into a medical school or a Ph.D. 
F30 204 program! On the other hand, a program can be well designed to 
F30 205 prepare students for a career, and they might complete it admirably 
F30 206 but may find that the number of openings in the world of work is so 
F30 207 small that there is no room for them. At different times, this 
F30 208 disproportion has held for every profession for which 
F30 209 undergraduates prepare: education, engineering, music, library 
F30 210 science, pharmacy, and social work, to give a few prominent 
F30 211 examples.<p/>
F30 212 
F30 213 
F31   1 <#FROWN:F31\><p_>There can be no natural explanation for the origin 
F31   2 of this cancer-fighting wonder other than past heavy losses of 
F31   3 juveniles to cancer.<p/>
F31   4 <p_>Because it was activated only after healthy cells were 
F31   5 converted into the deadly cancer state, the increasingly efficient 
F31   6 immune system enabled many species to weaken, or even abandon, 
F31   7 first line defenses. The animals were still, from the gene's view, 
F31   8 disposable vehicles, and every act of somatic cell creation in a 
F31   9 developing animal was still a threat to the germ line. But the 
F31  10 'fail safe' nature of immune systems liberated the gene pools. 
F31  11 Released from the restrictions imposed by risk-aversive cancer 
F31  12 defenses, many of these emboldened invaders of the sun-drenched 
F31  13 land surfaces could do what would be unthinkable with only a single 
F31  14 line of defenses:<p/>
F31  15 
F31  16 <p_>Increase the length of prereproductive life.<p/>
F31  17 <p_>Lengthen total life spans. The aging process was attenuated.<p/>
F31  18 <p_>Invest more cells in each organism. Giant animals - dinosaurs 
F31  19 at an earlier time, humans now - came to dominate life on earth.<p/>
F31  20 <p_>Externalize soft tissue as the need for noncellular external 
F31  21 hard coverings were reduced or eliminated.<p/>
F31  22 <p_>Because of that externalization of tissue, develop greater 
F31  23 flexibility and mobility.<p/>
F31  24 <p_>Eliminate, in some species, body hair, a noncellular covering 
F31  25 with proven cancer-defense properties. (I say more about hair later 
F31  26 in the chapter.)<p/>
F31  27 <p_>Reduce skin pigmentation in many humans and in a few species of 
F31  28 domestic animals - some pigs and some rabbits have white-pink 
F31  29 skin.<p/>
F31  30 <p_>In many species, spend entire days in direct sunlight.<p/>
F31  31 
F31  32 <p_>In most immunologically-equipped lineages the animals increased 
F31  33 in size. That is because immune systems not only <tf|>permitted 
F31  34 larger animals, they <tf|>encouraged them. With an effective immune 
F31  35 defense in place additional cells actually protect against 
F31  36 cancer.<p/>
F31  37 <p_>But if <tf|>fewer cells were cancer defensive in insects, how 
F31  38 could <tf|>more cells be cancer defensive in vertebrates? To 
F31  39 understand this apparent paradox, consider two vertebrates with 
F31  40 cells of similar size. One is a mouse whose liver is no larger than 
F31  41 the eraser at the end of a pencil. The other is a whale, and it's 
F31  42 liver is the size of a small automobile. If cancer were to start in 
F31  43 one liver cell in each animal and proliferate at the same rate of 
F31  44 speed, which animal would be the first to die? Obviously, the mouse 
F31  45 would go first. Because of its smaller size, the mouse's liver 
F31  46 would stop functioning before the whale's. And the whale's immune 
F31  47 system, with more time to organize a counterattack against the 
F31  48 killer cells, would have a better chance of winning its fight 
F31  49 against the killer cells and might save the animal.<p/>
F31  50 <p_>(In his 'Phylogeny and Oncogeny' Clyde J. Dawe pointed out that 
F31  51 although whales have many more cells at risk than mice and might be 
F31  52 expected to have higher lethal cancer rates they in fact have far 
F31  53 lower rates. He speculated that certain physical characteristics of 
F31  54 whales [he mentions higher levels of fatty tissue] might explain 
F31  55 the whale's lower death rate. He seems not to have considered 
F31  56 time-to-kill versus time-to-react as a factor.)<p/>
F31  57 
F31  58 <p_>The terrestrial vertebrates include among their number the only 
F31  59 <tf|>large animals that regularly expose themselves to intense 
F31  60 sunlight. Vertebrates are also the only animals known to have 
F31  61 cancer specific immune systems. And they have yet another unique 
F31  62 characteristic: they are the only animals that sleep.<p/>
F31  63 <p_>Sleep is a major evolutionary mystery. Land vertebrates spend 
F31  64 one-third of their lives in an unconscious state, utterly 
F31  65 defenseless against attack by predators. Natural selection would 
F31  66 have worked against the selection of this defenseless state unless 
F31  67 it offered other life-or-death benefits. My theory looks at all the 
F31  68 facts and asserts that sleep's primary function is to defend 
F31  69 against cancer.<p/>
F31  70 <p_>To begin my case, consider that the greatest risk of cancer 
F31  71 initiation occurs during mitosis. That delicate process of passing 
F31  72 genetic material from one mother cell to two daughter cells is, in 
F31  73 organisms with oncogenes, nothing less than death-defying. It is 
F31  74 also an incredibly frequent occurrence in large animals. Cells 
F31  75 divide ten quadrillion times during a human lifetime. <tf_>That's 
F31  76 350 thousand million cell divisions every twenty-four hours!<tf/> 
F31  77 If just <tf|>one of those divisions went awry, the mishap could 
F31  78 kill the organism. And any cell divisions that misfired in 
F31  79 juveniles would imperil the lineage.<p/>
F31  80 <p_>Significantly, these highly dangerous acts occur in vertebrates 
F31  81 <tf_>during sleep<tf/>. Human skin cells, for example, divide 
F31  82 mostly between the hours of midnight and 4 AM. The connection with 
F31  83 sunlight is obvious. Cells divide at night in animals that are 
F31  84 active during daylight and during the day in most nocturnal 
F31  85 animals. Bats and mice sleep during the day, but they sleep, and 
F31  86 their cells divide (<}_><-|>its<+|>it's<}/> been observed and 
F31  87 measured in mice) in places sheltered from sunlight; bats sleep in 
F31  88 caves and mice in burrows.<p/>
F31  89 <p_>Using the 'cause of death' rule, the universality of sleep in 
F31  90 land vertebrates (all mammals, birds and reptiles sleep) leads to 
F31  91 the question, what killed animals that did <tf|>not sleep? The 
F31  92 facts - mitosis during sleep, sunlight avoidance while sleeping - 
F31  93 point to cancer.<p/>
F31  94 <p_>Another set of facts that supports this idea is the age-related 
F31  95 sleep pattern in our own species. Humans sleep most during infancy 
F31  96 - newborns sleep 18 or more hours a day - when new cell production, 
F31  97 and the risk of cancer initiation, is at its highest level. After 
F31  98 infancy sleep decreases steadily with age, but with one significant 
F31  99 exception. Adolescents sleep more than pre-adolescents. Again, 
F31 100 there is a correlation with growth and increased cell division: 
F31 101 rates of increase in height and weight during adolescence are 
F31 102 second only to infancy. Cancer experience also correlates. 
F31 103 Adolescents are especially vulnerable to cancer related to growth. 
F31 104 Leg bones grow rapidly during adolescence and cancer in those bones 
F31 105 almost exclusively occurs in teenagers.<p/>
F31 106 <p_>Another medical fact pointing toward sleep's function as a 
F31 107 cancer defense: the increase in sleep following severe trauma. 
F31 108 Persons recovering from major surgery or other trauma - when cells 
F31 109 division increases to repair damaged tissue - sleep more than 
F31 110 normal.<p/>
F31 111 <p_>There is still more evidence. The pituitary gland secretes 
F31 112 growth hormone when we sleep. According to Yasuro Takahashi, 
F31 113 <quote_>"...the highest peak of [growth hormone] concentrations in 
F31 114 a 24-hour period always occurs during ...sleep."<quote/><p/>
F31 115 <p_>How does sleep enhance cancer-free cell division? I don't know. 
F31 116 This is a black box proposal. I suspect, however, that the state of 
F31 117 unconsciousness was selected to enforce physical inactivity and 
F31 118 that inactivity provides an internal somatic environment conducive 
F31 119 to the successful division of cells.<p/>
F31 120 
F31 121 <p_>I have said that insects shield their larvae from solar 
F31 122 radiation as a cancer defense. The terrestrial vertebrates also 
F31 123 protect their embryos from radiation, but they didn't put them 
F31 124 under rocks.<p/>
F31 125 <p_>Most vertebrate fish embryos were not protected by their 
F31 126 parents. They reproduced with external fertilization and external 
F31 127 gestation; many fertilized eggs develop in open water. But when 
F31 128 some of the fishes' descendants migrated to land they moved toward 
F31 129 greater embryo protection. This is evident in the earliest land 
F31 130 animals, the amphibians. Although some amphibians use the fish 
F31 131 system of external fertilization and external gestation, other use 
F31 132 internal fertilization followed by external gestation. And a few 
F31 133 species use both internal fertilization and internal gestation.<p/>
F31 134 <p_>In the next big evolutionary step, the emergency of true 
F31 135 terrestrials, the reptiles and birds, fertilization became internal 
F31 136 and all embryos were protected in hard-shelled eggs, some of which 
F31 137 were buried by the parents.<p/>
F31 138 <p_>Embryo protection was further intensified in mammals. Both 
F31 139 fertilization and gestation are internal.<p/>
F31 140 <p_>That progression from exposed fertilization and exposed 
F31 141 gestation to shielded fertilization and shielded gestation implies 
F31 142 unrelenting selection pressure. Such long term trends in many 
F31 143 lineages are best explained, again applying Occam's Razor, by a 
F31 144 single selection mechanism working throughout the long 
F31 145 transformation period, rather than by a melange of assumptions.<p/>
F31 146 <p_>Increased protection of embryos occurred in lineages that 
F31 147 underwent great transformation and my theory says transformation 
F31 148 itself could not occur without lots of juvenile cancer, including 
F31 149 embryo cancer. The intensification of cancer selection pressure as 
F31 150 the animals moved away from the protection of the sea would also 
F31 151 explain the change to internal fertilization and internal 
F31 152 gestation.<p/>
F31 153 <p_>As my theory would predict, no comparable intensification of 
F31 154 protection of very young offspring occurred when <tf|>plants moved 
F31 155 from marine to terrestrial habitats.<p/>
F31 156 
F31 157 <p_>Despite the fact that many mammals have discarded heavy 
F31 158 external protection against sunlight, all land vertebrates continue 
F31 159 to shield mitotic cells from natural radiation.<p/>
F31 160 <p_>Blood cells in humans and other vertebrates, which divide more 
F31 161 rapidly than other cells, divide inside large bones. As X-ray 
F31 162 images demonstrate, bone tissue protects against radiation.<p/>
F31 163 <p_>In four-legged animals, the soft organs, which are made up 
F31 164 mainly of dividing cells, are protected from exposure to sunlight 
F31 165 by layers of cells that do not divide; muscles and, to a lesser 
F31 166 extent, nerve cells.<p/>
F31 167 <p_>The observation that pre-mitotic cells are routinely shielded 
F31 168 by cells that do not divide suggests that cancer selection explains 
F31 169 one of the great mysteries of recent evolution, the origin of the 
F31 170 human brain.<p/>
F31 171 <p_>Paleontologists have established, with the 1974 discovery in 
F31 172 Ethiopia of the hominid fossil 'Lucy,' that our ancestors first 
F31 173 became bipedal about 3.5 million years ago. They stood up before 
F31 174 they acquired their large brains. The big brains - they more than 
F31 175 doubled in size from Lucy's - did not appear until about 2 million 
F31 176 years ago. That sudden appearance - and in evolution 1.5 million 
F31 177 years is a short time - is a puzzle. So quickly did the new brain 
F31 178 appear that biologist Anthony Smith estimates that it grew at an 
F31 179 average rate of 90,000 cells in each generation!<p/>
F31 180 <p_>All previous ideas about that sudden origin revolve around the 
F31 181 supposed survival value of human intelligence. They ignore several 
F31 182 powerful signs pointing to cancer selection.<p/>
F31 183 <p_>The <tf|>locale where our ancestors were living when the big 
F31 184 brains first appeared is highly significant. It was in the Rift 
F31 185 Valley, which runs from North to South, dividing central Africa in 
F31 186 half. West of the valley the land is covered with heavy foliage; 
F31 187 it's mostly deep, dark jungle. To the east it's savanna; open land 
F31 188 bombarded by fierce tropical sunlight. The valley itself, where 
F31 189 Lucy lived, is now one of the hottest places on earth. It is risky 
F31 190 to assume that current climatic conditions obtained millions of 
F31 191 years in the past, but I make no such assumption. According to a 
F31 192 1984 article in <tf_>The New York Times<tf/>, specialists are 
F31 193 convinced that humans appeared when the area changed from shady 
F31 194 forest to sun-drenched savanna.<p/>
F31 195 <p_>Suddenly spending entire days with the blazing African sun 
F31 196 beating down on the top of their heads (thanks to their recent 
F31 197 adaptation of bipedalism), early humans suffered losses from brain 
F31 198 cancer. But - and this is essential - most brain tumors do not 
F31 199 start in functioning brain cells, not in neurons. They start in 
F31 200 glial cells, dividing non-nerve cells that circulate inside the 
F31 201 cranial vault. Neurons are postmitotic; they never divide, not once 
F31 202 the brain has been constructed. And brain construction is completed 
F31 203 in <tf|>early childhood.<p/>
F31 204 <p_>If glial-cell cancer killed many human children, selection 
F31 205 would have favoured the placement of additional neurons on the top 
F31 206 of the mammalian brain we inherited from Lucy and our other 
F31 207 protohuman ancestors. Those additional nondividing cells, placed 
F31 208 between the dividing cells and that harsh African sun, would have 
F31 209 blocked the carcinogenic solar radiation.<p/>
F31 210 <p_>Certain observations support this idea:<p/>
F31 211 
F31 212 <p_>Cancer is the second leading cause of death among American 
F31 213 children. And the <tf|>second leading site of lethal cancer in 
F31 214 children is brain cancer; it accounted for 14% of childhood cancer 
F31 215 deaths in a recent year. (The leading cause of death is accidents 
F31 216 and leukemia is the most common cancer.)<p/>
F31 217 
F31 218 <p_>Children have thick hair <tf|>only on the top of their heads. 
F31 219 Humans lost their thick <tf|>body hair, and biologists are 
F31 220 convinced that they shed it to survive in the heat of the African 
F31 221 plain. But most of our body heat escapes through our heads. (It's 
F31 222 why most people wear hats in cold weather.) If we got rid of body 
F31 223 hair to keep cool in the African heat, its retention by juveniles 
F31 224 (remember, their welfare was essential to lineage survival) in the 
F31 225 one place where it would most interfere with body-cooling suggests 
F31 226 that something else was also involved. I think childrens'<&|>sic! 
F31 227 hair protected them against sunlight-caused brain cancer.
F31 228 
F31 229 
F32   1 <#FROWN:F32\><p_>The argument could legitimately be made that 
F32   2 virtually all coverage of national government is primarily the 
F32   3 drama surrounding the president - from the story of the initial 
F32   4 policy proposal through the Congress's handling of the issue to the 
F32   5 president's subsequent reaction to Congress. It may even extend to 
F32   6 the role of interest groups, the states and localities, the federal 
F32   7 bureaucracy, and the Supreme Court. Energy programs, budget cuts, 
F32   8 anti-inflation plans all receive elongated coverage if they emanate 
F32   9 from the White House and are considered top priorities of the 
F32  10 president.<p/>
F32  11 <p_>Not only does the president get a lot of press coverage, but 
F32  12 most of it is favorable, or at worst neutral. Although the number 
F32  13 of unfavorable stories has increased since the late 1960s and early 
F32  14 1970s (Vietnam and Watergate) the president still receives more 
F32  15 favorable than unfavorable press.<p/>
F32  16 <h_><p_>MANAGING THE NEWS<p/><h/>
F32  17 <p_>The president's media coverage is generally positive primarily 
F32  18 because of White House efforts to manage the news. The White House 
F32  19 usually does not need to solicit the press's attention (although it 
F32  20 cannot take such attention for granted), but the president's staff 
F32  21 does try to affect the content that is transmitted. A vital and 
F32  22 time-consuming job of the president and his senior advisors is the 
F32  23 shaping of news coverage to the president's advantage.<p/>
F32  24 <p_>Former White House Communications Director David Gergen aptly 
F32  25 describes this preoccupation:<p/>
F32  26 <p_><quote_><tf_>We had a rule in the Nixon [presidency] that 
F32  27 before any public event was put on his schedule, you had to know 
F32  28 what the headline out of that event was going to be, what the 
F32  29 picture was going to be, and what the lead paragraph would 
F32  30 be.<tf/><quote/><p/>
F32  31 <h_><p_>Image-Making<p/><h/>
F32  32 <p_>The White House works to create an image of the president which 
F32  33 supports the president's policy objectives and creates a reservoir 
F32  34 of political capital (that is, popular support), for the president 
F32  35 in his battles with Congress and others. This imagemaking is 
F32  36 especially crucial in the first year of a new administration when 
F32  37 the new president seeks to translate an electoral mandate into 
F32  38 congressional and public support for the administration's 
F32  39 proposals. The president not only can be more successful in 
F32  40 accomplishing policy objectives, but he also can draw an image of 
F32  41 himself which will form the first strong impression in the public 
F32  42 mind. Fortuitously, the press also concentrates on the personality 
F32  43 of the new president in this first year. (See Table 8.1.) Since 
F32  44 such information is new, it is considered newsworthy. The White 
F32  45 House, aware of this emphasis, seeks to take advantage of it 
F32  46 through imagemaking. According to Grossman and Kumar, the image 
F32  47 created generally encompasses the president's personal 
F32  48 characteristics, leadership ability, and policy.<p/>
F32  49 <p_><tf_>The President Is Human.<tf/> The White House attempts to 
F32  50 'humanize' the president, particularly in the first year of a new 
F32  51 administration. Reporters are quick to pick up on such stories, 
F32  52 since they appeal to a natural human interest in an important 
F32  53 personality and his family.<p/>
F32  54 <p_>Typically, the White House portrays the president as one who is 
F32  55 close to the concerns of the citizenry, whether that be through an 
F32  56 emphasis on Jimmy Carter's small-town roots, his experiences as a 
F32  57 farmer and small businessman, and his preference for staying in 
F32  58 voters' homes during campaign trips, or on George Bush's 
F32  59 predilection for pork rinds, backyard barbecues, and playing 
F32  60 horseshoes. The public flap over Nancy Reagan's designer dresses 
F32  61 was the other side of this coin. The press is vital in 
F32  62 communicating this image to the public: the president as common 
F32  63 man.<p/>
F32  64 <p_><tf_>The First Family.<tf/> The president's family is used to 
F32  65 demonstrate his compassion as well as a model home life. The First 
F32  66 Lady's involvement in noncontroversial causes such as Barbara 
F32  67 Bush's work on adult illiteracy aid the president's image as a 
F32  68 concerned individual. In the case of Barbara Bush, her matronly 
F32  69 figure and grey hair has reinforced an image as a typical woman, 
F32  70 particularly by comparison with Nancy Reagan, who was petite and 
F32  71 dressed in fashionable designer clothes. Children, particularly 
F32  72 younger children, can soften the public image of the president. 
F32  73 Even animals, when presidential offspring are adults, can serve a 
F32  74 similar role, as evidenced by the attention to Millie, the Bush's 
F32  75 pregnant spaniel who was featured on the cover of <tf|>Life 
F32  76 magazine.<p/>
F32  77 <p_>Emphasis on family can backfire, however, given inappropriate 
F32  78 context or behavior. Jimmy Carter's mention during the 1980 
F32  79 presidential debate that he had discussed nuclear arms policy with 
F32  80 his 13-year-old daughter Amy was met with derision, since it 
F32  81 implied he received policy advice from his teenage daughter, and 
F32  82 Carter's brother Billy became involved in an embarrassing scandal 
F32  83 over his role as a lobbyist for Libya. Ronald Reagan's children 
F32  84 undercut both his 'family man' image and his positions on moral 
F32  85 issues; son Ron appeared on <tf_>Saturday Night Live<tf/> in his 
F32  86 underwear, and daughter Patti wrote a derogatory novel based on her 
F32  87 relationship with her father.<p/>
F32  88 <p_><tf|>Leadership. Our expectations for the presidency today 
F32  89 demand presidential leadership, or at least the appearance of such. 
F32  90 In fact, the president is severely hampered by the Constitution, by 
F32  91 statute, and by the resistance of the Congress in his 
F32  92 decision<?_>-<?/>making role. Hence, the White House concentrates 
F32  93 on projecting an image of leadership in order to gain public and 
F32  94 congressional support. Grossman and Kumar identify several 
F32  95 components of the image as a leader.<p/>
F32  96 <p_><tf_>Military Decisiveness.<tf/> The president must appear 
F32  97 militarily decisive. Early in his presidency, George Bush's use of 
F32  98 the military in Panama and the Middle East successfully reinforced 
F32  99 this image. However, Jimmy Carter's failed attempt to rescue the 
F32 100 Iran hostages and the Reagan administration's inability to oust 
F32 101 Panamanian leader Noriega in 1988 contributed to a perception of 
F32 102 military impotence.<p/>
F32 103 <p_><tf_>Control of Subordinates.<tf/> The president also is 
F32 104 expected to demonstrate leadership by firing disruptive 
F32 105 subordinates. The continued presence of a subordinate who 
F32 106 challenges the president or politically damages him is viewed as a 
F32 107 sign of weakness. President Reagan's firing of the air traffic 
F32 108 controllers in 1981 projected a strong, decisive image, but his 
F32 109 later refusal to remove his embattled chief of staff Donald Regan 
F32 110 in 1986-1987 conveyed the opposite impression.<p/>
F32 111 <p_><tf_>Intellectual Ability.<tf/> The president is expected to 
F32 112 show leadership through his command of the issues and his overall 
F32 113 intellectual ability. Presidents Kennedy, Nixon, and Carter 
F32 114 projected images of highly knowledgeable experts on complex 
F32 115 matters, although their expertise usually was demonstrated in 
F32 116 controlled settings. Ronald Reagan lacked this intellectual or 
F32 117 technical ability, but successfully lowered expectations of 
F32 118 presidential expertise by drawing the analogy of a corporate 
F32 119 chairman of the board rather than a hands-on manager. George Bush, 
F32 120 however, has restored the practice of showing leadership through 
F32 121 intellectual command of the issues.<p/>
F32 122 <p_><tf_>World Leader.<tf/> Finally, Grossman and Kumar argue that 
F32 123 the president must show leadership through his role as a world 
F32 124 figure. Presidents have often turned to foreign policy - and 
F32 125 particularly to foreign travels - to boost sagging popularity at 
F32 126 home. Richard Nixon's visit to the Soviet Union and later to the 
F32 127 Middle East in the midst of Watergate and the Camp David Summit 
F32 128 arranged by Jimmy Carter to bring together the leaders of Israel 
F32 129 and Egypt in 1978 are two examples.<p/>
F32 130 <p_>Foreign travel can also backfire. Gerald Ford's tumble down an 
F32 131 airplane stairway on a trip to Austria reinforced an 
F32 132 already-established image of incompetence, and Ronald Reagan's 
F32 133 failure to achieve an arms agreement with the Soviet Union at the 
F32 134 Iceland Summit in 1986 initially attracted critical stories from 
F32 135 the press, which the White House sought to manage by sending a 
F32 136 phalanx of top officials to the major news organizations. Even that 
F32 137 trip finally confirmed the image-building value of foreign travel 
F32 138 as Reagan's public approval rating jumped eleven points.<p/>
F32 139 <p_>Foreign travel generally reaps benefits for presidential image. 
F32 140 A study of fifteen presidential trips abroad between 1953 and 1978 
F32 141 found overwhelmingly favorable news coverage.<p/>
F32 142 <p_><tf|>Activity. Another component of image-making is the 
F32 143 illusion of activity. As the president moves about with speeches, 
F32 144 ceremonies, travel, he leaves in his wake a plethora of news 
F32 145 stories. Such reporting sustains the image of an active president, 
F32 146 even when such activity may be more symbolic than real.<p/>
F32 147 <p_>Moreover, all of these stories serve to direct the attention of 
F32 148 the press toward favorable presidential news and away from 
F32 149 investigative reporting.<p/>
F32 150 <p_><tf|>Policy. The tactics to improve the president's image with 
F32 151 the press and the public are designed primarily to lay the 
F32 152 groundwork for congressional and public support of the president's 
F32 153 policy objectives.<p/>
F32 154 <p_>The president himself specifically presses his policy agenda 
F32 155 through the news media. Presidents use speeches to various 
F32 156 audiences to push policy initiatives. These include the State of 
F32 157 the Union addresses, televised 'fireside chats,' and speeches to 
F32 158 the numerous groups offering him invitations to speak. The 
F32 159 selection of the audience is done with the press coverage in mind. 
F32 160 The setting for the speeches is fitted with the particular policy 
F32 161 objective in order to provide the backdrop and visual reinforcement 
F32 162 of the verbal message. For example, in 1988, Ronald Reagan used a 
F32 163 visit to the U.S. Coast Guard Academy to press for formation of a 
F32 164 bipartisan executive-legislative commission on drug 
F32 165 interdiction.<p/>
F32 166 <h_><p_>Press Access<p/><h/>
F32 167 <p_>As Reagan's presidency emphasized, one recurring point of 
F32 168 contention between the press and the White House has been access to 
F32 169 the president. While nearly all members of Congress, including the 
F32 170 leadership, are readily available for questioning, the president 
F32 171 has sometimes maintained an aloofness from the press.<p/>
F32 172 <p_>Historically, the White House has gone to great lengths to 
F32 173 encourage reporters and offer access. Presidents have provided 
F32 174 office space within the walls of the White House for the press's 
F32 175 operations, and those facilities have gradually improved. 
F32 176 Ironically, Richard Nixon moved the press even closer to the Oval 
F32 177 Office by covering over the swimming pool and moving the press into 
F32 178 the West Wing. In addition to office space, the White House 
F32 179 arranges for press access to the president as he travels.<p/>
F32 180 <p_>But press access nevertheless is controlled by the 
F32 181 administration. The press is kept in a confined environment at the 
F32 182 White House, and reporters are prohibited from wandering at will. 
F32 183 Formal access to senior officials is granted at the 
F32 184 administration's descretion, and presidents have discouraged, 
F32 185 although usually unsuccessfully, unauthorized contacts between 
F32 186 staff and the press.<p/>
F32 187 <p_>Access is extended when it serves the administration's purposes 
F32 188 and denied when it does not. Favored reporters and columnists are 
F32 189 granted private interviews with the president and exclusive 
F32 190 stories, for example, while others who are viewed as unfriendly are 
F32 191 denied such access.<p/>
F32 192 <p_>According to Reagan press secretary Larry Speakes, favorites 
F32 193 during the Reagan years, for example, included columnists James J. 
F32 194 Kilpatrick and George Will, Hugh Sidey of <tf|>Time, Bill Plante 
F32 195 and Gary Schuster of CBS. But other reporters were accorded 
F32 196 different treatment. For example, during the Reagan presidency, 
F32 197 reporters for the <tf_>Washington Times<tf/> were shunned by the 
F32 198 White House Press Office for printing stories about Nancy Reagan's 
F32 199 dislike for Larry Speakes.<p/>
F32 200 <h_><p_>Speaking for the President<p/><h/>
F32 201 <p_>Managing the news about the presidency means controlling the 
F32 202 statements emanating from the White House. Such control eludes 
F32 203 presidents since not all who speak about the president, or even 
F32 204 those who speak for him, are saying what he would want said. 
F32 205 Presidential spokespersons include the president himself, and also 
F32 206 a wide array of persons ranging from the press secretary to a lowly 
F32 207 White House staff member.<p/>
F32 208 <p_>According to Colin Seymour-Ure, there are six types of 
F32 209 spokespersons who are differentiated on the basis of their 
F32 210 regularity in meeting with the press, their authorization to speak 
F32 211 to the press, and their specialization as public relations 
F32 212 professionals.<p/>
F32 213 <p_>Presidential press secretaries, authorized specialists, meet 
F32 214 with the press routinely. The press secretary speaks formally for 
F32 215 the president in daily (and sometimes more often) briefings with 
F32 216 the press. Some of the most effective press secretaries have been 
F32 217 individuals who have had close personal relationships with the 
F32 218 president, such as Jody Powell to Jimmy Carter and Bill Moyers to 
F32 219 Lyndon Johnson. However, other secretaries have included government 
F32 220 public relations professionals such as Larry Speakes (Reagan 
F32 221 presidency) and Marlin Fitzwater (Reagan and Bush), and former 
F32 222 White House reporters such as Jerry Terhorst and Ron Nessen in the 
F32 223 Ford presidency.<p/>
F32 224 <p_>Although the press secretary is the spokesperson usually most 
F32 225 visible to the press and the public, presidential assistants such 
F32 226 as the White House Chief of Staff, the National Security Advisor, 
F32 227 assistants, deputy assistants, and special assistants to the 
F32 228 president also meet with the press routinely, though usually for 
F32 229 background purposes.
F32 230 
F32 231 
F32 232 
F33   1 <#FROWN:F33\><p_>The populists also had attacked big business. But 
F33   2 they had concentrated on providing more economic leverage for small 
F33   3 farmers and other members of the 'toiling masses' in the 
F33   4 marketplace. The progressive Republicans emphasized the threat to 
F33   5 democratic institutions posed by unchecked business power. In 1897 
F33   6 the Wisconsin Progressive Republicans, led by LaFollette, issued a 
F33   7 platform of eleven planks, eight of which were primarily political 
F33   8 or governmental, including promises to <quote_>"nominate candidates 
F33   9 by Australian ballot at a primary election"<quote/>; to 
F33  10 <quote_>"enact and enforce laws to punish bribery in every form by 
F33  11 the lobby"<quote/>; to <quote_>"prohibit the acceptance by public 
F33  12 officials of railroad passes"<quote/> (a standard means through 
F33  13 which the railroads won favor with state legislators); and to 
F33  14 <quote_>"enact and enforce laws making character and competency the 
F33  15 requisite for service in our penal and charitable 
F33  16 institutions."<quote/> Of the three planks that were primarily 
F33  17 economic, two dealt with foreign trade, calling, ambiguously, for 
F33  18 both <quote_>"reciprocity"<quote/> and <quote_>"protection for the 
F33  19 products of the factory and the farm"<quote/>; the third 
F33  20 forthrightly endorsed conservative Republican monetary policy: 
F33  21 <quote_>"Sound money, a dollar's worth of dollar."<quote/><p/>
F33  22 <p_>Progressives at the state level fought against patronage-based 
F33  23 state machines, whose coffers were filled by unreported 
F33  24 contributions from corporations. Like the municipal reformers, many 
F33  25 of the state progressives came to feel that organized parties were 
F33  26 impediments to democratic government.<p/>
F33  27 <p_>The anti-party measures instituted by Hiram Johnson in 
F33  28 California to help break the power of the Southern Pacific Railroad 
F33  29 epitomized the remedies to which many state progressives were 
F33  30 drawn. In the early years of the twentieth century the Southern 
F33  31 Pacific controlled both California party organizations and 
F33  32 <quote_>"secretly fostered new factions to keep the old ones in 
F33  33 check."<quote/> The railroad's money, according to Abe Rueff, 
F33  34 Republican boss of San Francisco, <quote_>"was the power behind 
F33  35 almost every political throne and behind almost every insurgent 
F33  36 revolt."<quote/> The Southern Pacific's Political Bureau maintained 
F33  37 <quote_>"a railroad political manager in every county in the state. 
F33  38 This manager might be a Republican boss in a Republican county, or 
F33  39 a Democratic boss in a Democratic county; in important or doubtful 
F33  40 counties he was merely the railroad boss, with whom both Republican 
F33  41 and Democratic bosses had to deal."<quote/> The state was usually 
F33  42 competitive in national elections, but in Sacramento, the state 
F33  43 capital, the Southern Pacific was king.<p/>
F33  44 <p_>In 1910, Hiram Johnson (whose father was a Republican state 
F33  45 legislator and a stalwart defender of the railroad) entered the 
F33  46 Republican primary for governor. Running on the slogan <quote_>Kick 
F33  47 the Southern Pacific out of politics,<quote/> he won a sweeping 
F33  48 victory. Johnson received some support in the primary from urban 
F33  49 liberals in the San Francisco Bay area, but his strongest backing 
F33  50 came from socially conservative middle-class Protestants in 
F33  51 southern California, particularly Los Angeles and Orange counties, 
F33  52 apparently attracted in part by his identification with puritanical 
F33  53 moral reform. In the general election, Johnson again swept the 
F33  54 south but was closely contested by his Democratic opponent in the 
F33  55 north.<p/>
F33  56 <p_>As governor, Johnson persuaded the legislature to establish a 
F33  57 public utility commission which subjected the Southern Pacific and 
F33  58 other railroads to fairly strict regulation. Johnson's main 
F33  59 legislative effort, however, was devoted to enacting a far-reaching 
F33  60 program of electoral and party reform, including the introduction 
F33  61 of the referendum, initiative, and recall, which he claimed would 
F33  62 assure popular control of government. The parties were reduced to 
F33  63 little more than shells. Johnson also secured passage of a 
F33  64 cross-filing law, which permitted candidates for state and 
F33  65 congressional offices to enter primaries of both parties without 
F33  66 naming their own party on the ballot. The cross-filing law not only 
F33  67 helped wreck California parties but contributed to the development 
F33  68 of an almost totally candidate-oriented brand of state electoral 
F33  69 politics.<p/>
F33  70 <p_><tf_>The 'New Nationalism.'<tf/> America's quick victory in the 
F33  71 Spanish-American War of 1898 produced a wave of enthusiastic 
F33  72 support for an expanded role for the United States in world 
F33  73 affairs. Theodore Roosevelt, who had been assistant secretary of 
F33  74 the navy when the war began, and others drew on the expansionist 
F33  75 doctrines of Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, who called for an 
F33  76 enlarged navy and the acquisition of bases and colonies all over 
F33  77 the globe, particularly in Latin America and on the Pacific rim. 
F33  78 <quote_>"God has not been preparing the English-speaking and 
F33  79 Teutonic peoples for a thousand years for nothing but vain and idle 
F33  80 self-contemplation and self-admiration,"<quote/> Republican Senator 
F33  81 Albert Beveridge of Indiana declaimed in 1900. <quote_>"No! He has 
F33  82 made us the master organizers of the world to establish system 
F33  83 where chaos reigns .... And of all our race He has marked the 
F33  84 American people as his chosen nation to finally lead in the 
F33  85 regeneration of the world. This is the divine mission of America, 
F33  86 and it holds for us all the profit, all the glory, all the 
F33  87 happiness possible to man ...."<quote/><p/>
F33  88 <p_>Aggressive pursuit of America's national interest abroad was to 
F33  89 be accompanied by rededication to 'national purpose' at home. 
F33  90 <quote_>"The promise of American life,"<quote/> Herbert Croly wrote 
F33  91 in 1909, <quote_>"is to be fulfilled not merely by a maximum amount 
F33  92 of economic freedom but by a certain measure of discipline; not 
F33  93 merely by the abundant satisfaction of individual desires but by a 
F33  94 large measure of individual subordination and self-denial."<quote/> 
F33  95 American capitalism was to be brought more into the service of 
F33  96 national destiny. <quote_>"The true friend of property, the true 
F33  97 conservative,"<quote/> Roosevelt said in a widely acclaimed speech 
F33  98 he called 'The New Nationalism' in 1910, <quote_>"is he who insists 
F33  99 that the creature of man's making shall be the servant and not the 
F33 100 master of the man who made it. The citizens of the United States 
F33 101 must effectively control the mighty commercial forces which they 
F33 102 themselves have called into being."<quote/><p/>
F33 103 <p_>Many businessmen were alarmed by the degree of government 
F33 104 regulation of the economy that Roosevelt's program seemed to 
F33 105 envision. But some leaders of the business community, as Gabriel 
F33 106 Kolko and other historians have shown, welcomed the new 
F33 107 nationalism, in both its international and domestic aspects, with 
F33 108 open arms. The Republican ideology had never required complete 
F33 109 nonintervention by government in the economy. The protective 
F33 110 tariff, which most Republicans supported, was after all a massive 
F33 111 intrusion by government into the 'natural' operation of the market. 
F33 112 And Republicans carried on the Hamiltonian and Whig traditions, 
F33 113 calling for federally financed internal improvements to promote 
F33 114 economic growth.<p/>
F33 115 <p_>By the first decade of the twentieth century some American 
F33 116 businessmen with broad horizons, particularly among Wall Street 
F33 117 financiers, had concluded that unrestrained competition was 
F33 118 undercutting maximization of profits. Private efforts to control 
F33 119 competition were coming unstuck, and in any case such efforts might 
F33 120 now be subject to prosecution under the Sherman Anti-trust Act, 
F33 121 which had been enacted in 1890. The financial panics of 1903 and 
F33 122 1907 persuaded growing numbers of businessmen that the federal 
F33 123 government should take a hand in stabilizing and rationalizing 
F33 124 markets. Observing the effects of cutthroat price competition in 
F33 125 the steel industry, Andrew Carnegie commented in 1908: <quote_>"It 
F33 126 always comes back to me that Government control, and that alone, 
F33 127 will properly solve the problem."<quote/> Carnegie was in many ways 
F33 128 an exceptional businessman, and his view cannot be taken as 
F33 129 representative. But his opinion was echoed by so hardbitten an 
F33 130 entrepreneur as Judge Elbert Gary, chief executive of U.S. Steel, 
F33 131 who in 1911 told a congressional committee: <quote_>"I believe we 
F33 132 must come to enforced publicity and governmental control ... even 
F33 133 as to prices."<quote/><p/>
F33 134 <p_>Gabriel Kolko has identified George Perkins, partner in the 
F33 135 Morgan bank and close adviser to Roosevelt, as the principal 
F33 136 pointman in bringing a portion of the business elite into the 
F33 137 progressive movement. <quote_>"Federal regulation is 
F33 138 feasible,"<quote/> Perkins told an audience of businessmen in 1909, 
F33 139 <quote_>"and if we unite and work for it now we may be able to 
F33 140 secure it; whereas, if we continue our fight against it much 
F33 141 longer, the incoming tide may sweep the question along to either 
F33 142 government ownership or socialism."<quote/><p/>
F33 143 <p_>The sources feeding progressivism pursued differing, in some 
F33 144 cases incompatible, social goals. But they had in common certain 
F33 145 assumptions and themes: government should play an active role in 
F33 146 promoting the public good; political life is best seen as a moral 
F33 147 struggle between good and evil; public confidence requires honest 
F33 148 elections and effective government; the existing party system is a 
F33 149 major barrier to political reform; and government should serve the 
F33 150 public interest rather than advancing particular interests to the 
F33 151 exclusion of others or acting chiefly as broker between competing 
F33 152 special interests. All these themes came together in the 
F33 153 pronouncements and personality of the charismatic leader who became 
F33 154 the progressive movement's virtual embodiment: Theodore 
F33 155 Roosevelt.<p/>
F33 156 <h_><p_>THE ROOSEVELT FACTOR<p/><h/>
F33 157 <p_>Through most of his career, except during his third-party 
F33 158 campaign for the presidency in 1912, Roosevelt described himself as 
F33 159 a <quote|>"conservative." Looking back in 1916 on his leadership of 
F33 160 the progressive movement, he claimed that his approach had 
F33 161 represented <quote_>"not wild radicalism ... [but] the highest and 
F33 162 wisest form of conservatism."<quote/><p/>
F33 163 <p_>Roosevelt was drawn to politics as a young man in the early 
F33 164 1880s by ambition and an itch for public service - and perhaps by a 
F33 165 desire to settle scores with machine bosses like Tom Platt whom he 
F33 166 held responsible for his father's humiliation in the fight over the 
F33 167 New York collectorship in 1877. He began attending meetings of his 
F33 168 local Republican organization in midtown Manhattan, which he found 
F33 169 manned by <quote_>"cheap lawyers, saloon keepers, and horsecar 
F33 170 conductors ...."<quote/> Asked by friends in the social elite why 
F33 171 he was associating with such dreadful people, he replied 
F33 172 <quote_>"that the people I knew did not belong to the governing 
F33 173 class, and that the other people did - and that I intended to be 
F33 174 one <}_><-|>ofthe<+|>of the<}/> governing class; and if they proved 
F33 175 too hard-bit for me I supposed I would have to quit, but that I 
F33 176 certainly would not quit until I had made the effort and found out 
F33 177 whether I really was too weak to hold my own in the rough and 
F33 178 tumble."<quote/><p/>
F33 179 <p_>Though a reformer from the start, Roosevelt resolved to operate 
F33 180 within the structure of the Republican party. His fellow delegates 
F33 181 to his first Republican national convention, in 1884, he observed, 
F33 182 included <quote_>"some scoundrels, but for the most part good, 
F33 183 ordinary men, who do not do very much thinking, who are pretty 
F33 184 honest themselves, but who are callous to any but very flagrant 
F33 185 wrongdoing in others, unless it is brought home to them 
F33 186 forcibly."<quote/> Under pressure to join the mugwumps who were 
F33 187 deserting Blaine to vote for Cleveland in 1884, he denounced the 
F33 188 bolters as suffering <quote_>"from a species of moral myopia, 
F33 189 complicated by intellectual strabismus."<quote/> He took over 
F33 190 leadership of the municipal reform movement in New York but had 
F33 191 nothing but scorn for 'ultra independents' who refused to work 
F33 192 within the limits set by political reality. <quote_>"The Goo-Goo 
F33 193 and Mugwump idiots,"<quote/> he said, <quote_>"are quite as potent 
F33 194 forces for evil as the most corrupt politicians."<quote/> In his 
F33 195 dislike for economic and social radicals he at times exhibited an 
F33 196 almost Tory sensibility: he once declined to be introduced to the 
F33 197 radical Governor John Altgeld of Illinois because he thought he 
F33 198 might some day have to <quote_>"meet him at the head of 
F33 199 troops."<quote/><p/>
F33 200 <p_>Returning from the Spanish-American War in the fall of 1898 a 
F33 201 highly publicized hero, Roosevelt, obeying his sense of what was 
F33 202 practical, went to Tom Platt's 'Sunday School' - the sessions the 
F33 203 boss held in New York's Fifth Avenue Hotel to confer party 
F33 204 endorsements and other political favors. Following his own sense of 
F33 205 what was practical, Platt backed Roosevelt for the governorship. 
F33 206 This alliance of convenience proved unhappy. Before becoming 
F33 207 governor, Roosevelt had viewed reform as a matter of throwing out 
F33 208 corrupt politicians and installing leaders motivated by dedication 
F33 209 to public service. <quote_>"We were still accustomed,"<quote/> he 
F33 210 later recalled, <quote_>"to talking of the 'machine' as if it were 
F33 211 something merely political, with which business had nothing to 
F33 212 do."<quote/> But experience in Albany convinced him that support 
F33 213 from big business was <quote_>"the most important element"<quote/> 
F33 214 in Platt's <quote|>"strength." Roosevelt concluded that the 
F33 215 political system was permeated by the influence of irresponsible 
F33 216 corporate wealth. He set out to break the power that the alliance 
F33 217 of big business and machine politicians exercised over the state 
F33 218 legislature. Unlike LaFollette and Hiram Johnson, however, he 
F33 219 sought not to dismantle the parties but to make the Republican 
F33 220 party the instrument of reform.<p/>
F33 221 
F34   1 <#FROWN:F34\><h_><p_>After premium hikes, owners become 'insurance 
F34   2 literate' and more safety-conscious<p/>
F34   3 <p_>Company execs learn the hard way the importance of safety 
F34   4 programs and insurance claims management.<p/><h/>
F34   5 <p_><*_>black-square<*/>Safety is on everybody's mind as 1992 gets 
F34   6 into full swing. With the economy the way it is, it's especially 
F34   7 important to reduce insurance costs.<p/>
F34   8 <p_>David Frank says that between 1986 and 1988 his company's 
F34   9 insurance premiums doubled each year after a series of 
F34  10 uncharacteristic workmen's compensation, auto, property and 
F34  11 liability claims.<p/>
F34  12 <p_>He says it was then that he realized the close relationship 
F34  13 between insurance premiums and accident history.<p/>
F34  14 <p_>Frank, president of David J. Frank Landscape Contracting, 
F34  15 Germantown, Wisc., says the company's first concern was safety.<p/>
F34  16 <p_><quote_>"We began an active safety and loss program,"<quote/> 
F34  17 recalls Frank. Apparently, Frank's efforts are paying off, as the 
F34  18 company recently had 120 days of no lost-time accidents, and good 
F34  19 records in property as well.<p/>
F34  20 <p_>He estimates the company saved $100,000 in claims and premium 
F34  21 charges in 1991.<p/>
F34  22 <p_>Like Frank, David Minor, president of Minor's of Ft. Worth, 
F34  23 Texas, says it only took one incident to convince him of the need 
F34  24 for better claims management and accident reduction at his 
F34  25 150-person company.<p/>
F34  26 <p_><quote_>"We were hit with a $17,000 surcharge in workmen's 
F34  27 comp,"<quote/> remembers Minor. <quote_>"The comp rate had not been 
F34  28 promulgated: we had gotten a base rate, but we had not received a 
F34  29 'modifier.'"<quote/><p/>
F34  30 <p_>Minor became a self-admi<}_><-|>t<+|>tt<}/>ed 'student of 
F34  31 insurance,' and learned all he could about reducing workmen's comp 
F34  32 premiums.<p/>
F34  33 <p_>Both men enacted extensive safety programs to be followed by 
F34  34 all employees. Frank's program is divided into workmen's comp, 
F34  35 workplace safety, property safety and auto safety.<p/>
F34  36 <p_>Safety is also influenced by proper selection and training of 
F34  37 employees, and safety procedures are reviewed weekly.<p/>
F34  38 <p_>Other plan elements at Minor's:<p/>
F34  39 <p_><*_>checkmark<*/>a 'get-back-to-work-soon' program;<p/>
F34  40 <p_><*_>checkmark<*/>self-insurance on closed<?_>-<?/>end or 
F34  41 first-aid-type claims;<p/>
F34  42 <p_><*_>checkmark<*/>safety contests;<p/>
F34  43 <p_><*_>checkmark<*/>better claims management; and<p/>
F34  44 <p_><*_>checkmark<*/>adoption of safety standards established by 
F34  45 the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA).<p/>
F34  46 <p_>Minor's company became <quote_>"obsessed with safety,"<quote/> 
F34  47 and as a result saved <quote_>"tons of money."<quote/><p/>
F34  48 <p_>Under Minor's safety program, foremen receive a $35 per month 
F34  49 safety bonus based on accident-free periods. Safety-related 
F34  50 meetings are held every two weeks. Every new employee has to read 
F34  51 and sign<?_>-<?/>off on the safety program.<p/>
F34  52 <p_>A safety manual for claims management geared for safety 
F34  53 'officers' describes how to respond to a wide variety of 
F34  54 accidents.<p/>
F34  55 <p_>And instead of raises for returning assistants, recent 
F34  56 incentive safety bonuses were based on good safety records.<p/>
F34  57 <p_>Frank awards 10 cents per hour for crew leaders who have 
F34  58 accident-free periods between April 1 and November 30.<p/>
F34  59 <p_>Brian Janek, an agent with the Van Gelder Co. of Denver, Colo., 
F34  60 knows what saves companies money:<p/>
F34  61 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Find an agent and company with proven landscape 
F34  62 industry experience. Otherwise, uncovered claims, pollution 
F34  63 liability or worker comp problems will be overlooked.<p/>
F34  64 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Initiate a loss control program.<p/>
F34  65 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Initiate a safety program; use financial 
F34  66 statements and driving records to prove insurability.<p/>
F34  67 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>If your state allows you to use deductibles for 
F34  68 workmen's comp or general liability, do it. The less the prior 
F34  69 record inhibits renewal, the better.<p/>
F34  70 <p_><quote_>"It's gotten to the point where you're at the mercy of 
F34  71 the insurance company,"<quote/> says Minor, and a company must 
F34  72 'sell itself' to an insurer.<p/>
F34  73 <p_>According to Minor, his company's stellar safety program earned 
F34  74 a workmen's comp policy, when, as he says, no landscapers in Texas 
F34  75 were getting them.<p/>
F34  76 <p_><quote_>"Involve yourself in the insurance process,"<quote/> 
F34  77 advises Minor. <quote_>"If you let somebody else do it, you're 
F34  78 doing yourself a disservice."<quote/><p/>
F34  79 <p_>Don Brown, a loss-control specialist with the CNA Insurance 
F34  80 Co., thinks company owners are doing very little to address medical 
F34  81 cost containment, reduce litigation or manage claims.<p/>
F34  82 <p_><quote_>"Those are the two areas that make availability of 
F34  83 coverage at affordable prices the critical problem today,"<quote/> 
F34  84 says Brown. <quote_>"Once the claim is filed, business owners tend 
F34  85 to leave it up to a third party to manage the claim. The bottom 
F34  86 line is, these folks are managing your business. Take charge as the 
F34  87 owner. Work out a relationship with insurance professionals and 
F34  88 physicians.<p/>
F34  89 <p_>"Basically, you've got to provide the finest medical attention 
F34  90 to an injured worker as you can. If not, they will go to an 
F34  91 attorney and you lose control of that claim and costs will 
F34  92 multiply."<quote/><p/>
F34  93 <p_>He suggests:<p/>
F34  94 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Developing 'modified work' to bring injured 
F34  95 workers back as soon as possible, doing alternative part-time work 
F34  96 until they are back in top form, and<p/>
F34  97 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Filing accident reports within 24 hours, to keep 
F34  98 costs down.<p/>
F34  99 <p_>Minor's concern for the injured worker includes having a 
F34 100 mid-level manager drive him to the hospital, the pharmacy and home 
F34 101 if necessary.<p/>
F34 102 <p_><quote_>"If they are standing, and can walk, we want them in 
F34 103 the office the next day,"<quote/> insists Minor. <quote_>"We don't 
F34 104 want them home watching TV commercials from personal injury 
F34 105 attorneys."<quote/><p/>
F34 106 <p_>Brown thinks that concern must include genuine concern for the 
F34 107 family.<p/>
F34 108 
F34 109 <h_><p_>Mulch: perfect for beauty in landscapes<p/>
F34 110 <p_>Beware how mulch you use! Experts says it's not hard to 
F34 111 actually over-mulch around trees and shrubs.<p/><h/>
F34 112 <p_><*_>Black-square<*/>Mulch is an integral part of most 
F34 113 award<?_>-<?/>winning landscapes - not merely for its practicality, 
F34 114 but also for its appearance. In combination with the trees and 
F34 115 shrubs around which it's used, mulch provides another way for 
F34 116 designers to break up large areas in the landscape.<p/>
F34 117 <p_><quote_>"Mulching started out as being purely 
F34 118 practical,"<quote/> notes Al Rickert, owner of Wholesale Landscape 
F34 119 Supply in Bradenton, Fla.. <quote_>"It's now become a part of the 
F34 120 aesthetics."<quote/><p/>
F34 121 <p_>The term 'mulch' is defined by Dr. Donald Rakow of Cornell 
F34 122 University as <quote_>"any ground treatment that differs from the 
F34 123 substrate (soil beneath), either physically or 
F34 124 biologically."<quote/> Many different types are available (see 
F34 125 Table 1).<p/>
F34 126 <p_>Rakow says wood chips are the most-often-used mulch. 
F34 127 <quote_>"They can serve a valuable role in the landscape if used 
F34 128 properly,"<quote/> he notes.<p/>
F34 129 <p_>The phrase <quote_>"if used properly"<quote/> is key.<p/>
F34 130 <p_><quote_>"Piling too much organic mulch can rot the base of the 
F34 131 tree and kill it,"<quote/> says Bonnie Lee Appleton of the Virginia 
F34 132 Tech Cooperative Extension Service. <quote_>"Back off! In most 
F34 133 cases, we see no reason to exceed two to three inches. If you need 
F34 134 more, put a well around the tree base, keeping the mulch away from 
F34 135 the tree.<p/>
F34 136 <p_>"The finer the particles of organic material you use, the less 
F34 137 you should use,"<quote/> she continues. <quote_>"Weeds have a field 
F34 138 day if you're using mulch over fabrics or polypropylene because it 
F34 139 acts as a substrate."<quote/><p/>
F34 140 <p_>Rickert says the types of mulch available to landscapers and 
F34 141 golf course superintendents vary according to region.<p/>
F34 142 <p_><quote_>"Cypress  mulch is very popular from Kansas east 
F34 143 because of favorable shipping rates. It dominates the market in the 
F34 144 Midwest,"<quote/> he notes. <quote_>"Pine bark is the old standby 
F34 145 in the South, Southeast and Central Atlantic. Pine straw is more 
F34 146 regionalized in the Southeast, but that's changing."<quote/><p/>
F34 147 <p_>Though mulches have numerous benefits (see Table 2), there are 
F34 148 disadvantages.<p/>
F34 149 <p_><quote_>"Most mulches also make a wonderful winter home for 
F34 150 mice,"<quote/> says Dr. Bill Fountain of the University of 
F34 151 Kentucky. <quote_>"And when warm spring weather arrives, they 
F34 152 awaken with the hunger of a 16-year-old male. The closest food 
F34 153 source is often the trunks of young trees."<quote/><p/>
F34 154 <p_>Fountain says that raking the mulch away from the trunk for six 
F34 155 to eight inches will discourage feeding by mice without reducing 
F34 156 the mulch's benefits. <quote_>"Hardware cloth around the trunk is 
F34 157 also a very effective barrier to mice and rabbits,"<quote/> he 
F34 158 notes.<p/>
F34 159 
F34 160 <p_>Barefoot's stature as 'national' company grows with 
F34 161 acquisitions<p/>
F34 162 <p_>Management team headed by Pat Norton sees continued expansion 
F34 163 of Worthington, Ohio-based company through development of 
F34 164 franchises, 'branchises' and buy-outs.<p/>
F34 165 <p_><*_>black-square<*/>Convinced the lawn care business no longer 
F34 166 offers any entrepreneurial excitement? Shhh ... don't let Patrick 
F34 167 Norton know it.<p/>
F34 168 <p_>He still thinks - silly him - that there's opportunity to grow 
F34 169 a lawn care company. A really big company. A national company.<p/>
F34 170 <p_><quote_>"I think that good operators - and we don't think we're 
F34 171 the only good operators - will continue to prosper and 
F34 172 grow,"<quote/> says Norton.<p/>
F34 173 <p_><quote_>"There are a lot of markets still out there in the 
F34 174 development stages. I think that portends well for the 
F34 175 industry."<quote/><p/>
F34 176 <p_><tf_>Say what?<tf/><p/>
F34 177 <p_>What does Norton know? After all, Barefoot Grass Lawn Service, 
F34 178 which he's helping to grow, has, since 1979, <tf|>only spread from 
F34 179 central Ohio into and across the Mideast and Midwest. Barefoot is 
F34 180 now also represented on both coasts as well as in Florida, Colorado 
F34 181 and Texas. Company revenues increased from about $2 million in 1979 
F34 182 to about $52 million in fiscal year 1991.<p/>
F34 183 <p_>Reasons why the public is, seemingly, so eager to accept 
F34 184 Barefoot services include: its clean yellow and green vans 
F34 185 (Barefoot's main competition uses larger, tanker-type trucks), its 
F34 186 well-trained technicians, it's customized<&|>sic!, predominantly dry 
F34 187 application program.<p/>
F34 188 <p_>Just as significantly, Barefoot is adept in targeting its 
F34 189 considerable direct mail and in-house telemarketing efforts to 
F34 190 homes in neighborhoods that are able and willing to pay a premium 
F34 191 price for the delivery of granular fertilizer and control 
F34 192 products.<p/>
F34 193 <p_>It's this attention to detail that's characterized the Barefoot 
F34 194 management team which has been headed by Norton since the 
F34 195 mid-1980s.<p/>
F34 196 <p_>Briefly: Pat Norton joined Barefoot in 1979 as its director of 
F34 197 finance and administration. In 1981 he, and other top company 
F34 198 managers, bought Barefoot from Toro. Norton became company 
F34 199 president in 1986. In 1989 the Chicago-based investment firm 
F34 200 Golder, Thoma & Cressey bought a majority share of the 
F34 201 privately<?_>-<?/>held company. This past October Barefoot went 
F34 202 public.<p/>
F34 203 <p_>Barefoot Grass is now the third largest lawn care company in 
F34 204 the United States, and still growing at an annual double-digit 
F34 205 rate.<p/>
F34 206 <p_>Norton says it's attracting new customers for each location. 
F34 207 <quote_>"We are still growing in Columbus, Ohio,"<quote/> says 
F34 208 Norton. <quote_>"If that's not the most competitive lawn care 
F34 209 market in the United States, it's certainly one of the most 
F34 210 competitive."<quote/><p/>
F34 211 <p_>But mostly it's growing because of the proliferation of its 
F34 212 market-targeted franchise and 'branchise' operations - and, most 
F34 213 recently, its acquisition efforts. (A 'branchise' is a Barefoot 
F34 214 franchise which is owned by a separate corporation but nonetheless 
F34 215 managed by Barefoot through a management agreement.)<p/>
F34 216 <p_>Barefoot is definitely in a buying mood. Says Norton, 
F34 217 <quote_>"we would have growth without acquisition, but to maintain 
F34 218 the level of growth we want, we have to look at 
F34 219 acquisitions."<quote/><p/>
F34 220 <p_>On January 3, Barefoot bought lawn care operations in 
F34 221 Cleveland, Wooster, Akron and Canton - former properties of 
F34 222 Lawnmark which generated 1991.<p/>
F34 223 <p_>To make that deal work, Barefoot Grass also bought its Canton 
F34 224 franchise. Otherwise the company would have found itself competing 
F34 225 against one of its own franchise operations.<p/>
F34 226 <p_><quote_>"The ideal acquisition for us is going to be in a 
F34 227 market where we already have a presence so that when we add 
F34 228 revenues, we can do it profitably,"<quote/> says Norton, 
F34 229 <quote_>"where we already have existing facilities, where we're 
F34 230 making money, where we can add revenues without adding too much 
F34 231 overhead."<quote/><p/>
F34 232 <p_>In separate transactions in 1991, Barefoot purchased its 
F34 233 'branchise' in Newark, N.J., (for about $1 million), and will 
F34 234 likely purchase 'branchises' in Fort Lauderdale, Long Island, 
F34 235 Harrisburg, Pa., and Boston by the end of 1992. This past year also 
F34 236 saw the opening of 'branchise' operations in Portland and Norfolk, 
F34 237 Va., and the opening of franchises in Topeka, Kans., and Cedar 
F34 238 Rapids, Iowa.<p/>
F34 239 <p_>For the past several years about 88 percent of the company's 
F34 240 net service revenues have come from standard lawn care services, 
F34 241 and 12 percent from add-on services such as tree & shrub care, lawn 
F34 242 aeration, liming and seeding.<p/>
F34 243 
F34 244 <h_><p_>10 easy steps in gaining a friend and supporter in the 
F34 245 legislature<p/>
F34 246 <p_>These suggestions from two experienced lobbyists can guide you 
F34 247 to a successful meeting with your lawmaker.<p/><h/>
F34 248 <p_><*_>black-square<*/>Here's a recipe for meeting with and 
F34 249 seeking the cooperation of your elected representative.<p/>
F34 250 <p_>It's a step-by-step recipe built from the comments of Ed Graves 
F34 251 and Norm Goldenberg. The two men advised lawn professionals who had 
F34 252 gathered in Washington D.C. prior to meetings with their U.S. 
F34 253 Senators and Representatives. More than 100 lawn professionals 
F34 254 participated in these 'Day on the Hill' events Feb. 23-24.<p/>
F34 255 <p_>Graves is a senior consultant with Capitoline International 
F34 256 Group, an issues management firm headquartered in Washington D.C. 
F34 257 He's been lobbying on Capitol Hill the past eight years. Capitoline 
F34 258 is employed the green industry <&|>sic! to present its case in the 
F34 259 Capital.<p/>
F34 260 
F34 261 
F34 262 
F35   1 <#FROWN:F35\>When mounds were built or hillsides terraced, people 
F35   2 were following the directives of spirits familiar with the best 
F35   3 uses of those terrains.<p/>
F35   4 <p_>Members of these bands and tribes tended wild foods such as 
F35   5 plants, trees, vines, and berries. Every year, they burned over 
F35   6 large sections of land to encourage fresh growth and unobstructed 
F35   7 passage. Some tended seafoods and shores, building huge traps to 
F35   8 impound live fish during low tides. Others gave their attention to 
F35   9 herds of animals like mammoths and bison. In the North, people 
F35  10 cared for a variety of animals who lived apart, such as moose. 
F35  11 Humans and animals kept track of each other and lived off their 
F35  12 kills. Both died, but with mutual respect.<p/>
F35  13 <p_>In time, the specialized tending of plants developed into a 
F35  14 more intensive tilling of the soil. New species were fostered, 
F35  15 encouraged by the human hand. The spirits of particular species 
F35  16 appeared in visions and in stories to explain what people needed to 
F35  17 do. Sunflowers, amaranth, sunroot, and various local seeds began 
F35  18 the process of specialization, while corn, beans, squash, manioc, 
F35  19 and potatoes brought it to fruition.<p/>
F35  20 <p_>All of these interactions were recorded in stories, each of 
F35  21 them making clear that underneath the outer forms of these species 
F35  22 there was an essential human form with arms, legs, and hands. This 
F35  23 common, underlying humanity provided the basis for a system of 
F35  24 beliefs shared across the diverse regions of the Americas.<p/>
F35  25 <p_>Starting with the hunting and harvesting pattern of the 
F35  26 migrants from Asia, a variety of adaptations were developed by 
F35  27 Native Americans as they made the continent their own.<p/>
F35  28 <p_>These 'cultural areas' have come to be defined in terms of 
F35  29 their staple foods, housing styles, family arrangements, and, 
F35  30 particularly, organizing rituals.<p/>
F35  31 <p_>For Tenders, these regions, from north to south, are the 
F35  32 Arctic, Subarctic, Northwest Coast, California, and 
F35  33 Intermontane.<p/>
F35  34 <p_>Initially the last haven of the big game hunting tradition, 
F35  35 interacting with enormous herds of bison, the Plains added farming 
F35  36 as people settled in sheltered river valleys. With the 
F35  37 reintroduction of the horse into the Americas by Spanish explorers, 
F35  38 the Plains again emphasized hunting as it became populated by 
F35  39 tribes from many other regions who came to live with the bison 
F35  40 herds.<p/>
F35  41 <p_>For the Tillers, the Southwest and East relied on farming, 
F35  42 located at the frontiers of Mexican empires and religious 
F35  43 movements. The economies of the valley of Mexico were fueled by 
F35  44 trade goods and foodstuffs from the far-flung reaches of the 
F35  45 Americas.<p/>
F35  46 <p_>As an introduction to North America, each of these culture 
F35  47 areas will be considered in turn to provide a context for 
F35  48 appreciating the variety of stories throughout the continent.<p/>
F35  49 <h|>ARCTIC
F35  50 <p_>While much of the Arctic year consists of cold, white winters, 
F35  51 there are a few months of long days and wet terrain. Almost unique 
F35  52 on the earth, its Inuit (Eskimo) inhabitants stretch along a 
F35  53 coastal zone and share a similar appearance, language, culture, and 
F35  54 environment. This is not often the case because looks, language, 
F35  55 and locale do not often coincide.<p/>
F35  56 <p_>Tundra is the predominant landform, covered with ice fields all 
F35  57 winter long. With little vegetation, hunting was the basis for 
F35  58 life. Living on the land are musk-ox, caribou, fox, bear, and wolf, 
F35  59 along with hare, marmots, and lemmings. Birds include ptarmigan, 
F35  60 owl, plover, and seagull. Coastal rivers abound with fish, while 
F35  61 the ocean has seals, whales, walrus, and sea lions.<p/>
F35  62 <p_>Among the strongest Inuit taboos is the prohibition on mixing 
F35  63 food from the sea with that from the land. Seal meat must be served 
F35  64 separately from caribou. Winter houses were made of sod, stone, and 
F35  65 timbers, while camping used tents and igloos.<p/>
F35  66 <p_>Men and women had separate but equal responsibilities. Only 
F35  67 married couples could survive. Men did the hunting, while women 
F35  68 processed and cooked the food that fed the family. Men used kayaks, 
F35  69 while the umiaks that moved families and household gear were 
F35  70 associated with women. In Alaska, villages also had a separate 
F35  71 men's house.<p/>
F35  72 <p_>Usually, a house was occupied by a married couple and their 
F35  73 children, together with a grandparent or other stray relative. A 
F35  74 superb hunter or shaman might have more than one wife, but this was 
F35  75 rare. Every house had a men's and a women's domain. Usually, the 
F35  76 hard floor, used as a work surface, and the cold outer storage 
F35  77 compartment belonged to men, while the fur-covered sleeping 
F35  78 platform where the family spent the day and slept at night belonged 
F35  79 to the women. The wife was especially equated with the soapstone 
F35  80 lamp that lit and warmed the house, using oil rendered from animals 
F35  81 killed by her husband.<p/>
F35  82 <p_>During seasons of plenty, families might gather together to 
F35  83 form kindreds or 'bands,' but these lasted only a few days until 
F35  84 provision ran low. Leaders emerged only long enough to coordinate a 
F35  85 particular task, such as net fishing or caribou hunting, and then 
F35  86 submerged back into the crowd. While respected at all times, these 
F35  87 men only led during situations when everyone needed to work 
F35  88 together.<p/>
F35  89 <p_>Community sentiments were expressed through a series of formal 
F35  90 arrangements confirmed by the brief exchange of wives, 
F35  91 good<?_>-<?/>natured insults, trade goods, names, and hunting 
F35  92 partnerships. People conformed to public expectations through the 
F35  93 application of subtle pressures expressed by means of ridicule, 
F35  94 songs, and snide remarks. If there was no improvement, slugging 
F35  95 contests might be tried, to be followed by ostracism, which was 
F35  96 tantamount to death, or, in the worst of antisocial behavior, 
F35  97 sanctioned murder.<p/>
F35  98 <p_>Shamans were individuals, often men but sometimes women, who 
F35  99 had special relationships with the supernatural. Often, certain 
F35 100 families produced effective shamans generation after generation. 
F35 101 Shamans cured both the illness of a person and the social ills of 
F35 102 the community.<p/>
F35 103 <p_>In the most dramatic of all cures, a shaman mystically 
F35 104 journeyed to the ocean bottom to comb tangles out of the hair of 
F35 105 Sedna, the woman in charge of all the animals. Taboo violations, 
F35 106 abuse of animals, and ill-will by humans caused these tangles, and 
F35 107 the shaman undertook to soothe Sedna so she would send the animals 
F35 108 back to the hunters. He could only apply the comb to Sedna after 
F35 109 someone had confessed to the breaches that caused these problems. 
F35 110 With this personal confession came absolution for the entire 
F35 111 community.<p/>
F35 112 <p_>The major public ritual came at midwinter when people gathered 
F35 113 to feast on stored and frozen foods, engage in games, and learn 
F35 114 from their stories. In Alaskan men's houses, elaborate mask 
F35 115 enactments were held.<p/>
F35 116 <h|>SUBARCTIC
F35 117 <p_>Evergreens such as pine, spruce, hemlock, and fir dominate the 
F35 118 forests that cover this huge area. Along broad streams where moose 
F35 119 thrive are willow, tamarack, birch, alder, and poplar. Other 
F35 120 inhabitants are wolf, lynx, wolverine, bear, and caribou, along 
F35 121 with the snowshoe rabbit, martin, and great horned owl. In high 
F35 122 alpine meadows lives the pika, a rabbit relative who sun dries and 
F35 123 stores grass twigs for winter feeding.<p/>
F35 124 <p_>Regional staples include caribou, along with salmon in the 
F35 125 west, wild rice in the Great Lakes, and moose and deer in the 
F35 126 east.<p/>
F35 127 <p_>Married couples formed the basic unit of every community. Men 
F35 128 engaged in hunting, trapping, and tool making. Women did the 
F35 129 cleaning and storing of fish and game, tended the household, and 
F35 130 raised the children. Fishing provided an opportunity for men and 
F35 131 women to work together, otherwise the genders worked apart. 
F35 132 Families generally lived together under the influence of a parent 
F35 133 or older sibling. Leadership depended on the task at hand, but the 
F35 134 pool of respected elders who might serve as leader consisted of 
F35 135 those individuals known for their hunting success, good character, 
F35 136 sensible decisions, spirit allies, and generosity. Individuals 
F35 137 communicated with their spirit partners via dreams, which provided 
F35 138 help or warnings about upcoming activities. In all situations, 
F35 139 elders led by example, never by command.<p/>
F35 140 <p_>When trading posts and the fur trade came to the north, larger 
F35 141 groupings into bands and tribes were encouraged. People along the 
F35 142 same drainage often cooperated so that some could hunt for food 
F35 143 while others trapped furs. It was difficult to do both and 
F35 144 survive.<p/>
F35 145 <p_>Only shamans had a recognized position in the community. He or 
F35 146 she healed the sick, prayed for successful hunts, and directed 
F35 147 puberty ceremonies for girls on the verge of womanhood. The health, 
F35 148 number, and stability of their own families served as testimony for 
F35 149 their abilities.<p/>
F35 150 <p_>Tribes often traced the origin of the world to an Earth Diver. 
F35 151 Among the Beaver or Dunne-za tribe, Muskrat retrieved the dirt that 
F35 152 became the earth, while Swan had the more prophetic role of 
F35 153 establishing the cultural rules and social conventions. Among his 
F35 154 greatest contributions was stealing fire for humans. Throughout the 
F35 155 western section, the Give Away was the communal ceremony, much like 
F35 156 the Potlatch of the Northwest Coast. Families celebrated their own 
F35 157 prestige and gained honor by being generous to others.<p/>
F35 158 <p_>Among Great Lake tribes, the Midewiwin or Grand Medicine Lodge 
F35 159 had the most distinctive rituals in the region. Emphasizing a 
F35 160 belief in rebirth, initiates were symbolically killed and revived 
F35 161 in order to achieve membership. After physical death, members were 
F35 162 inducted into a ghost lodge.<p/>
F35 163 <p_>In the west, the Shaking Tent provided a means for special 
F35 164 shamans to hold a seance in which members of the audience outside 
F35 165 the conical tent could ask questions and receive a reply from 
F35 166 visiting spirits, particularly Turtle and Owl. As each spirit 
F35 167 entered the tent, it shook violently, even though no one could make 
F35 168 it budge before the start of the ritual.<p/>
F35 169 <h_><p_>NORTHWEST COAST<p/><h/>
F35 170 <p_>Rain and mountains characterize this region, thickly covered by 
F35 171 evergreen forests and drained by many waterways. Red cedar was a 
F35 172 particular gift of the Creator, providing the straight-grained 
F35 173 planks that became the sides of houses, and the logs that were used 
F35 174 to form molded canoes, bentwood boxes, and tools of local tribes. 
F35 175 Travel was by water because the dense undergrowth of thickets and 
F35 176 brambles made land routes few and far between, except along 
F35 177 riverbanks.<p/>
F35 178 <p_>Salmon was the staple, gathered by men and women during huge 
F35 179 runs during the spring and summer months. Candlefish in the north 
F35 180 and acorns in the south augmented the diet. Food grew in abundance 
F35 181 and variety, taken by means of an elaborate technology. Men were 
F35 182 concerned with animals and fish, while women devoted considerable 
F35 183 time to plant foods, from the fresh greens of spring to the berries 
F35 184 and nuts of autumn.<p/>
F35 185 <p_>Winter towns included a row of big plank houses facing the 
F35 186 beach, each house inhabited by related families. In the north, 
F35 187 kinship was traced through women of various clans; in the central 
F35 188 zone, it was traced through both parents, while in the south, the 
F35 189 father's side was given more emphasis. Northern towns were also 
F35 190 divided into halves, variously Orca and Raven or Eagle and Raven, 
F35 191 which included different clans.<p/>
F35 192 <p_>A 'house' was the dwelling place of three ranks of people. At 
F35 193 the rear of the house, beside its sacred treasures of masks, 
F35 194 costumes, and carvings, lived the nobles who owned the house. The 
F35 195 eldest man was the leader of the household, but his wife (in the 
F35 196 middle) or sister (in the north) provided links among the members. 
F35 197 Along the sides were families of commoners who attached themselves 
F35 198 to the house as kin or workers. Beside the door were slaves, taken 
F35 199 in war or the children of such captives, whose lives belonged to 
F35 200 their owner, along with all their labor.<p/>
F35 201 <p_>Families kept their own fires along the sides of the house 
F35 202 where they lived. In the middle, however, was a large hearth used 
F35 203 to cook meals for the noble owners or for guests attending a 
F35 204 celebration.<p/>
F35 205 <p_>Houses owned stories, sacred histories, naming the people, 
F35 206 places, and resources claimed by ancestors. Some of these house 
F35 207 histories can be related to regional patterns in existence for over 
F35 208 two thousand years. These involved the location of fishing, 
F35 209 berrying, seaweeding, and hunting sites claimed by a specific 
F35 210 house. Most stories in the Northwest, therefore, are owned and 
F35 211 copyrighted by households. Only a few are phrased in such general 
F35 212 terms that they were widely known and used to teach a moral.<p/>
F35 213 <p_>The major event throughout this region was the Potlatch, an 
F35 214 elaborate feast when a noble family dramatized their clan crests 
F35 215 and treasures (via songs, dances, masks, effigies, and natural 
F35 216 rarities) inside of a house filled with invited guests.
F35 217 
F35 218 
F35 219 
F36   1 <#FROWN:F36\><p_>Ginsberg also claims jazz as an important model 
F36   2 for his work and that of his contemporaries: <quote_>"The whole 
F36   3 point of modern poetry, dance, improvisation, performance, prose 
F36   4 even, music, was the element of improvisation and spontaneity and 
F36   5 open form, or even a fixed form improvisation on that form, like 
F36   6 say you have a blues chorus and you have spontaneous 
F36   7 improvisations, so in 'Howl' or 'Kaddish' or any of the poems that 
F36   8 have a listeny style, 'who did this, who did that, who did this,' 
F36   9 you start out striking a note, 'who,' and then you improvise, and 
F36  10 that's the basic form of the list poem or, in anaphora, when you 
F36  11 return to the margins in the same phrase, 'Or ever the golden bowl 
F36  12 be broken or the silver cord be loosed or the pitcher be broken at 
F36  13 the fountain,' as in the Bible or as in some of Walt Whitman's 
F36  14 catalogues or in Christopher Smart's 'Rejoice in the Lamb' poem or 
F36  15 the surrealist example of Andr<*_>e-acute<*/> Breton's free union, 
F36  16 'my wife with the platypus's egg, my wife with the eyes of this, my 
F36  17 wife with that and that ...'<p/>
F36  18 <p_>"It [jazz] was a model for the dadaists and it was a model for 
F36  19 the surrealists and it was a model for Kerouac and a model for me 
F36  20 and a model for almost everybody, in the sense that it was partly a 
F36  21 model and partly a parallel experiment in free form. The 
F36  22 development of poetics, as well as jazz and painting, seems to be 
F36  23 chronologically parallel, which is to say you have fixed form, 
F36  24 which then evolves toward more free form where you get loose from 
F36  25 this specific repeated rhythm and improvise the rhythms even, where 
F36  26 you don't have a fixed rhythm, as in bebop the drum became more of 
F36  27 a soloist in it too. So you find that in painting, the early de 
F36  28 Koonings have a motif or a theme, the woman or something like that, 
F36  29 but it gets more and more open, less dependent on the theme, and in 
F36  30 poetry, where you have less and less dependence on the original 
F36  31 motifs and more and more John Ashberyesque improvisational free 
F36  32 form flowing without even a subject matter, though I always kept a 
F36  33 subject matter like the old funky blues myself. It was partly a 
F36  34 parallel development within each discipline: painting, poetry, 
F36  35 music. There were innovators who opened up the thing after 
F36  36 Einstein, so to speak - you know, relative measure, as Williams 
F36  37 said - which is in a sense something that happened with bebop: not 
F36  38 the fixed measure but a relative measure. It was both 
F36  39 inter-influential and parallel, also integrating."<quote/><p/>
F36  40 <p_>If jazz opened up Ginsberg to <quote_>"the awakening of Afric 
F36  41 slave sensibility, of black sensibility, black funk as distinct 
F36  42 from white, clean Doris Day ethic, and mind funk instead of 
F36  43 well<?_>-<?/>combed, academic, button-down poetry,"<quote/> some 
F36  44 jazz musicians, as Cruz comments, were also <quote_>"interested in 
F36  45 learning about <tf|>all of it."<quote/> Many, however, were not. 
F36  46 After all, there were still plenty of clubs in black neighborhoods 
F36  47 until the mid<?_>-<?/>sixties, and for lots of jazzmen, a job 
F36  48 downtown - at Caf<*_>e-acute<*/> Bohemia, the Village Vanguard, the 
F36  49 Five Spot, or wherever - was just another gig. When I asked Walter 
F36  50 Bishop, Jr., about his take on the lower Manhattan avant-garde 
F36  51 twenty-five years ago, he replied that at the time he'd 
F36  52 <quote_>"had blinkers on,"<quote/> that for him it had been 
F36  53 <quote_>"bebop or bust"<quote/> - in other words, that he'd had no 
F36  54 artistic interests outside jazz.<p/>
F36  55 <p_>Others, however, like Jackie McLean, were intensely curious 
F36  56 about the worlds around them. McLean found his way into painting 
F36  57 and (to a lesser degree) literature through his <quote_>"friendship 
F36  58 with guys who were doing this, for instance Harvey Cropper, who was 
F36  59 the first painter that I knew. He was the one that introduced me to 
F36  60 Bart<*_>o-acute<*/>k, to a lot of painters, the style of 
F36  61 C<*_>e-acute<*/>zanne. He introduced me to Hieronymus Bosch and 
F36  62 that opened another world. That was the painter that had the 
F36  63 greatest influence on me, Bosch, because my world was so horrible 
F36  64 at that time that I could understand his paintings. I could look at 
F36  65 the horror in some of his paintings and feel it when I was sick 
F36  66 [from lack of narcotics], and then when I met Bob Thompson in 
F36  67 'sixty-one and we became very close, I learned a great deal about 
F36  68 painting from Bob, being around him and talking about music and 
F36  69 painting and what not. And of course Leroi Jones was around in 
F36  70 those days, and we were all hanging in the Village together during 
F36  71 that time."<quote/><p/>
F36  72 <p_>McLean's period (1959-1963) with the Living Theatre also 
F36  73 widened his interests. During these years he evolved from a 
F36  74 promising journeyman bebopper, described by Steve Lacy in <tf_>The 
F36  75 Jazz Review<tf/> in 1959 as having <quote_>"the most rhythmic 
F36  76 vitality and, so far, the least discipline"<quote/> of major 
F36  77 saxophonists, into the brilliant experimentalists we hear on 
F36  78 records from the early sixties like <tf_>Let Freedom Ring<tf/> and 
F36  79 <tf|>Evolution. The intensity of McLean's experience in the Living 
F36  80 Theatre comes through in his reminiscences about the troupe: 
F36  81 <quote_>"I thought they were great people. I thought they were 
F36  82 people who were looking far into the future, for a better way. You 
F36  83 had to love them to be with them, because the Living Theatre was 
F36  84 like a big commune. Mostly everybody lived together, ate together, 
F36  85 and were together working out each person's problems. I didn't live 
F36  86 with them because I had my wife and kids, but I was part of it 
F36  87 because certainly I lived with them when we left New York, when we 
F36  88 went to Europe.<p/>
F36  89 <p_>"It was weird because the day that we left, there was a big 
F36  90 snowstorm in Manhattan and all the transportation was stopped. It 
F36  91 was the biggest snowstorm I ever saw. The night before there was no 
F36  92 snow. I wake up the next day, we're supposed to leave for Europe, 
F36  93 and the phone rings. The guy says 'Jackie, this is Hacker.' So I 
F36  94 said 'Yeah, I know. We're not going. We can't get there,' so he 
F36  95 says 'No. An ambulance is coming to get you. We had to hire 
F36  96 ambulances to pick everybody up.' I said 'Jesus Christ, man,' and I 
F36  97 was so strung out, so sick, so my wife walked me to the hallway and 
F36  98 we stood there with my bags and my horn and my children and this 
F36  99 ambulance came and I went downstairs and put my bags in the 
F36 100 ambulance and two arms came out and helped me in. We went and 
F36 101 picked up the next guy and went to where the ship was, the Queen 
F36 102 Elizabeth, and the whole cast was coming in in ambulances, a sick 
F36 103 group coming in ambulances, but when I say 'sick,' I mean sick in 
F36 104 terms of having a better understanding of what life is supposed to 
F36 105 be about. They were very hip people, Judith and Julian and the 
F36 106 whole crowd. They were humanists. They were all into every aspect 
F36 107 of art and their idea of theater was brand<?_>-<?/>new in terms of 
F36 108 how they wanted to present it."<quote/><p/>
F36 109 <p_>Bohemianism, of course, is not all purity and innocence. Ever 
F36 110 since the concept was invented, it has also meant pleasure, doing 
F36 111 what feels good, and rebellion, surreptitious or open, against 
F36 112 constraints of all sorts. Another aspect of jazz's attraction for 
F36 113 Village types was its renegade connotations. Again in Emilio Cruz's 
F36 114 words: <quote_>"Jazz became the heretic art form. What we call 
F36 115 'gutbucket' has not to do so much with the guts or the bucket but 
F36 116 it has to do with heresy. So what is unique in modern culture is 
F36 117 the heretic form. Everything that is created, in truth, outside of 
F36 118 the sciences which deal directly with a mechanistic culture, comes 
F36 119 out of heresy, so that Allen Ginsberg was involved in a kind of 
F36 120 heresy. Charlie Parker was also involved in a kind of heresy. There 
F36 121 is the idea of violation, and that violation would attract those 
F36 122 people that were searching for that heretic tradition."<quote/><p/>
F36 123 <p_>At on extreme, such heresy and will to violation leads artists 
F36 124 to flirt with or embrace the most perilous vices. While jazz was 
F36 125 the banner of a kind of fresh and Edenic newness in the arts, it 
F36 126 was also a path into the lower depths, as implied by Sukenick's 
F36 127 comment on underground rebels of the 1950s: <quote_>"Where are you 
F36 128 in the mid-fifties? Are you fighting your way up the heart-burning 
F36 129 ladder of career, or have you finally decided there's no place to 
F36 130 go but down? Burned out into a dead-end underground. Into the 
F36 131 shadow world emblemized above all by Bebop. Digging Bop is one of 
F36 132 the main ways subterraneans can express their cultural 
F36 133 radicalism."<quote/><p/>
F36 134 <p_>Jazz's <quote_>"shadow world"<quote/> was the kingdom of the 
F36 135 hipster, a stereotype partly mythical and partly based on reality, 
F36 136 but far more cynical than the flower-child, love-and-peace 
F36 137 'hippies' of the late 1960s. A furtive, jive-talking sociopath, the 
F36 138 hipster was supposedly alert only to his own whims and his craving 
F36 139 for intense experiences. In 'The White Negro' (1957), which remains 
F36 140 an intriguing and annoying essay, Norman Mailer wrote that 
F36 141 <quote_>"the source of Hip is the Negro for he has been living on 
F36 142 the margin between totalitarianism and democracy for two centuries. 
F36 143 But the presence of Hip as a working philosophy in the sub-worlds 
F36 144 of American life is probably due to jazz, and its knifelike 
F36 145 entrance into culture, its subtle but so penetrating influence on 
F36 146 an avant-garde generation - that postwar generation of adventurers 
F36 147 who (some consciously, some by osmosis) had absorbed the lessons of 
F36 148 disillusionment and disgust of the twenties, the depression, and 
F36 149 the war."<quote/><p/>
F36 150 <p_>Mailer's piece drew heavy criticism from those in the jazz 
F36 151 world who read it. They faulted it for presenting a series of 
F36 152 caricatures. So it does - not necessarily much of a defect in an 
F36 153 essay whose tone is so exaggerated and polemical anyway - but many 
F36 154 of them fit, at least partly, the jazz scene at that time.<p/>
F36 155 <p_>What Mailer perhaps did not emphasize enough was the centrality 
F36 156 of drugs and particularly heroin among hipsters. As Leonard Feather 
F36 157 noted in 'Jazz in American Society' (published as a foreword to his 
F36 158 <tf_>Encyclopedia of Jazz<tf/>, 1960): <quote_>"A serious effect of 
F36 159 the use of drugs, quite apart from the medical, is its creation of 
F36 160 a sub-society in which all the users are 'hip' and the rest of the 
F36 161 world is 'square.'"<quote/> <quote_>"Hip talk"<quote/> itself was 
F36 162 partly a necessary camouflage for discussions of drugs, what Mailer 
F36 163 called <quote_>"the cunning of their language, the abstract 
F36 164 ambiguous alternatives in which from the danger of their oppression 
F36 165 they learned to speak ('Well now, man, like I'm looking for a cat 
F36 166 to turn me on ....')."<quote/><p/>
F36 167 <p_>The mysterious, hedonistic yet cooled-out universe of junkies 
F36 168 in pursuit of what Balzac called <quote_>"quiet, inner 
F36 169 enjoyment,"<quote/> and their profound alienation from society as a 
F36 170 whole - an alienation often compounded by race - were perceived as 
F36 171 deeply attractive by some bohemians. Even as fire<?_>-<?/>breathing 
F36 172 a revolutionary as Amiri Baraka, who has often railed against 
F36 173 drugs, surrenders to their sinister glamour when describing (in 
F36 174 <tf_>The Autobiography of Leroi Jones<tf/>) his use of heroin with 
F36 175 painter Bob Thompson in the early sixties - this despite the fact 
F36 176 that Thompson's very promising career was cut short by an overdose: 
F36 177 <quote_>"I walked all the way back to Avenue C, not to see Lucia, 
F36 178 but to find a friend of mine, Bob Thompson, a black painter. Bob 
F36 179 lived in a huge loft on Clinton Street. He was there with a couple 
F36 180 of bohemians, getting high, shooting heroin. I didn't know he used 
F36 181 it, but he was sending one of the bohemians out to cop. I dropped 
F36 182 some money in the mitt and meanwhile used some of Bob's 'smack' and 
F36 183 we took off together, down, down, and right here! Bob and I were a 
F36 184 number after that."<quote/><p/>
F36 185 <p_>There can be no doubt that heroin use was widespread among jazz 
F36 186 musicians. As Leonard Feather pointed out in 'Jazz in American 
F36 187 Society': <quote_>"Of the 23 individuals listed as winners in a 
F36 188 recent <tf_>Down Beat<tf/> poll, at least nine were known narcotics 
F36 189 users, five of them with a record of arrest and conviction.
F36 190 
F36 191 
F36 192 
F37   1 <#FROWN:F37\>Thus, while citizens are busy pursuing their private 
F37   2 desires, the sovereign is doubly a natural person. He acts as 
F37   3 himself, as well as for others, and he acts without a framework of 
F37   4 constraints.<p/>
F37   5 <p_>The legal tradition of artificial persons is guided by a 
F37   6 certain gestalt, the linked figures of master and slave or servant, 
F37   7 respectively models of power and powerlessness. But how can such a 
F37   8 model apply to modern relations between fully competent and equal 
F37   9 humans, professionals and their clients, government and the 
F37  10 citizens? How does it harmonize with our moral tradition? The moral 
F37  11 difficulties of the slave-and-master relation are plain enough, but 
F37  12 the interpretation of these difficulties in modern descendents of 
F37  13 that relation is not similarly clear. They need to be ferreted out 
F37  14 and addressed.<p/>
F37  15 <h_><p_>TWO<p/>
F37  16 <p_>Who Is Responsible?<p/>
F37  17 <p_><quote_><tf_>In virtue of my membership in some larger whole or 
F37  18 wholes, how can I reasonably be expected to take responsibility for 
F37  19 what these bodies do in circumstances where I could have no 
F37  20 conceivable influence on their actions?<tf/><quote/><p/>
F37  21 <p_>W. H. Walsh, 'Pride, Shame, and Responsibility'<p/><h/>
F37  22 <p_>IN THEIR VARIOUS forms, artificial persons make decisions that 
F37  23 commit other people. At the same time, the power to speak and act 
F37  24 for another makes responsiblity problematic, for common sense wants 
F37  25 to ask who <tf|>really did what was done, who is responsible. The 
F37  26 answer is difficult to find.<p/>
F37  27 <h|>I
F37  28 <p_>Lawyers provide a clear case of the difficulty, and from both 
F37  29 within and without the legal profession is the focus of much moral 
F37  30 criticism. The reason is this: a lawyer's position requires him to 
F37  31 act, but to act not as himself or for his own purposes and 
F37  32 sometimes not on his own judgement. The cause he pleads - even 
F37  33 eloquently and passionately - and may appear to endorse is not his, 
F37  34 and his expressions of indignation and sympathy, his praise of his 
F37  35 client and expressions of scorn for the opposing client are also 
F37  36 not personally his. Thus, to the problems that apply to other 
F37  37 artificial persons is added a large component of dissembling.<p/>
F37  38 <p_>It is clear why responsibility for actions that a lawyer 
F37  39 undertakes for a client should be ambiguous. It is not the client 
F37  40 who <tf|>does what is done, but the lawyer. However, since the 
F37  41 lawyer acts on behalf of and in the name of his client, the action 
F37  42 isn't strictly his either. The responsibility must then be the 
F37  43 client's; he is the one who brings suit, who wins or loses, and who 
F37  44 may pay the judgment or even go to jail. We go back and forth - the 
F37  45 lawyer acts for the client, not himself; the client is detached but 
F37  46 stands to benefit or suffer.<p/>
F37  47 <p_>A lawyer's immunity from criticism is defended in this way by 
F37  48 one writer:<p/>
F37  49 <p_><quote_>We must distinguish between what lawyers do and what 
F37  50 clients do <tf_>through their lawyers<tf/> .... The content of a 
F37  51 lawyer's action, focused by intentions solely on the legal 
F37  52 lever-pulling, may be entirely unproblematic, morally speaking, 
F37  53 although what the client seeks to do through the actions of the 
F37  54 lawyer may well be morally problematic. And ... since all that one 
F37  55 must take responsibility for are one's own actions and their 
F37  56 (intended) consequences, there is no bad faith in refusing to face 
F37  57 aspects of professional activity that are not properly attributable 
F37  58 to one's own agency.<quote/><p/>
F37  59 <p_>On this account the lawyer simply performs suitable legal 
F37  60 moves; she isn't responsible for the ends that guide them. She 
F37  61 serves as an instrument of someone else, and her standards are 
F37  62 those of competent lawyers - of knowing how to use legal rules and 
F37  63 practices for a client's advantage. She files papers, prepares 
F37  64 forms, sends letters to appropriate officers; she gives persuasive 
F37  65 argument in or out of court and in general displays the knowledge 
F37  66 and skills she is trained in. At the conclusion she is paid.<p/>
F37  67 <p_>But then the question arises: what difference is there between 
F37  68 a lawyer and a county clerk whose job is to fill out forms, say, or 
F37  69 a bookkeeper who balances books, or a pharmacist who fills a 
F37  70 prescription? The clerk may assist in a dispossession, the books 
F37  71 may contain evidence of mismanagement, the prescription may cause 
F37  72 harm. Like lawyers, they do as they are trained and fill their 
F37  73 positions; but unlike lawyers, they don't suffer moral criticism. 
F37  74 If they aren't responsible for the consequences they bring about in 
F37  75 their work, why should lawyers be?<p/>
F37  76 <p_>Indeed, according to the American Bar Association code, a 
F37  77 lawyer is not culpable in her pursuit of a client's interests so 
F37  78 long as no law is violated. She is no more responsible for her 
F37  79 client's purposes than a pharmacist is for a physician's diagnosis. 
F37  80 One hesitates to accept this argument, because lawyers generally 
F37  81 know quite well what is behind the actions they are involved in; 
F37  82 they are unlike most clerks and pharmacists, who may not be privy 
F37  83 to the whole purpose and plan, who see only their detached 
F37  84 contributions. Thus the lawyer's defense would be strenghtened if 
F37  85 it had the additional stipulation that she doesn't know what the 
F37  86 likely effects of her actions will be. Then her excuse would fairly 
F37  87 resemble that of clerks, accountants, and pharmacists: we only do 
F37  88 what we are told. A lawyer would say, <quote_>"I had no idea why I 
F37  89 was bringing this suit or what would happen as a result."<quote/> 
F37  90 Or if she were incompetent or deceived by her client, we would 
F37  91 sympathize with her: <quote_>"Poor person, she was 
F37  92 <tf|>used"<quote/> - without her understanding or consent.<p/>
F37  93 <p_>However, the lawyer's nonaccountability can't depend on 
F37  94 ignorance or incompetence; lawyers take pride in knowing how they 
F37  95 can be most helpful, claim to know better than clients how to 
F37  96 achieve their ends, and are pleased to lend their talents and 
F37  97 skills to be maximally helpful. Single-mindedness in helping the 
F37  98 client is a professional virtue, the English jurist Lord Brougham 
F37  99 writes: <quote_>"an advocate, in the discharge of his duty, knows 
F37 100 but one person in all the world and expedients, and at all hazards 
F37 101 and costs to other persons, and, among them, to himself, is his 
F37 102 first and only duty."<quote/><p/>
F37 103 <h|>II
F37 104 <p_>Moral questions about the legal profession - and their answers 
F37 105 - are often cast in terms of roles. Thus Richard Wasserstrom, 
F37 106 himself a lawyer, is concerned with how an action done in a 
F37 107 professional role can be <quote_>"morally different from what it 
F37 108 would have been if the role were not in the picture."<quote/> 
F37 109 <quote_>"Appeal to the ... role becomes a central part of the 
F37 110 reasoning about the right thing to do"<quote/>; this is shown by 
F37 111 the way certain roles justify partiality. Thus a parent <tf|>should 
F37 112 be partial to the interests of her child, simply because she is a 
F37 113 parent; the general should be more concerned about his own troops 
F37 114 than the enemy's; and <quote_>"it is thought to be ... permissible 
F37 115 and probably obligatory, once the lawyer has entered into the role 
F37 116 of ... lawyer for some client, ... to do any number of things that 
F37 117 otherwise might very well be morally criticizable."<quote/> But 
F37 118 this power of roles makes Wasserstrom uneasy: <quote_>"the problem 
F37 119 ... is that behavior that is potentially criticizable on moral 
F37 120 grounds is blocked from such criticism by an appeal to the 
F37 121 existence to the actor's role .... Appeal to the ... role seems to 
F37 122 distort, limit, or make irrelevant what might otherwise be morally 
F37 123 relevant."<quote/><p/>
F37 124 <p_>Appealing to roles is attractive, Wasserstrom thinks, 
F37 125 <quote_>"because roles provide a degree of moral simplification 
F37 126 that makes it much easier to determine what one ought to do .... 
F37 127 Psychologically, roles give a great power and security because they 
F37 128 make moral life much simpler, less complex, and less vexing than it 
F37 129 would be without them."<quote/> The demands of a role answer 
F37 130 questions - which might otherwise be difficult - about what to do 
F37 131 in given circumstances.<p/>
F37 132 <p_>If one views the moral hazards of a professional in a framework 
F37 133 of roles, it is understandable why those hazards are often 
F37 134 addressed in terms of professional codes of ethics. The assumption 
F37 135 is that if the code is tightened and the professional community 
F37 136 made more aware, ethical problems can be corrected without altering 
F37 137 the overall shape of the profession. Of course, by suggesting that 
F37 138 any moral problem can be answered by adjustments in role 
F37 139 requirements, this approach works against radical change, against a 
F37 140 deeper examination of what morality means. The shape of the 
F37 141 profession is allowed to remain intact. Col. Anthony Hartle says of 
F37 142 the military, for example, that <quote_>"examining professional 
F37 143 ethics in terms of role differentiation seems to be a reasonable 
F37 144 way to reveal the moral structure within which military 
F37 145 professionals work."<quote/> He finds nothing problematic about the 
F37 146 idea of a code that <quote_>"consists of a set of rules and 
F37 147 standards governing the conduct of members of a professional 
F37 148 group."<quote/> The military code determines what they should do as 
F37 149 members of the military.<p/>
F37 150 <p_>Concerned with the gravity of many military decisions, Gen. 
F37 151 Maxwell Taylor noted the absence of an explicit <tf|>ethical code 
F37 152 for the military and proposed that each officer should work one out 
F37 153 on his own. He might begin with the idea that <quote_>"an ideal 
F37 154 officer is one who can be relied upon to carry out all assigned 
F37 155 tasks and missions and, in doing so, get the most from his 
F37 156 available resources with minimum loss and waste."<quote/> Such an 
F37 157 ideal person <quote_>"would be deeply convinced of the importance 
F37 158 of the military profession and its role, ... [and] view himself as 
F37 159 a descendant of the warrior, who, in company with the king, the 
F37 160 priest, and the judge,"<quote/> has helped civilization survive. In 
F37 161 the end Taylor believes that professional requirements must 
F37 162 condition the moral ones and not the reverse.<p/>
F37 163 <p_>This is, of course, the central issue. Richard de George argues 
F37 164 the other side, promoting the preeminence of moral understanding. 
F37 165 The point of an ethical code is to raise the profession's standard 
F37 166 above what is normally demanded: <quote_>"Any profession ... is 
F37 167 appropriately given respect and autonomy only if it lives up to a 
F37 168 higher moral code than is applicable to all."<quote/> In particular 
F37 169 this applies to the military, because <quote_>"society places in 
F37 170 [its hands] a monopoly on the use of the major instruments of 
F37 171 force."<quote/> Society's trust is consequently <quote_>"enormous, 
F37 172 and the corresponding burden on those who assume the trust and have 
F37 173 custody of the monopoly of force is likewise enormous,"<quote/> he 
F37 174 argues. But in view of that trust, there should be a commitment to 
F37 175 peacefulness and a cultivation of restraint in the use of that 
F37 176 force. This brings out the potential for conflict between a code 
F37 177 and the basic military duties to obey and respect authority, duties 
F37 178 of one piece in a large organizational machine.<p/>
F37 179 <p_>A professional code, then, is a way of capturing the sum of 
F37 180 duties of someone in that profession. But the question of where 
F37 181 morality fits in remains. Gerald Postema wonders <quote_>"whether, 
F37 182 given the need for ... a [professional] code, it is possible to 
F37 183 preserve one's sense of responsibility"<quote/> when professional 
F37 184 responsibilities are detached from ordinary moral ones. His answer 
F37 185 is no: <quote_>"I contend that a sense of responsibility and sound 
F37 186 practical judgment depend not only on the quality of one's 
F37 187 professional training, but also on one's ability to draw on the 
F37 188 resources of a broader moral experience ... [which] in turn, 
F37 189 requires that one seek to achieve a fully integrated moral 
F37 190 personality."<quote/> Unless a person integrates his professional 
F37 191 and nonprofessional life, he cannot fully satisfy his professional 
F37 192 role, cannot be a good lawyer, Postema argues. This means that a 
F37 193 code's claim to <tf|>morally simplify a person's life is 
F37 194 spurious.<p/>
F37 195 <p_>Using the code as a guide or formula for making moral decisions 
F37 196 may be simplifying, when as Wasserstrom says, roles and their 
F37 197 obligations are substituted for decisions that demand the balancing 
F37 198 of competing moral claims, a balancing that may be complex and 
F37 199 difficult. Role obligations and role moralities may thus contribute 
F37 200 to simplicity in decision making <tf|>if they exclude ordinary 
F37 201 moral considerations - but in that case they add to the moral 
F37 202 obscurity and complexity of whatever is done. The question is 
F37 203 whether we should grant them this power to exclude.<p/>
F37 204 <h|>III
F37 205 <p_>Emile Durkheim argues, in support of role-defined moralities, 
F37 206 that they are inevitable and morally beneficial. He uses the term 
F37 207 'role' broadly.
F37 208 
F37 209 
F37 210 
F38   1 <#FROWN:F38\>This, in itself, is a radical departure for 
F38   2 winegrowing - more so even than for wheat, corn, or cattle.<p/>
F38   3 <p_>The difference with winegrowing is that it is a long-term 
F38   4 venture. Expensive to establish, vineyards traditionally are not 
F38   5 easily tinkered with. Given the expense, grape growers 
F38   6 traditionally have been unsympathetic to change. This is especially 
F38   7 so with fine wine vineyards, as their tradition is more than simply 
F38   8 monetary. With fine wine, the challenge is to push grapevines to 
F38   9 their limits: How cool or warm before it's too cool or warm? How 
F38  10 dry before it's too dry? How extreme a soil type? All this is 
F38  11 characterized as 'stress.'<p/>
F38  12 <p_>Until California's fine wine ambition, stress was achieved 
F38  13 largely from naturally occurring conditions. In Europe, grapevines 
F38  14 were planted in a nonmethodical fashion along a wave<?_>-<?/>length 
F38  15 of locations, as if tuning a radio until you lock onto the 
F38  16 strongest signal. The 'signal' is not just flavor. It also includes 
F38  17 grape yields, disease resistance, winter hardiness, summer heat, 
F38  18 drought resistance, and soil suitability. Hindsight makes the 
F38  19 process seem deliberate, but much of it was haphazard. Over the 
F38  20 centuries, the tradition congealed into articles of hard faith.<p/>
F38  21 <p_>This approach was challenged when California bulk 
F38  22 wine<?_>-<?/>growing began anew immediately upon Repeal in 1933. 
F38  23 What became the transforming vision of California winegrowing - 
F38  24 agriculture shaped by the machine - arrived through the agency of 
F38  25 California's preeminent agricultural college, the University of 
F38  26 California at Davis. Located in a small farming town about twenty 
F38  27 miles east of Sacramento, the state capital, UC Davis expanded on 
F38  28 the efforts of the state's first college of agriculture, 
F38  29 established in 1868 at UC Berkeley. There, a viticulture and 
F38  30 enology department was created in 1880. Only in the late 1930s did 
F38  31 the program gradually drift from the Berkeley campus to Davis, 
F38  32 where the wine and grape-growing program is known as the School of 
F38  33 Viticulture and Enology.<p/>
F38  34 <p_>This new vision of winegrowing was itself an outgrowth of a 
F38  35 larger social and academic movement. Agricultural colleges 
F38  36 everywhere were locked in a battle with farmers. Professors at 
F38  37 agricultural colleges were dedicated to applying to agriculture the 
F38  38 same principles of 'systemization' that were the 
F38  39 <tf_>id<*_>e-acute<*/>e fixe<tf/> of America from the 1870s to the 
F38  40 1920s. The idea of systemization was applied to virtually all 
F38  41 business and social endeavors. Farming was no exception. 
F38  42 <quote_>"These systematic agriculturists ... assumed that farming 
F38  43 was composed of numerous discrete operations and that success was 
F38  44 the consequence of rationally conceived and pursued 
F38  45 methods."<quote/><p/>
F38  46 <p_>The shock troops of this systemization movement were 
F38  47 agricultural colleges. They, in turn, were subsidized by those 
F38  48 businesses with an interest in the benefits to be reaped by 
F38  49 large-scale farming performed with mechanical reliability and 
F38  50 predictability. As Marcus and Segal point out, <quote_>"The 
F38  51 bestowal of collegial sanction often led others to adopt the 
F38  52 practices, which tended to standardize farm operations. Application 
F38  53 of systematic farming techniques only sometimes increased farm 
F38  54 profits and reduced drudgery, but its partisans always identified 
F38  55 themselves as progressive."<quote/> When bulk winegrowing returned 
F38  56 to California's vast, flat, irrigated Central Valley, the 
F38  57 systemization of American agriculture and the dominance of 
F38  58 agricultural colleges were already in place. Of all the major crops 
F38  59 in America, wine grapes were one of the last to be addressed.<p/>
F38  60 <p_>For their part, agricultural college professors had a point, 
F38  61 nowhere more so than with winegrowing. Precisely because of its 
F38  62 ancient heritage, winegrowing practice in Europe changed 
F38  63 grudgingly, if at all. Although it was exclusively Europeans who 
F38  64 first established that yeasts caused fermentation (Louis Pasteur in 
F38  65 1859); that bacteria in the presence of oxygen caused wine to turn 
F38  66 to vinegar (Louis Pasteur in 1866); and that enzymes were the 
F38  67 agency by which the fermentation was achieved (Eduard and Hans 
F38  68 Buchner in 1897), European wine<?_>-<?/>growing practices were 
F38  69 mostly unmoved by the revelations.<p/>
F38  70 <p_>In this, America had its one advantage. Because of Prohibition, 
F38  71 no ingrained tradition presented resistance. The UC Davis enology 
F38  72 and viticulture professors could fashion a new 'scientific' vision 
F38  73 of how and where grapes should be grown and, even more importantly, 
F38  74 how wine should be made. Their influence was assured not only 
F38  75 because of the ignorance caused by the wholesale collapse of 
F38  76 winegrowing during the thirteen years of Prohibition, but also 
F38  77 because by then the authority of agricultural colleges was 
F38  78 unchallenged.<p/>
F38  79 <p_>The absence of a fine wine ambition was a benefit to UC Davis. 
F38  80 Otherwise, the pull of European tradition would have weakened the 
F38  81 sway of the college professors. (Which is precisely what occurred 
F38  82 in the 1980s). Where such as Leland Stanford looked automatically - 
F38  83 and longingly - to Europe, those concerned with bulk wines felt no 
F38  84 such pull. Their interest was proper farm management in order to 
F38  85 extract the highest yields and the healthiest vines. Stress, so 
F38  86 called, was not the issue, as the finer gradations of quality that 
F38  87 emerge from it are of no concern to bulk wine production.<p/>
F38  88 <p_>Just how basic winegrowing in California was after Prohibition 
F38  89 is revealed by the enormous influence of the notion of 'heat 
F38  90 summations' or 'degree-days,' a vision of the land propounded by UC 
F38  91 Davis. The idea of degree-days for crops is not new. But its 
F38  92 application to grapevines, although discussed in Europe as far back 
F38  93 as 1872, was largely academic. By then Europe was covered in vines 
F38  94 and mired tradition.<p/>
F38  95 <p_>The degree-day concept is straightforward. With grapevines, 
F38  96 growth proceeds only when the temperature achieves 50 degrees 
F38  97 Fahrenheit. Every degree above that is counted as one degree-day. 
F38  98 When these degree days are totaled over the 
F38  99 <}_><-|>several-month<+|>several-months<}/> span between the 
F38 100 beginning of vine growth and the harvest of ripe grapes, the total 
F38 101 is called temperature summation. At a glance, one can establish the 
F38 102 coolness or warmth of a site or district.<p/>
F38 103 <p_>Building on the work of Frederic T. Bioletti, the influential 
F38 104 director of the UC Berkeley wine science program, viticulturist A. 
F38 105 J. Winkler embarked upon a statewide investigation of temperature 
F38 106 summations in the 1920s. Subsequently, his student and later 
F38 107 distinguished colleague Maynard A. Amerine, in collaboration with 
F38 108 Winkler, categorized these heat summations in brackets labeled 
F38 109 Regions I (the coolest) through V (the hottest). To this day, 
F38 110 California winegrowers still talk about their vinyards as being 
F38 111 <quote_>"high Region I"<quote/> or <quote_>"low Region II."<quote/> 
F38 112 This simple but useful scale was made more graphic, literally, by a 
F38 113 map of the entire state showing various pools of temperature, each 
F38 114 categorized as Region I through V. It was first published in 
F38 115 1944.<p/>
F38 116 <p_>For the first time, vineyards could be established not by 
F38 117 unthinking tradition or gut instinct, but by scientific 
F38 118 methodology. It was rational; it was systematic. And it provided a 
F38 119 basis upon which to proceed to revitalize an industry. Above all, 
F38 120 it became the basis of an <tf|>American vision of winegrowing: 
F38 121 qualitative; methodical; verifiable. For bulk winegrowing, this 
F38 122 vision was sufficient. That the university never subsequently 
F38 123 offered a methodology of greater nuance speaks volumes: The bulk 
F38 124 winegrowers who funded its research had no need for one.<p/>
F38 125 <p_>For the fine wine ambition, degree-days are crude. They measure 
F38 126 only heat and that only in the aggregate. What if a site is hot in 
F38 127 the morning but cooled rapidly by fogs or winds in the afternoon? 
F38 128 Numerically, the site may be considered warm or cool, depending 
F38 129 upon the degree-day total for the growing season. But it tells us 
F38 130 little about how the <tf|>grapevine reacts to the swings in 
F38 131 temperature. Or about sunlight intensity. Or about the effects of 
F38 132 wind, rain, humidity, or night temperatures on the grapevine. The 
F38 133 insight extends only to how well and regularly a grape variety is 
F38 134 likely to ripen its grapes properly. What the ripe grape delivers 
F38 135 in terms of the flavor shadings that distinguish fine wine from 
F38 136 ordinary is another matter entirely.<p/>
F38 137 <p_>It should be noted that vineyard plantings in California, to 
F38 138 this day, are not entirely rational, despite the veracity of the 
F38 139 degree-day vision, however limited. Rationality has to compete with 
F38 140 the marketplace. With Chardonnay, the most lucrative grape variety, 
F38 141 the competition is almost one-sided. As late as 1988, there still 
F38 142 were 2,164 acres of Chardonnay planted in grossly too warm Regions 
F38 143 IV and V, according to the California Agricultural Statistics 
F38 144 Service. More telling yet is that 10,380 acres are planted in 
F38 145 Region III sites, which is warm for Chardonnay. The lure of 
F38 146 Chardonnay in the market<?_>-<?/>place clearly is too enticing to 
F38 147 be resisted. Nevertheless, the influence of degree-day vision is 
F38 148 strongly felt. Three quarters of California's Chardonnay vineyards 
F38 149 are planted in areas classed as Region I (3,077 acres) or Region II 
F38 150 (26,249 acres).<p/>
F38 151 <p_>The surprisingly small acreage of Region I sites is revealing: 
F38 152 What California considers as cool is relative - and limited. Region 
F38 153 I is 2,500 degree-days or fewer. Burgundy's C<*_>o-circ<*/>te d'Or 
F38 154 registers 2,120 degree-days, which would put it just barely above a 
F38 155 hypothetical Region 0. (Each climate region is delineated by five 
F38 156 hundred degree-days.)<p/>
F38 157 <p_>That the UC Davis scale effectively <tf|>begins at 2,500 
F38 158 degree-days tells us not only how warm are many of California's 
F38 159 traditional vineyard areas, but also the limitation of the vision 
F38 160 that places so much emphasis on climatic zones. Precisely because 
F38 161 grapes do not ripen regularly or easily in cool sites, to identify 
F38 162 such sites was to legitimize them. This was not possible, as those 
F38 163 sites can never achieve the machine regularity fundamental to 
F38 164 scientific winegrowing.<p/>
F38 165 <p_>This commitment to machine regularity is further evidenced by 
F38 166 the vast labor of Harold P. Olmo, a UC Davis professor with a Ph.D. 
F38 167 in genetics who for decades specialized in creating new wine-grape 
F38 168 hybrids. Nearly all of his twenty-five hybrid varieties were 
F38 169 invented to deliver decent acidity and flavors while baking in hot 
F38 170 Region V climates. By 1989 only two Olmo-created high-yielding 
F38 171 hybrid varieties occupied significant acreage in the San Joaquin 
F38 172 Valley: Ruby Cabernet (7,037 acres) and Rubired (7,030 acres). 
F38 173 Nearly all of the others have fallen into disuse, partly because of 
F38 174 a decline in bulk wine consumption and partly because of an embrace 
F38 175 of traditional 'classic' varieties such as Chardonnay and Cabernet 
F38 176 Sauvignon.<p/>
F38 177 <p_>For the machine in the mind, it is a far better thing to add 
F38 178 acidity to a 'flabby' wine grown in a too-warm location - or to 
F38 179 laboriously 'design' a new grape variety - than to plant a grape 
F38 180 variety in place where it might not ripen fully every vintage. More 
F38 181 than economics is at work here. Equally powerful is a determined 
F38 182 interventionism. The offense of European winegrowing was its 
F38 183 passivity. The machine in the mind offers a more muscular 
F38 184 approach.<p/>
F38 185 <p_>A special contempt is reserved by the machine in the mind for 
F38 186 the influence of soil on wine. The importance of soil for fine wine 
F38 187 has been so abundantly demonstrated <tf_>by the wines 
F38 188 themselves<tf/> in Europe, most convincingly in France, that it 
F38 189 would seem evident that soil plays a significant role. One need 
F38 190 only taste a great Meursault or Chablis to be convinced. But soil, 
F38 191 more than even climate itself, cannot easily be altered. The only 
F38 192 practical intervention is of the most superficial sort, such as 
F38 193 fertilizer or topsoil. (Even here, the machine in the mind is 
F38 194 tempting. Randall Graham of Bonny Doon Vineyard in Santa Cruz 
F38 195 decided that Burgundy's limestone-rich soil was indispensable for 
F38 196 growing Pinot Noir. So he 'planted' the soil of his vineyard with 
F38 197 ten tons of limestone per acre.)<p/>
F38 198 <p_>Reproducible 'scientific' verification of the role of soil is 
F38 199 unavailable: Soil is far more ambiguous than neatly quantified 
F38 200 temperature summations. That its role cannot be pinpointed, let 
F38 201 alone measured, wrenches the machine in the mind. The degree of 
F38 202 discomfort, even scorn, is displayed by Maynard A. Amerine and 
F38 203 Philip M. Wagner in their chapter 'The Vine and Its Environments,' 
F38 204 in <tf_>The University of California/Sotheby Book of California 
F38 205 Wine<tf/> (1984):<p/>
F38 206 <p_><quote_>Many popular commentators and almost all vineyard 
F38 207 owners attribute some magical property to vineyard soils. As 
F38 208 indicated in the preceding sections, there are differences between 
F38 209 regions and localized areas (exposures, valley floor versus 
F38 210 hillsides, and so forth). Some of these differences are due to 
F38 211 variations in temperature, some perhaps also to moisture (and thus 
F38 212 related to soil temperature), soil microorganisms, and vineyard and 
F38 213 ecological practices. How many of the differences are due purely to 
F38 214 soil factors has not, to our satisfaction, been scientifically 
F38 215 determined.<quote/><p/>
F38 216 
F38 217 
F38 218 
F39   1 <#FROWN:F39\><h_><p>Private Life and Public Scandal: The 'New 
F39   2 Moralism' Then and Now<p/><h/>
F39   3 <p_>To their credit, most Americans have not been willing to cut 
F39   4 the public world entirely loose from moral or ethical surveillance 
F39   5 or to evaluative public figures on their feelings or motivations 
F39   6 instead of on their behavior. But when people abandon hope of 
F39   7 judging public figures by stringent political ethics, periodic 
F39   8 personal expos<*_>e-acute<*/>s become the main weapon for 
F39   9 controlling their ambitions and actions. In the 188Os and 189Os, 
F39  10 the removal of moral intensity from public relations and its 
F39  11 concentration on private ones made family relations a tempting 
F39  12 target for public disclosure. As public standards and political 
F39  13 vocabulary faded, debate by scandal and expos<*_>e-acute<*/> became 
F39  14 the rule.<p/>
F39  15 <p_>The preacher Henry Ward Beecher was one of the first to 
F39  16 discover the threat that hangs over those who encourage a 
F39  17 concentration of public debate on private values. To demonstrate 
F39  18 Beecher's hypocrisy in denouncing her 'free love' movement, social 
F39  19 reformer Victoria Woodhull leaked to the newspapers his alleged 
F39  20 affair with one of his parishioners; the resultant scandal was at 
F39  21 least as widely debated as the Jim Bakker affair in the 1980s and 
F39  22 the Clarence Thomas hearings in 1991. American politics has been 
F39  23 wracked by periodic scandals and moral crusades for 200 years, but 
F39  24 they were especially virulent in the late nineteenth century, when 
F39  25 private morals were first elevated above public virtues in 
F39  26 mainstream ideology. Their reemergence in the last decade has 
F39  27 similar origins, following the decline of 1960s and early 1970s 
F39  28 social and political debate.<p/>
F39  29 <p_>lt is in this context that we must place America's 'New 
F39  30 Moralism.' Recently, we have seen a series of celebrated scandals 
F39  31 over issues that were once considered part of private life. Public 
F39  32 figures have been dethroned by revelations about their personal 
F39  33 relationships; private nonentities have become public figures by 
F39  34 making such revelations. Politicians who courted our votes by 
F39  35 touting their home lives rather than their ides now complain that 
F39  36 their families are being invaded by the press, even though their 
F39  37 campaign managers regularly leak information to the press about 
F39  38 their opponents' personal lives. The confusion has reached the 
F39  39 point that some enterprising 'sinners' have been offered to reform 
F39  40 their private lives in return for public office: The late Senator 
F39  41 John Tower promised to quit drinking if confirmed as Secretary of 
F39  42 Defense; William Bennett declared he would stop smoking if given a 
F39  43 chance to run the nation's health agency. Perhaps Gary Hart's 
F39  44 campaign staff should have hinted that if he was put in the Oval 
F39  45 Office, he could be kept out of a lot of bedrooms.<p/>
F39  46 <p_>There has been much debate over how to evaluate the new 
F39  47 scrutiny of public figures' personal lives. Does it represent a 
F39  48 break<?_>-<?/>down of the double standard that once allowed the 
F39  49 wealthy in general and men in particular to run roughshod over the 
F39  50 lives of others, exploiting and discarding women with impunity? 
F39  51 Does it signal a growing concern about the public consequences of 
F39  52 private acts, a more stringent insistence on ethical behavior? Or 
F39  53 have we become, as political analyst Harrison Rainie charges, a 
F39  54 <quote_>"culture of hackers,"<quote/> breaking into people's 
F39  55 personal lives and reprogramming their reputations? Is this a new 
F39  56 McCarthyism, resting on pillory by innuendo? Are the women who 
F39  57 recount their sexual misuse in the popular press exposing male 
F39  58 hypocrisy, or are they a new kind of gold digger? Are we forging 
F39  59 new definitions of public accountability or destroying important 
F39  60 distinctions between people's private peccadilloes and their public 
F39  61 contributions?<p/>
F39  62 <p_>Speaking as a historian, l would have to answer <quote_>"all of 
F39  63 the above."<quote/> On the one hand, we should beware of 
F39  64 romaticizing older divisions between public and private life. Too 
F39  65 often, Enlightenment thinkers established 'civilized' limits to 
F39  66 public debates by defining social inequities as subordinate private 
F39  67 matters. Early republican politics, for example, rested on the neat 
F39  68 assumption that extermination of Native Americans and enslavement 
F39  69 of blacks were prepolitical issues, almost domestic matters. 
F39  70 Southerners declared that it was as <quote|>"impertinent" to 
F39  71 criticize slavery as to tell a white man how to treat his wife and 
F39  72 children. Native Americans were often referred to as children 
F39  73 protected by the 'Great White Father' in Washington. Women's claims 
F39  74 for justice were dismissed as family spats.<p/>
F39  75 <p_>Some of the 'private' scandals we see today represent a 
F39  76 challenge to such inequities. Power, money, and sex are bound up in 
F39  77 our society in very unsavory ways. To leave these connections 
F39  78 unexamined is to ignore the hidden mechanisms reproducing injustice 
F39  79 in a nominally democratic society. Isn't it important to know how a 
F39  80 public figure uses power at home, how likely his or her judgment is 
F39  81 to be warped by personal appetites? Should the compulsive, 
F39  82 cold-blooded womanizing of President Kennedy really have gone 
F39  83 unreported, especially since some of it apparently linked him to 
F39  84 prominent figures in organized crime? Is it totally irrelevant that 
F39  85 the Reagans apparently did not find it as easy to <quote_>"just say 
F39  86 no"<quote/> as their public policies assumed it would be for the 
F39  87 poor?<p/>
F39  88 <p_>Clearly, many private issues have a political component, while 
F39  89 public issues spill over into private life. That is what makes it 
F39  90 so problematic, as l will show in chapter 6, to make hard-and-fast 
F39  91 generalizations about privacy and state intervention. Private 
F39  92 family relations take place against a background of rules set by 
F39  93 public authorities; public inequities of gender, race, or class get 
F39  94 transferred into private relations; and family norms affect the 
F39  95 ability of individuals to exercise public rights. There is, for 
F39  96 example, much more public tolerance of violence within the family 
F39  97 than there is of violence among strangers - and this toleration can 
F39  98 deprave women or children of their civil rights, or even of life 
F39  99 itself.<p/>
F39 100 <p_>Too often, however, the scrutiny of private life threatens to 
F39 101 swamp all other issues. Precisely because sex and power are bound 
F39 102 so tightly in American society, which is a<tf>social problem, 
F39 103 almost all public figures are vulnerable to at least the appearance 
F39 104 of sexual impropriety, so that the personal attacks become 
F39 105 frighteningly arbitrary. Distinctions fade between appearance and 
F39 106 reality, between single transgressions and patterns of deceit. The 
F39 107 lines between victim and perpetrator also blur. When Jessica Hahn 
F39 108 and Donna Rice pose for men's magazines or for skintight jeans ads 
F39 109 and women institute million<?_>-<?/>dollar paternity suits over 
F39 110 one-night stands, it obscures the legitimate reasons for exposing 
F39 111 cases of male sexual coercion or irresponsibility: Most sexually 
F39 112 abused women have such low self-esteem that they cannot promote 
F39 113 themselves so assiduously; most unwed mothers get no support 
F39 114 payments from the fathers of their children.<p/>
F39 115 <p_>Preoccupation with personal morality and sex reveals above all 
F39 116 that, like our predecessors in the first Gilded Age, we lack a 
F39 117 clear set of public ethics and political standards of behavior. We 
F39 118 focus on private vices because we cannot agree on the definition of 
F39 119 a public vice. The confirmation hearings for John Tower generated 
F39 120 far more discussion about his drinking and womanizing than about 
F39 121 his attitudes toward peace and war or his apparent conflicts of 
F39 122 interest in the military-industrial complex. In the Oliver North 
F39 123 case, his evasion of constitutional checks and balances was totally 
F39 124 overshadowed by the suspicion that one of his improper expenditures 
F39 125 was for silk stockings for his secretary, Fawn Hall. When committee 
F39 126 members discovered he had only bought tights for his daughter, they 
F39 127 were almost completely routed. In the Clarence Thomas hearings, the 
F39 128 real debate came over Anita Hill's testimony, not over his 
F39 129 qualifications, his oath that he had never discussed<tf_>Roe v. 
F39 130 Wade<tf/>, or his misrepresentation of his sister's welfare 
F39 131 experience.<p/>
F39 132 <p_>ln one sense, then, the new moralism about sex and family 
F39 133 represents the bankruptcy of our political life. Public policy 
F39 134 failures take second place to family irregularities; a political 
F39 135 issue such as the status of women is reduced to courtroom brawls 
F39 136 over palimony; rampant social ills such as childhood poverty 
F39 137 receive far less attention than tales about prominent men who 
F39 138 videotape young girls in sex acts.<p/>
F39 139 <p_>The answer to the new moralism, however, is not the old 
F39 140 hypocrisy. In the 186Os and again in the 196Os, people suggested 
F39 141 alternative definitions of the public good that included the 
F39 142 personal issues facing women, minorities, working people, and the 
F39 143 poor. Toward the end of each period, though, the old narrow 
F39 144 definition of the public splintered, but no new political 
F39 145 institutions, values, or processes were developed to reconnect its 
F39 146 fragments. Instead, dominant opinion ceased to claim that any 
F39 147 overarching standards for public life could be agreed on. Questions 
F39 148 of morality were displaced onto the private sphere.<p/>
F39 149 <p_>The conflation of public morality with private values leads to 
F39 150 inevitable oscillations between a repressive, divisive moralism 
F39 151 and, in reaction, an extreme, even perverse, 'tolerance' of all 
F39 152 private behavior, whatever its social consequences. Most of us, 
F39 153 unhappy with either extreme, grasp our family values even more 
F39 154 tightly, as the one anchor that can protect us from being swept 
F39 155 away by the tides of repression and permissiveness. But an anchor 
F39 156 does not work in the open ocean. The same factors that erode public 
F39 157 life and political standards tend, in the long run, to set personal 
F39 158 life and family values adrift. While the antisocial tendencies of 
F39 159 Gilded Age privatism were not immediately apparent within the 
F39 160 family circle, the collapse of public life in that period paved the 
F39 161 way for many recurrent strains in twentieth-century families.<p/> 
F39 162 <h_><p_>The Fragility of the Private Family<p/><h/>
F39 163 <p_>Without the ballast provided by the public sphere, the family 
F39 164 began its long slide toward subjectivism, feeding the very 
F39 165 individualism that family morality was supposed to counter. It is 
F39 166 not that the spread of individualism threatens to destroy the 
F39 167 traditional privacy and intensity of family life, as is sometimes 
F39 168 claimed; as we have seen, familial privacy and intensity were in 
F39 169 many ways<tf|>created by the spread of individualism. But it is 
F39 170 certainly true that individualism constantly undermines the very 
F39 171 family life that it originally fostered.<p/>
F39 172 <p_>When obligation and reciprocity were banished from public life 
F39 173 and confined to the nuclear family, their continued existence 
F39 174 became very problematic, especially once the same-sex networks and 
F39 175 community associations that formerly diffused the tensions of 
F39 176 family life began to disintegrate. The effective adult, at work and 
F39 177 in public, is independent, individualistic, rational, and 
F39 178 calculative. The effective family member, by contrast, shares, 
F39 179 cooperates, sacrifices, and acts nonrationally. The character 
F39 180 traits that keep families together are associated in all other 
F39 181 arenas of life with immaturity and nonrationality; family 
F39 182 interdependence is now the only thing that stands in the way of 
F39 183 'self-actualization.' At the same time, the family becomes 
F39 184 over-burdened with social expectations as well as psychological and 
F39 185 moral ones. If<tf|>the family would just do its job, we wouldn't 
F39 186 need welfare, school reform, or prisons. And if <tf|>my family 
F39 187 would just do its job, l would be perfectly happy. The obvious next 
F39 188 step, of course, is that if l am<tf|>not perfectly happy, it's my 
F39 189 family's fault.<p/>
F39 190 <p_>Figuring out whether a family is doing its job, however, 
F39 191 becomes progressively more difficult when external moral and 
F39 192 political reference points for judging the quality of love or 
F39 193 parenting disappear. <quote_>"The world of intimate 
F39 194 feeling,"<quote/> remarks Richard Sennett, <quote_>"loses any 
F39 195 boundaries"<quote/> - and therefore loses any core. Where is the 
F39 196 center of infinity? As education professor Joseph Featherstone 
F39 197 argues:<quote_>"A vision of things that has no room for the inner 
F39 198 life is bankrupt, but a psychology without social analysis or 
F39 199 politics is both powerless and very lonely."<quote/><p/>
F39 200 <p_>The triumph of private family values discourages us from 
F39 201 meeting our emotional needs through mutual aid associations, 
F39 202 political and social action groups, or other forms of public life 
F39 203 that used to be as important in people's identity as love or 
F39 204 family. So we must rely on love. If we fail to attain love, or even 
F39 205 if we do attain it and still feel incomplete, we blame our parents 
F39 206 for not having helped us outgrow such neediness - as though it is 
F39 207 only 'the child within' who could be needy. We may postpone 
F39 208 confronting the shallowness of our inner life by finding one 
F39 209 special person to love us or for us to love, yet when the love 
F39 210 disappears, and our needs, inevitably, do not, we feel betrayed. We 
F39 211 seek revenge, or at least contractual relief, demanding public 
F39 212 compensation for the failure of private life to meet our social 
F39 213 needs.
F39 214 
F39 215 
F39 216 
F39 217 
F39 218 
F40   1 <#FROWN:F40\><h_><p_>INTRODUCTION<p/>
F40   2 <p_>The Black Knights of Baseball<p/><h/>
F40   3 <p_>Before Jackie Robinson hit his first crisp line-drive single 
F40   4 into the closely cut green grass in the outfield of Brooklyn's 
F40   5 Ebbets Field in April of 1947, the game of baseball was black and 
F40   6 white. No black ballplayer had ever played in the American or 
F40   7 National Leagues in the game that had become the national pastime. 
F40   8 Baseball was a game as segregated as movie theaters in the north, 
F40   9 bus depots in the midwest, restaurants in the west, and rest rooms 
F40  10 in the south.<p/>
F40  11 <p_>Blacks couldn't play baseball in the major leagues before 1947, 
F40  12 but they played the game nonetheless. They played it on sandlots, 
F40  13 in city parks, at fairgrounds, and in mill yards. They played on 
F40  14 factory teams and in summer leagues. They played in South Carolina 
F40  15 and they played in New York. They played in Santo Domingo and 
F40  16 Mexico City. The very best of them played in the Negro National 
F40  17 League, the Negro American League, and the Eastern Colored League, 
F40  18 the 'major leagues' of black America.<p/>
F40  19 <p_>The teams of the Negro National, Negro American, and Eastern 
F40  20 Colored Leagues played the same dazzling baseball as the teams of 
F40  21 the white major leagues, with enormously talented stars who were 
F40  22 just as good - giants of the game, now in the Baseball Hall of 
F40  23 Fame, like Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson, Ray Dandridge, Monte Irvin, 
F40  24 Cool Papa Bell, Judy Johnson, Pop Lloyd, Martin Dihigo, and Oscar 
F40  25 Charleston. Their teams had wonderful names like the Monarchs, 
F40  26 Grays, Eagles, Royal Giants, Crawfords, Barons, and Buckeyes. They 
F40  27 played their games against each other in major-league ballparks and 
F40  28 with major-league hustle. Then they piled into beat-up old buses 
F40  29 with peeling paint, poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, and bad 
F40  30 engines, and barnstormed all over America to play some more. The 
F40  31 Negro League stars took on both lower-level black professional 
F40  32 teams and white semipro teams, playing clubs in the United States, 
F40  33 South America, Central America, and Canada. Some even went to Japan 
F40  34 and played all comers there. They also challenged and played white 
F40  35 major-league teams like the Philadelphia Phillies, the Detroit 
F40  36 Tigers, and all-star teams led by the likes of Dizzy Dean, Babe 
F40  37 Ruth, and Lou Gehrig. And often they beat them.<p/>
F40  38 <p_>The Negro League stars never gained the fame and glory of the 
F40  39 white ballplayers in those years from the late nineteenth century 
F40  40 until 1947, when the color line and Jim Crow laws kept them out of 
F40  41 the white major leagues. None of them made the cover of <tf|>Life, 
F40  42 did ads for Wheaties, or rode in parades with governors. They 
F40  43 didn't for one reason and one reason only: they were black.<p/>
F40  44 <p_>During the glory days of the Negro Leagues, from 1920 to 1946, 
F40  45 America was two countries - one white and one black - and they 
F40  46 didn't mesh. The two nations had been stumbling, politically, 
F40  47 socially, and culturally, toward a single America since the Civil 
F40  48 War had freed the slaves more than fifty years before. But they 
F40  49 weren't there yet.<p/>
F40  50 <p_>Nothing symbolized the inability of the white and black 
F40  51 countries to merge more than major-league baseball. American 
F40  52 baseball was never just a game, it was the passion of the nation, 
F40  53 and as long as it was segregated the entire nation would be. 
F40  54 Generations of black ballplayers tried to end that segregation, but 
F40  55 after knocking at the major-league doors and being ignored, they 
F40  56 played baseball where they could.<p/>
F40  57 <p_>They were the forgotten men, at least by white culture. 
F40  58 Mainstream white newspapers ignored them, refusing to cover their 
F40  59 games and often referring to them as 'coloreds' to denigrate them, 
F40  60 so black newspapers covered them with glory. White sports magazines 
F40  61 ignored them, too, so black sports magazines were started and the 
F40  62 Negro League stars graced their covers. Black teams couldn't play 
F40  63 in the white World Series, so in 1924 they started the black World 
F40  64 Series. Likewise, since they weren't invited to the white All-Star 
F40  65 Game, in 1933 they started their own.<p/>
F40  66 <p_>It never mattered what was written about the Negro League 
F40  67 stars, because everybody knew who they were and how very good they 
F40  68 were. More than 46,000 fans, black and white, filled Yankee Stadium 
F40  69 in 1946 to see Satchel Paige duel Bob Feller in a 
F40  70 black-versus-white all-star game. One of the Negro League East-West 
F40  71 All-Star Games in Chicago's Comiskey Park drew 51,000 fans. White 
F40  72 factory workers and store merchants all over the United States 
F40  73 could chip in a dollar or two so that the local white semipro team 
F40  74 in some little hamlet could bring in the legendary Pittsburgh 
F40  75 Crawfords for a Sunday afternoon game to see how the locals would 
F40  76 fare against these heralded black stars. Home-run-bashing catcher 
F40  77 Josh Gibson, 'the Black Babe Ruth,' was mobbed by autograph-seeking 
F40  78 kids, black and white, wherever he went.<p/>
F40  79 <p_>The white major-league stars themselves played against them 
F40  80 over the years more than four hundred times in the off-season and 
F40  81 respected their skills. Back in 1910, the Detroit Tigers toured 
F40  82 Cuba, playing against a Cuban team that included Home Run Johnson, 
F40  83 imported with others from a black team in Brooklyn. Johnson 
F40  84 out<?_>-<?/>hit the Tigers' Ty Cobb on the tour, .500 to .371. In 
F40  85 1915, three weeks after the Philadelphia Phillies won the National 
F40  86 League pennant, the black Lincoln Giants beat them, 1-0. In 1934 
F40  87 Satchel Paige's All-Stars beat the Dizzy Dean All-Stars four times 
F40  88 in a six-game series. Dean himself told everyone that Satchel Paige 
F40  89 was the greatest pitcher in the country.<p/>
F40  90 <p_>Some of the players who began their careers in the Negro 
F40  91 Leagues moved into the majors when the color line was broken in 
F40  92 1947 and became instant all-stars. In addition to Hall-of-Famer 
F40  93 Jackie Robinson, they included Hank Aaron (who broke Ruth's career 
F40  94 home-run record) Monte Irvin, Don Newcombe, Larry Doby, Ernie 
F40  95 Banks, Roy Campanella, Joe Black, and a skinny kid from Birmingham, 
F40  96 Alabama, named Willie Mays. They and the Negro Leaguers before them 
F40  97 paved the way for all the other blacks and Latinos who played the 
F40  98 game in the 1960s and 1970s and who play the game today. All those 
F40  99 men who put up with sixty years of segregation and bigotry opened 
F40 100 the door for Doc Gooden, Cecil Fielder, Rickey Henderson, Frank 
F40 101 Thomas, Reggie Jackson, Kirby Puckett, Kevin Mitchell, Barry Bonds, 
F40 102 Terry Pendleton, Tony Gwynn, and Daryll Strawberry.<p/>
F40 103 <p_>They were folk heroes who for a century were forbidden to play 
F40 104 what was a white man's game. But most were never bitter about it, 
F40 105 then or now. <quote_>"That's just the way it was,"<quote/> shrugged 
F40 106 the Philadelphia Stars' Gene Benson. He and his colleagues never 
F40 107 filed a lawsuit, demonstrated, called a press conference, or wrote 
F40 108 letters to their congressmen: America during those years wouldn't 
F40 109 have heard. Instead they played baseball, and on the most 
F40 110 extraordinary level.<p/>
F40 111 <p_>Paige, Gibson, Bell, Robinson, and hundreds of others traveled 
F40 112 from city to city, town to town, county fair to county fair, to 
F40 113 play the game they loved for millions of people who loved it too. 
F40 114 They played in front of white people and black people, brown 
F40 115 people, Japanese, Chinese, rich, poor, educated, and illiterate. 
F40 116 They were the black knights of baseball, heroes who kept jousting 
F40 117 against racism, and, after all those generations, finally won, 
F40 118 making baseball at long last the national pastime for a whole 
F40 119 nation.<p/>
F40 120 <h_><p_>CHAPTER ONE<p/>
F40 121 <p_>Diamonds in the Rough<p/><h/>
F40 122 <p_>Long straight lines of large square tents were stretched out as 
F40 123 far as the eye could see, thousands of them, a city of white tents. 
F40 124 It was a between-battles camp of the Union Army in Virginia during 
F40 125 the hot summer of 1864, and soldiers were walking slowly to the end 
F40 126 of the tents toward a large grassy field. There, hundreds of black 
F40 127 and white soldiers and three generals on horseback were watching 
F40 128 two of the camp's baseball teams battle each other. The diamond 
F40 129 consisted of a hastily hewn square with large boards for bases and 
F40 130 a batter's box roughed out with rifle butts. The day was bright and 
F40 131 peaceful - no rumbling of deadly cannon in the distance, no fatal 
F40 132 clatter of rifle shots, no terrifiying yells of Confederate troops. 
F40 133 Nothing but the sound of a bat hitting a ball and the roar of a 
F40 134 weary and battle-hardened crowd cheering at a baseball game under 
F40 135 the gentle Virginia sun.<p/>
F40 136 <p_>Despite the racism and segregation that came to be associated 
F40 137 with baseball in America, ironically it was during the Civil War, 
F40 138 fought in part to free blacks from slavery, that blacks were first 
F40 139 introduced to baseball. Over 180,000 freed slaves fought for the 
F40 140 north in the war, and the two chief forms of recreation in army 
F40 141 camps during these years were boxing and baseball. Those who held 
F40 142 their health in high esteem played baseball, so like everyone else 
F40 143 in Union Army camps, black soldiers watched and played endless 
F40 144 baseball games. It was a long and bitter war, and it was also a 
F40 145 boring war. For every day of death and destruction on the 
F40 146 battlefield there were ten days of boredom in camp. To pass the 
F40 147 time, everybody played baseball.<p/>
F40 148 <p_>The game grew to such popularity that large army camps had 
F40 149 their own baseball leagues. On Hilton Head Island in South 
F40 150 Carolina, a permanent Union Army camp was home to a total of 50,000 
F40 151 soldiers, camp followers, and freed slaves living on the 
F40 152 ten-mile-long island. By 1862 the camp had become as large as a 
F40 153 major American city and had its own theater, two daily newspapers, 
F40 154 and a baseball league that was so popular its championship game 
F40 155 drew 40,000 people.<p/>
F40 156 <p_>The sport of baseball boomed all over the country after the 
F40 157 Civil War as soldiers who had played or watched it during the 
F40 158 conflict brought the game home to their cities and small towns. 
F40 159 Since most of the troops came from larger cities, the sport 
F40 160 flourished there. Most of the black Americans who fled slave 
F40 161 plantations wound up in large cities, too, where there were jobs 
F40 162 for unskilled laborers. Blacks formed teams in different cities and 
F40 163 by 1867 New York teams were traveling to Philadelphia to play black 
F40 164 teams there.<p/>
F40 165 <p_>The number of black teams grew in the 1870s and 1880s, usually 
F40 166 in large cities where northern blacks lived. Freed slaves, looking 
F40 167 for economic and cultural support from other blacks, moved to those 
F40 168 cities, just as many black soliders who served in the war together 
F40 169 moved to black neighborhoods in northern cities. These growing 
F40 170 black population centers soon had their own cultural networks, with 
F40 171 black churches, black theaters, and black newspapers. Black 
F40 172 baseball was a natural extension. The players came from the 
F40 173 community, which also provided the fan base, particularly in big 
F40 174 cities.<p/>
F40 175 <p_>Numerous all-black teams banded together in informal inter- and 
F40 176 intracity all-black leagues and carved out a rich niche in American 
F40 177 sports history. Players came from all walks of life, neighborhoods, 
F40 178 and jobs. Many competed on all-black factory teams, a handful 
F40 179 played on integrated teams, and some teams played schedules against 
F40 180 all-black, all-white, and integrated teams. The teams were so 
F40 181 successful that by 1887 a professional minor league, the League of 
F40 182 Colored Base Ball Clubs, was founded with teams in Cincinnati (the 
F40 183 Browns), Washington, D.C. (the Capital Citys), Louisville (the Fall 
F40 184 Citys), Pittsburgh (the Keystones), Baltimore (the Lord 
F40 185 Baltimores), Boston (the Resolutes), Philadelphia (the Pythians), 
F40 186 and New York (the Gorhams).<p/>
F40 187 <p_>Smaller semipro black teams consisting of freedmen had been 
F40 188 playing throughout northern cities since 1858, but in the 1870s 
F40 189 they became extremely active and organized. A top team from one 
F40 190 city would often travel to play a top team from another, and the 
F40 191 game was usually preceded by a parade in the black community, with 
F40 192 children racing along the streets to get a look at their very own 
F40 193 athletic heroes.<p/>
F40 194 <p_>The identification of blacks with their baseball teams was 
F40 195 strong, so strong that by 1906 cartoonists in black weekly 
F40 196 newspapers were putting caricatured black politicians in baseball 
F40 197 uniforms and on the diamond to poke fun at them.<p/>
F40 198 <p_>Games were well-attended by snappily dressed black men and 
F40 199 women who saw baseball as a weekend entertainment like theater and 
F40 200 music. Black ballplayers were revered and many were given the 
F40 201 better jobs at factories where owners were looking for a mill hand 
F40 202 who could hit .300.<p/>
F40 203 
F41   1 <#FROWN:F41\><h|>INTRODUCTION
F41   2 <p_>A collection of forty-five bicycle trips in Northwestern 
F41   3 Oregon, principally in the Willamette Valley from the Portland area 
F41   4 south to Eugene, this book includes routes from 12 to 178 miles in 
F41   5 length. Mostly loops, the routes are designed to bicycle in a few 
F41   6 hours. Also included are a few tours in the Columbia Gorge area, 
F41   7 one along the Oregon Coast, and some linear trips. Four rides in 
F41   8 the book are for multiday journeys. These are the Oregon Coaster, 
F41   9 Mount Hood Loop, Three-Ferry Figure Eight, and Scaponia.<p/>
F41  10 <p_>Strike out along the county and rural roads, bicycle lanes, or 
F41  11 secondary highways of Oregon. Pedal into rolling hills, flatlands, 
F41  12 or deep gorges. The people and life-styles are as varied as the 
F41  13 terrain and weather patterns. The history stems from hardy pioneers 
F41  14 who sought a better life in the West. Visit parks, old soda 
F41  15 fountains, festivals, country stores, historic buildings, lakes, 
F41  16 and covered bridges decorating foothills, farmland, forests, side 
F41  17 valleys, small towns, and ethnic settlements. Your miles of 
F41  18 pedaling will enhance physical fitness and your appreciation of 
F41  19 Oregon. We wish you all the enjoyment we have found pedaling the 
F41  20 beautiful, bountiful backroads of Northwest Oregon.<p/>
F41  21 <h_><p_>The Trip Descriptions<p/><h/>
F41  22 <p_>Each ride in the book includes a capsule summary. Use the 
F41  23 summary to match rides to your abilities and interests, paying 
F41  24 particular attention to both visual and narrative information 
F41  25 provided.<p/>
F41  26 <p_>Elevation and distance graphs illustrate the route's altitude 
F41  27 profile, but don't be put off by a route that first appears too 
F41  28 long or hilly. Almost every route has shortcuts or shorter options. 
F41  29 Tailor the ride's length and difficulty to your needs by reviewing 
F41  30 the accompanying text, mileage logs, and map sketches. Some options 
F41  31 are described in the text and logs, and others may be readily 
F41  32 apparent in the sketch maps.<p/>
F41  33 <p_>Starting and en route times are estimated and should not be 
F41  34 considered rigid. Based on averages for the novice cyclist, these 
F41  35 assume a fairly slow pace with frequent stops at points of 
F41  36 interest. Strong riders or seasoned racers may complete the routes 
F41  37 in half the estimated times.<p/>
F41  38 <p_>Starting times are recommended to permit riders to complete the 
F41  39 routes by mid- to late afternoon. Consider, however, the advantages 
F41  40 of starting very early in the morning. Traffic is almost 
F41  41 nonexistant, permitting the cool morning air to be enjoyed in 
F41  42 solitude, and leaving the hot afternoon riding to the late risers. 
F41  43 Cyclists who can stand the initial agony of crawling out of the bed 
F41  44 at dawn will find their efforts rewarded. In winter, the opposite 
F41  45 advice may be better: Wait for the day to warm up a bit, then 
F41  46 choose a short ride that will end well before the chilly late 
F41  47 afternoon.<p/>
F41  48 <p_>Each route also includes a map and a mileage log. In theory, 
F41  49 either one should be sufficient for a selected route. In practice, 
F41  50 both the map and the mileage log should be followed, particularly 
F41  51 in unfamiliar territory or on routes with frequent turns or 
F41  52 numerous intersections.<p/>
F41  53 <p_>Mileage logs in this book describe the routes in tenths of a 
F41  54 mile. Used in tandem, maps and logs provide adequate information 
F41  55 for following the exact route. These can be followed with a 
F41  56 cyclometer (bicycle computer), but don't expect an exact match to 
F41  57 distances printed in the book. Bicycle computers vary, partly 
F41  58 because of differences in wheel and tire sizes.<p/>
F41  59 <p_>A watch and a compass are two other pieces of optional 
F41  60 equipment that can assist in following a mileage log. With 
F41  61 experience, most riders develop a feel for how fast they are riding 
F41  62 and, using a watch, can estimate distances traveled with a 
F41  63 surprising degree of accuracy. In this book, maps have a scale of 
F41  64 miles and a north arrow, while mileage logs frequently mention 
F41  65 compass directions. When in doubt about intersections where road 
F41  66 signs are missing, twisted, or otherwise confusing, check both the 
F41  67 log and the map. Then consult a compass, if necessary.<p/>
F41  68 <p_>The mileage logs describe each of the loop trips in a 
F41  69 particular direction, i.e., clockwise or counterclockwise. Any 
F41  70 route may be ridden in the opposite direction, but some that pass 
F41  71 through cities and towns may require slight modification when 
F41  72 one-way streets are encountered.<p/>
F41  73 <p_>The mileage logs usually mention bike lanes or paths, when 
F41  74 available along the routes. These are recommended in the interest 
F41  75 of safety. Throughout the book, a bike route on the shoulder of a 
F41  76 road, whether designated by a painted line or protected by small 
F41  77 cement dividers, is referred to as a bike lane. A paved path 
F41  78 separate from the roadway is referred to as a bike path.<p/>
F41  79 <p_>Accurate road and street names often are difficult to 
F41  80 determine. Especially in rural areas, many roads are unmarked, or 
F41  81 are signed with names different from those on local maps. Although 
F41  82 Oregon Department of Transportation maps purport to show the 
F41  83 correct official name for every road in the state, those may not 
F41  84 appear on street signs. In this book, the road and street names 
F41  85 usually are the ones on local signs. Be cautious, however. Signs 
F41  86 can be missing, altered, or, through the efforts of local 
F41  87 pranksters, twisted ninety degrees. Where signs conflict with 
F41  88 available maps, or where more than one name appears on different 
F41  89 signs, the mileage log shows alternate names in parentheses. Maps 
F41  90 show the most commonly used names. To avoid losing the route, 
F41  91 consult both the map and the mileage log.<p/>
F41  92 <p_>A turn onto a gravel road is a signal that you are probably 
F41  93 off-route. Few of these rides involve gravel roads, and the ones 
F41  94 that do are marked clearly on both the map and the mileage log.<p/>
F41  95 <p_>To take shortcuts or side trips away from the itineraries 
F41  96 described here, consult the map. It shows whether nearby roads are 
F41  97 paved or gravel. On recommended variations, the roads have been 
F41  98 inspected. In other cases, the pavement status is based in part on 
F41  99 information derived from Oregon Department of Transportation maps, 
F41 100 which are generally accurate.<p/>
F41 101 <p_>Also keep in mind that roads and intersections are changing 
F41 102 constantly as highway departments fiddle with the landscape. Don't 
F41 103 be surprised to find roads realigned, intersections rearranged, or 
F41 104 new highways built. A close eye on the map and the mileage log 
F41 105 should make most changes readily apparent and wrong turns 
F41 106 avoidable. The others will make for interesting stories.<p/>
F41 107 <p_>Facilities available along the routes are described for rider 
F41 108 enjoyment. Stores, and sometimes restaurants, are mentioned when 
F41 109 they appear in rural locations, but no attempt is made to list 
F41 110 their hours. Carrying food is always a good idea when cycling.<p/>
F41 111 <p_>Public parks are mentioned whenever they appear along the 
F41 112 routes or within striking distance. Nearly all have rest rooms, if 
F41 113 only outhouses, but many of those facilities are open solely during 
F41 114 summer months. Drinking water and camping facilities are mentioned 
F41 115 in the mileage logs, but again, water often is disconnected and 
F41 116 campgrounds closed in the off<?_>-<?/>season. Carry a water bottle 
F41 117 and refill it at every opportunity.<p/>
F41 118 <h_><p_>Choosing a Bicycle<p/><h/>
F41 119 <p_>Almost any bike can be used to ride the routes described here. 
F41 120 It doesn't have to be fancy or expensive. A forty-pound 
F41 121 balloon-tired bike will get you to your destination just as surely 
F41 122 as a twenty-pound racing bicycle, but it may take a bit longer. If 
F41 123 you've got an old bike gathering dust in the garage, get it out, 
F41 124 dust it off, make sure it is safe to ride, and start pedaling. You 
F41 125 eventually may want to graduate to a better bike, but don't stay 
F41 126 home for want of it now.<p/>
F41 127 <p_>When it's time for a new or upgraded bicycle, here is a tip: 
F41 128 Concentrate on lightness and the frame. A good, light bike really 
F41 129 isn't as fragile as it may appear. Extra weight is mostly located 
F41 130 in nonfunctional places. Once you have a good frame, you can vary 
F41 131 components to suit your riding style and needs.<p/>
F41 132 <p_>When considering bike lightness, the frame is a good example. 
F41 133 Most stress is at the joints where frame tubes come together. On 
F41 134 expensive 'double-butted' frames, the tube wall's thickness is 
F41 135 greatest at each end, where strength is needed, and narrower in the 
F41 136 midsection, where the stress is much less. Significant weight is 
F41 137 thus saved without loss of strength.<p/>
F41 138 <p_>Bicycle choices are abundant in today's marketplace. Before 
F41 139 selecting a bike, consider your riding style, the length and type 
F41 140 of trips, and the need to carry gear. Road frames are designed for 
F41 141 touring, racing, or a combination of the two. Hybrid bicycles 
F41 142 primarily meet the demands of commuters and mountain cycles are 
F41 143 designed for off-pavement use.<p/>
F41 144 <p_>Touring frames are more stretched out and flexible than their 
F41 145 racing counterparts, and thus produce a smoother ride. Extremely 
F41 146 responsive, a stiff racing frame would be less comfortable on long 
F41 147 rides and unable to carry much gear. Sport-touring frames absorb 
F41 148 some of the road shock of a racing frame without sacrificing the 
F41 149 benefits of responsiveness, and can be equipped with panniers 
F41 150 (saddlebags). Mountain bikes can be ridden on pavement, but their 
F41 151 weight and bigger tires require more effort than touring and racing 
F41 152 frames.<p/>
F41 153 <p_>Bicycle frames are graduated to fit different-size bodies. 
F41 154 Measured in inches or centimeters from the spindle (the axle on 
F41 155 which the pedals rotate) to the point where the seat post enters 
F41 156 the frame, most frames are sized between 18 and 25 inches.<p/>
F41 157 <p_>To determine if a particular frame fits, straddle the bike, 
F41 158 standing between the handlebars and the seat. If the bike fits, you 
F41 159 should be able to lift the front wheel an inch or two off the 
F41 160 floor. Frames may also be measured by standing in a wide, 
F41 161 equidistant stance over the top tube. Clearance between you and the 
F41 162 top tube should be 1 to 2 inches on a road bike, but as much as 4 
F41 163 inches on a mountain bike. (Some say 3 inches is ideal.) This extra 
F41 164 mountain-bike clearance allows for more responsiveness and for 
F41 165 sitting behind the saddle to hold down the back wheel on steep 
F41 166 descents.<p/>
F41 167 <p_>Frame and wheel sizes should not be confused. While frame sizes 
F41 168 vary, nearly all road or hybrid bicycles with gearing use 
F41 169 27-inch-diameter wheels, or their slightly smaller metric 
F41 170 equivalent, 700-millimeter wheels. Mountain bikes and some youth or 
F41 171 inexpensive adult bikes use 26-inch wheels.<p/>
F41 172 <p_>Bicycle fitting is not complete with selection of the correct 
F41 173 frame size. Competent advice from someone who can examine the bike 
F41 174 and the rider at the same time is advised.<p/>
F41 175 <p_>Saddle height on all bikes is generally adjusted by balancing 
F41 176 on the bike. With the ball of the foot on a pedal, the leg should 
F41 177 bend slightly when the pedal is at its lowest position.<p/>
F41 178 <p_>Handlebars can also be adjusted, and should generally be 
F41 179 slightly lower than the saddle. Long- or short-armed riders might 
F41 180 also consider changing the length of horizontal extension of the 
F41 181 handlebar stem. This change requires a new stem, but helps avoid 
F41 182 undue strain on the neck or hands.<p/>
F41 183 <p_>After properly fitting the frame to the rider, examine the 
F41 184 bike. Rims, handlebars, pedals, cranks, and front sprockets on a 
F41 185 heavy, inexpensive bike will all be steel. A light bike uses 
F41 186 aluminum (actually aluminum alloy) for these parts. Frames also can 
F41 187 be constructed from either steel or aluminum alloy. On a light 
F41 188 bike, parts commonly made of steel, with the exception of the 
F41 189 frame, are the axles, spokes, parts of the saddle, and a few 
F41 190 others. If you can't tell the difference between aluminum and 
F41 191 steel, carry a small magnet when shopping for a bike.<p/>
F41 192 <p_>Remember, the finest, lightest components can't make up for a 
F41 193 heavy frame and vice versa. Nevertheless, don't focus so much on 
F41 194 weight that you lose track of components and how they work 
F41 195 together. Components on most bikes can be exchanged for lighter or 
F41 196 higher-quality parts. If your budget limits your choice of bikes, 
F41 197 buy the best frame - the bicycle's heart and soul. Components can 
F41 198 be added or switched as your finances and technology advancements 
F41 199 in the industry allow, watching for compatibility with existing 
F41 200 equipment.<p/>
F41 201 <p_>A key component is the crankset. This consists of front 
F41 202 chainrings (sprockets), cranks (the arms on which the pedals are 
F41 203 mounted), and bearings that attach to the bottom bracket of the 
F41 204 frame.
F41 205 
F42   1 <#FROWN:F42\><p_>Maxine Waters, on the other hand, has a style that 
F42   2 grew out of being the fifth of 12 children. <quote_>"We were not 
F42   3 taught diplomacy as much as how to fend for ourselves,"<quote/> 
F42   4 Waters recalls, before modifying slightly: <quote_>"To <tf|>defend 
F42   5 ourselves is really what it was. You had to make sure you shared in 
F42   6 the opportunity, be it dinner or something going on in the family 
F42   7 or the neighborhood."<quote/> Undaunted by the unflattering 
F42   8 adjectives she has attracted, Waters recognizes that the woman she 
F42   9 is evolved naturally from the girl she was in St. Louis: <quote_>"I 
F42  10 didn't know [what I was doing] was 'assertive' behavior. I didn't 
F42  11 know that was 'aggressive' behavior. I didn't know women weren't 
F42  12 supposed to act like that."<quote/><p/>
F42  13 <p_>Bill Boyarsky, a columnist on the <tf_>Los Angeles Times<tf/>, 
F42  14 called Maxine Waters <quote_>"the conscience"<quote/> of the 
F42  15 current Speaker of the California Assembly and, accordingly, rued 
F42  16 the day that Waters was elected to Congress. <quote_>"She'll just 
F42  17 chew you out if she thinks you're wrong,"<quote/> Boyarsky says: 
F42  18 <quote_>"I know, because she's done it to me."<quote/> To be the 
F42  19 conscience of any Speaker is a hefty job, but when the Speaker is 
F42  20 Willie Brown - a man so brilliant and irreverent that he dominates 
F42  21 every conversation, and so quick on the draw that virtually every 
F42  22 politician in California is wary of him - the job becomes very 
F42  23 nearly herculean.<p/>
F42  24 <p_>Waters laughs at the notion that she kept Willie Brown in line, 
F42  25 but she doesn't take exception to Boyarsky's description of her 
F42  26 style. <quote_>"I have not attempted to be liked by my male 
F42  27 colleagues or to pamper them,"<quote/> she says, <quote_>"I have 
F42  28 not tried to be <tf|>male enough for them to like me. I simply am 
F42  29 what I am; I care about what I care about. <tf_>I'm me!<tf/> So 
F42  30 I've had fights and I've had good moments."<quote/> People work 
F42  31 best together when they respect each other, Waters insists, and 
F42  32 since she tries to be fair, she expects fairness in return. When 
F42  33 she doesn't get it <quote_>"I let 'em know. I'm not going to 
F42  34 practice disguising my feelings. I'm not socialized in being 
F42  35 subtle: I just say it!"<quote/><p/>
F42  36 <p_>Unlike Willie Brown, Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the U.S. 
F42  37 House of Representatives, is a decorous, understated man. The 
F42  38 Congress's rituals derive from the 18th century, and its rhetorical 
F42  39 traditions run to the baroque. Foley's legislative assistant, 
F42  40 Melinda Lucke, was therefore startled, but not surprised, when the 
F42  41 new member from Los Angeles, whose reputation had preceded her, 
F42  42 walked saucily into his office and said, <quote_>"I need one hot 
F42  43 minute with the Speaker!"<quote/><p/>
F42  44 <p_><quote_>"This place is so steeped in custom and tradition that 
F42  45 [the members] don't really do the work people expect them to 
F42  46 do,"<quote/> Waters says with exasperation. As a freshman member on 
F42  47 a Veterans' Affairs subcommittee, Waters was told that the 
F42  48 chairman, G.V. 'Sonny' Montgomery from the Mississippi Delta, did 
F42  49 not look kindly on amendments to his legislation. Congresswoman 
F42  50 Waters was not impressed. <quote_>"They said 'That's the way he 
F42  51 operates.' I said, 'These people are elected to serve, and if 
F42  52 they've got something to offer, they should be allowed to offer 
F42  53 it.'"<quote/> She had something to offer - an amendment that would 
F42  54 allow veterans to hire private legal counsel and have their 
F42  55 attorneys' fees paid by the government - and when the pro forma 
F42  56 call for amendments came, she offered hers. <quote_>"This is not a 
F42  57 good time for people who purport to support their government to 
F42  58 oppose helping veterans return to their jobs,"<quote/> Waters 
F42  59 observes cannily, and after some modest finagling, she got a 
F42  60 unanimous vote in support of her amendment. <quote_>"I respect 
F42  61 custom and tradition that gets the job done,"<quote/> Waters 
F42  62 insists, but <quote_>"if it thwarts the process or throws up 
F42  63 obstacles to your being able to represent your district, I'm not 
F42  64 going to go along with it."<quote/><p/>
F42  65 <p_>Younger political women are more likely to have had female 
F42  66 models and teachers in the ways of politics - many of them the 
F42  67 women of that key transitional generation. Among those whom Ann 
F42  68 Richards has mentored, Lena Guerrero has already become something 
F42  69 of a star in her own right. She was Richards's political director 
F42  70 in her campaign for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination, and 
F42  71 Richards's initial act as governor-elect was to appoint Guerrero to 
F42  72 the Texas Railroad Commission.<p/>
F42  73 <p_>Since Guerrero is a full generation younger than the other 
F42  74 women we interviewed, she could be expected to have had a somewhat 
F42  75 different experience, and indeed, like so many Texan women her age, 
F42  76 she was inspired by Barbara Jordan. Guerrero was 13 when Jordan 
F42  77 struck her imagination, along with the nation's, during the 
F42  78 televised Watergate impeachment hearings. <quote_>"I thought 'that 
F42  79 is <tf|>exactly what I want to do.'"<quote/> Guerrero remembers: 
F42  80 <quote_>"I read everything that anybody wrote about that woman. I 
F42  81 cut out newspaper articles. I wanted to be a member of Congress, 
F42  82 and I never thought what that meant for an Hispanic woman. After 
F42  83 all, she [Jordan] was black!"<quote/><p/>
F42  84 <p_>In 1976, while Jordan gave her keynote address to the 
F42  85 Democratic National Convention, Guerrero <quote_>"watched her like 
F42  86 I was delivering it. Most people don't remember that she 
F42  87 co-keynoted it with John Glenn. He was so boring - she <tf|>was the 
F42  88 keynote. 'What's new? What's different?' [Jordan intoned:] 'Barbara 
F42  89 Jordan is keynoting this Convention!' It was so great!"<quote/><p/>
F42  90 <p_>Guerrero credits the Sisters of Mercy who ran the school she 
F42  91 attended with her strong belief in conscience, which is at the root 
F42  92 of her pro-choice position on abortion - an irony the nuns might 
F42  93 not appreciate. <quote_>"I was educated by nuns,"<quote/> Guerrero 
F42  94 recalls, who <quote_>"were extremely independent, bright, 
F42  95 conscientious, demanding women. They taught me to think. They 
F42  96 taught me that someday I was going to be judged for <tf|>my actions 
F42  97 - not somebody else's."<quote/> And she learned her basic 
F42  98 leadership skills in the Catholic Church: in the late 1960s, when 
F42  99 boys still monopolized virtually all the helping roles in the 
F42 100 Church, she was actually an altar girl. <quote_>"My church was two 
F42 101 blocks from my house,"<quote/> Guerrero remembers, <quote_>"and I 
F42 102 did a lot of helping around the back and during the service. But I 
F42 103 also led in the choir. Mexican boys don't sing in the choir! They 
F42 104 grow up to be famous singers, but they don't sing in the 
F42 105 choir!"<quote/><p/>
F42 106 <p_>Nonetheless, Guerrero's first explicitly political mentoring 
F42 107 came from a man, Gus Garcia, the first Hispanic to be president of 
F42 108 the Austin school board and a principal plaintiff in the suit that 
F42 109 finally broke down Texas school segregation for Mexican American 
F42 110 children. When Guerrero was a student at the University of Texas at 
F42 111 Austin, Garcia took her aside and told her <quote_>"something 
F42 112 extremely visionary."<quote/> His generation of Hispanic leaders in 
F42 113 Austin, he told her, had <quote_>"spent the better part of the last 
F42 114 15 years in a movement that has taught us basically where the 
F42 115 hinges on the door are. We've popped the damn thing open. Now they 
F42 116 invite us to the table. Your generation of leadership - men and 
F42 117 women - is going to be required to know parliamentary procedure, to 
F42 118 know how to read budgets, and to eat your lunch at the negotiating 
F42 119 table."<quote/> When you find a door that's closed, he insisted, 
F42 120 <quote_>"you call me, because we'll knock that sucker right down! 
F42 121 We know how to do that. But that's not your job. Your job is to be 
F42 122 <tf|>substantively good!"<quote/> Garcia made her focus on what she 
F42 123 might do, according to Guerrero, and it was at his prompting that 
F42 124 she mastered <tf_>Robert's Rules of Order<tf/>.<p/>
F42 125 <p_>Will women in politics do things differently from men? The 
F42 126 question is tantalizing - even haunting - but for the moment we 
F42 127 have no sure answer. In a world in which almost all the rules have 
F42 128 changed, and the information is as yet sparse, we can make only 
F42 129 tentative generalizations.<p/>
F42 130 <p_>We do know that women will not all take the same stands, even 
F42 131 on war. Although the first woman elected to Congress, Jeannette 
F42 132 Rankin, is the only member ever to vote twice against taking 
F42 133 America to war - she voted against our entering both the First and 
F42 134 the Second World Wars, and lost her seat in Congress each time as a 
F42 135 result - women have always swelled the numbers of wartime patriots. 
F42 136 When asked to name her toughest decision, Nancy Kassebaum first 
F42 137 inclined to name her vote to give President Bush the authority to 
F42 138 take the United States into war in the Persian Gulf. But then she 
F42 139 corrected herself: that decision, ultimately, was not hard because 
F42 140 she thought it the only possible, since the country <quote_>"had to 
F42 141 do it."<quote/> Although Kassebaum speculates that her office got 
F42 142 75 calls opposing the use of force in the Gulf for every one that 
F42 143 supported it, she believed the president's policy was the only way 
F42 144 to stop Saddam Hussein. <quote_>"You have to weigh the calls you 
F42 145 get with the larger constituency out there that you don't hear 
F42 146 from,"<quote/> Kassebaum says, <quote_>"and then you have to use 
F42 147 your own judgment."<quote/><p/>
F42 148 <p_>Maxine Waters agrees with Kassebaum on the process: neither 
F42 149 takes polls or lets them influence her vote. On the issue, however, 
F42 150 she disagrees fundamentally with the senator. A woman who considers 
F42 151 war <quote_>"an obsolete means of resolving conflict,"<quote/> 
F42 152 Waters was one of the Persian Gulf War's most unrelenting 
F42 153 opponents. Although she was only a neophyte member of Congress and 
F42 154 emotions were volatile, no one tried to influence her to mute or 
F42 155 modify her stand: <quote_>"People know I have strongly held 
F42 156 positions."<quote/> When asked whether she thought her vote 
F42 157 expressed the will of her district, she replies, <quote_>"I don't 
F42 158 legislate that way. I try to let people know who I am all the time, 
F42 159 so they will understand where I'm coming from on issues. I don't 
F42 160 pull very many surprises. I think the people voted for me because 
F42 161 they kinda liked where I was coming from."<quote/><p/>
F42 162 <p_>Waters will keep on opposing policies like those that led to 
F42 163 the Persian Gulf War - even though they gave President Bush the 
F42 164 highest poll ratings of any president in history. In the aftermath 
F42 165 of the war, as the Kurds were fleeing toward the Turkish and 
F42 166 Iranian borders, she insisted that <quote_>"we should not only 
F42 167 provide humanitarian aid, we should be absolutely honest with the 
F42 168 American people about what we're doing there. They need to know 
F42 169 that this administration is supporting Saddam Hussein's staying in 
F42 170 office."<quote/><p/>
F42 171 <p_>If women disagree on fundamental issues, there is nonetheless 
F42 172 some evidence that they do approach public office differently from 
F42 173 the way men do. Mayor Kathryn Whitmire of Houston, Texas has 
F42 174 suggested, for starters, that women are usually ready to try new 
F42 175 things: since each was once the new kid on the block, innovation 
F42 176 does not set them to trembling. Whitmire herself demonstrated a 
F42 177 positive relish for breaking precedent when she appointed Lee Brown 
F42 178 to be Houston's chief of police - the first white mayor to appoint 
F42 179 a black to that office. Long after Brown had left Houston to head 
F42 180 New York City's police department, Whitmire remembered one letter 
F42 181 to the editor at the time he first came that said, Well, it could 
F42 182 have been worse: she could have appointed a woman. And indeed, in 
F42 183 1990, Houston's chief of police was the first in the country to 
F42 184 need maternity uniforms for herself.<p/>
F42 185 <p_>Although Senator Nancy Kassebaum does not expect women's 
F42 186 burgeoning political presence to change policy significantly 
F42 187 because she suspects they are not <quote_>"that different"<quote/> 
F42 188 from men, she agrees with the common perception that women bring 
F42 189 <quote_>"a certain perspective and sensitivity"<quote/> to bear. 
F42 190 Kassebaum herself, for instance, will not play <quote_>"political 
F42 191 hardball"<quote/> - a game at which <quote_>"some of my colleagues 
F42 192 are masters."<quote/> She recognizes that refusing to play that 
F42 193 game can put her at a disadvantage, but feels that it is simply 
F42 194 <quote_>"against my nature."<quote/> Convinced that women can be 
F42 195 firm in their resolve without resorting to trickery, Kassebaum 
F42 196 associates political hardball with <quote_>"innuendo, 
F42 197 vindictiveness ... threats,"<quote/> and a willingness <quote_>"to 
F42 198 use everything that's out there in order to get your own 
F42 199 way."<quote/><p/>
F42 200 <p_>In Texas, on the other hand, political hardball is a synonym 
F42 201 for politics. In his Pulitzer-prizewinning <tf_>The Making of the 
F42 202 President 1960<tf/>, Theodore White described that state's 
F42 203 political tradition as among the most <quote_>"squalid, corrupt, 
F42 204 and despicable"<quote/> in the nation.
F42 205 
F42 206 
F43   1 <#FROWN:F43\><h_><p_>Costume drama<p/><h/>
F43   2 <p_>Adventures served to satiate the public lust for violence, but 
F43   3 historical dramas appealed to different desires. Again we see the 
F43   4 divergence between elite and mass opinion. Critics heartily 
F43   5 despised the costume dramas and attacked them vigorously, but 
F43   6 audiences made their views known at the box-office - and films like 
F43   7 <tf_>The Palace and the Fortress<tf/> (Aleksandr Ivanovskii, 1924), 
F43   8 <tf_>Stepan Khalturin<tf/> (Ivanovskii, 1925), and <tf_>The Wings 
F43   9 of a Serf<tf/> (Iurii Tarich, 1926) were demonstrable commercial 
F43  10 successes. For the purpose of this chapter, however, I have 
F43  11 selected the two historical films which were the 'most' of 
F43  12 everything - most popular, most expensive, and most controversial: 
F43  13 <tf_>The Decembrists<tf/> (Ivanovskii, 1927) and <tf_>The Poet and 
F43  14 the Tsar<tf/> (Vladimir Gardin and Evgenii Cherviakov, 1927).<p/>
F43  15 <p_>Complaints about the <quote|>"bourgeoisification" of 
F43  16 revolutionary history had been levelled against the historical 
F43  17 films since <tf_>The Palace and the Fortress<tf/>, a film which set 
F43  18 the tone for the costume drama by using the revolutionary epoch as 
F43  19 a vehicle for exploring the lives and loves of the gentry. It 
F43  20 enjoyed the distinction of attracting Politburo member Grigorii 
F43  21 Zinovev's ire for its excessive emotionality. The critical 
F43  22 controversy over the bourgeois cooption of the past reached a 
F43  23 crescendo with the appearance of <tf_>The Wings of a Serf<tf/>, 
F43  24 quite an atypical Soviet historical picture set during the reign of 
F43  25 Ivan IV. This film, which was reported to do well abroad although 
F43  26 its audience reception at home is uncertain, was charged with being 
F43  27 <quote|>"counterrevolutionary" in a scandal manufactured by 
F43  28 opponents of its producer, Sovkino.<p/>
F43  29 <p_>Perhaps unaware of the gathering storm, Aleksandr Ivanovskii 
F43  30 and historian Pavel Shchegolev had spent nearly two years preparing 
F43  31 their blockbuster, <tf>The Decembrists<tf/>. (Shchegolev, a 
F43  32 well-known specialist on the populist movement, served as scenarist 
F43  33 on all three of Ivanovskii's historical films - as well as others, 
F43  34 like <tf_>The Ninth of January<tf/>.) <tf_>The Decembrists<tf/> was 
F43  35 probably the costliest picture produced in the USSR in the silent 
F43  36 period. Two sources confirm that it came in at 340,000 rubles, 
F43  37 while another claimed that its colossal expense had led to the 
F43  38 bankruptcy of the Sevzapkino studio, which then became the 
F43  39 Leningrad Sovkino studio. To a certain extent <tf_>The 
F43  40 Decembrists<tf/> does support the old saying that there are virtues 
F43  41 in economy. Costing nearly twice as much as its predecessor, 
F43  42 <tf_>Stepan Khalturin<tf/> (an overlong dramatization of one of the 
F43  43 unsuccessful plots to assassinate Alexander II led by the People's 
F43  44 Will), it was twice as flawed.<p/>
F43  45 <p_>Ivanovskii and Shchegolev made little pretense at recreating 
F43  46 the Decembrist uprising of 1825, focusing almost exclusively on the 
F43  47 love affair between the Decembrist Ivan Annenkov (Boris Tamarin) 
F43  48 and Pauline Geueble (V. Annenkova). Social commentary was minimal 
F43  49 (though the Decembrists did not seem particularly admirable - and 
F43  50 Grand Duke Konstantin and his Polish wife certainly were not). 
F43  51 Ivanovskii paid loving attention instead to details of costume and 
F43  52 set, emphasizing glamour, heavy-handed irony, and coy brutality. 
F43  53 Despite the participation of a <tf_>bona fide<tf/> historian as 
F43  54 scenarist, the uprising appears to be no more than a badly staged 
F43  55 afterthought.<p/>
F43  56 <p_>There was no chance that the Soviet critics, with their 
F43  57 stiletto pens and critical acumen, would miss this oppotuntiy. The 
F43  58 most scathing review appeared in <tf|>Cinema unsigned, a practice 
F43  59 which became more common as cultural politics become more 
F43  60 uncivilized. In it <tf_>The Decembrists<tf/> was charged with being 
F43  61 a film designed to appeal to the superficiality of the:<p/>
F43  62 <p_><tf_><quote_>continental public ... but for people raised on 
F43  63 contemporary cinema, this cine-opera with its agonizingly long and 
F43  64 theatrical montage elicits only unpleasant memories of the 
F43  65 'psychological' fairy-tales of the time of Ermolev and 
F43  66 Drankov.<quote/><tf/><p/>
F43  67 <p_>In other words, <tf_>The Decembrists<tf/> was an 'export' film 
F43  68 constructed on the principles of the pre-revloutionary cinema, an 
F43  69 accurate assessment. Vladimir Nedobrovo was equally harsh, accusing 
F43  70 Ivanovskii of using his material <quote_>"expoitatively, 
F43  71 extravagantly, stupidly"<quote/>; Vladimir Korolevich called for an 
F43  72 end to pictures about <quote_>"St. Petersburg"<quote/>; Arsen 
F43  73 charged it with historical inaccuracy. <tf|>Pravda's Boris Gusman 
F43  74 concurred that it was <quote|>"literary-theatrical" but predicted 
F43  75 it would be a big hit for that very reason. Gusman's prediction was 
F43  76 borne out in the Troianovskii-Egiazarov survey where it was listed 
F43  77 as fourth among the ten most popular pictures. And yet it was 
F43  78 asserted in 1929 in <tf_>Soviet Screen<tf/> that the film had 
F43  79 recouped only 64 percent of its production costs. Given <tf_>The 
F43  80 Decembrists'<tf/> apparent popularity, which would have translated 
F43  81 into paid attendance of well over 1 million at ticket prices 
F43  82 ranging from 0.60 to 1.50 rubles, this seems unlikely.<p/>
F43  83 <p_><tf_>The Poet and the Tsar<tf/> had the misfortune to appear 
F43  84 the same year as <tf_>The Decembrists<tf/> ,but after it, at 
F43  85 precisely the moment when the backlash against <quote|>"bourgeois" 
F43  86 cinema was gathering force. It also did not help that the picture's 
F43  87 cavalier tratment of Pushkin attracted the ire of the poet Vladimir 
F43  88 Maiakovskii, a formidable force in Soviet cultural circles and an 
F43  89 outspoken critic of Sovkino and its politics. Indeed, <tf_>The Poet 
F43  90 and the Tsar<tf/> became his personal cause in 1927, and he used it 
F43  91 as an example of everything that he perceived to be wrong with 
F43  92 Soviet cinema. At the ODSK-Komsomol-<tf_>Komsomolskaia Pravda<tf/> 
F43  93 conference in October 1927 which laid the polemical groundwork for 
F43  94 the Party Conference on Cinema Affairs the following spring, 
F43  95 Maiakovskii said with a flourish: <quote_>"Take the film <tf_>The 
F43  96 Poet and the Tsar<tf/>. You may like the picture ... but if you 
F43  97 think about it, what rubbish, what an outrage this picture 
F43  98 is."<quote/><p/>
F43  99 <p_>Perhaps <tf_>The Poet and the Tsar<tf/> is not worth 
F43 100 <quote_>"thinking about"<quote/> (certainly its appeal was not 
F43 101 intellectual), but it is not an <quote|>"outrage." Vladimir Gardin 
F43 102 and actor Evgenii Cherviakov collaborated on the screenplay and 
F43 103 co-directed, and Cherviakov starred as Pushkin. Cherviakov looked a 
F43 104 fine Pushkin, but unfortunately the screenplay, which centers on 
F43 105 the last year of Pushkin's life, is as uncinematic as it is 
F43 106 melodramatic. The narrative focuses on Pushkin's unhappy marriage 
F43 107 to his unworhty wife (I. Volodko), and Gardin and Cherviakov gave 
F43 108 full credence to the old story that Nicholas I (K. Karenin) 
F43 109 engineered Pushkin's duel with the nefarious d'Anth<*_>e-grave<*/>s 
F43 110 (Boris Tamarin). When Cherviakov's Pushkin is not glowering 
F43 111 disapprovingly at various social gatherings, he is wandering about 
F43 112 <quote|>"reading" poems, letters, and so on (and on). Gardin lived 
F43 113 up to his reputation as one of the leading directors in both the 
F43 114 pre<?_>-<?/>revolutionary and Soviet cinemas in the well-staged 
F43 115 duel scene, but then ruined the dramatic tension by having poor 
F43 116 Pushkin linger on forever.<p/>
F43 117 <p_>Maiakovskii was not alone in his scathing denunciation of the 
F43 118 film, although a fairly judicious review appeared in <tf|>Cinema in 
F43 119 which P. Neznamov concentrated on formal attributes, criticizing 
F43 120 the static tempo and other technical weaknesses. More typical of 
F43 121 the tenor of the reviews was the solemn setpiece in <tf_>Soviet 
F43 122 Screen<tf/>, where Pushkin scholars were assembled to rail against 
F43 123 <tf_>The Poet and the Tsar<tf/>'s <quote_>"completely 
F43 124 false"<quote/> protrayal of Pushkin. Adrian Piotrovskii labelled 
F43 125 <tf_>The Poet and the Tsar<tf/> a film which epitomizes the 
F43 126 <quote_>"petty-bourgeois belief"<quote/> that history translates 
F43 127 into <quote|>"poeticalness" and <quote|>"beauty."<p/>
F43 128 <p_>This beauty had a high price - at 200,000 rubles not only was 
F43 129 the movie four times more expensive than the typical Soviet film, 
F43 130 but it had overrun its budget by nearly 25 percent. <tf_>The Poet 
F43 131 and the Tsar<tf/> was therefore not just part of a <quote|>"front" 
F43 132 of reactionary pictures, but also touted as proof of the existence 
F43 133 of a <quote_>"commercial deviation"<quote/> in cinema which 
F43 134 involved Sovkino as well as Mezhrapbom. The public, however, did 
F43 135 not share these jaundiced opinions of the picture, and it was 
F43 136 apparently a commercial success.<p/>
F43 137 <p_><tf_>The Poet and the Tsar<tf/> marked the turning-point in the 
F43 138 development of the Soviet costume drama. The final major historical 
F43 139 dramas of the silent period appeared in 1928 - Iurii Tarich's 
F43 140 <tf_>The Captain's Daughter<tf/> (about the Pugachev Rebellion) and 
F43 141 Konstantin Eggert's <tf_>The Ice House<tf/> (concerning the 
F43 142 scandalous reign of Anna Ivanovna) - but their swift demise was a 
F43 143 foregone conclusion. After the Party Conference on Cinema Affairs, 
F43 144 the film press focused on promoting <quote|>"economical," 
F43 145 <quote|>"contemporary," and <quote|>"ideological" works. Historical 
F43 146 pictures certainly could not be contemporary, and their ideological 
F43 147 content was superficial at best. Because of the costumes and sets 
F43 148 needed to recreate the past <quote|>"accurately," it was highly 
F43 149 unlikely that a <quote|>"good" historical picture could ever be 
F43 150 made as economically as a film about Soviet life. Consequently, 
F43 151 only sixteen costume dramas were made in the five-year period from 
F43 152 1929 to 1934 (and none in 1935), accounting for a mere 3 percent of 
F43 153 total production.<p/>
F43 154 <p_>What the historical film could do better than any other popular 
F43 155 genre (because of the constraints of the censorship) was give 
F43 156 Soviet audiences a way to enjoy <quote_>"high life"<quote/> 
F43 157 vicariously - beautiful clothes, lavish homes, plentiful food, 
F43 158 leisure time. Despite the romanticization of the Soviet twenties, 
F43 159 life during the NEP was not particularly easy; while a few lived 
F43 160 well (notable NEPmen and <foreign|>apparatchiki), most did not. The 
F43 161 costume drama, therefore, served much the same function in Soviet 
F43 162 society in the twenties as did those movies about millionaires that 
F43 163 were so popular in the US during the Great Depression of the 
F43 164 thirties.<p/>
F43 165 <h|>Melodrama
F43 166 <p_>The costume dramas had many melodramatic elements, but the 
F43 167 melodrama without any historical window-dressing had a distinctive 
F43 168 set of problems and imperatives. Adrian Piotrovskii wrote that 
F43 169 while melodrama in and of itself was not intrinsically anti-Soviet, 
F43 170 most Soviet makers of melodramas had revealed themselves 
F43 171 <quote_>"slaves to bourgeois art"<quote/> in their focus on the 
F43 172 inner workings of private life. If Piotrovskii were correct, then 
F43 173 the best-known <quote_>"slave to bourgeois art"<quote/> had to be 
F43 174 the Commissar of Enlightenment, Anatolii Lunacharskii, for the 
F43 175 melodrama in early Soviet cinema is inextricably linked to his 
F43 176 name.<p/>
F43 177 <p_>Lunacharskii co-authored the screenplays for <tf_>The Bear's 
F43 178 Wedding<tf/> and two other infamous variations on melodrama - 
F43 179 <tf|>Poison and <tf_>The Salamander<tf/>. Until 1928, Lunacharskii 
F43 180 managed to rationalize his involvement with these films and avoid 
F43 181 undue criticism, but his role was not a passive one. According to 
F43 182 Georgii Grebner's contract with Lunacharskii for <tf_>The 
F43 183 Salamander<tf/>, Lunacharskii wrote a librettto which Grebner then 
F43 184 translated into a shooting script. Lunacharskii also stipulated in 
F43 185 this contract that his wife, Natalia Rozenel, be given the female 
F43 186 lead - at a time when directors were being fired for nepotism.<p/>
F43 187 <p_><tf_>The Bear's Wedding<tf/> (co-directed by veteran filmmaker 
F43 188 Vladimir Gardin and by its star, Konstantin Eggert, 1926) was 
F43 189 easily the most sensational Soviet film of the twenties. Critics 
F43 190 found very little good in it, but it enjoyed an enormous following 
F43 191 and was the number two title in Troianovskii and Egiazarov's 'top 
F43 192 ten' chart. Its popularity with mass audiences was confirmed in 
F43 193 numerous other sources, one viewer writing to <tf|>Cinema that it 
F43 194 was a <quote_>"colossal victory on the cinema front."<quote/> It 
F43 195 was apparently successful abroad as well, and from 1926 on, 
F43 196 <quote_>"bears' wedding"<quote/> becomes a synonym for the 
F43 197 so-called 'export' films.<p/>
F43 198 <p_>Why did Soviet audiences find this screen adaptation of Prosper 
F43 199 M<*_>e-acute<*/>rim<*_>e-acute<*/>e's variation of the vampire 
F43 200 story so appealing? It is not up to the standards of filmmaking 
F43 201 which earned Soviet silent cinema its international reputation. But 
F43 202 it is certainly one of the most defiantly apolitical productions of 
F43 203 the period, and its emphasis on perversion places it squarely in 
F43 204 the pre-revolutionary tradition. Co-director Eggert played the 
F43 205 deranged Count Shemet, cursed to have seizures which transform him 
F43 206 into a bear on the prowl. The count falls in love with an innocent, 
F43 207 awkward young girl (the very popular Vera Malinovskaia, in a part 
F43 208 which provides a little comic relief, at least at first). The 
F43 209 wedding of the doomed pair is followed by an uncontrolled, sexually 
F43 210 charged celebration which becomes more sinister as the night 
F43 211 progresses. Tension mounts. The film climaxes in a frightening and 
F43 212 gruesome scene in which Count Shemet, besotted by passion and 
F43 213 madness, savagely mutilates his bride in their wedding-bed. When he 
F43 214 comes to his senses, the count is overcome with anguish, but he 
F43 215 attempts to flee the vengeful mob of villagers all the same. 
F43 216 Eventually he is murdered by his sister-in-law, and his castle is 
F43 217 torched.<p/>
F43 218 <p_><tf_>The Bear's Wedding<tf/> had the usual ingredients of 
F43 219 popular entertainment - love, sex, violence, action, horror - but 
F43 220 in baroque excess. The film is so extreme that this synopsis makes 
F43 221 it sound like a parody of melodrama, but it was not. Eggert managed 
F43 222 to make the improbable believable in his protrayal of Count Shemet, 
F43 223 and he and Gardin pulled this cinematic pastiche off with style.
F43 224 
F43 225 
F44   1 <#FROWN:F44\><h_><p_>Five<p/>
F44   2 <p_>Cultural Illiteracy<p/><h/>
F44   3 <p_>At first glance, E. D. Hirsch's <tf_>Cultural Literacy<tf/> 
F44   4 seemed as unlikely a bestseller as <tf_>The Closing of the American 
F44   5 Mind<tf/>. Originally a lecture given before the Modern Language 
F44   6 Association, it was published as an essay in the <tf_>American 
F44   7 Scholar<tf/> in 1983. <quote_>"I received a letter from Robert 
F44   8 Payton, president of the Exxon Education Foundation,"<quote/> 
F44   9 Hirsch wrote in the introduction to his book, <quote_>"encouraging 
F44  10 me to start acting on my perceptions rather than just writing them 
F44  11 down."<quote/><p/>
F44  12 <p_>Spurred on by an Exxon grant, Hirsch began to compile his 
F44  13 now-famous list of the 'items' that, if known and mastered, would 
F44  14 enable this and future generations of students to attain cultural 
F44  15 literacy. In 1987 he published his book, which instantly made the 
F44  16 bestseller list; for forty weeks it was second only to Bloom's. The 
F44  17 paperback has sold 600,000 copies. Hirsch, a professor of English 
F44  18 at the University of Virginia and a scholar of eighteenth-century 
F44  19 literature, has become the latest representative of that new 
F44  20 American type, the academic celebrity.<p/>
F44  21 <p_>What is cultural literacy? The answer is simply put in the 
F44  22 subtitle of Hirsch's book: <tf_>What Every American Needs to 
F44  23 Know<tf/>. By 'culture' Hirsch doesn't mean 'high culture,' but 
F44  24 'basic information,' the names and events that enable us to 
F44  25 decipher the world. In order to function in society, to work and to 
F44  26 communicate, he argues, people need to possess a certain number of 
F44  27 facts about their own history. The key events in our past, the key 
F44  28 phrases in our literature, are in themselves a kind of language, a 
F44  29 code that educated people decipher in their daily lives without 
F44  30 even knowing it. Hirsch reminisces about his father, an 
F44  31 old-fashioned businessman who used to quote Shakespeare in his 
F44  32 correspondence and often used the phrase <quote_>"There is a 
F44  33 tide"<quote/> - shorthand for <quote_>"There is a tide in the 
F44  34 affairs of men / Which taken at the flood leads on to 
F44  35 fortune"<quote/> from <tf_>Julius Caesar<tf/> - to illustrate how 
F44  36 one knows intuitively when to buy or sell. <quote_>"To persuade 
F44  37 somebody that your recommendation is wise and well founded, you 
F44  38 have to give lots of reasons and cite known examples and 
F44  39 authorities,"<quote/> wrote Hirsch. <quote_>"My father accomplished 
F44  40 that and more in four words, which made quoting Shakespeare as 
F44  41 effective as any efficiency consultant could wish."<quote/><p/>
F44  42 <p_>For Allan Bloom, the decline of educational standards can be 
F44  43 traced to the decline of philosophy (a word he uses to mean the 
F44  44 humanities in general); to ignore the classics is ultimately to 
F44  45 weaken the very foundations of our society. Hirsch is more 
F44  46 pragmatic. For him, the purpose of education isn't to produce a 
F44  47 handful of Greek scholars who can preserve the great intellectual 
F44  48 traditions of the West, as Bloom would have it, but to prepare us 
F44  49 for the complex social transactions of everyday life. It's not a 
F44  50 nation of English professors that Hirsch aspires to create, but a 
F44  51 nation in which ordinary people are literate enough to negotiate 
F44  52 effectively in the world. <quote_>"High stakes,"<quote/> he writes, 
F44  53 are involved in the curriculum debate:<p/>
F44  54 <p_><quote_> ... breaking the cycle of illiteracy for deprived 
F44  55 children; raising the living standard of families who have been 
F44  56 illiterate; making our country more competitive in international 
F44  57 markets; achieving greater social justice; enabling all citizens to 
F44  58 participate in the political process; bringing us closer to the 
F44  59 Ciceronian ideal of universal public discourse - in short, 
F44  60 achieving fundamental goals of the founders at the birth of the 
F44  61 republic.<quote/><p/>
F44  62 <p_>There's nothing abstract about this imperative. Behind Hirsch's 
F44  63 high-minded rhetoric is a pretty straightforward message: You can't 
F44  64 expect people to grasp the basic principles of democracy unless 
F44  65 they know what those principles are. And you can't expect them to 
F44  66 function effectively in the world unless they're literate.<p/>
F44  67 <p_>Hirsch's book was notably even-tempered and unpolemical; he 
F44  68 sounded like a guy who was trying to help. And he had actually 
F44  69 <tf|>done something. He had gone around speaking before state 
F44  70 boards of education; he had founded a Cultural Literacy Foundation, 
F44  71 publishing a newsletter and circulating to schools around the 
F44  72 country a provisional list of what students at every grade level 
F44  73 ought to know; he had produced a <tf_>Dictionary of Cultural 
F44  74 Literacy<tf/> and a six-volume textbook (still in the works) 
F44  75 designed to teach the rudiments of American history, the major 
F44  76 works of English and American literature, and the natural sciences. 
F44  77 But in academic circles, <tf_>Cultural Literacy<tf/> kindled almost 
F44  78 as much fury as <tf_>The Closing of the American Mind<tf/>. At a 
F44  79 conference on 'Liberal Arts Education in the Late Twentieth 
F44  80 Century' held at Duke University in 1988, Barbara Herrnstein Smith 
F44  81 rose and delivered a vitriolic diatribe, 'Cult-Lit: Hirsch, 
F44  82 Literacy, and the 'National Culture,'' that enumerated in harsh 
F44  83 language the magnitude of Hirsch's sins. What did he mean by 
F44  84 <tf_>shared culture?<tf/> Smith wanted to know. There was no such 
F44  85 thing, and any efforts to define one represented, in Smith's words, 
F44  86 <quote_>"context-specific, pragmatically adjusted negotiations of 
F44  87 (and through) <tf|>difference."<quote/> Hirsch was trying to 
F44  88 homogenize and oppress minorities by making them conform to 
F44  89 <tf|>his idea of culture. Nor did Smith have a whole lot of 
F44  90 sympathy for Hirsch's idealized vision of what our nation is all 
F44  91 about. <quote_>"Wild applause; fireworks; music,"<quote/> she noted 
F44  92 with heavy sarcasm after quoting his invocation to the 
F44  93 <quote_>"fundamental goals"<quote/> of the Founding Fathers: 
F44  94 <quote_>"<tf_>America the Beautiful;<tf/> all together, now: 
F44  95 <tf_>Calvin Coolidge, Gunga Din, Peter Pan, spontaneous 
F44  96 combustion.<tf/> Hurrah for America and the national culture! 
F44  97 Hurrah!"<quote/><p/>
F44  98 <p_>Okay, so there are flaws in Hirsch's argument: his definition 
F44  99 of a 'literate national culture' is vague; his list of 'What Every 
F44 100 American Needs to Know' is biased. But his basic indictment - that 
F44 101 we're in the midst of a crisis with long-range social consequences 
F44 102 - seems to me beyond dispute. Americans know less than ever. In a 
F44 103 1988 survey of high school students' scientific achievement level 
F44 104 prepared by the International Association for the Evaluation of 
F44 105 Educational Achievement, the United States ranked third-to-last out 
F44 106 of fifteen developed nations; in a 1970 survey, the U.S. had ranked 
F44 107 seventh. It's not that other nations have improved in terms of 
F44 108 education; we have deteriorated. U.S. Scholastic Aptitude Test 
F44 109 (SAT) scores have declined precipitously over the last decade: from 
F44 110 1972 to 1984, 56 percent fewer students scored over 600 and 73 
F44 111 percent fewer scored over 650. A 1983 report by the National 
F44 112 Commission on Excellence in Education stated, <quote_>"For the 
F44 113 first time in the history of our country, the educational skills of 
F44 114 one generation will not surpass, will not equal, will not even 
F44 115 approach those of their parents."<quote/><p/>
F44 116 <p_>Hirsch's book is full of frightening statistics: Two-thirds of 
F44 117 seventeen-year-olds weren't aware that the Civil War occurred 
F44 118 between 1850 and 1900. Nearly half couldn't identify Stalin; nearly 
F44 119 one-fourth couldn't identify Churchill. When Hirsch's son, a high 
F44 120 school Latin teacher, asked his class to name an epic poem by 
F44 121 Homer, one student volunteered <quote_>"The Alamo?"<quote/> 
F44 122 Another, informed that Latin was no longer spoken, asked, 
F44 123 <quote_>"What do they speak in Latin America?"<quote/> At a 
F44 124 conference of college deans, Hirsch reported in the <tf_>New York 
F44 125 Review of Books<tf/>, he was regaled with <quote_>"a chorus of 
F44 126 anecdotes"<quote/> about the decline in literacy among entering 
F44 127 freshmen: <quote_>"To these administrators, the debate over 
F44 128 Stanford University's required courses seemed interesting but less 
F44 129 than momentous when compared with the problem of preparing students 
F44 130 to particiapte intelligently in any university-level 
F44 131 curriculum."<quote/><p/>
F44 132 <p_>It's just as much a problem in the Ivy League as anywhere else. 
F44 133 Jerry Doolittle, an English instructor at Harvard, designed a quiz 
F44 134 for his freshmen students to determine their level of literacy. 
F44 135 They were given twenty statements and asked to fill in the blanks. 
F44 136 Among the sample questions were the following:<p/>
F44 137 <p_>I think that I shall never see a poem <*_>blank<*/> (four 
F44 138 words)<p/>
F44 139 <p_>Quoth the raven, <*_>blank<*/> (one word)<p/>
F44 140 <p_>A jug of wine, a loaf of bread and <*_>blank<*/> (one word)<p/>
F44 141 <p_>The average score was seven out of twenty - a figure somewhat 
F44 142 inflated, Doolittle confessed, by two statements that everyone in 
F44 143 the class completed correctly:<p/>
F44 144 <p_><quote_>"Winston tastes good, like a <*_>blank<*/>"<quote/> 
F44 145 (two words) and <quote_>"This Bud's for <*_>blank<*/>"<quote/> (one 
F44 146 word). And this was Harvard!<p/>
F44 147 <p_>According to Richard Marius, director of Harvard's Expository 
F44 148 Writing Program, arriving freshmen are so woefully deficient in the 
F44 149 basic skills of reading and writing that a remedial course is 
F44 150 required just to get them to the point where their peers would have 
F44 151 been a generation ago. <quote_>"This generation does not 
F44 152 read,"<quote/> Marius laments in <tf_>Teaching Literature: What Is 
F44 153 Needed Now.<tf/> They're unfamiliar with the Bible, Shakespeare, 
F44 154 Milton; they don't even know the Gettysburg Address: <quote_>"They 
F44 155 are strangers not only to those points of reference that might help 
F44 156 them navigate the literary sea, but also to the underlying cadences 
F44 157 that have governed the development of written English. They cannot 
F44 158 write because they have not read and they cannot hear."<quote/><p/>
F44 159 <p_>The poet and essayist Katha Pollitt offers telling 
F44 160 corroborative evidence. In her modern poetry seminar at Barnard, 
F44 161 Pollitt reports, none of her students had even a bare familiarity 
F44 162 with any poems published more than a decade ago. <quote_>"Robert 
F44 163 Lowell was as far outside their frame of reference as Alexander 
F44 164 Pope."<quote/> They didn't see how a knowledge of earlier poetry 
F44 165 was necessary to their work; in fact, they found the work of 
F44 166 earlier poets discouraging, for it showed up their own 
F44 167 deficiencies. A new way to deal with the potentially smothering 
F44 168 effects of one's precursors: Don't have any.<p/>
F44 169 <p_>One could argue that our indifference to literature - and to 
F44 170 literacy - is a function of our distracted culture, but a 
F44 171 contributing factor, I suspect, is the virtual abolition of 
F44 172 requirements that so many colleges embraced in the late sixties and 
F44 173 seventies (a development that quickly replicated itself in public 
F44 174 secondary schools). It's all very well to talk of the 
F44 175 character-building sustenance that books provide, but most people 
F44 176 don't read unless they're compelled to; and higher education was 
F44 177 designed to serve that purpose. School once was, <quote_>"and might 
F44 178 frankly <tf|>be,"<quote/> Pollitt reminds us, <quote_>"the place 
F44 179 where one read the books that are a little off-putting, that have 
F44 180 gone a little cold, that you might overlook because they do not 
F44 181 address, in reader-friendly contemporary fashion, the issues most 
F44 182 immediately at stake in modern life but that, with a little study, 
F44 183 turn out to have a great deal to say."<quote/><p/>
F44 184 <p_>In the 1980s, a reaction set in to the <tf|>laissez-faire 
F44 185 education that characterized my college days, and a number of 
F44 186 colleges moved to reinstate some semblance of a core. (Some had 
F44 187 never abandoned it: the Great Books course instituted at Columbia 
F44 188 after World War I survives in recognizable form to this day.) At 
F44 189 Harvard, where the general education program - created to provide 
F44 190 students with <quote_>"the common knowledge and the common values 
F44 191 on which a free society depends"<quote/> - had fallen into 
F44 192 disrepair, a core curriculum was once again proposed, and a task 
F44 193 force was convened to consider the matter. It found<&|>sic! in 
F44 194 favor of establishing such a curriculum, but weaseled out of 
F44 195 actually trying to impose one. What it came up with was a set of 
F44 196 courses divided into ten categories - Social Analysis, Moral 
F44 197 Reasoning, Foreign Cultures, Literature and Arts, and so on. But 
F44 198 the Core's architects, eager to avoid the charge of ethno- or 
F44 199 Eurocentricism<&|>sic!, threw in a potpourri of courses from other 
F44 200 disciplines and fields: 'Building the Shogun's Realm: The 
F44 201 Unification of Japan (1560-1650)'; 'Caribbean Societies: 
F44 202 Socioeconomic Change and Cultural Adaptations'; 'Individual, 
F44 203 Community, and Nation in Japan.' Since you only have to choose one 
F44 204 course from each area, it's possible to graduate, notes Caleb 
F44 205 Nelson in a strongly argued condemnation of 'Harvard's Hollow 
F44 206 'Core,'' without ever having read any nineteenth-century British 
F44 207 novels; without having read Virgil, Milton, or Dostoyevsky; without 
F44 208 having taken a course on the Enlightenment or the Renaissance or 
F44 209 the American Civil War. One section leader editorialized in the 
F44 210 <tf|>Crimson: <quote_>"Most Harvard students taking Core courses 
F44 211 are no more likely to have read and seriously understood the 
F44 212 philosophical, political, or cultural foundations of their own 
F44 213 United States than if they selected thirty-two random courses from 
F44 214 the catalogue."<quote/><p/>
F44 215 <p_>But that was never the Core's intent. <quote_>"There are simply 
F44 216 too many facts, too many theories, too many subjects, too many 
F44 217 specializations to permit arranging all knowledge into an 
F44 218 acceptable hierarchy,"<quote/> reasoned its founders.
F44 219 
F45   1 <#FROWN:F45\>When coupled with computers, synthesizers make the 
F45   2 exploration, composition, and performance of electronic music an 
F45   3 inexpensive art medium.<p/>
F45   4 <p_>A technology called the <tf_>musical instrument digital 
F45   5 interface (MIDI)<tf/> interconnects electronic music instruments 
F45   6 and computers. When coupled with a <tf|>sequencer - software that 
F45   7 can capture, edit, and play back music - complex electronic 
F45   8 arrangements are made possible through a wide variety of editing 
F45   9 options. Just as a word processor can replace a writer's typewriter 
F45  10 or pencil and paper, sequencer software can replace a composer's 
F45  11 pencil and paper score.<p/>
F45  12 <p_>In live performances, such as rock concerts, live and recorded 
F45  13 sound are often indistinguishable, thanks to the use of 
F45  14 computerized backing tracks. Promoters defend the use of 
F45  15 preprogrammed music, arguing that fans want to see a perfect 
F45  16 reenactment of an MTV video or a recording. However, some 
F45  17 legislators believe the practice is deceptive and propose 
F45  18 legislation that would require promoters to inform ticket buyers in 
F45  19 advance whether preprogrammed music will be used in a live 
F45  20 performance.<p/>
F45  21 <h_><p_>DESIGN AUTOMATION<p/><h/>
F45  22 <p_>Designers in professions such as clothing, publications, 
F45  23 architecture, and industrial products use electronic drawing boards 
F45  24 extensively to help automate the mechanics of creativity. Borrowing 
F45  25 from the techniques of computer-aided design that were pioneered in 
F45  26 the manufacturing disciplines, a variety of designers are using 
F45  27 computer software to increase productivity and help speed up the 
F45  28 design process.<p/>
F45  29 <p_>Architects, for example, used to design buildings manually. The 
F45  30 design process began when an architect drew a rough sketch, which 
F45  31 is the high-level design of what the building is supposed to look 
F45  32 like, and how it interfaces with the surrounding environment. Then, 
F45  33 a scale model was hand built, critiqued, and modified. After client 
F45  34 approval, blueprints and specifications were created for the 
F45  35 contractor.<p/>
F45  36 <p_>Today's architects use computer-aided design methods 
F45  37 extensively. In much the same way that power tools increase the 
F45  38 productivity of the carpenter, CAD increases the productivity of 
F45  39 the architect. In addition to automating the drawing process, CAD 
F45  40 enables the architect to build computer models of the building, 
F45  41 rotate the design to view the building from various angles, allow 
F45  42 the client to take a simulated walkthrough of the building, 
F45  43 simulate its heating and cooling sub<?_>-<?/>system performance 
F45  44 under various climatic conditions, and create blueprints and 
F45  45 specifications for the building.<p/>
F45  46 <p_>Clothes designers in large corporations such as Esprit, Levi 
F45  47 Strauss, and Benetton use CAD to design patterns, colors, and 
F45  48 clothing shapes. In addition, designs, patterns, and colors can be 
F45  49 archived in databases. The designer can call up a previously 
F45  50 designed pattern, for example, modify it slightly, and feed the 
F45  51 design to automated machinery that cuts patterns out of fabric.<p/>
F45  52 
F45  53 <h_><p_>COMPUTERS IN GOVERNMENT, MILITARY, AND LAW<p/><h/>
F45  54 <p_>Professionals in government, military, and law have become some 
F45  55 of the most sophisticated users of information systems. They 
F45  56 quickly learn the importance of intelligent information gathering 
F45  57 and manipulation and, as a result, information systems are the 
F45  58 lifeblood of these professions.<p/>
F45  59 <h|>GOVERNMENT
F45  60 <p_>Federal, state, and local government professionals, as well as 
F45  61 their adversaries (e.g., lobbying groups such as the National Rifle 
F45  62 Association and the Sierra Club), are concerned with developing 
F45  63 public policy, enforcing laws, and protecting the well being of 
F45  64 citizens.<p/>
F45  65 <p_>Politicians rely heavily on their constituent databases and 
F45  66 lobbying groups on their membership databases to track peoples' 
F45  67 profiles, contribution histories, topics of concern, and levels of 
F45  68 experience with specific issues. In their effort to sway public 
F45  69 policy, for example, special interest groups can extract specific 
F45  70 members' names and addresses and send out letters to inform them of 
F45  71 pending legislation.<p/>
F45  72 <p_>In recent years, the public has become more aware of the damage 
F45  73 being done to the environment as a result of society's actions. 
F45  74 This is, of course, a broad and complex set of problems that defies 
F45  75 simple solutions. But one technology called <tf_>geographical 
F45  76 information system (GIS)<tf/> is lending a helping hand.<p/>
F45  77 <p_>Geographical information system data include digitized maps and 
F45  78 images of distributions of statistical data such as populations of 
F45  79 humans, plants, and animals. Geographical databases can help 
F45  80 planners set up displays of watershed areas, soil and water 
F45  81 districts, property lines, school and tax districts, and zoning 
F45  82 boundaries. For example, if planners need to know how new 
F45  83 development will affect a watershed area, they can view the 
F45  84 watershed area and zoning boundaries simultaneously, in order to 
F45  85 make more informed decisions about the impact of the development on 
F45  86 the environment.<p/>
F45  87 <p_>Other GIS applications include viewing population and school 
F45  88 district boundaries simultaneously to redraw district lines and 
F45  89 plan school bus routes. Fire departments can study patterns of 
F45  90 streets and traffic flows along them at various hours of the day 
F45  91 and plan the fastest route to a fire.<p/>
F45  92 <p_>Government agencies, such as police departments, sheriff's 
F45  93 offices, emergency medical services, and fire departments, leverage 
F45  94 technology with computer-aided dispatch, communications, record 
F45  95 keeping, and jail-management functions.<p/>
F45  96 <p_>And technology is beginning to find its way into the 
F45  97 legislative branch. Recently, the Michigan State Senate installed a 
F45  98 legislative information system that puts a personal computer at 
F45  99 every senator's desk. Using computers, the lawmakers can review and 
F45 100 vote on bills and, during slack periods, write letters and 
F45 101 communicate with their offices via electronic mail.<p/>
F45 102 <h|>MILITARY
F45 103 <p_>Ever since the late 1950s, the U.S. military has used computers 
F45 104 for defense. The nation's first air-defense system, a network of 
F45 105 computers linked to radar stations, the Semi-Automatic Ground 
F45 106 Environment, or SAGE, pioneered the use of real-time interactive 
F45 107 graphics. (See Appendix A under 1950, 'Whirlwind.') Today, the 
F45 108 North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) performs a similar 
F45 109 defense function by guarding the United States against missile 
F45 110 attack.<p/>
F45 111 <p_>On the drawing boards is the Strategic Defense Initiative or 
F45 112 SDI, a computer-controlled system that will use satellites to 
F45 113 detect and lasers to destroy enemy missiles. SDI is very 
F45 114 controversial, because it will be so complex and will rely so 
F45 115 heavily on unproven, untested hardware and software. Critics, for 
F45 116 example, point out the possibility of a false alarm, thus 
F45 117 triggering a U.S. attack or even a nuclear war.<p/>
F45 118 <p_>On a smaller scale, weapon systems, such as those found in 
F45 119 submarines, tanks, and aircraft, use sophisticated technology for 
F45 120 navigation, tracking, and control. The person using such systems 
F45 121 has at his or her disposal graphic representations of landscapes 
F45 122 with grids marking optimal paths to targets. Eye-tracking devices 
F45 123 help aim the weapons at the target at which the person is 
F45 124 looking.<p/>
F45 125 <p_>One of the most impressive military computer applications 
F45 126 involves training pilots with flight simulators. A <tf|>simulation 
F45 127 is a computerized representation of a real-world event or series of 
F45 128 actions. Although flight simulators also help train civilian 
F45 129 pilots, the most sophisticated versions can be found in the 
F45 130 military.<p/>
F45 131 <p_>A pilot, seated in a replica of a cockpit, views realistic 
F45 132 simulated images displayed on the cockpit windows. As the pilot 
F45 133 flies the simulator, the view changes immediately in response to 
F45 134 altitude, speed, and position. Realistic special effects such as 
F45 135 fog, airplane malfunctions, or enemy attack can be added to the 
F45 136 simulation. Such realism is made possible by drawing on an immense 
F45 137 visual database that contains data digitized from scale models, 
F45 138 photographs, and topological maps. Special-purpose computers 
F45 139 generate and display images in real time, in order to create the 
F45 140 illusion of motion.<p/>
F45 141 <p_>Although the cost of military flight simulators is enormous, a 
F45 142 simulation costs less than its real-world counterpart. By having 
F45 143 pilots practice with simulators rather than real airplanes, the 
F45 144 military avoids the risk of losing an expensive plane and worse, 
F45 145 losing an irreplaceable life - that of the pilot. And, of course, 
F45 146 without simulators, training astronauts for a space shuttle mission 
F45 147 would probably be out of the question.<p/>
F45 148 <p_>What does the military do to prevent the details of its newest 
F45 149 Stealth bomber from being leaked to the KGB? Preventing compromises 
F45 150 in national security and defense depends on limiting access by 
F45 151 unauthorized people. Photographs, signatures, and fingerprints have 
F45 152 been used for identification purposes long before the advent of 
F45 153 computers. But the problem of verifying a person's identity has led 
F45 154 to an interesting high-technology solution.<p/>
F45 155 <p_><tf_>Biometric devices<tf/> are instruments that perform 
F45 156 mathematical analysis of biological characteristics. An 
F45 157 individual's speech, handwriting, fingerprints, or even eye retina 
F45 158 features can serve as <}_><-|>a<+|><}/> unique patterns for 
F45 159 identification purposes. Biometric identification systems that can 
F45 160 digitize, store, and compare these patterns can be used to verify a 
F45 161 person's identity.<p/>
F45 162 <p_>Biometric identification systems are still in the experimental 
F45 163 stage, but when they become reliable enough, they are expected to 
F45 164 provide a more accurate means of verifying peoples' identity at 
F45 165 classified and secret locations throughout the military and 
F45 166 government.<p/>
F45 167 <h|>LAW
F45 168 <p_>Today's law firms are characterized by the need to manage, 
F45 169 process, and interpret large and complex amounts of information. 
F45 170 Legal documents, such as briefs, transcripts, notes, laws, codes, 
F45 171 and rules are increasingly available in electronic versions. Court 
F45 172 reporters, for example, routinely make their transcripts available 
F45 173 as text files than can be directly input to a word processor.<p/>
F45 174 <p_>A wealth of historical legal data are available in the form of 
F45 175 on-line databases. Law firms can subscribe to Westlaw and Lexis, 
F45 176 firms that specialize in publishing precedents, decisions, 
F45 177 administrative rulings, trade regulations, and laws governing 
F45 178 securities and taxes. In addition, some information providers are 
F45 179 starting to offer similar information on CD ROM databases.<p/>
F45 180 <p_>Another type of database software that is particularly useful 
F45 181 for attorneys and paralegal professionals is called <tf_>full-text 
F45 182 retrieval software.<tf/> It allows text to be indexed, edited, 
F45 183 annotated, linked, and searched for in an electronic document. In a 
F45 184 trial, for example, attorneys may need to review, track, and 
F45 185 cross-reference the testimony of witnesses. Through use of 
F45 186 full-text retrieval software, the transcripts for the trial can be 
F45 187 indexed, annotated, and searched to verify the consistency of a 
F45 188 witness's testimony right in the courtroom.<p/>
F45 189 <p_>During the courtroom portions of trials, attorneys use desktop 
F45 190 presentations to illustrate complex ideas to the jury in cases such 
F45 191 as patent infringement or medical injury.<p/>
F45 192 
F45 193 <h_><p_>COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION<p/><h/>
F45 194 <p_>The potential of new computers and new software developments in 
F45 195 education is highly intriguing and compelling. Computers are one of 
F45 196 the newest and most versatile tools of the teaching trade. Computer 
F45 197 and communication technology are making possible imaginative 
F45 198 approaches to teaching traditional subjects and are motivating 
F45 199 teachers and students to try new ways of information gathering and 
F45 200 learning.<p/>
F45 201 <h|>LEARNING
F45 202 <p_>The oldest instructional application of computers is 
F45 203 <tf_>computer-assisted instruction (CAI)<tf/>, which provides 
F45 204 instruction and drill-and-practice in basic computation and 
F45 205 language skills. The basic philosophy of CAI involves a direct link 
F45 206 between student and software and the transfer of basic 
F45 207 instructional decisions from teacher to curriculum developer.<p/>
F45 208 <p_>By using CAI, information is presented on the computer's 
F45 209 display, students are asked to respond, and their responses are 
F45 210 evaluated. If the student is correct, he or she moves on; if 
F45 211 incorrect, similar problems are given until the correct response is 
F45 212 elicited.<p/>
F45 213 <p_>Advocates of CAI argue that students who have not mastered 
F45 214 basic skills can benefit from drill and practice and that the 
F45 215 computer helps to motivate students and frees the teacher to 
F45 216 provide individual instruction. Critics of CAI argue that 
F45 217 drill-and-practice tasks can be done just as easily without 
F45 218 computers, using, for example, flash cards or some other form of 
F45 219 drill. Hundreds of studies have been conducted to determine the 
F45 220 effectiveness of CAI, and while the results concerning the effects 
F45 221 of CAI are generally favorable, the research conducted provides 
F45 222 little insight into how, what, and why students learn when they use 
F45 223 CAI.<p/>
F45 224 <p_>In response to such criticism, educators have developed 
F45 225 <tf_>intelligent CAI<tf/> programs in which students interact with 
F45 226 the computer rather than respond to it in a predefined manner. 
F45 227 Intelligent CAI can generate and solve problems, store and retrieve 
F45 228 data, diagnose students' misconceptions, select appropriate 
F45 229 teaching strategies, and carry on dialogs with students. Most of 
F45 230 these programs incorporate simulations and games that allows 
F45 231 students to try out their evolving models of knowledge in a 
F45 232 particular area.<p/>
F45 233 <h_><p_>ELECTRONIC BOOKS<p/><h/>
F45 234 <p_>New software tools and new ideas for user interfaces make 
F45 235 possible the presentation of materials that are manipulable in 
F45 236 several different ways. One such example is the electronic book, in 
F45 237 which the reader manipulates computer technology instead of printed 
F45 238 pages.<p/>
F45 239 <p_>For example, Sony Corporation of Japan uses a palm-sized CD 
F45 240 player for reading books recorded on 3-inch compact disks. Each 
F45 241 disk can store approximately 100,000 pages of text, the equivalent 
F45 242 of 300 paperback books.
F45 243 
F45 244 
F45 245 
F46   1 <#FROWN:\F46><p_>What that required was for the United States and 
F46   2 its allies to <quote_>"maintain sufficient flexible military 
F46   3 capabilities, and firmness of policy, to convince the Communist 
F46   4 rulers that the U.S. and its allies have the means to ensure that 
F46   5 aggression will not pay and the will to use military force if the 
F46   6 situation requires."<quote/> The West should, however, forgo 
F46   7 <quote_>"actions which would generally be regarded as 
F46   8 provocative,"<quote/> and <quote_>"be prepared, if hostilities 
F46   9 occur, to meet them, where feasible, in a manner and on a scale 
F46  10 which will not inevitably broaden them into total nuclear 
F46  11 war."<quote/> These cautions were necessary <quote_>"to assure the 
F46  12 support of our allies against aggression and to avoid risks which 
F46  13 do not promise commensurate strategic or political gains."<quote/> 
F46  14 The distance separating the architect of 'massive retaliation' from 
F46  15 what would later come to be known as the doctrine of 'flexible 
F46  16 response' was, it seems, less than one might have thought.<p/>
F46  17 <p_>The basic policy the United States had followed through the end 
F46  18 of 1954, Dulles admitted, had been <quote_>"pretty good,"<quote/> 
F46  19 even if <quote_>"it hasn't got us into war."<quote/> Not getting 
F46  20 into a war, after all, was no bad thing. The positions the United 
F46  21 States had taken with regard to the German question, Indochina, and 
F46  22 the Chinese offshore islands could hardly be described as 'craven': 
F46  23 <quote_>"it would be difficult to argue that our policies are not 
F46  24 strong, firm, and indicative of a willingness to run risks. But our 
F46  25 policy was none the less one which fell short of actually provoking 
F46  26 war."<quote/><p/>
F46  27 <p_>That policy had assumed, though, continued American nuclear 
F46  28 superiority. The great difficulty Dulles saw on the horizon was 
F46  29 <quote_>"the forthcoming achievement of atomic plenty and a nuclear 
F46  30 balance of power between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R."<quote/> It was 
F46  31 not at all clear how the United States could prevent the Russians 
F46  32 from achieving that 'nuclear balance' without going to war with 
F46  33 them. More active policies in such areas as Indochina or China, of 
F46  34 the kind the Joint Chiefs of Staff had advocated, would not solve 
F46  35 that problem.<p/>
F46  36 <p_>Dulles expanded on this argument at a National Security Council 
F46  37 meeting later in December, 1954. He could not help but have some 
F46  38 sympathy for the Joint Chiefs' call for <quote_>"greater 
F46  39 dynamism"<quote/> in American policies toward the Russians and the 
F46  40 Chinese Communists; he himself had campaigned on just this point in 
F46  41 1952. <quote_>"However, experience indicated that it was not easy 
F46  42 to go very much beyond the point that this Administration had 
F46  43 reached in translating a dynamic policy into courses of action, and 
F46  44 in any case we had been more dynamic than our 
F46  45 predecessors."<quote/> Preventive war was <quote_>"of 
F46  46 course"<quote/> ruled out. Strong and forceful efforts to change 
F46  47 the character of the Soviet system, or to overthrow communist 
F46  48 regimes in Eastern Europe and China, or to detach those countries 
F46  49 from the Soviet bloc <quote_>"would involve the United States in 
F46  50 general war."<quote/> Even if the United States could somehow break 
F46  51 up Soviet control over Eastern Europe and China, <quote_>"this in 
F46  52 itself would not actually touch the heart of the problem: Soviet 
F46  53 atomic plenty."<quote/> And although these more aggressive 
F46  54 policies, if successful, <quote_>"might result in the 
F46  55 disintegration of the Soviet bloc, they would almost certainly 
F46  56 cause the disintegration of the free world bloc, ... for our allies 
F46  57 would never go along with such courses of action as 
F46  58 these."<quote/><p/>
F46  59 <p_>In the end, Dulles concluded, the only real solution for the 
F46  60 problem of expanding Soviet nuclear capabilities might be nuclear 
F46  61 abolition. It was true, he admitted, that if the United States 
F46  62 should agree to eliminate nuclear weapons alone, <quote_>"we would 
F46  63 be depriving ourselves of those weapons in which the U. S. was 
F46  64 ahead and would not be taking action in the area of Soviet 
F46  65 superiority, the conventional armaments field."<quote/> It was 
F46  66 unlikely that the means would ever be developed to monitor 
F46  67 conventional force disarmament. But <quote_>"it could be argued 
F46  68 that atomic weapons are the only ones by which the U. S. can be 
F46  69 virtually destroyed through a sudden attack, and if this danger of 
F46  70 destruction should be removed by eliminating nuclear weapons this 
F46  71 would help the U. S. by enabling retention intact of our industrial 
F46  72 power which has acted both as a deterrent against total war and as 
F46  73 a principal means of winning a war."<quote/><p/>
F46  74 <p_>A year later, almost on the eve of the famous <tf|>Life 
F46  75 magazine interview with James Shepley in which he had extolled the 
F46  76 virtues of going to the brink of war as a means of preserving 
F46  77 peace, Dulles discussed the future of nuclear deterrence with a 
F46  78 recuperating Eisenhower - the President had suffered his heart 
F46  79 attack three months earlier - in the White House. As Dulles himself 
F46  80 recorded the conversation: <quote_>"I said that I had come to the 
F46  81 conclusion that our whole international security structure was in 
F46  82 jeopardy. The basic thesis was local defensive strength with the 
F46  83 backing up of United States atomic striking power. However, that 
F46  84 striking power was apt to be immobilized by moral repugnance. If 
F46  85 this happened, the whole structure could readily 
F46  86 collapse."<quote/><p/>
F46  87 <p_>Dulles went on to say that he had come to believe <quote_>"that 
F46  88 atomic power was too vast a power to be left for the military use 
F46  89 of any one country."<quote/> Its use, he thought, should be 
F46  90 <quote_>"internationalized for security purposes."<quote/> The 
F46  91 United States might well consider calling together the forty-two 
F46  92 nations with which it had security treaties, placing before them a 
F46  93 proposal for an international group that would decide <quote_>"when 
F46  94 and how to use atomic weapons for defense - always reserving of 
F46  95 course the right of the United States, in the event that it was 
F46  96 directly attacked, to use whatever means it had."<quote/> If and 
F46  97 when the Soviet Union was prepared to forego the right of veto, the 
F46  98 group might then transfer this responsibility to the United Nations 
F46  99 Security Council, <quote_>"so as to universalize the capacity of 
F46 100 atomic thermonuclear weapons to deter aggression."<quote/> 
F46 101 Eisenhower's response, somewhat neutrally, was that the idea was 
F46 102 <quote_>"an interesting one."<quote/><p/>
F46 103 <p_>Encouraged by the President to develop his ideas, the Secretary 
F46 104 of State prepared a long memorandum early in 1956, in which he 
F46 105 noted that Soviet nuclear capabilities might well grow, within a 
F46 106 few years, to the point at which they could <quote_>"at a single 
F46 107 stroke, virtually obliterate our industrial power and ... 
F46 108 simultaneously gravely impair our capacity to retaliate."<quote/> 
F46 109 That retaliatory capacity would then lose its deterrent effect, and 
F46 110 <quote_>"the United States might become endangered as never 
F46 111 before."<quote/> Indeed, the <tf|>psychological loss of superiority 
F46 112 might well precede its <tf|>actual loss, because <quote_>"it would 
F46 113 be generally assumed that the use of <tf|>our nuclear power is so 
F46 114 restricted by constitutional and democratic processes and moral 
F46 115 restraints that we would never be able to use it <tf|>first; and 
F46 116 conditions could be such that only the first use would have great 
F46 117 significance. ... Repugnance to the use of nuclear weapons could 
F46 118 grow to a point which would depreciate our value as an ally, 
F46 119 undermine confidence in our 'collective defense' concepts, and make 
F46 120 questionable the reliability of our allies and the availability to 
F46 121 SAC of our foreign bases."<quote/><p/>
F46 122 <p_>All of this only reflected the fact that <quote_>"there is 
F46 123 throughout the world a growing, and not unreasonable, fear that 
F46 124 nuclear weapons are expanding at such a pace as to endanger human 
F46 125 life on this planet. ... The peoples of the world cry out for 
F46 126 statesmanship that will find a way to assure that this new force 
F46 127 shall serve humanity, not destroy it."<quote/> This responsibility 
F46 128 very largely fell to the United States, but meeting it would 
F46 129 require more than the "Atoms for Peace' or 'Open Skies' proposals 
F46 130 that had already been put forward. If the nation failed to meet 
F46 131 that responsibility, <quote_>"our moral leadership in the world 
F46 132 could be stolen from us by those whose creed denies moral 
F46 133 principles."<quote/><p/>
F46 134 <p_>The ultimate solution, Dulles suggested, would be to vest a 
F46 135 veto-less United Nations Security Council with control <quote_>"of 
F46 136 sufficient atomic weapons, and means of delivery, as to overbalance 
F46 137 any atomic or other weapons as might be surreptitiously retained by 
F46 138 any nation."<quote/> Prior to this, the United States might seek 
F46 139 commitments from nations possessing nuclear capabilities to use 
F46 140 them only in accordance with recommendations from the General 
F46 141 Assembly. Regional groups, too - NATO would be the model - could be 
F46 142 set up <quote_>"to study and plan the means whereby nuclear weapons 
F46 143 could most effectively be used to deter armed attack and to 
F46 144 preserve peace in each region."<quote/> The critical task would be 
F46 145 to get the United States away from its <quote_>"present vulnerable 
F46 146 position [of having] virtually the sole responsibility in the free 
F46 147 world with respect to the use of nuclear weapons, ... a 
F46 148 responsibility which is not governed by any clearly enunciated 
F46 149 principles reflecting 'decent respect for the opinions of 
F46 150 mankind'."<quote/><p/>
F46 151 <p_>Although nothing came of Dulles's sweeping proposals, he 
F46 152 continued throughout the rest of his term as Secretary of State to 
F46 153 reiterate with Eisenhower the concerns he had articulated. For 
F46 154 example, in December, 1956, in the immediate wake of the Suez and 
F46 155 Hungarian crises, Dulles warned that in his view <quote_>"a 
F46 156 'showdown' with Russia would not have more than one chance in three 
F46 157 of working, and two chances out of three of making global war 
F46 158 inevitable."<quote/> But the Russians too would have difficulty 
F46 159 translating nuclear strength into political advantage. In November, 
F46 160 1957, in connection with a discussion of Strategic Air Command 
F46 161 vulnerabilities, Dulles dismissed the possibility of a Soviet 
F46 162 surprise attack as <quote|>"remote" on the grounds that 
F46 163 <quote_>"such an attack without provocation involving casualties of 
F46 164 perhaps one hundred million would be so abhorrent to all who 
F46 165 survived in any part of the world that [he] did not think that even 
F46 166 the Soviet rulers would dare to accept the 
F46 167 consequences."<quote/><p/>
F46 168 <p_>In April, 1958, Dulles again raised with Eisenhower 
F46 169 <quote_>"the question of our national strategic concept."<quote/> 
F46 170 The difficulty was that <quote_>"this too much invoked massive 
F46 171 nuclear attack in the event of any clash anywhere of U.S. with 
F46 172 Soviet forces."<quote/> There were, Dulles argued, 
F46 173 <quote_>"increasing possibilities of effective defense through 
F46 174 tactical nuclear weapons and other means short of wholesale 
F46 175 obliteration of the Soviet Union, and ... these should be developed 
F46 176 more rapidly."<quote/> It was a vicious circle: <quote_>"so long as 
F46 177 the strategic concept contemplated this, our arsenal of weapons had 
F46 178 to be adapted primarily to that purpose and so long as our arsenal 
F46 179 of weapons was adequate only for that kind of a response, we were 
F46 180 compelled to rely on that kind of a response."<quote/> It was, of 
F46 181 course, the case that <quote_>"our deterrent power might be 
F46 182 somewhat weakened if it were known that we contemplated anything 
F46 183 less than 'massive retaliation' and therefore the matter had to be 
F46 184 handled with the greatest care."<quote/><p/>
F46 185 <p_>What this new evidence suggests, then, is that the traditional 
F46 186 view of Dulles as an uncritical enthusiast for strategies based 
F46 187 solely on nuclear deterrence is profoundly wrong; that, indeed, the 
F46 188 Secretary of State himself anticipated many of the criticisms 
F46 189 advocates of 'flexible response' would later make of such 
F46 190 strategies; and that he even contemplated, as a long-range goal and 
F46 191 on both geopolitical and moral grounds, the abolition of nuclear 
F46 192 weapons altogether.<p/>
F46 193 
F46 194 <h_><p_>International Communism<p/><h/>
F46 195 <p_>A second area where the documents suggest we need to revise our 
F46 196 thinking about John Foster Dulles has to do with his understanding 
F46 197 of international communism. In his first televised address as 
F46 198 Secretary of State only a week after the Eisenhower administration 
F46 199 took office, Dulles had dramatically unveiled a map showing the 
F46 200 <quote_>"vast area"<quote/> stretching from Central Europe to 
F46 201 Kamchatka and including China, <quote_>"which the Russian 
F46 202 Communists completely dominate."<quote/> In the few years since the 
F46 203 end of World War II, the number of people under their rule had 
F46 204 expanded from 200 to 800 million, <quote_>"and they're hard at work 
F46 205 to get control of other parts of the world."<quote/> The strategy 
F46 206 was one of <quote|>"encirclement": <quote_>"Soviet 
F46 207 communists"<quote/> would seek to avoid all-out war but would work 
F46 208 <quote_>"to get control of the different areas around them and 
F46 209 around us, so they will keep growing in strength and we will be 
F46 210 more and more cut off and isolated. And they have been making very 
F46 211 great progress."<quote/><p/>
F46 212 <p_>At first glance, the tone and content of this speech appear to 
F46 213 fit the widely held view of Dulles as an ideological literalist, 
F46 214 convinced - as were many other people at the time - that adherence 
F46 215 to the doctrines of Marx and Lenin automatically meant subservience 
F46 216 to Moscow.
F46 217 
F46 218 
F46 219 
F47   1 <#FROWN:F47\><p_>There were further adverse effects of the mergers 
F47   2 and acquisitions mania. These included the socially sterile rewards 
F47   3 received by those who traded with inside information on the offers 
F47   4 to be made for a specific stock. And there were the losses, in some 
F47   5 instances perhaps salutary, of those who were attracted by the 
F47   6 prospect of high return and who bought the securities, principally 
F47   7 the high-risk, high-interest junk bonds, that financed the 
F47   8 operations and that went eventually to discount or default as the 
F47   9 full consequences of the aberration became evident. From these 
F47  10 losses there was further effect on productive investment and, at 
F47  11 least marginally, on consumer spending and the functioning of the 
F47  12 economy as a whole. With all else, in the oldest tradition of 
F47  13 economic life, the mentally vulnerable, those at one time more 
F47  14 obtrusively denoted as fools, were separated, as so often before, 
F47  15 from their money.<p/>
F47  16 <p_>Yet all was wholly plausible, given the corporate structure and 
F47  17 the approved profit-maximizing motivation of the system. All, to 
F47  18 repeat, was under the benign cloak of laissez faire and the 
F47  19 market.<p/>
F47  20 <p_>Legislative or executive action to limit or minimize the 
F47  21 destruction - for example, holding hearings to require the approval 
F47  22 on economic grounds of the regulatory agency for any large-scale 
F47  23 substitution of debt for equity - went all but unmentioned. And 
F47  24 such mention would have been met, in any case, with rejection 
F47  25 verging on indignation and ridicule. The free enterprise system 
F47  26 fully embraces the right to inflict limitless damage on itself.<p/>
F47  27 <p_>The mergers and acquisitions mania was, without doubt, the most 
F47  28 striking exercise in self-destruction of the culture of 
F47  29 contentment. There have, however, been two other highly visible 
F47  30 manifestations of this deeply inborn tendency.<p/>
F47  31 <p_>The first of these was the real estate speculation of the 
F47  32 1980s, centering on commercial office space in the cities, but 
F47  33 extending out to expensive dwellings, in particular condominiums, 
F47  34 in the suburbs and resort areas and going on to architecturally 
F47  35 questionable skyscrapers in New York City and admittedly hideous 
F47  36 gambling casinos in Atlantic City.<p/>
F47  37 <p_>As ever, the admiration for the imagination, initiative and 
F47  38 entrepreneurship here displayed was extreme. Of those receiving the 
F47  39 most self- and public adulation, the premier figure was Donald 
F47  40 Trump, briefly and by his own effort and admission the most 
F47  41 prestigious economic figure of the time.<p/>
F47  42 <p_>The admiration extended to, and into, the nation's biggest 
F47  43 banks. Here the loans were large and potentially dangerous, and so, 
F47  44 in the nature and logic of modern banking, they were handled with 
F47  45 the least care and discretion. The security of the small borrower 
F47  46 is traditionally examined with relentless attention; the claims of 
F47  47 the large borrower go to the top, where, because of the enormous 
F47  48 amounts involved, there is an assumption of especially acute 
F47  49 intelligence. The man or woman who borrows $10,000 or $50,000 is 
F47  50 seen as a person of average intelligence to be dealt with 
F47  51 accordingly. The one who borrows a million or a hundred million is 
F47  52 endowed with a presumption of financial genius that provides 
F47  53 considerable protection from any unduly vigorous scrutiny. This 
F47  54 individual deals with the very senior officers of the bank or 
F47  55 financial institution; the prestige of high bureaucratic position 
F47  56 means that any lesser officer will be reluctant, perhaps fearing 
F47  57 personal career damage, to challenge the ultimate decision. In 
F47  58 plausible consequence, the worst errors in banking are regularly 
F47  59 made in the largest amount by the highest officials. So it was in 
F47  60 the great real estate boom of the age of contentment.<p/>
F47  61 <p_>Here the self-destructive nature of the system, if more 
F47  62 diffused than in the case of the mergers, acquisitions and 
F47  63 leveraged buyouts mania, was greater in eventual economic impact. 
F47  64 Excessive acreages of unused buildings, commercial and residential, 
F47  65 were created. The need for such construction, given the space 
F47  66 demands of the modern business bureaucracy, was believed to be 
F47  67 without limit. In later consequence, the solvency of numerous 
F47  68 banks, including that of some of the nation's largest and most 
F47  69 prestigious institutions, was either fatally impaired or placed in 
F47  70 doubt. The lending of both those that failed or were endangered and 
F47  71 others was subject, by fear and example, to curtailment. The 
F47  72 construction industry was severely constrained and its workers left 
F47  73 unemployed. A general recession ensued. Any early warning as to 
F47  74 what was happening would have been exceptionally ill received, seen 
F47  75 as yet another invasion of the benign rule of laissez faire and a 
F47  76 specific interference with the market.<p/>
F47  77 <p_>However, in keeping with the exceptions to this rule, there 
F47  78 could be eventual salvation in a government bailout of the banks. 
F47  79 Insurance of bank deposits - a far from slight contribution to 
F47  80 contentment - was permissible, as well as the assurance that were a 
F47  81 bank large enough, it would not be allowed to fail. A preventive 
F47  82 role by government was not allowed; eventual government rescue was 
F47  83 highly acceptable.<p/>
F47  84 <p_>Ranking with the real estate and banking aberration was the 
F47  85 best publicized of the exercises in financial devastation: the 
F47  86 collapse of the savings and loan associations, or, in common 
F47  87 parlance, the S&L scandal. This, which was allowed to develop in 
F47  88 the 1980s, had emerged by the end of that decade as the largest and 
F47  89 costliest venture in public misfeasance, malfeasance and larceny of 
F47  90 all time.<p/>
F47  91 <p_>Again the basic principle was impressively evident and pursued: 
F47  92 laissez faire combined with faith in the benignity of market 
F47  93 enterprise. The short-run view took precedence over the more 
F47  94 distant consequences. And there was an infinitely vast and 
F47  95 obligatory public intervention as those consequences became 
F47  96 known.<p/>
F47  97 <p_>Starting well back in the last century, the savings and loan 
F47  98 associations, under various names, played a small, worthy and 
F47  99 largely anonymous role in the American economy. Attracting for 
F47 100 deposit the savings of the local community, they then made these 
F47 101 available in the form of home loans to the immediately adjacent 
F47 102 citizenry. There was strict regulation by federal and state 
F47 103 governments as to the interest they could pay and charge and the 
F47 104 purpose for which they could make loans. Home ownership being a 
F47 105 well-established social good, the S&Ls were eventually given public 
F47 106 encouragement and support in the form of a modest government 
F47 107 guarantee of their depositors' funds.<p/>
F47 108 <p_>Then, with the age and culture of contentment, there came the 
F47 109 new overriding commitment to laissez faire and the market and the 
F47 110 resulting movement toward general deregulation. The commercial 
F47 111 banks, once released from regulation, greatly increased the 
F47 112 interest rates there available to depositors, which meant that if 
F47 113 the similarly deregulated S&Ls were to compete, they would need to 
F47 114 pay higher rates to <tf|>their depositors. Sadly, however, these 
F47 115 payments would have to be met by the low rates then in place on a 
F47 116 large and passive inventory of earlier mortgage loans. The highly 
F47 117 improvident solution was to accord the S&Ls freedom to set rates of 
F47 118 interest on the insured deposits and then to go beyond home loans 
F47 119 to the widest range of other investments, or what were 
F47 120 imaginatively so designated. Also, faithful to principle, 
F47 121 government action in the interest of contentment was not curtailed. 
F47 122 Instead, the once modest insurance of deposits by the federal 
F47 123 government was raised to $100,000 on each S&L account. The 
F47 124 selective view of the role of the state was never more evident.<p/>
F47 125 <p_>The foregoing changes were variously enacted or instituted 
F47 126 mainly in the early 1980s. They set the stage for what was by far 
F47 127 the most feckless and felonious disposition of what, essentially, 
F47 128 were public funds in the nation's history, perhaps in any modern 
F47 129 nation's history. Deposits guaranteed by the federal government and 
F47 130 thus having behind them the full faith and credit of the government 
F47 131 were brokered across the country to find the highest rate of 
F47 132 return. Such interest was, normally, offered by the institutions 
F47 133 most given to irresponsible or larcenous employment of the funds 
F47 134 involved. Efforts at correction or restraint, palpably small, were 
F47 135 deliberately restricted as being inconsistent with the broad 
F47 136 commitment to deregulation. Those still subject to the skeletal and 
F47 137 ineffective regulation took their case, not without success, to the 
F47 138 Congress. Funds from the publicly guaranteed deposits were thus 
F47 139 recycled back to support congressional races in an innovative, if 
F47 140 perverse, step toward the public financing of electoral 
F47 141 campaigns.<p/>
F47 142 <p_>In the latter years of the 1980s, the whole S&L experience came 
F47 143 explosively to an end in the first and, in many respects, most 
F47 144 dramatic exposure of the public principles implicit in the age of 
F47 145 contentment. The prospective cost, perhaps $2,000 for each American 
F47 146 citizen were it equally assessed, was regarded as impressive. Less 
F47 147 impressive, perhaps, was the understanding of what underlay the 
F47 148 debacle. Here, first of all, was the general commitment to laissez 
F47 149 faire, the specific commitment to the market, which had led to the 
F47 150 deregulation. But here too was the highly selective character of 
F47 151 that commitment. As far as the culture of contentment was 
F47 152 concerned, responsibility to find a solution for the shortfall 
F47 153 remained firmly with the state. The depositors, large and small - 
F47 154 the comfortable rentier community - were at risk; thus the 
F47 155 necessity for the continuing role of the government. The whole S&L 
F47 156 scandal was, to repeat, one of the clearest displays of the 
F47 157 controlling principles of contentment, and certainly it was the 
F47 158 most immediately costly.<p/>
F47 159 <h_><p_>The Bureaucratic Syndrome<p/>
F47 160 <p_>Thought for many is hard work, which is why it often commands 
F47 161 high pay. It also, alas, is compulsively delegated.<p/><h/>
F47 162 <p_>NO ONE should be in doubt: one of the inescapable features of 
F47 163 life in the late twentieth century is the great, complicated and 
F47 164 multilayered organization. With all else, it is the source of much 
F47 165 present<?_>-<?/>day innovation. The latter is no longer the 
F47 166 distinctive product of one acutely inspired brain, although this 
F47 167 source of invention is still celebrated; normally it is the result 
F47 168 of the cooperative effort of diversely competent specialists, each 
F47 169 making his or her uniquely qualified contribution to the common 
F47 170 goal. As economic and public operations become more complex, it is 
F47 171 necessary to unite varying skills, different experience, different 
F47 172 education, resulting specialization and different degrees of 
F47 173 intelligence, or, at a minimum, its confident outward 
F47 174 expression.<p/>
F47 175 <p/>Out of this need for both number and diversity of talents comes 
F47 176 the need for supervision, coordination and command. This, in turn, 
F47 177 and depending on the size and complexity of the job at hand, can 
F47 178 involve numerous levels of authority, or what is so described. 
F47 179 Further, since the requisite knowledge and intelligence derive in 
F47 180 large measure from those whose contributions are brought together 
F47 181 and coordinated, so in no slight measure does the power in the 
F47 182 organization. The modern corporation or public agency has an 
F47 183 internal intelligence and authority of its own; these are to some 
F47 184 extent independent of, or superior to, those of the persons who are 
F47 185 seen, and who see themselves, as in command. The latter point 
F47 186 should not go unremarked. The power attributed to the cabinet 
F47 187 secretary recently arrived in office with no previous experience in 
F47 188 his or her now-assigned task or to the corporate chief executive 
F47 189 officer now rewarded for an orderly and disciplined performance in 
F47 190 the ranks is subject to an exaggeration to which those so 
F47 191 celebrated happily and even diligently contribute.<p/>
F47 192 <p_>Not surprisingly, the culture of the great organization is 
F47 193 enormously influenced by the pursuit of contentment. This is 
F47 194 evident in two important ways, both proceeding from the discomforts 
F47 195 associated with original or dissenting thought. Also involved is a 
F47 196 deeply ingrained, much invoked distinction between private 
F47 197 organization and public organization - between the great private 
F47 198 bureaucracy and its large public counterpart. In the culture of 
F47 199 contentment the former is perceived as efficient and dynamic, while 
F47 200 the latter is thought to be mentally moribund, seriously 
F47 201 incompetent and, on frequent occasion, offensively arrogant.<p/>
F47 202 <p_>In any large organization there must, first of all, be a 
F47 203 well-developed sense of common purpose. This is informally, and 
F47 204 sometimes formally, articulated in the large modern firm as company 
F47 205 policy; in the public organization it is called official or 
F47 206 departmental policy. <quote_>"We are committed this year to big, if 
F47 207 somewhat less fuel-efficient cars; that is what the American 
F47 208 customer wants."<quote/> <quote_>"The Communist threat may no 
F47 209 longer exist, but our policy still calls for a strong 
F47 210 defense."<quote/><p/>
F47 211 <p_>Individual contentment, all are aware, is powerfully served by 
F47 212 acceptance of this formally stated or commonly assumed purpose.
F47 213 
F47 214 
F48   1 <#FROWN:F48\>To now permit the patenting of animals subjected to 
F48   2 genetic alteration, principally by means of genetic engineering, 
F48   3 could have several adverse consequences. From a scientific 
F48   4 perspective, these include the following concerns.<p/>
F48   5 <p_><tf|>1. <tf_>No regulation<tf/>. The floodgates will be opened 
F48   6 wide once genetic engineering research on animals is patent 
F48   7 protected, because biotech companies will have the protection they 
F48   8 need to secure a monopoly over new 'intellectual property' (i.e., 
F48   9 genetically engineered animals). This will mean a dramatic increase 
F48  10 in animal experimentation for agricultural, biomedical, and other 
F48  11 industrial purposes, which cannot be effectively regulated. The 
F48  12 outcome of many genetic experiments cannot be predicted in relation 
F48  13 to the animals' health and welfare or in relation to the long-term 
F48  14 social, economic, and environmental impact. In many instances 
F48  15 animals will be abnormal at birth, and generations will suffer 
F48  16 until techniques are perfected and accidents prevented.<p/>
F48  17 <p_><tf|>2. <tf|>Monopoly. Patenting could result in monopoly of 
F48  18 genetic stock and predominance of certain genetic lines of animals 
F48  19 over others, with an ultimate loss of genetic diversity within 
F48  20 species. This could have a significant impact on agriculture as 
F48  21 well as adverse social, economic, and ecological consequences. And 
F48  22 if farm animals are patented, will farmers have to pay a user fee 
F48  23 for offspring and crossbreeds, and how would this be enforced?<p/>
F48  24 <p_>Lynn McAnelly, a technology analyst with the Texas Department 
F48  25 of Agriculture, Austin, sent out over 1,700 letters to livestock 
F48  26 producers in Texas, asking them whether patenting animals would 
F48  27 increase or decrease their costs. Of about 500 responses, 96 
F48  28 percent predicted that costs would go up. The consensus was that 
F48  29 only patent holders and large agribusinesses would benefit. It was 
F48  30 also felt that animal patenting would provide increased opportunity 
F48  31 for large corporations and syndicates to gain control of the 
F48  32 industry and that any cost advantages of patented animals would 
F48  33 wind up in the pockets of big agribusiness. As a result of the 
F48  34 survey, Texas Agriculture Commissioner Jim Hightower asked the 
F48  35 Texas congressional delegation in Washington to support a 
F48  36 patent-moratorium bill.<p/>
F48  37 <p_><tf|>3. <tf_>Effect on wildlife<tf/>. Patenting would also 
F48  38 cloud the ownership of wild animals. In the United States, wildlife 
F48  39 is held by governments, both state and federal, as a common public 
F48  40 trust. If a deer is altered genetically, can it be patented? Will 
F48  41 people be disenfranchised of ownership of their wild animals? 
F48  42 America's wildlife is far too precious to get caught or lost in a 
F48  43 discussion about patenting and ownership. The American people own 
F48  44 wildlife, to the extent that anyone does, and patenting would mean 
F48  45 a very real threat to such ownership.<p/>
F48  46 <p_>The biomedical industry will play upon public fear to block all 
F48  47 attempts to prohibit the patenting of animals. It will tell us that 
F48  48 the march of modern medicine will stop dead in its tracks without 
F48  49 patent protection. The fact remains that medical advances have been 
F48  50 made in the past without the patenting of genetic engineering 
F48  51 techniques and of animal models. And we should recognize that 
F48  52 patenting in this area could actually inhibit medical progress 
F48  53 since, for proprietary reasons, research findings of privately 
F48  54 funded laboratories and university research institutions would not 
F48  55 be shared. There would also be considerable unnecessary and costly 
F48  56 duplication of research, because the patenting of animal models 
F48  57 would encourage a competitive, rather than a collaborative, 
F48  58 research atmosphere, to the ultimate detriment of the public's best 
F48  59 interests.<p/>
F48  60 <h_><p_>Patent Ethics<p/><h/>
F48  61 <p_>From an ethical perspective, the patenting of animals reflects 
F48  62 a cultural attitude toward other living creatures that is contrary 
F48  63 to the concept of the sanctity of being and the recognition of the 
F48  64 interconnectedness of all life. The patenting of life reveals a 
F48  65 dominionistic and materialistic attitude toward living beings that 
F48  66 denies any recognition of their inherent nature.<p/>
F48  67 <p_>Left unopposed, the patenting of animals will mean the public 
F48  68 endorsement of the wholesale exploitation of the animal kingdom for 
F48  69 purely human ends. Since humans are also animals, then logically 
F48  70 there should be no legal constraints on the patenting of techniques 
F48  71 to genetically alter human beings for the benefit of society. But 
F48  72 there are ethical constraints (as well as the Thirteenth Amendment 
F48  73 to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits the ownership of one 
F48  74 person by another) that protect the sanctity and dignity of human 
F48  75 life. To permit the patenting of animals will effectively eliminate 
F48  76 ethical constraints on genetically altering other animals, and 
F48  77 eventually humans, for the purported benefit of society. Such a 
F48  78 utilitarian attitude toward life is a reflection of the ethical 
F48  79 blindness of the times.<p/>
F48  80 <p_>Supporters of animal patenting have argued that if the 
F48  81 patenting of animals is prohibited, companies engaged in the 
F48  82 genetic engineering of animals will fall back on trade secrecy to 
F48  83 protect their investments in research and development. The Trade 
F48  84 Secrecy Act, they reason, would make it difficult for those 
F48  85 concerned about animal welfare to know what had been done to 
F48  86 genetically engineered animals. If patenting were approved, all 
F48  87 details would be available to the public in the patent application. 
F48  88 In reality, however, public access to such information would be of 
F48  89 little help in protecting animals' rights and welfare. With or 
F48  90 without the patenting of animals, the genetic engineering of 
F48  91 animals is being done. And by the time a patent application is 
F48  92 filed, all the research on the animals has already been completed. 
F48  93 Thus rigorous ethical guidelines concerning the welfare of animals 
F48  94 subjected to genetic engineering are needed before the onset of new 
F48  95 research projects. Knowing what has happened to them after a patent 
F48  96 has been granted is of little avail.<p/>
F48  97 <p_>It should also be remembered that the U.S. Patent and Trademark 
F48  98 Office does not, as a rule, consider the ethical, moral, and social 
F48  99 consequences of patent applications. The essentially amoral and 
F48 100 objective role of this governmental agency is dramatically 
F48 101 illustrated by the granting of patent number 4,666,425 to attorney 
F48 102 and engineer Chet Fleming for his 'discorporation' life-support 
F48 103 system. This system, which Mr. Fleming has never actually used, is 
F48 104 designed to keep the isolated head of an animal alive. This patent 
F48 105 application was apparently filed to provoke greater concern for the 
F48 106 future of new technologies and for their moral, ethical, and social 
F48 107 consequences, which Mr. Fleming requested the Patent Office to 
F48 108 consider in his application. But apparently, it did not. The office 
F48 109 granted him a patent without further question.<p/>
F48 110 <p_>The primary reason for the patenting of genetically engineered 
F48 111 animals is to protect private interests, and opposition to animal 
F48 112 patenting is clearly a threat to the biotechnology industry. Animal 
F48 113 patenting is an issue quite distinct from genetic engineering per 
F48 114 se. It is an issue that is linked with private interests and 
F48 115 monopoly on the one hand, and the public endorsement of animals as 
F48 116 patentable commodities and inventions on the other. As such, the 
F48 117 patenting of animals is an ethical issue, supported primarily by 
F48 118 economic concerns and an attitude toward nonhuman creatures that is 
F48 119 contrary to the mainstream cultural traditions of reverence for 
F48 120 life and respect for animals and the natural world. Patent 
F48 121 protection will do nothing to protect the rights and welfare of 
F48 122 animals and will serve to further undermine those cultural 
F48 123 traditions that opponents of animal patenting value so highly.<p/>
F48 124 <h_><p_>Chronology of Animal Patenting<p/><h/>
F48 125 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 7 April, 1987, the U.S. Patent Office 
F48 126 interpreted patent law to allow for future patents on animals 
F48 127 changed or altered through genetic engineering or similar 
F48 128 techniques. Relying on the Supreme Court decision in <tf_>Diamond 
F48 129 v. Chakrabarty<tf/>, 447 U.S. 303 (1980), which held that 
F48 130 microorganisms could be patented, the Patent Office determined that 
F48 131 such genetically altered animals were nonnaturally occurring 
F48 132 'manufactures' and 'compositions of matter' and thus could be 
F48 133 included under section 101 of the Patent Act as patentable subject 
F48 134 matter.<p/>
F48 135 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>The Supreme Court decision made no mention of 
F48 136 animals, and Congress has never approved the patenting of living 
F48 137 things except for certain specified plants in legislation passed in 
F48 138 1930 and in 1970.<p/>
F48 139 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 17 April, the Humane Society of the United 
F48 140 States (HSUS), the Foundation on Economic Trends, and a coalition 
F48 141 of animal-welfare organizations representing five million people 
F48 142 petitioned the Patent Office to rescind its controversial decision. 
F48 143 The coalition included 11 national farm groups, 24 religious 
F48 144 leaders, 21 animal-welfare organizations, and 8 environmental and 
F48 145 public interest groups. It was concerned about long-term ethical, 
F48 146 animal-suffering, environmental, economic, and governmental 
F48 147 consequences of the patenting of animals.<p/>
F48 148 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>In 1987, the Senate passed a Hatfield (R-Ore.) 
F48 149 amendment to the continuing resolution, which would have 
F48 150 temporarily blocked patenting. But the amendment was dropped in 
F48 151 conference when Commissioner Donald Quigg stated that the Patent 
F48 152 Office would not be able to act on animal patent applications 
F48 153 before the end of the fiscal year on 30 September 1987. Patent 
F48 154 Office officials later stated that they might be able to issue 
F48 155 patents as soon as 1 April 1988.<p/>
F48 156 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Chairman Robert Kastenmeier (D-Wis.) of the House 
F48 157 Judiciary Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the 
F48 158 Administration of Justice held a series of four hearings on the 
F48 159 issue. No further action was taken. John Hoyt, president of the 
F48 160 HSUS, testified on 11 June, 1987, stating that patenting is 
F48 161 <quote_>"inappropriate, violates the basic ethical precepts of 
F48 162 civilized society and unleashes the potential for uncontrollable 
F48 163 and unjustified animal suffering."<quote/><p/>
F48 164 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 5 August 1987, Rep. Charlie Rose (D-N.C.) 
F48 165 introduced H.R. 3119 to impose a moratorium on the patenting of 
F48 166 animals so that the potential adverse implications of such 
F48 167 patenting could be carefully studied. The HSUS and others wrote to 
F48 168 Rose pledging to conduct studies during the moratorium period. On 
F48 169 29 February, 1988, Sen. Mark Hatfield introduced a moratorium bill, 
F48 170 S. 2111, in the Senate.<p/>
F48 171 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 13 April 1988, the U.S. Patent Office issued 
F48 172 the first patent on a genetically engineered animal. Harvard 
F48 173 University researchers had developed the 'oncomouse,' a genetically 
F48 174 engineered, cancer<?_>-<?/>prone mouse. Funding for this research 
F48 175 came from DuPont Chemical Co., one of the world's major producers 
F48 176 of carcinogenic chemicals.<p/>
F48 177 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Rep. Kastenmeier drafted legislation to make 
F48 178 patent-user exemptions for family farmers and scientists in order 
F48 179 to quell some of the increasing public opposition. Meanwhile, steps 
F48 180 were taken in Europe by the European Economic Community to change 
F48 181 existing laws that prohibited the patenting of selectively bred 
F48 182 plant and animal varieties so that all genetically engineered life 
F48 183 forms might be patented.<p/>
F48 184 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 13 July 1988, under pressure from the State 
F48 185 Department of Commerce, which insisted that a moratorium on animal 
F48 186 patenting would harm U.S. industrial competitiveness, Rep. 
F48 187 Kastenmeier's subcommittee voted 8 to 6 against Rep. Rose's 
F48 188 moratorium. This established the United States as the first nation 
F48 189 to officially endorse the patenting of all life forms subjected to 
F48 190 genetic engineering.<p/>
F48 191 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>On 2 August 1988, the House Judiciary Committee 
F48 192 approved Rep. Kastenmeier's legislation on animal patenting, which 
F48 193 would have exempted farmers from paying royalties on the offspring 
F48 194 of patented transgenic animals. According to opponents in the 
F48 195 biotech industry this would have removed many economic incentives 
F48 196 for developing genetically engineered animals. Supporters of the 
F48 197 exemption saw it as vital to the survival of family farms. (It 
F48 198 never became law, most likely as a result of pressure from the 
F48 199 inner circle that is now the Council on Competitiveness.)<p/>
F48 200 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Since the patenting of the oncomouse in the 
F48 201 United States there have been no further animal patents awarded.<p/>
F48 202 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>Some 145 animal patent applications are now 
F48 203 awaiting approval at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 
F48 204 Approximately 80 percent of these have medical utility, and the 
F48 205 remainder involve agricultural animals.<p/>
F48 206 <p_><*_>bullet<*/>A new bill was introduced in the Senate (S. 1291) 
F48 207 by Sen. Hatfield on 13 June, 1991 to impose a five-year moratorium 
F48 208 on the granting of patents on invertebrate and vertebrate animals, 
F48 209 including those that have been genetically engineered. I supported 
F48 210 this bill with the following statement published in the 
F48 211 <tf_>Congressional Record<tf/> on that day (pp. 7818-7819).<p/>
F48 212 <p_><quote_>In order for society to reap the full benefits of 
F48 213 advances in genetic engineering biotechnology, the social, 
F48 214 economic, environmental, and ethical ramifications and consequences 
F48 215 of such advances need to be fully assessed. Considering the rapid 
F48 216 pace of developments in this field, which will be spurred on by the 
F48 217 granting of patents on genetically altered animals, a 5-year 
F48 218 moratorium on the granting of such patents is a wise and necessary 
F48 219 decision. A moratorium will enable Congress to fully assess, 
F48 220 consider, and respond to the economic, environmental, and ethical 
F48 221 issues raised by the patenting of such animals and in the process, 
F48 222 establish the United States as the world leader in the safe, 
F48 223 appropriate, and ethical applications of genetic engineering 
F48 224 biotechnology for the benefit of society and for generations to 
F48 225 come.<quote/><p/>
