G01 0010 NORTHERN liberals are the chief supporters of civil rights G01 0020 and of integration. They have also led the nation in the direction G01 0030 of a welfare state. And both in their objectives of non-discrimination G01 0040 and of social progress they have had ranged against them the Southerners G01 0050 who are called Bourbons. The name presumably derives from the G01 0060 French royal house which never learned and never forgot; since Bourbon G01 0070 whiskey, though of Kentucky origin, is at least as much favored G01 0080 by liberals in the North as by conservatives in the South. The G01 0090 nature of the opposition between liberals and Bourbons is too little G01 0100 understood in the North. The race problem has tended to obscure other, G01 0110 less emotional, issues which may fundamentally be even more divisive. G01 0120 It is these other differences between North and South- other, G01 0130 that is, than those which concern discrimination or social welfare- G01 0140 which I chiefly discuss herein. I write about Northern liberals G01 0150 from considerable personal experience. A Southerner married to G01 0160 a New Englander, I have lived for many years in a Connecticut commuting G01 0170 town with a high percentage of artists, writers, publicity men, G01 0180 and business executives of egghead tastes. Most of them are Democrats G01 0190 and nearly all consider themselves, and are viewed as, liberals. This G01 0200 is puzzling to an outsider conscious of the classic tradition of G01 0210 liberalism, because it is clear that these Democrats who are left-of-center G01 0220 are at opposite poles from the liberal Jefferson, who held that G01 0230 the best government was the least government. Yet paradoxically my G01 0240 liberal G01 0250 friends continue to view Jefferson as one of their patron saints. G01 0260 When I question them as to what they mean by concepts like liberty and G01 0270 democracy, I find that they fall into two categories: the simpler G01 0280 ones who have simply accepted the shibboleths of their faith without G01 0290 analysis; and the intelligent, cynical ones who scornfully reply that G01 0300 these things don't count any more in the world of to-day. I am naive, G01 0310 they say, to make use of such words. I take this to mean G01 0320 that the intelligent- and therefore necessarily cynical?- liberal G01 0330 considers that the need for a national economy with controls that will G01 0340 assure his conception of social justice is so great that individual G01 0350 and local liberties as well as democratic processes may have to yield G01 0360 before it. This seems like an attitude favoring a sort of totalitarian G01 0370 bureaucracy which, under a President of the same stamp, would try G01 0380 to coerce an uncooperative Congress or Supreme Court. As for states' G01 0390 rights, they have never counted in the thinking of my liberal friends G01 0400 except as irritations of a minor and immoral nature which exist G01 0410 now only as anachronisms. The American liberal may, in the world G01 0420 of to-day, have a strong case; but he presents it publicly so enmeshed G01 0430 in hypocrisy that it is not an honest one. Why, in the first place, G01 0440 call himself a liberal if he is against and favors G01 0450 an authoritarian central government with womb-to-tomb controls over G01 0460 everybody? If he attaches little importance to personal liberty, G01 0470 why not make this known to the world? And if he is so scornful of G01 0480 the rights of states, why not advocate a different sort of constitution G01 0490 that he could more sincerely support? I am concerned here, G01 0500 however, with the Northern liberal's attitude toward the South. It G01 0510 appears to be one of intense dislike, which he makes little effort G01 0520 to conceal even in the presence of Southern friends. His assumption G01 0530 seems to be that any such friends, being tolerable humans, must be more G01 0540 liberal than most Southerners and therefore at least partly in sympathy G01 0550 with his views. editor, Thomas Griffith, in his book, G01 0560 , wrote: "**h most of what was G01 0570 different about it (the Deep South) I found myself unsympathetic to G01 0580 **h". This, for the liberals I know, would be an understatement. G01 0590 Theirs is no mere lack of sympathy, but something closer to the passionate G01 0600 hatred that was directed against Fascism. I do not think G01 0610 that my experience would be typical for Southerners living in the G01 0620 North. In business circles, usually conservative, this sort of atmosphere G01 0630 would hardly be found. But in our case- and neither my wife nor G01 0640 I have extreme views on integration, nor are we given to emotional G01 0650 outbursts- the situation has ruined one or two valued friendships and G01 0660 come close to wrecking several more. In fact it has caused us to give G01 0670 serious thought to moving our residence south, because it is not easy G01 0680 for the most objective Southerner to sit calmly by when his host G01 0690 is telling a roomful of people that the only way to deal with Southerners G01 0700 who oppose integration is to send in troops and shoot the bastards G01 0710 down. Accounts have been published of Northern liberals in G01 0720 the South up against segregationist prejudice, especially in state-supported G01 0730 universities where pressure may be strong to uphold the majority G01 0740 view. But these accounts do not show that Northerners have been subjected G01 0750 to embarrassment or provocation by Yankee-hatred displayed in G01 0760 social gatherings. From my wife's experience and other sources, this G01 0770 seems to be rarely encountered in educated circles. The strong feeling G01 0780 is certainly there; but there is a leavening of liberalism among G01 0790 college graduates throughout the South, especially among those who G01 0800 studied in the North. And social relations arising out of business G01 0810 ties impose courtesy, if not sympathy, toward resident and visiting Northerners. G01 0820 Also, among the latter a large percentage soon acquire the G01 0830 prevalent Southern attitude on most social problems. There G01 0840 are of course many Souths; but for this discussion the most important G01 0850 division is between those who have been reconstructed and those who G01 0860 haven't. My definition of this much abused adjective is that a reconstructed G01 0870 rebel is one who is glad that the North won the War. Nobody G01 0880 knows how many Southerners there are in this category. I suspect G01 0890 that there are far more unreconstructed ones than the North likes to G01 0900 believe. I never heard of a poll being taken on the question. No doubt G01 0910 such a thing would be considered unpatriotic. Prior to 1954 I imagine G01 0920 that a majority of Southerners would have voted against the Confederacy. G01 0930 Since the Supreme Court's decision of that year this is G01 0940 more doubtful; and if a poll had been taken immediately following G01 0950 the dispatch of troops to Little Rock I believe the majority would G01 0960 have been for the Old South. Belief in the traditional way of G01 0970 life persists much more in the older states than in the new ones. Probably G01 0980 a larger percentage of Virginians and South Carolinians remain G01 0990 unreconstructed than elsewhere, with Georgia, North Carolina, and G01 1000 Alabama following along after them. Old attitudes are held more tenaciously G01 1010 in the Tidewater than the Piedmont; so that a line running G01 1020 down the length of the South marking the upper limits of tidewater G01 1030 would roughly divide the Old South from the new, but with, of course, G01 1040 important minority enclaves. The long-settled areas of states G01 1050 like Virginia and South Carolina developed the ante-bellum culture G01 1060 to its richest flowering, and there the memory is more precious, and G01 1070 the consciousness of loss the greater. Also, we should not even to-day G01 1080 discount the fact that a region such as the coastal lowlands centering G01 1090 on Charleston had closer ties with England and the West Indies G01 1100 than with the North even after independence. The social and psychological G01 1110 consequences of this continue to affect the area. In certain G01 1120 respects defeat increased the persistent Anglophilia of the Old South. G01 1130 Poor where they had once been rich, humbled where they had been G01 1140 arrogant, having no longer any hope of sharing in the leadership of the G01 1150 nation, the rebels who would not surrender in spirit drew comfort from G01 1160 the sympathy they felt extended to them by the mother country. And G01 1170 no doubt many people in states like the Carolinas and Georgia, which G01 1180 were among the most Tory in sentiment in the eighteenth century, bitterly G01 1190 regretted the revolt against the Crown. Among Bourbons G01 1200 the racial issue may have less to do with their remaining unreconstructed G01 1210 than other factors. All Southerners agree that slavery had to G01 1220 go; but many historians maintain that except for Northern meddling G01 1230 it would have ended in states like Virginia years before it did. Southern G01 1240 resentment has been over the method of its ending, the invasion, G01 1250 and Reconstruction; their fears now are of miscegenation and Negro G01 1260 political control in many counties. But apart from racial problems, G01 1270 the old unreconstructed South- to use the moderate words favored by G01 1280 Mr& Thomas Griffith- finds itself unsympathetic to most of what G01 1290 is different about the civilization of the North. And this, in effect, G01 1300 means most of modern America. It is hard to see how the G01 1310 situation could be otherwise. And therein, I feel, many Northerners G01 1320 delude themselves about the South. For one thing, this is not a subject G01 1330 often discussed or analyzed. There seems to be almost a conspiracy G01 1340 of silence veiling it. I suppose the reason is a kind of wishful G01 1350 thinking: don't talk about the final stages of Reconstruction and G01 1360 they will take care of themselves. Or else the North really believes G01 1370 that all Southerners except a few quaint old characters have come G01 1380 around to realizing the errors of their past, and are now at heart sharers G01 1390 of the American Dream, like everybody else. If the circumstances G01 1400 are faced frankly it is not reasonable to expect this to be G01 1410 true. The situation of the South since 1865 has been unique in the western G01 1420 world. Regardless of rights and wrongs, a population and an area G01 1430 appropriate to a pre-World-War-/1, great power have been, following G01 1435 conquest, G01 1440 ruled against their will by a neighboring people, and have had G01 1450 imposed upon them social and economic controls they dislike. And the G01 1460 great majority of these people are of Anglo-Saxon or Celtic descent. G01 1470 This is the only case in modern history of a people of Britannic G01 1480 origin submitting without continued struggle to what they view as foreign G01 1490 domination. The fact is due mainly to international wars, both hot G01 1500 and cold. In every war of the United States since the Civil War G01 1510 the South was more belligerent than the rest of the country. So instead G01 1520 of being tests of the South's loyalty, the Spanish War, the G01 1530 two World Wars, and the Korean War all served to overcome old grievances G01 1540 and cement reunion. And there is no section of the nation more G01 1550 ardent than the South in the cold war against Communism. Had the G01 1560 situation been reversed, had, for instance, England been the enemy in G01 1570 1898 because of issues of concern chiefly to New England, there is G01 1580 little doubt that large numbers of Southerners would have happily put G01 1590 on their old Confederate uniforms to fight as allies of Britain. It G01 1600 is extraordinary that a people as proud and warlike as Southerners G01 1610 should have been as docile as they have. The North should thank its G01 1620 stars that such has been the case; but at the same time it should not G01 1630 draw false inferences therefrom. The two main charges levelled G01 1640 against the Bourbons by liberals is that they are racists and social G01 1650 reactionaries. There is much truth in both these charges, and not G01 1660 many Bourbons deny them. Whatever their faults, they are not hypocrites. G01 1670 Most of them sincerely believe that the Anglo-Saxon is the best G01 1680 race in the world and that it should remain pure. Many Northeners G01 1690 believe this, too, but few of them will say so publicly. The Bourbon G01 1700 economic philosophy, moreover, is not very different from that of Northern G01 1710 conservatives. But those among the Bourbons who remain unreconstructed G01 1720 go much further than this. They believe that if the South G01 1730 had been let alone it would have produced a civilization superior to that G01 1740 of modern America. As it is, they consider that the North is now G01 1750 reaping the fruits of excess egalitarianism, that in spite of its high G01 1760 standard of living the "American way" has been proved inferior G01 1770 to the English and Scandinavian ways, although they disapprove of the G01 1780 socialistic features of the latter. The South's antipathy G01 1790 to Northern civilization includes such charges as poor manners, harsh G01 1800 accents, lack of appreciation of the arts of living like gastronomy G01 1810 and the use of leisure. Their own easier, slower tempo is especially G01 1820 dear to Southerners; and I have heard many say that they are content G01 1830 to earn a half or a third as much as they could up North because G01 1840 they so much prefer the quieter habits of their home town. G02 0010 In the past, the duties of the state, as Sir Henry Maine noted G02 0020 long ago, were only two in number: internal order and external security. G02 0030 By prevailing over other claimants for the loyalties of men, G02 0040 the nation-state maintained an adequate measure of certainty and order G02 0050 within its territorial borders. Outside those limits it asserted, as G02 0060 against other states, a position of sovereign equality, and, as against G02 0070 the "inferior" peoples of the non-Western world, a position of G02 0080 dominance. It became the sole "subject" of "international law" G02 0090 (a term which, it is pertinent to remember, was coined by Bentham), G02 0100 a body of legal principle which by and large was made up of what Western G02 0110 nations could do in the world arena. (That corpus of law was a G02 0120 reflection of the power system in existence during the eighteenth and G02 0130 nineteenth centuries. Speaking generally, it furthered- and still G02 0140 tends to further- the interests of the Western powers. The enormous G02 0150 changes in world politics have, however, thrown it into confusion, so G02 0160 much so that it is safe to say that all international law is now in G02 0170 need of reexamination and clarification in light of the social conditions G02 0180 of the present era.) Beyond the two basic tasks mentioned G02 0190 above, no attention was paid by statesman or scholar to an idea of state G02 0200 responsibility, either internally or externally. This was particularly G02 0210 true in the world arena, which was an anarchical battleground characterized G02 0220 by strife and avaricious competition for colonial empires. G02 0230 That any sort of duty was owed by his nation to other nations would have G02 0240 astonished a nineteenth-century statesman. His duty was to his sovereign G02 0250 and to his nation, and an extension to peoples beyond the territorial G02 0260 boundaries was not to be contemplated. Thus, to cite but one G02 0270 example, the of the nineteenth century, whether with G02 0280 the British navy ruling the seas or with the City of London ruling G02 0290 world finance, was strictly national in motivation, however much other G02 0300 nations (e&g&, the United States) may have incidentally benefited. G02 0310 At the same time, all suggestions that some sort of societal G02 0320 responsibility existed for the welfare of the people within the territorial G02 0330 state was strongly resisted. Social Darwinism was able to stave G02 0340 off the incipient socialist movement until well into the present century. G02 0350 However, in recent decades, for what doubtless are multiple G02 0360 reasons, an unannounced but nonetheless readily observable shift has G02 0370 occurred in both facets of national activity. A concept of responsibility G02 0380 is in process of articulation and establishment. Already firmly G02 0390 implanted internally, it is a growing factor in external matters. G02 0400 ## A little more than twenty years ago the American people turned G02 0410 an important corner. In what has aptly been called a "constitutional G02 0420 revolution", the basic nature of government was transformed from G02 0430 one essentially negative in nature (the "night-watchman state") to G02 0440 one with affirmative duties to perform. The "positive state" came G02 0450 into existence. For lawyers, reflecting perhaps their parochial preferences, G02 0460 there has been a special fascination since then in the role G02 0470 played by the Supreme Court in that transformation- the manner in G02 0480 which its decisions altered in "the switch in time that saved nine", G02 0490 President Roosevelt's ill-starred but in effect victorious "Court-packing G02 0500 plan", the imprimatur of judicial approval that was G02 0510 finally placed upon social legislation. Of greater importance, however, G02 0520 is the content of those programs, which have had and are having enormous G02 0530 consequences for the American people. Labor relations have been G02 0540 transformed, income security has become a standardized feature of political G02 0550 platforms, and all the many facets of the American version of G02 0560 the welfare state have become part of the conventional wisdom. A national G02 0570 consensus of near unanimity exists that these governmental efforts G02 0580 are desirable as well as necessary. Ratified in the Republican Party G02 0590 victory in 1952, the Positive State is now evidenced by political G02 0600 campaigns being waged not on but on social G02 0610 legislation there should be. The general acceptance of the idea G02 0620 of governmental (i&e&, societal) responsibility for the economic G02 0630 well-being of the American people is surely one of the two most significant G02 0640 watersheds in American constitutional history. The other, of G02 0650 course, was the Civil War, the conflict which a century ago insured G02 0660 national unity over fragmentation. A third, one of at least equal and G02 0670 perhaps even greater importance, is now being traversed: American G02 0680 immersion and involvement in world affairs. Internal national G02 0690 responsibility, now a truism, need not be documented. Nevertheless, G02 0700 it may be helpful to cite one example- that of employment- for, as G02 0710 will be shown below, it cuts across both facets of the new concept. Thirty G02 0720 years ago, while the nation was wallowing in economic depression, G02 0730 the prevailing philosophy of government was to stand aside and allow G02 0740 "natural forces" to operate and cure the distress. That guiding G02 0750 principle of the Hoover Administration fell to the siege guns of the G02 0760 New Deal; less than a score of years later Congress enacted the G02 0770 Employment Act of 1946, by which the national government assumed the G02 0780 responsibility of taking action to insure conditions of maximum employment. G02 0790 Hands-off the economy was replaced by conscious guidance through G02 0800 planning- the economic side of the constitutional revolution. In G02 0810 1961 the first important legislative victory of the Kennedy Administration G02 0820 came when the principle of responsibility for G02 0830 economic distress won out over a "state's-responsibility" G02 0840 proposal- provision was made for payment for unemployment relief G02 0850 by nation-wide taxation rather than by a levy only on those states afflicted G02 0860 with manpower surplus. The American people have indeed come G02 0870 a long way in the brief interval between 1930 and 1961. Internal G02 0880 national responsibility is a societal response to the impact of the G02 0890 Industrial Revolution. Reduced to its simplest terms, it is an assumption G02 0900 of a collective duty to compensate for the inability of individuals G02 0910 to cope with the rigors of the era. National responsibility for G02 0920 individual welfare is a concept not limited to the United States or G02 0930 even to the Western nations. A measure of its widespread acceptance G02 0940 may be derived from a statement of the International Congress of Jurists G02 0950 in 1959. Meeting in New Delhi under the auspices of the International G02 0960 Commission of Jurists, a body of lawyers from the free world, G02 0970 the Congress redefined and expanded the traditional Rule of Law G02 0980 to include affirmative governmental duties. It is noteworthy that G02 0990 the majority of the delegates to the Congress were from the less developed, G02 1000 former colonial nations. The Rule of Law, historically a principle G02 1010 according everyone his "day in court" before an impartial tribunal, G02 1020 was broadened substantively by making it a responsibility of G02 1030 government to promote individual welfare. Recognizing that the Rule G02 1040 of Law is "a dynamic concept **h which should be employed not only G02 1050 to safeguard the civil and political rights of the individual in a free G02 1060 society", the Congress asserted that it also included the responsibility G02 1070 "to establish social, economic, educational and cultural conditions G02 1080 under which his legitimate aspirations and dignity may be realized". G02 1090 The idea of national responsibility thus has become a common G02 1100 feature of the nations of the non-Soviet world. For better or for worse, G02 1110 we all now live in welfare states, the organizing principle of which G02 1120 is collective responsibility for individual well-being. Whether G02 1130 a concept analogous to the principle of internal responsibility G02 1140 operates in a nation's external relations is less obvious and more G02 1150 difficult to establish. The hypothesis ventured here is that it does, G02 1160 and that evidence is accumulating validating that proposition. The content G02 1170 is not the same, however: rather than individual security, it G02 1180 is the security and continuing existence of an "ideological group"- G02 1190 those in the "free world"- that is basic. External national G02 1200 responsibility involves a burgeoning requirement that the leaders of G02 1210 the Western nations so guide their decisions as to further the viability G02 1220 of other friendly nations. If internal responsibility suggests acceptance G02 1230 of the socialist ideal of equality, then external responsibility G02 1240 implies adherence to principles of ideological supranationalism. G02 1250 Reference to two other concepts- nationalism and sovereignty- G02 1260 may help to reveal the contours of the new principle. In its beginnings G02 1270 the nation-state had to struggle to assert itself- internally, G02 1280 against feudal groups, and externally, against the power and influence G02 1290 of such other claimants for loyalty as the Church. The breakup of G02 1300 the Holy Roman Empire and the downfall of feudalism led, not more G02 1310 than two centuries ago, to the surge of nationalism. (Since the time-span G02 1320 of the nation-state coincides roughly with the separate existence G02 1330 of the United States as an independent entity, it is perhaps natural G02 1340 for Americans to think of the nation as representative of the highest G02 1350 form of order, something permanent and unchanging.) The concept of G02 1360 nationalism is the political principle that epitomizes and glorifies G02 1370 the territorial state as the characteristic type of socal structure. But G02 1380 it is more than that. For it includes the emotional ties that bind G02 1390 men to their homeland and the complex motivations that hold a large G02 1400 group of people together as a unit. Today, as new nations rise from G02 1410 the former colonial empires, nationalism is one of the hurricane forces G02 1420 loose in the world. Almost febrile in intensity, the principle has G02 1430 become worldwide in application- unfortunately at the very time that G02 1440 nationalist fervors can wreak greatest harm. Historically, however, G02 1450 the concept is one that has been of marked benefit to the people of the G02 1460 Western civilizational group. By subduing disparate lesser groups G02 1470 the nation has, to some degree at least, broadened the capacity for individual G02 1480 liberty. Within their confines, moreover, technological and G02 1490 industrial growth has proceeded at an accelerated pace, thus increasing G02 1500 the cornucopia from which material wants can be satisfied. While the G02 1510 pattern is uneven, some having gained more than others, nationalism G02 1520 has in fact served the Western peoples well. (Whether historical nationalism G02 1530 helped the peoples of the remainder of the world, and whether G02 1540 today's nationalism in the former colonial areas has equally beneficial G02 1550 aspects, are other questions.) It is one of the ironic quirks G02 1560 of history that the viability and usefulness of nationalism and the G02 1570 territorial state are rapidly dissipating at precisely the time that G02 1580 the nation-state attained its highest number (approximately 100). But G02 1590 it is more than irony: one of the main reasons why nationalism is G02 1600 no longer a tenable concept is it has spread throughout the G02 1610 planet. In other words, nationalism worked well enough when it had G02 1620 limited application, both as to geography and as to population; it G02 1630 becomes a perilous anachronism when adopted on a world-wide basis. G02 1640 Complementing the political principle of nationalism is the legal G02 1650 principle of sovereignty. The former receives its legitimacy from the G02 1660 latter. Operating side by side, together they helped shore up the nation-state. G02 1670 While sovereignty has roots in antiquity, in its present G02 1680 usage it is essentially modern. Jean Bodin, writing in the sixteenth G02 1690 century, may have been the seminal thinker, but it was the vastly influential G02 1700 John Austin who set out the main lines of the concept as now G02 1710 understood. Austin's nineteenth-century view of law and sovereignty G02 1720 still dominates much of today's legal and political thinking. To G02 1730 him, law is the command of the sovereign (the English monarch) who G02 1740 personifies the power of the nation, while sovereignty is the power to G02 1750 make law- i&e&, to prevail over internal groups and to be free G02 1760 from the commands of other sovereigns in other nations. These fundamental G02 1770 ideas- the indivisibility of sovereignty and its dual (internal-external) G02 1780 aspects- still remain the core of that concept of ultimate G02 1790 political power. The nation-state, then, exemplifies the principle G02 1800 of nationalism and exercises sovereignty: supreme power over G02 1810 domestic affairs and independence from outside control. In fact, however, G02 1820 both principles have always been nebulous and loosely defined. High-level G02 1830 abstractions are always difficult to pin down with precision. G02 1840 That is particularly true of sovereignty when it is applied to democratic G02 1850 societies, in which "popular" sovereignty is said to exist, G02 1860 and in federal nations, in which the jobs of government are split. Nevertheless, G02 1870 nationalism and sovereignty are reputed, in the accepted G02 1880 wisdom, to describe the modern world. Is there a different reality behind G02 1890 the facade? Does the surface hide a quite different picture? G02 1900 The short answer to those questions is "yes". Both concepts G02 1910 are undergoing alteration; to some degree they are being supplanted G02 1920 by a concept of national responsibility. As evidence to support G02 1930 that view, consider the following illustrative instances. G03 0010 Can thermonuclear war be set off by accident? What steps have been G03 0020 taken to guard against the one sort of mishap that could trigger the G03 0030 destruction of continents? Are we as safe as we should be from such G03 0040 a disaster? Is anything being done to increase our margin of safety? G03 0050 Will the danger increase or decrease? I have just asked G03 0060 these questions in the Pentagon, in the White House, in offices of G03 0070 key scientists across the country and aboard the submarines that prowl G03 0080 for months underwater, with neat rows of green launch tubes which contain G03 0090 Polaris missiles and which are affectionately known as "Sherwood G03 0100 Forest". I asked the same questions inside the launch-control G03 0110 rooms of an Atlas missile base in Wyoming, where officers who wear G03 0120 sidearms are manning the "commit buttons" that could start a war- G03 0130 accidentally or by design- and in the command centers where other G03 0140 pistol-packing men could give orders to push such buttons. To G03 0150 the men in the instrument-jammed bomber cockpits, submarine compartments G03 0160 and the antiseptic, windowless rooms that would be the foxholes of G03 0170 tomorrow's impersonal intercontinental wars, the questions seem farfetched. G03 0180 There is unceasing pressure, but its sources are immediate. G03 0190 "Readiness exercises" are almost continuous. Each could be the real G03 0200 thing. In the command centers there are special clocks ready G03 0210 to tick off the minutes elapsed since "~E hour". "~E" G03 0220 stands for "execution"- the moment a "go order" would unleash G03 0230 an American nuclear strike. There is little time for the men in the G03 0240 command centers to reflect about the implications of these clocks. G03 0250 They are preoccupied riding herd on control panels, switches, flashing G03 0260 colored lights on pale green or gray consoles that look like business G03 0270 machines. They know little about their machinery beyond mechanical G03 0280 details. Accidental war is so sensitive a subject that most of the people G03 0290 who could become directly involved in one are told just enough so G03 0300 they can perform their portions of incredibly complex tasks. Among G03 0310 the policy makers, generals, physicists, psychologists and others G03 0320 charged with controlling the actions of the button pushers and their G03 0330 "hardware", the answers to my questions varied partly according to G03 0340 a man's flair for what the professionals in this field call "scenarios". G03 0350 As an Air Force psychiatrist put it: "You can't have G03 0360 dry runs on this one". The experts are thus forced to hypothesize G03 0370 sequences of events that have never occurred, probably never will- G03 0380 but possibly might. Only one rule prevailed in my conversations with G03 0390 these men: The more highly placed they are- that is, the more they G03 0400 know- the more concerned they have become. Already accidental G03 0410 war is a silent guest at the discussions within the Kennedy Administration G03 0420 about the urgency of disarmament and nearly all other questions G03 0430 of national security. Only recently new "holes" were G03 0440 discovered in our safety measures, and a search is now on for more. Work G03 0450 is under way to see whether new restraining devices should be installed G03 0460 on all nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, the experts speak of G03 0470 wars triggered by "false pre-emption", "escalation", "unauthorized G03 0480 behavior" and other terms that will be discussed in this report. G03 0490 They inhabit a secret world centered on "go codes" and "gold G03 0500 phones". Their conversations were, almost invariably, accompanied G03 0510 by the same gestures- arms and pointed forefingers darting toward G03 0520 each other in arclike semicircular motions. One arm represented our bombers G03 0530 and missiles, the other arm "theirs". Yet implicit in each G03 0540 movement was the death of millions, perhaps hundreds of millions, perhaps G03 0550 you and me- and the experts. These men are not callous. G03 0560 It is their job to think about the unthinkable. Unanimously they believe G03 0570 that the world would become a safer place if more of us- and more G03 0580 Russians and Communist Chinese, too- thought about accidental G03 0590 war. The first systematic thinking about this Pandora's box G03 0600 within Pandora's boxes was done four years ago by Fred Ikle, a G03 0610 frail, meek-mannered Swiss-born sociologist. He was, and is, with the G03 0620 ~RAND Corporation, a nonprofit pool of thinkers financed by the G03 0630 U& S& Air Force. His investigations made him the Paul Revere G03 0640 of accidental war, and safety procedures were enormously increased. G03 0660 In recent weeks, as a result of a sweeping defense policy reappraisal G03 0670 by the Kennedy Administration, basic United States strategy G03 0680 has been modified- and large new sums allocated- to meet the accidental-war G03 0690 danger and to reduce it as quickly as possible. The G03 0700 chain starts at ~BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning G03 0710 System) in Thule, Greenland. Its radar screens would register Soviet G03 0720 missiles shortly after they are launched against the United States. G03 0730 ~BMEWS intelligence is simultaneously flashed to ~NORAD G03 0740 (North American Air Defense Command) in Colorado Springs, G03 0750 Colorado, for interpretation; to the ~SAC command and control G03 0760 post, forty-five feet below the ground at Offutt Air Force Base, near G03 0770 Omaha, Nebraska; to the Joint War Room of the Joint Chiefs G03 0780 of Staff in the Pentagon and to the President. Telephones, G03 0790 Teletypes, several kinds of radio systems and, in some cases, television, G03 0800 link all vital points. Alternate locations exist for all key command G03 0810 centers. For last-ditch emergencies ~SAC has alternate command G03 0820 posts on ~KC-135 jet tankers. Multiple circuits, routings and G03 0830 frequencies make the chain as unbreakable as possible. The G03 0840 same principle of "redundancy" applies to all communications on these G03 0850 special networks. And no messages can be transmitted on these circuits G03 0860 until senders and receivers authenticate in advance, by special G03 0870 codes, G03 0880 that the messages actually come from their purported sources. Additional G03 0890 codes can be used to challenge and counterchallenge the authentications. G03 0900 Only the President is permitted to authorize the G03 0910 use of nuclear weapons. That's the law. But what if somebody decides G03 0920 to break it? The President cannot personally remove the safety G03 0930 devices from every nuclear trigger. He makes the momentous decision. G03 0940 Hundreds of men are required to pass the word to the button pushers G03 0950 and to push the buttons. What if one or more of them turn irrational G03 0960 or suddenly, coolly, decide to clobber the Russians? What if the President G03 0970 himself, in the language of the military, "goes ape"? G03 0980 Or singlehandedly decided to reverse national policy and hit the Soviets G03 0990 without provocation? Nobody can be absolutely certain of G03 1000 the answers. However, the system is designed, ingeniously and hopefully, G03 1010 so that no one man could initiate a thermonuclear war. Even G03 1020 the President cannot pick up his telephone and give a "go" order. G03 1030 Even he does not know the one signal for a nuclear strike- the G03 1040 "go code". In an emergency he would receive available intelligence G03 1050 on the "gold-phone circuit". A system of "gold"- actually G03 1060 yellow- phones connects him with the offices and action stations of G03 1070 the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the ~SAC G03 1080 commander and other key men. All can be connected with the gold circuit G03 1090 from their homes. All could help the President make his decision. G03 1100 The talk would not be in code, but neither would it ramble. Vital G03 1110 questions would be quickly answered according to a preprepared agenda. G03 1120 Officers who participate in the continual practice drills assured G03 1130 me that the President's decision could be made and announced on the G03 1140 gold circuit within minutes after the first flash from ~BMEWS. G03 1150 If communications work, his decision would be instantly known G03 1160 in all command posts that would originate the actual go order. For G03 1170 these centers, too, are on the gold circuit. They include the Navy's G03 1180 Atlantic Command at Norfolk, Virginia, which is in contact with G03 1190 the Polaris subs; ~NATO headquarters in Europe; Air Force G03 1200 forward headquarters in Europe and in the Pacific, which control G03 1210 tactical fighters on ships and land bases; and ~SAC, which controls G03 1220 long-range bombers and Atlas missiles. Let us look in on G03 1230 one of these nerve centers- ~SAC at Omaha- and see what must G03 1250 still happen before a wing of ~B-52 bombers could drop their ~H-bombs. G03 1260 In a word, plenty. The key man almost certainly would G03 1270 be Col& William W& Wisman, ~SAC's senior controller. He G03 1280 or his deputy or one of their seven assistants, all full colonels, G03 1290 mans the heart of the command post twenty-four hours a day. It is a quiet G03 1300 but impressive room- 140 feet long, thirty-nine feet wide, twenty-one G03 1310 feet high. Movable panels of floor-to-ceiling maps and charts G03 1320 are crammed with intelligence information. And Bill Wisman, forty-three, G03 1330 a farmer's son from Beallsville, Ohio, is a quiet but impressive G03 1340 man. His eyes are steady anchors of the deepest brown. His movements G03 1350 and speech are precise, clear and quick. No question ruffles him G03 1360 or causes him to hesitate. Wisman, who has had the chief controller's G03 1370 job for four years, calls the signals for a team operating G03 1380 three rows of dull-gray consoles studded with lights, switches and buttons. G03 1390 At least a dozen men, some armed, are never far away from him. G03 1400 In front of him is a gold phone. In emergencies the ~SAC commander, G03 1410 Gen& Thomas Power, or his deputies and their staff would occupy G03 1420 a balcony that stretches across the length of the room above Wisman G03 1430 and his staff. At General Power's seat in the balcony there is G03 1440 also a gold phone. General Power would participate in the decision G03 1450 making. Wisman, below, would listen in and act. His consoles can give G03 1460 him instant contact with more than seventy bases around the world and G03 1470 with every ~SAC aircraft. He need only pick up one of G03 1480 the two red telephone receivers at his extreme left, right next to the G03 1490 big red button marked ALERT. (There are two receivers in case G03 1500 one should be dropped and damaged.) But Wisman, too, does not G03 1510 know the go code. He must take it from "the red box". In point G03 1520 of fact, this is a beige box with a bright red door, about one and a half G03 1530 feet square and hung from the wall about six feet from the door to G03 1540 Wisman's right. The box is internally wired so the door can never G03 1550 be opened without setting off a screeching klaxon ("It's real obnoxious"). G03 1560 Now we must become vague, for we are approaching G03 1570 one of the nation's most guarded secrets. The codes in the red box- G03 1580 there are several of them covering various contingencies- are contained G03 1590 in a sealed ~X-ray-proof "unique device". They are supplied, G03 1600 a batch at a time, by a secret source and are continually changed G03 1610 by Wisman or his staff, at random intervals. But even the contents G03 1620 of Wisman's box cannot start a war. They are mere fragments, G03 1630 just one portion of preprepared messages. What these fragments are G03 1640 and how they activate the go order may not be revealed. The pieces must G03 1650 be placed in the context of the prepared messages by Wisman's staff. G03 1660 In addition to the authentication and acknowledgment procedures G03 1670 which precede and follow the sending of the go messages, again in special G03 1680 codes, each message also contains an "internal authenticator", G03 1690 another specific signal to convince the recipient that he is getting G03 1700 the real thing. I asked Wisman what would happen if he broke G03 1710 out the go codes and tried to start transmitting one. "I'd wind G03 1720 up full of .38 bullet holes", he said, and there was no question that G03 1730 he was talking about bullets fired by his coworkers. Now let G03 1740 us imagine a wing of ~B-52's, on alert near their "positive control G03 1750 (or fail-safe) points", the spots on the map, many miles from G03 1760 Soviet territory, beyond which they are forbidden to fly without specific G03 1770 orders to proceed to their targets. They, too, have fragments of G03 1780 the go code with them. As Wisman put it, "They have separate pieces G03 1790 of the pie, and we have the whole pie. Once we send out the whole G03 1800 pie, they can put their pieces into it. Unless we send out the whole G03 1810 pie, their pieces mean nothing". Why does Wisman's ever-changing G03 1820 code always mesh with the fragments in possession of the button pushers? G03 1830 The answer is a cryptographic secret. At any rate, three G03 1840 men out of a six-man ~B-52 crew are required to copy down Wisman's G03 1850 go-to-war message. Each must match Wisman's "pie" with the G03 1860 fragment that he carries with him. All three must compare notes and agree G03 1870 to "go". ## After that, it requires several minutes of concentrated G03 1880 work, including six separate and deliberate actions by a minimum G03 1890 of three men sitting at three separate stations in a bomber, each G03 1900 with another man beside him to help, for an armed bomb to be released. G03 1910 Unless all gadgets are properly operated- and the wires and seals G03 1920 from the handles removed first- no damage can be done. G04 0010 Suddenly, however, their posture changed and the game ended. They G04 0020 went as rigid as black statuary **h six figures, lean and tall and G04 0030 angular, went still. Their heads were in the air sniffing. They all G04 0040 swung at the same instant in the same direction. They saw it before G04 0050 I did, even with my binoculars. It was nothing more than a tiny distant G04 0060 rain squall, a dull gray sheet which reached from a layer of clouds G04 0070 to the earth. In the 360 degrees of horizon it obscured only a degree, G04 0080 no more. A white man would not have seen it. The aborigines fastened G04 0090 upon it with a concentration beyond pathos. Watching, they waited G04 0100 until the squall thickened and began to move in a long drifting slant G04 0110 across the dry burning land. At once the whole band set off at a lope. G04 0120 They were chasing a rain cloud. They went after the squall G04 0130 as mercilessly as a wolf pack after an abandoned cow. I followed them G04 0140 in the jeep and now they did not care. The games were over, this G04 0150 was life. Occasionally, for no reason that I could see, they would suddenly G04 0160 alter the angle of their trot. Sometimes I guessed it was because G04 0170 the rain squall had changed direction. Sometimes it was to skirt G04 0180 a gulley. Their gait is impossible to convey in words. It has nothing G04 0190 of the proud stride of the trained runner about it, it is not a lope, G04 0200 it is not done with style or verve. It is the gait of the human who G04 0210 must run to live: arms dangling, legs barely swinging over the ground, G04 0220 head hung down and only occasionally swinging up to see the target, G04 0230 a loose motion that is just short of stumbling and yet is wonderfully G04 0240 graceful. It is a barely controlled skimming of the ground. G04 0250 They ran for three hours. Finally, avoiding hummocks and seeking low G04 0260 ground, they intercepted the rain squall. For ten minutes they ran G04 0270 beneath the squall, raising their arms and, for the first time, shouting G04 0280 and capering. Then the wind died and the rain squall held steady. G04 0290 They were studying the ground. Suddenly one of them shouted, ran a G04 0300 few feet, bent forward and put his mouth to the ground. He had found G04 0310 a depression with rain water in it. He bent down, a black cranelike figure, G04 0320 and put his mouth to the ground. With a lordly and generous G04 0325 gesture, G04 0330 the discoverer stood up and beckoned to the closest of his fellows. The G04 0340 other trotted over and swooped at the tiny puddle. In an instant G04 0350 he had sucked it dry. The aborigine lives on the cruelest land G04 0360 I have ever seen. Which does not mean that it is ugly. Part of it G04 0370 is, of course. There are thousands of square miles of salt pan which G04 0380 are hideous. They are huge areas which have been swept by winds for so G04 0390 many centuries that there is no soil left, but only deep bare ridges G04 0400 fifty or sixty yards apart with ravines between them thirty or forty G04 0410 feet deep and the only thing that moves is a scuttling layer of sand. G04 0420 Such stretches have an inhuman moonlike quality. But much of the land G04 0430 which the aborigine wanders as if it should be hospitable. G04 0440 It is softened by the saltbush and the bluebush, has a peaceful quality, G04 0450 the hills roll softly. The malignancy of such a landscape G04 0460 has been beautifully described by the Australian Charles Bean. He G04 0470 tells of three men who started out on a trip across a single paddock, G04 0480 a ten-by-ten-mile square owned by a sheep grazer. They went well-equipped G04 0490 with everything except knowledge of the "outback" country. " G04 0500 The countryside looked like a beautiful open park with gentle G04 0510 slopes and soft gray tree-clumps. Nothing appalling or horrible rushed G04 0520 upon these men. Only there happened- nothing. There might have G04 0530 been a pool of cool water behind any of these tree-clumps: only- G04 0540 there was not. It might have rained, any time; only- it did not. G04 0550 There might have been a fence or a house just over the next rise; G04 0560 only- there was not. They lay, with the birds hopping from branch G04 0570 to branch above them and the bright sky peeping down at them. No one G04 0580 came". The white men died. And countless others like them have G04 0590 died. Even today range riders will come upon mummified bodies of G04 0600 men who attempted nothing more difficult than a twenty-mile hike and slowly G04 0610 lost direction, were tortured by the heat, driven mad by the constant G04 0620 and unfulfilled promise of the landscape, and who finally died. G04 0630 The aborigine is not deceived; he knows that the land is hard G04 0640 and pitiless. He knows that the economy of life in the "outback" G04 0650 is awful. There is no room for error or waste. Any organism that falters G04 0660 or misperceives the signals or weakens is done. I do not know G04 0670 if such a way of life can come to be a self-conscious challenge, but G04 0680 I suspect that it can. Perhaps this is what gives the aborigine his G04 0690 odd air of dignity. #THE FAMILY AT THE BOULDER# SEEING an aborigine G04 0700 today is a difficult thing. Many of them have drifted into the G04 0710 cities and towns and seaports. Others are confined to vast reservations, G04 0720 and not only does the Australian government justifiably not wish G04 0730 them to be viewed as exhibits in a zoo, but on their reservations they G04 0740 are extremely fugitive, shunning camps, coming together only for G04 0750 at which their strange culture comes to its highest pitch- G04 0760 which is very low indeed. I persuaded an Australian friend G04 0770 who had lived "outback" for years to take me to see some aborigines G04 0780 living in the bush. It was a difficult and ambiguous kind of negotiation, G04 0790 even though the rancher was said to be expert in his knowledge G04 0800 of the aborigines and their language. Finally, however, the arrangements G04 0810 were made and we drove out into the bush in a Land Rover. We G04 0820 followed the asphalt road for a few miles and then swung off onto a G04 0830 smaller road which was nothing more than two tire marks on the earth. G04 0840 The rancher went a mile down this road and then, when he reached a big G04 0850 red boulder, swung off the road. At once he started to glance toward G04 0860 the instrument panel. It took me a moment to realize what was odd G04 0870 about that panel: there was a gimbaled compass welded to it, which rocked G04 0880 gently back and forth as the Land Rover bounced about. The rancher G04 0890 was navigating his way across the flatland. "Do you always G04 0900 navigate like this"? I asked. "Damned right", he G04 0910 said. "Once I get out on the flat I do. Some chaps that know an G04 0920 area well can make their way by landmarks **h a tree here, a wash here, G04 0930 a boulder there. But if you don't know the place like the palm of G04 0940 your hand, you'd better use a compass and the speedometer. Two miles G04 0950 northeast, then five miles southwest **h that sort of thing. Very G04 0960 simple". He was right. The landscape kept repeating itself. G04 0970 I would try to memorize landmarks and saw in a half-hour that it was G04 0980 hopeless. Finally we approached the bivouac of the aborigines. They G04 0990 were camped beside a large column-shaped boulder: a man, his lubra, G04 1000 and two children. The sun was not yet high and all of them were in G04 1010 the small area G04 1020 of shade cast by the boulder. There was also a dog, G04 1030 a dingo dog. Its ribs showed, it was a yellow nondescript color, G04 1040 it suffered from a variety of sores, hair had scabbed off its body in G04 1050 patches. It lay with its head on its paws and only its eyes moving, G04 1060 watching us carefully. It struck me as a very bright and very malnourished G04 1070 dog. No one patted the dog. It was not a pet. It was a worker. G04 1080 "The buggers love shade", the rancher said. "I suppose G04 1090 because it saves them some loss of body water. They'll move around G04 1100 that rock all day, following the shade. During the hottest part of G04 1110 the day, of course, the sun comes straight down and there isn't any G04 1120 shade". We drove close to the boulder, stopped the Land Rover, G04 1130 and walked over toward the family. The man was leaning against G04 1140 the rock. He gazed away from us as we approached. He was over G04 1150 six feet tall and very thin. His legs were narrow and very long. Every G04 1160 bone and muscle in his body showed, but he did not give the appearance G04 1170 of starving. He had long black hair and a wispy beard. The ridges G04 1180 over his eyes were huge and his eyelids were half shut. There was something G04 1190 about his face that disturbed me and it took several seconds G04 1200 to realize what. It was not merely that flies were crawling over his G04 1210 face but his narrowed eyelids did not blink when the flies crawled into G04 1220 his eye sockets. A fly would crawl down the bulging forehead, into G04 1230 the socket of the eye, walk along the man's lashes and across the wet G04 1240 surface of the eyeball, and the eye did not blink. The Australian G04 1250 and I both were wearing insect repellent and were not badly bothered G04 1260 by insects, but my eyes watered as we stood watching the aborigine. G04 1270 I turned to look at the lubra. She remained squatting on her heels G04 1280 all the time we were there; like the man, she was entirely naked. G04 1290 Her long thin arms moved in a slow rhythmical gesture over the family G04 1300 possessions which were placed in front of her. There were two rubbing G04 1310 sticks for making fire, two stones shaped roughly like knives, a woven-root G04 1320 container which held a few pounds of dried worms and the dead G04 1330 body of some rodent. There was also a long wooden spear and a woomera, G04 1340 a spear-throwing device which gives the spear an enormous velocity G04 1350 and high accuracy. There was also a boomerang, elaborately carved. Everything G04 1360 was burnished with sweat and grease so that all of the objects G04 1370 seemed to have been carved from the same material and to be ageless. G04 1380 The two children, both boys, wandered around the Australian G04 1390 and me for a few moments and then returned to their work. They squatted G04 1400 on their heels with their heads bent far forward, their eyes only G04 1410 a few inches from the ground. They had located the runway of a colony G04 1420 of ants and as the ants came out of the ground, the boys picked them G04 1430 up, one at a time, and pinched them dead. The tiny bodies, dropped onto G04 1440 a dry leaf, made a pile as big as a small apple. The odor G04 1450 here was more powerful than that which surrounded the town aborigines. G04 1460 The smell at first was more surprising than unpleasant. It was also G04 1470 subtly familiar, for it was the odor of the human body, but multiplied G04 1480 innumerable times because of the fact that the aborigines never bathed. G04 1490 One's impulse is to say that the smell was a stink and unpleasant. G04 1500 But that is a cliche and a dishonest one. The smell is sexual, but G04 1510 so powerfully so that a civilized nose must deny it. Their G04 1520 skin was covered with a thin coating of sweat and dirt which had almost G04 1530 the consistency of a second skin. They roll at night in ashes to keep G04 1540 warm and their second skin has a light dusty cast to it. In spots G04 1550 such as the elbows and knees the second skin is worn off and I realized G04 1560 the aborigines were much darker than they appeared; as if the coating G04 1570 of sweat, dirt, and ashes were a cosmetic. The boys had beautiful G04 1580 dark eyes and unlike their father they brushed constantly at the flies G04 1590 and blinked their eyes. "That smell is something, eh, mate"? G04 1600 the Australian asked. "They swear that every person smells G04 1610 different and every family smells different from every other. At the G04 1620 when they get to dancing and sweating, you'll see G04 1630 them rubbing up against a man who's supposed to have a specially good G04 1640 smell. Idje, here", and he nodded at the man, "is said to have G04 1650 great odor. The stink is all the same to me, but I really think they G04 1660 can make one another out blindfolded". "Here, Idje, you G04 1670 fella like tabac"? he said sharply. Idje still stared over our shoulders G04 1680 at the horizon. The Australian stopped trying to talk a pidgin G04 1690 I could understand, and spoke strange words from deep in his chest. G05 0010 It was a fortunate time in which to build, for the seventeenth G05 0020 century was a great period in Persian art. The architects, the tile G05 0030 and carpet makers, the potters, painters, calligraphers, and metalsmiths G05 0040 worked through Abbas's reign and those of his successors to enrich G05 0050 the city. Travelers entering from the desert were confounded by G05 0060 what must have seemed an illusion: a great garden filled with nightingales G05 0070 and roses, cut by canals and terraced promenades, studded with G05 0080 water tanks of turquoise tile in which were reflected the glistening G05 0090 blue curves of a hundred domes. At the heart of all of this was the square, G05 0100 which one such traveler declared to be "as spacious, as pleasant G05 0110 and aromatick a Market as any in the Universe". In time Isfahan G05 0120 came to be known as "half the world", Isfahan . G05 0130 In the early eighteenth century this fantastic city, then the G05 0140 size of London, started to decline. The Afghans invaded; the Safavids G05 0150 fell from power; the capital went elsewhere; the desert encroached. G05 0160 Isfahan became more of a legend than a place, and now it is G05 0170 for many people simply a name to which they attach their notions of G05 0180 old Persia and sometimes of the East. They think of it as a kind of G05 0190 spooky museum in which they may half see and half imagine the old splendor. G05 0200 Those who actually get there find that it isn't spooky G05 0210 at all but as brilliant as a tile in sunlight. But even for them it G05 0220 remains a museum, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say a tomb, G05 0230 a tomb in which Persia lies well preserved but indeed dead. Everyone G05 0240 is ready to grant the Persians their history, but almost no one is G05 0250 willing to acknowledge their present. It seems that for Persia, and G05 0260 especially for this city, there are only two times: the glorious past G05 0270 and the corrupt, depressing, sterile present. The one apparent connection G05 0280 between the two is a score of buildings which somehow or other G05 0290 have survived and which naturally enough are called "historical monuments". G05 0300 However, just as all the buildings have not fallen and G05 0310 flowed back to their original mud, so the values which wanted them G05 0320 and saw that they were built have not all disappeared. The values and G05 0330 talents which made the tile and the dome, the rug, the poem and the miniature, G05 0340 continue in certain social institutions which rise above the G05 0350 ordinary life of this city, as the great buildings rise above blank walls G05 0360 and dirty lanes. Often, too, the social institutions are housed G05 0370 in these pavilions and palaces and bridges, for these great structures G05 0380 are not simply "historical monuments"; they are the places where G05 0390 Persians live. The promenade, for example, continues to take G05 0400 place on the Chahar Bagh, a mile-long garden of plane and poplar trees G05 0410 that now serves as the city's principal street. ?t takes place G05 0420 as well along the terraces and through the arcades of the Khaju bridge, G05 0430 and also in the gardens of the square. On Fridays, the day when G05 0440 many Persians relax with poetry, talk, and a samovar, people do not, G05 0450 it is true, stream into Chehel Sotun- a pavilion and garden built G05 0460 by Shah Abbas /2, in the seventeenth century- but they do retire G05 0470 into hundreds of pavilions throughout the city and up the river valley, G05 0480 which are smaller, more humble copies of the former. And of course G05 0490 religious life continues to center in the more famous mosques, and commercial G05 0500 life- very much a social institution- in the bazaar. Those G05 0510 three other great activities of the Persians, the bath, the teahouse, G05 0520 and the (the latter a kind of club in which a leader G05 0530 and a group of men in an octagonal pit move through a rite of calisthenics, G05 0540 dance, chanted poetry, and music), do not take place in buildings G05 0550 to which entrance tickets are sold, but some of them occupy splendid G05 0560 examples of Persian domestic architecture: long, domed, chalk-white G05 0570 rooms with daises of turquoise tile, their end walls cut through G05 0580 to the orchards and the sky by open arches. But more important, G05 0590 and the thing which the casual traveler and the blind sojourner often G05 0600 do not see, is that these places and activities are often the settings G05 0610 in which Persians exercise their extraordinary aesthetic sensibilities. G05 0620 Water, air, fruit, poetry, music, the human form- these things G05 0630 are important to Persians, and they experience them with an intense G05 0640 and discriminating awareness. I should like, by the way, to make G05 0650 it clear that I am not using the word "Persians" carelessly. G05 0660 I don't mean a few aesthetes who play about with sensations, like G05 0670 a young prince in a miniature dabbling his hand in a pool. These things G05 0680 are important to almost all Persians and perhaps most important to G05 0690 the most ordinary. The men crying love poems in an orchard on any summer's G05 0700 night are as often as not the mustachioed toughs G05 0710 who spend most of their lives in and out of the local prisons, brothels, G05 0720 and teahouses. A few months ago it was a fairly typical landlord G05 0730 who in the dead of night lugged me up a mountainside to drink from a spring G05 0740 famous in the neighborhood for its clarity and flavor. Not long G05 0750 ago an acquaintance, a slick-headed water rat of a lad up from the maw G05 0760 of the city, stood on the balcony puffing his first cigarette in weeks. G05 0770 The air, he said, was just right; a cigarette would taste particularly G05 0780 good. I really didn't know what he meant. It was a nice day, G05 0790 granted. But knew; he sniffed the air and licked it on his G05 0800 lip and knew as a vintner knows a vintage. The natural world G05 0810 then, plus poetry and some kinds of art, receives from the most ordinary G05 0820 of Persians a great deal of attention. The line of an eyebrow, G05 0830 the color of the skin, a ghazal from Hafiz, the purity of spring water, G05 0840 the long afternoon among the boughs which crowd the upper story of G05 0850 a pavilion- these things are noticed, judged, and valued. Nowhere G05 0860 in Isfahan is this rich aesthetic life of the Persians shown so G05 0870 well as during the promenade at the Khaju bridge. There has probably G05 0880 always been a bridge of some sort at the southeastern corner of the G05 0890 city. For one thing, there is a natural belt of rock across the river G05 0900 bed; for another, it was here that one of the old caravan routes came G05 0910 in. It was to provide a safe and spacious crossing for these caravans, G05 0920 and also to make a pleasance for the city, that Shah Abbas /2, G05 0930 in about 1657 built, of sun-baked brick, tile, and stone, the present G05 0940 bridge. It is a splendid structure. From upstream it looks like a G05 0950 long arcaded box laid across the river; from downstream, where the G05 0960 water level is much lower, it is a high, elaborately facaded pavilion. G05 0970 The top story contains more than thirty alcoves separated from G05 0980 each other by spandrels of blue and yellow tile. At either end and G05 0990 in the center there are bays which contain nine greater alcoves as frescoed G05 1000 and capacious as church apses. Here, in the old days- when they G05 1010 had come to see the moon or displays of fireworks- sat the king and G05 1020 his court while priests, soldiers, and other members of the party lounged G05 1030 in the smaller alcoves between. Below, twenty vaults tunnel G05 1040 through the understructure of the bridge. These are traversed by G05 1050 another line of vaults, and thus rooms, arched on all four sides, are G05 1060 formed. Down through the axis of the bridge there is a long diminishing G05 1070 vista like a visual echo of piers and arches, while the vaults fronting G05 1080 upstream and down frame the sunset and sunrise, the mountains and G05 1090 river pools. Here, on the hottest day, it is cool beneath the stone G05 1100 and fresh from the water flowing in the sluices at the bottom of the G05 1110 vaults. On the downstream, or "pavilion", side these vaults G05 1120 give out onto terraces twice as wide as the bridge itself. From the G05 1130 terraces- eighteen in all- broad flights of steps descend into the G05 1140 water or onto still more terraces barely above the level of the river. G05 1150 Out of water, brick, and tile they have made far more than just a G05 1160 bridge. On spring and summer evenings people leave their shops G05 1170 and houses and walk up through the lanes of the city to the bridge. It G05 1180 is a great spectacle. The bridge itself rises up from the river, light-flared G05 1190 and enormous, like the outdoor set for an epic opera. Crowds G05 1200 press along the terraces, down the steps, in and out of the arcades, G05 1210 massing against it as though it were a fortress under siege. All kinds G05 1220 come to walk in the promenade: merchants from the bazaar bickering G05 1230 over a deal; a Bakhtiari khan in a cap and hacking jacket; dervishes G05 1240 who stand with the stillness of the blind, their eyes filmed with G05 1250 rheum and visions; the old Kajar princes arriving in their ancient G05 1260 limousines; students, civil servants, beggars, musicians, hawkers, G05 1270 and clowns. Families go out to the edge of the terraces to sit on G05 1280 carpets around a samovar. Below, people line the steps, as though on G05 1290 bleachers, to watch the sky and river. Above, in the tiled prosceniums G05 1300 of the alcoves, boys sing the ghazals of Hafiz and Saadi, while at G05 1310 the very bottom, in the vaults, the toughs and blades of the city hoot G05 1320 and bang their drums, drink arak, play dice, and dance. Here G05 1330 in an evening Persians enjoy many of the things which are important G05 1340 to them: poetry, water, the moon, a beautiful face. To a stranger G05 1350 their delight in these things may seem paradoxical, for Persians chase G05 1360 the golden calf as much as any people. Many of them, moreover, are G05 1370 beginning to complain about the scarcity of Western amusements and to G05 1380 ridicule the old life of the bazaar merchant, the mullah, and the peasant. G05 1390 Nonetheless, they take time out- much time- from the game of G05 1400 grab and these new Western experiments to go to the gardens and riverbanks. G05 1410 Above all, they will stop in the middle of anything, anywhere, G05 1420 to hear or quote some poetry. Poetry in Persian life is far G05 1430 more than a common ground on which- in a society deeply fissured by G05 1440 antagonisms- all may stand. It contains, in fact, their whole outlook G05 1450 on life. And it is expressed, at least to their taste, in a perfect G05 1460 form. Poetry for a Persian is nothing less than truth and beauty. G05 1470 In most Western cultures today these twins have been sent away to the G05 1480 libraries and museums. In Persia, where practically speaking there G05 1490 are no museums or libraries or, for that matter, hardly any books, the G05 1500 twins run free. It is perhaps difficult to conceive, but imagine G05 1510 that tonight on London bridge the Teddy boys of the East End G05 1520 will gather to sing Marlowe, Herrick, Shakespeare, and perhaps some G05 1530 lyrics of their own. That, at any rate, is what happens at the Khaju G05 1540 bridge. Boys and men go along the riverbank or to the alcoves in the G05 1550 top arcade. Here in these little rooms- or stages arched open to G05 1560 the sky and river- they choose a few lines out of the hundreds they G05 1570 may know and sing them according to one of the modes into which Persian G05 1580 music is divided. Each mode is believed to have a specific attribute- G05 1590 one inducing pleasure, another generosity, another love, and so G05 1600 on, to include all of the emotions. The singer simply matches the poem G05 1610 to a mode; for example, the mode of bravery to this anonymous folk G05 1620 poem: "". G05 1650 Or the mode of love to this fragment by a recent poet: " G05 1690 **h". These songs (practically all Persian music, for G05 1700 that matter) are limited to a range of two octaves. Yet within this G05 1710 limitation there is an astonishing variety: design as intricate as G05 1720 that in the carpet or miniature, with the melodic line like the painted G05 1730 or woven line often flowing into an arabesque. G06 0010 the G06 0020 Maestro quoted as he told of his career G06 0030 and wanderings, explaining that the number seven had significantly recurred G06 0040 in his life several times. The music director of the Pittsburgh G06 0050 Symphony Orchestra, William Steinberg, has molded his group G06 0060 into a prominent musical organization, which is his life. When he G06 0070 added to his Pittsburgh commitments the directorship of the London G06 0080 Philharmonic Orchestra in 1958, he conducted one hundred fifty concerts G06 0090 within nine months, "commuting" between the two cities. This G06 0100 schedule became too strenuous, even for the energetic and conscientious G06 0110 Mr& Steinberg. His London contract was rescinded, and now, he G06 0120 explains cheerfully, as a bright smile lightens his intense, mobile face, G06 0130 "I conduct only one hundred and twenty concerts"! Our G06 0140 meeting took place in May, 1961, during one of the Maestro's stop-overs G06 0150 in New York, before he left for Europe. As we began to converse G06 0160 in the lounge of his Fifth Avenue hotel, his restlessness and G06 0170 sensitivity to light and sound became immediately apparent. Seeking G06 0180 an obscure, dark, relatively quiet corner in the airy room otherwise G06 0190 suffused with afternoon sunshine, he asked if the soft background music G06 0200 could be turned off. Unfortunately, it was Muzak, which automatically G06 0210 is piped into the public rooms, and which had to G06 0220 be endured. As he talked about himself, time and again stuffing and G06 0230 dragging on his pipe, Steinberg began to relax and the initial hurried G06 0240 feeling grew faint and was dispelled. Did he come from a musical G06 0250 family? Yes: though not professional musicians, they were a G06 0260 music-loving family. In his native Cologne, where his mother taught G06 0270 him to play the piano, he was able to read notes before he learned the G06 0280 alphabet. She even devised a system of colors, whereby the boy could G06 0290 easily distinguish the different note values. When he started school G06 0300 at the age of five-and-a-half, he could not understand why the alphabet G06 0310 begins with the letter ~A, instead of ~C, as in the scale. Because, G06 0320 like many other children, he intensely disliked practicing Czerny G06 0330 he composed his own studies. When he was eight he began G06 0340 violin lessons. Soon he was playing in the Cologne Municipal Orchestra, G06 0350 and during World War /1,, when musicians were scarce, he G06 0360 joined the opera orchestra as well. Steinberg claims that these early G06 0370 years of orchestra participation were of invaluable help to his career. G06 0380 "By observing the conductor", he says with a twinkle in his G06 0390 eyes, "I learned how not to conduct". The musician ran away G06 0400 from school when he was fifteen, but this escapade did not save him G06 0410 from the Gymnasium. Simultaneously, he pursued his musical studies G06 0420 at the conservatory, receiving sound training in counterpoint and harmony, G06 0430 as well in the violin and piano. His professional career began when G06 0440 he was twenty; he became Otto Klemperer's personal assistant G06 0450 at the Cologne Opera, and a year later was promoted to the position G06 0460 of regular conductor. Wasn't this an unusually young age to G06 0470 fill such a responsible post? Yes, the Maestro assented. Had G06 0480 he always wished to be a conductor? No, originally he had hoped G06 0490 to become a concert pianist and had even performed as such. However, G06 0500 when he assumed the duties of a conductor, he relinquished his career G06 0510 as a pianist. Five years were spent with the Cologne Opera, G06 0520 after which he was called to Prague by Alexander von Zemlinsky, teacher G06 0530 of Arnold Scho^nberg and Erich Korngold. In 1927 he succeeded G06 0540 Zemlinsky as opera director of the German Theater at Prague. G06 0550 During his tenure he also fulfilled guest engagements at the Berlin G06 0560 State Opera. Two years later he became director of the Frankfurt Opera, G06 0570 where he remained until he lost this position in 1933 through the G06 0580 rise of the Hitler regime. During these years the youthful conductor G06 0590 had contributed greatly to the high level of musical life in Germany. G06 0600 He had presented the first German performances of Puccini's G06 0605 and de Falla's G06 0610 . The Frankfurt G06 0620 years were particularly noteworthy for his performance of Berg's G06 0630 soon after the Berlin premiere under Erich Kleiber, G06 0640 and the world premiere of Scho^nberg's . G06 0650 At the outset of his career, Steinberg had dedicated himself to the G06 0660 advancement of contemporary music by vowing to do a Scho^nberg work G06 0670 every year. In Frankfurt, too, he directed the Museum and Opera G06 0680 House concerts which, in addition to the standard repertoire, featured G06 0690 novelties like Erdmann's Piano Concerto and Mahler's Sixth G06 0700 Symphony. Because of the political upheaval in Germany in the G06 0705 1930's, G06 0710 Steinberg was forced to restrict his activities to the Jewish G06 0720 community. Through the Frankfurt Jewish he began G06 0730 to give sonata recitals in synagogues, with Cellist Emanuel Feuermann. G06 0740 As more and more Jewish musicians lost their jobs with professional G06 0750 organizations Steinberg united them into the Frankfurt G06 0760 Orchestra, which also gave guest performances in other German G06 0770 cities. In 1936 he accepted the leadership of the Berlin . G06 0780 In the fall of that year the best musicians of the Berlin G06 0790 and Frankfurt orchestras joined under the combined efforts G06 0800 of Bronislaw Hubermann and Steinberg to become the Palestine G06 0810 Orchestra- now known as the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra- with G06 0820 Steinberg as founder-conductor. In 1938, at the insistence G06 0830 of Arturo Toscanini, Steinberg left Germany for the United States, G06 0840 by way of Switzerland. After he had spent the first three years G06 0850 in New York as associate conductor, at Toscanini's invitation, of G06 0860 the ~NBC Orchestra, he made numerous guest appearances throughout G06 0870 the United States and Latin America. In 1945 he became conductor G06 0880 of the Buffalo Philharmonic. Seven years later he was asked to become G06 0890 director of the Pittsburgh Symphony. Since 1944 he has also conducted G06 0900 regularly at the San Francisco Opera, where he made his debut G06 0910 with a memorable performance of Verdi's . In recent G06 0920 years he has traveled widely in Europe, conducting in Italy, France, G06 0930 Austria, and Switzerland. He returned to Germany for the first G06 0940 time in 1953, where he has since conducted in Cologne, Frankfurt, G06 0950 and Berlin. Where in Europe was he going now? First G06 0960 of all, to Italy for a short vacation- Forte dei Marmi, a place G06 0970 he loves. Since it is not far from Viareggio, he will visit Puccini's G06 0980 house, as he never fails to do, to pay his respects to the memory G06 0990 of the composer of which he considers one of Puccini's G06 1000 masterpieces. Steinberg spoke with warmth and enthusiasm about G06 1010 Italy: "Rome is my second home. I consider it the center of the G06 1020 world and make it a point to be there once a year". He will conduct G06 1030 two concerts at the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, as well as concerts G06 1040 in Munich and Cologne. "Then I return to the United States G06 1050 for engagements at the Hollywood Bowl and in Philadelphia", he G06 1060 added. The forthcoming season in Pittsburgh also promises to G06 1070 be of unusual interest. There will be premieres of new works, made possible G06 1080 through Ford Foundation commissions: Carlisle Floyd's G06 1090 with Phyllis Curtin as soprano soloist. Other world premieres G06 1100 will be Gardner Read's Third Symphony and Burle Marx's G06 1110 . "And next year we will do- also G06 1120 a Ford commission- a piano concerto by Elliott Carter, with Jacob G06 1130 Lateiner as soloist. Of course, I shall conduct Mahler and Bruckner G06 1140 works in the coming season, as usual. We'll play Bruckner's G06 1150 Fifth Symphony in the original version, and Mahler's Seventh- G06 1160 the least accessible, known, and played of Mahler's works. My Pittsburghers G06 1170 have become real addicts to Mahler and Bruckner". G06 1180 He added that he also stresses the works of these favorite masters G06 1190 on tour, especially Mahler's First and Fourth symphonies, and G06 1200 and Bruckner's Sixth- which is rarely G06 1210 played- and Seventh. Bruckner's Eighth he refers to as "my G06 1220 travel symphony". He recalled that in California after a critic G06 1230 had attacked him for "still trying to sell Bruckner to the Americans", G06 1240 the public's response at the next concert was a standing ovation. G06 1250 "Now that Bruno Walter is virtually in retirement and G06 1260 my dear friend Dimitri Mitropoulos is no longer with us, I am probably G06 1270 the only one- with the possible exception of Leonard Bernstein- G06 1280 who has this special affinity for and champions the works of Bruckner G06 1290 and Mahler". Since he introduces so much modern music, G06 1300 I could not resist asking how he felt about it. "There was G06 1310 always and at all times a contemporary music and it expresses the era G06 1320 in which it was created. But I usually stick to the old phrase: G06 1330 <'Ich habe ein Amt, aber keine Meinung> (I hold an office, but G06 1340 I do not feel entitled to have an opinion). I consider it to be my G06 1350 job to expose the public to what is being written today". With G06 1360 all his musical activities, did he have the time and inclination to G06 1370 do anything else? He had just paid a brief visit to the Frick Collection G06 1380 to admire his favorite paintings by Rembrandt and Franz Hals. G06 1390 He was not enthusiastic over the newly acquired Claude Lorrain, G06 1400 but reminisced with pleasure over a Poussin exhibit he had been able G06 1410 to see in Paris a year ago. And how did he feel about modern G06 1420 art? Again Steinberg was cautious and replied with a smile that he G06 1430 was not exposed to it enough to hazard comments. "As my wife puts G06 1440 it", he said, again with a twinkle in his eyes, "all you know is G06 1450 your music. But after all, you never learned anything else"! G06 1460 What did he do for relaxation? Like his late colleague, Mitropoulos, G06 1470 he reads mystery stories, in particular Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. G06 1480 He cited Heine and Stendhal as favorites in literature. G06 1490 But his prime interest, apart from music, he insisted seriously, was G06 1500 his family- his wife, daughter and son. At the moment he was excited G06 1510 about his son's having received the Prix de Rome in archaeology G06 1520 and was looking forward to being present this summer at the excavation G06 1530 of an Etruscan tomb. "Both children are musical and my wife is G06 1540 a music lover of unfailing instinct and judgment". G06 1550 "IS the attitude of German youth comparable to that of "the G06 1555 angry G06 1560 young men' of England"? was the topic for a round-table discussion G06 1570 at the Bayerische Rundfunk in Munich. I was chairman, G06 1580 the only not youthful participant. Since attack serves to stimulate G06 1590 interest in broadcasts, I added to my opening statement a sentence in G06 1600 which I claimed that German youth seemed to lack the enthusiasm which G06 1610 is a necessary ingredient of anger, and might be classified as uninterested G06 1620 and bored rather than angry. I was far from convinced of the G06 1630 truth of my statement, but could not think of anything that might evoke G06 1640 responses more quickly. "It is easy for you to talk"; G06 1650 countered a twenty year old law student, "you travel around the world. G06 1660 We would like to do that too". "But you want a job guaranteed G06 1670 when you return", I continued my attack. "You must have G06 1680 some security", said a young clerk. When I mentioned that G06 1690 for my first long voyage I did not even have the money for the return G06 1700 fare, but had trusted to luck that I would earn a sufficient amount, G06 1710 the young people looked at me doubtingly. One girl expressed what was G06 1720 obviously in their minds. "Would you advise us to act the G06 1730 same way? You might have failed. I think it is rather foolhardy to G06 1740 trust to luck". Others mentioned that I might have had to G06 1750 ask G06 1760 friends or even strangers for help and that to be stranded in a foreign G06 1770 country without sufficient funds did not contribute to international G06 1780 understanding. The debate needed no additional controversy G06 1790 and soon I could ask each individually what he expected from life, what G06 1800 his hopes were and what his fears. Though the four boys and G06 1810 two girls, the youngest nineteen years of age, the oldest twenty-four, G06 1820 came from varying backgrounds and had different professional and personal G06 1830 interests, there was surprising agreement among them. What they G06 1840 wished for most was security; what they feared most was war or political G06 1850 instability in their own country. The ideal home, they G06 1860 agreed, would be a small private house or a city apartment of four to G06 1870 five rooms, just enough for a family consisting of husband, wife, and G06 1880 two children. No one wanted a larger family or no children, and none G06 1890 hoped for a castle or said that living in less settled circumstances would G06 1900 be satisfactory. All expressed interest in world affairs G06 1910 but no one offered to make any sacrifices to satisfy this interest. G07 0010 ## ONCE again, as in the days of the Founding Fathers, America G07 0020 faces a stern test. That test, as President Kennedy forthrightly G07 0030 depicted it in his State of the Union message, will determine "whether G07 0040 a nation organized and governed such as ours can endure". G07 0050 It is well then that in this hour both of "national peril" G07 0060 and of "national opportunity" we can take counsel with the men who G07 0070 made the nation. Incapable of self-delusion, the Founding Fathers G07 0080 found the crisis of their time to be equally grave, and yet they had G07 0090 confidence that America would surmount it and that a republic of free G07 0100 peoples would prosper and serve as an example to a world aching for liberty. G07 0110 Seven Founders- George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, G07 0120 John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James G07 0130 Madison and John Jay- determined the destinies of the new nation. G07 0140 In certain respects, their task was incomparably greater than ours today, G07 0150 for there was nobody before them to show them the way. As Madison G07 0160 commented to Jefferson in 1789, "We are in a wilderness without G07 0170 a single footstep to guide us. Our successors will have an easier task". G07 0180 They thought of themselves, to use Jefferson's words, G07 0190 as "the Argonauts" who had lived in "the Heroic Age". Accordingly, G07 0200 they took special pains to preserve their papers as essential G07 0210 sources for posterity. Their writings assume more than dramatic or G07 0220 patriotic interest because of their conviction that the struggle in G07 0230 which they were involved was neither selfish nor parochial but, rather, G07 0240 as Washington in his last wartime circular reminded his fellow countrymen, G07 0250 that "with our fate will the destiny of unborn millions be involved". G07 0260 Strong men with strong opinions, frank to the point G07 0270 of being refreshingly indiscreet, the Founding Seven were essentially G07 0280 congenial minds, and their agreements with each other were more consequential G07 0290 than their differences. Even though in most cases the completion G07 0300 of the definitive editions of their writings is still years off, G07 0310 enough documentation has already been assembled to warrant drawing G07 0320 a new composite profile of the leadership which performed the heroic dual G07 0330 feats of winning American independence and founding a new nation. G07 0340 Before merging them into a common profile it is well to remember G07 0350 that their separate careers were extraordinary. Certainly no other G07 0360 seven American statesmen from any later period achieved so much in G07 0370 so concentrated a span of years. Eldest of the seven, Benjamin G07 0380 Franklin, a New Englander transplanted to Philadelphia, wrote the G07 0390 most dazzling success story in our history. The young printer's apprentice G07 0400 achieved greatness in a half-dozen different fields, as editor G07 0410 and publisher, scientist, inventor, philanthropist and statesman. G07 0420 Author of the Albany Plan of Union, which, had it been adopted, might G07 0430 have avoided the Revolution, he fought the colonists' front-line G07 0440 battles in London, negotiated the treaty of alliance with France and G07 0450 the peace that ended the war, headed the state government of Pennsylvania, G07 0460 and exercised an important moderating influence at the Federal G07 0470 Convention. ## ON a military mission for his native Virginia G07 0480 the youthful George Washington touched off the French and Indian G07 0490 War, then guarded his colony's frontier as head of its militia. G07 0500 Commanding the Continental Army for six long years of the Revolution, G07 0510 he was the indispensable factor in the ultimate victory. Retiring G07 0520 to his beloved Mount Vernon, he returned to preside over the Federal G07 0530 Convention, and was the only man in history to be unanimously elected G07 0540 President. During his two terms the Constitution was tested and G07 0550 found workable, strong national policies were inaugurated, and the G07 0560 traditions and powers of the Presidential office firmly fixed. G07 0570 John Adams fashioned much of pre-Revolutionary radical ideology, wrote G07 0580 the constitution of his home state of Massachusetts, negotiated, G07 0590 with Franklin and Jay, the peace with Britain and served as our first G07 0600 Vice President and our second President. ## HIS political G07 0610 opponent and lifetime friend, Thomas Jefferson, achieved immortality G07 0620 through his authorship of the Declaration of Independence, but G07 0630 equally notable were the legal and constitutional reforms he instituted G07 0640 in his native Virginia, his role as father of our territorial system, G07 0650 and his acquisition of the Louisiana Territory during his first G07 0660 term as President. During the greater part of Jefferson's G07 0670 career he enjoyed the close collaboration of a fellow Virginian, James G07 0680 Madison, eight years his junior. The active sponsor of Jefferson's G07 0690 measure for religious liberty in Virginia, Madison played the most G07 0700 influential single role in the drafting of the Constitution and in G07 0710 securing its ratification in Virginia, founded the first political G07 0720 party in American history, and, as Jefferson's Secretary of State G07 0730 and his successor in the Presidency, guided the nation through the G07 0740 troubled years of our second war with Britain. If Franklin was G07 0750 an authentic genius, then Alexander Hamilton, with his exceptional G07 0760 precocity, consuming energy, and high ambition, was a political prodigy. G07 0770 His revolutionary pamphlets, published when he was only 19, quickly G07 0780 brought him to the attention of the patriot leaders. Principal author G07 0790 of "The Federalist", he swung New York over from opposition G07 0800 to the Constitution to ratification almost single-handedly. His G07 0810 collaboration with Washington, begun when he was the general's aide G07 0820 during the Revolution, was resumed when he entered the first Cabinet G07 0830 as Secretary of the Treasury. His bold fiscal program and his broad G07 0840 interpretation of the Constitution stand as durable contributions. G07 0850 ## LESS dazzling than Hamilton, less eloquent than Jefferson, G07 0860 John Jay commands an equally high rank among the Founding Fathers. G07 0870 He served as president of the Continental Congress. He played G07 0880 the leading role in negotiating the treaty with Great Britain that G07 0890 ended the Revolution, and directed America's foreign affairs throughout G07 0900 the Confederation period. As first Chief Justice, his strong G07 0910 nationalist opinions anticipated John Marshall. He ended his public G07 0920 career as a two-term governor of New York. These Seven Founders G07 0930 constituted an intellectual and social elite, the most respectable G07 0940 and disinterested leadership any revolution ever confessed. Their G07 0950 social status was achieved in some cases by birth, as with Washington, G07 0960 Jefferson and Jay; in others by business and professional acumen, G07 0970 as with Franklin and Adams, or, in Hamilton's case, by an influential G07 0980 marriage. Unlike so many of the power-starved intellectuals G07 0990 in underdeveloped nations of our own day, they commanded both prestige G07 1000 and influence before the Revolution started. As different G07 1010 physically as the tall, angular Jefferson was from the chubby, rotund G07 1020 Adams, the seven were striking individualists. Ardent, opinionated, G07 1030 even obstinate, they were amazingly articulate, wrote their own copy, G07 1040 and were masters of phrasemaking. ## CAPABLE of enduring friendships, G07 1050 they were also stout controversialists, who could write with G07 1060 a drop of vitriol on their pens. John Adams dismissed John Dickinson, G07 1070 who voted against the Declaration of Independence, as "a certain G07 1080 great fortune and piddling genius". Washington castigated his G07 1090 critic, General Conway, as being capable of "all the meanness of intrigue G07 1100 to gratify the absurd resentment of disappointed vanity". And G07 1110 Hamilton, who felt it "a religious duty" to oppose Aaron Burr's G07 1120 political ambitions, would have been a better actuarial risk had G07 1130 he shown more literary restraint. The Seven Founders were G07 1140 completely dedicated to the public service. Madison once remarked: G07 1150 "My life has been so much a public one", a comment which fits the G07 1160 careers of the other six. Franklin retired from editing and publishing G07 1170 at the age of 42, and for the next forty-two years devoted himself G07 1180 to public, scientific, and philanthropic interests. Washington never G07 1190 had a chance to work for an extended stretch at the occupation he loved G07 1200 best, plantation management. He served as Commander in Chief during G07 1210 the Revolution without compensation. ## JOHN ADAMS took G07 1220 to heart the advice given him by his legal mentor, Jeremiah Gridley, G07 1230 to "pursue the study of the law, rather than the gain of it". In G07 1240 taking account of seventeen years of law practice, Adams concluded G07 1250 that "no lawyer in America ever did so much business as I did" G07 1260 and "for so little profit". When the Revolution broke out, he, along G07 1270 with Jefferson and Jay, abandoned his career at the bar, with considerable G07 1280 financial sacrifice. Hamilton, poorest of the seven, G07 1290 gave up a brilliant law practice to enter Washington's Cabinet. G07 1300 While he was handling the multi-million-dollar funding operations of G07 1310 the Government he had to resort to borrowing small sums from friends. G07 1320 "If you can conveniently let me have twenty dollars", he wrote G07 1330 one friend in 1791 when he was Secretary of the Treasury. To G07 1340 support his large family Hamilton went back to the law after each spell G07 1350 of public service. Talleyrand passed his New York law office one G07 1360 night on the way to a party. Hamilton was bent over his desk, drafting G07 1370 a legal paper by the light of a candle. The Frenchman was astonished. G07 1380 "I have just come from viewing a man who had made the fortune G07 1390 of his country, but now is working all night in order to support his G07 1400 family", he reflected. ## ALL seven combined ardent devotion G07 1410 to the cause of revolution with a profound respect for legality. John G07 1420 Adams asserted in the Continental Congress' Declaration of G07 1430 Rights that the demands of the colonies were in accordance with their G07 1440 charters, the British Constitution and the common law, and Jefferson G07 1450 appealed in the Declaration of Independence "to the tribunal of G07 1460 the world" for support of a revolution justified by "the laws of G07 1470 nature and of nature's God". They fought hard, but they were G07 1480 forgiving to former foes, and sought to prevent vindictive legislatures G07 1490 from confiscating Tory property in violation of the Treaty of G07 1500 1783. This sense of moderation and fairness is superbly exemplified G07 1510 in an exchange of letters between John Jay and a Tory refugee, G07 1520 Peter Van Schaack. Jay had participated in the decision that exiled G07 1530 his old friend Van Schaack. Yet when, at war's end, the ex-Tory G07 1540 made the first move to resume correspondence, Jay wrote him from G07 1550 Paris, where he was negotiating the peace settlement: G07 1555 "As G07 1560 an independent American I considered all who were not for us, and you G07 1570 amongst the rest, as against us, yet be assured that John Jay never G07 1580 ceased to be the friend of Peter Van Schaack". The latter G07 1590 in turn assured him that "were I arraigned at the bar, and you my G07 1600 judge, I should expect to stand or fall only by the merits of my cause". G07 1610 All seven recognized that independence was but the first G07 1620 step toward building a nation. "We have now a national character G07 1630 to establish", Washington wrote in 1783. "Think continentally", G07 1640 Hamilton counseled the young nation. This new force, love of country, G07 1650 super-imposed upon- if not displacing- affectionate ties to one's G07 1660 own state, was epitomized by Washington. His first inaugural G07 1670 address speaks of "my country whose voice I can never hear but with G07 1680 veneration and love". All sought the fruition of that nationalism G07 1690 in a Federal Government with substantial powers. Save Jefferson, G07 1700 all participated in the framing or ratification of the Federal G07 1710 Constitution. They supported it, not as a perfect instrument, but as G07 1720 the best obtainable. Historians have traditionally regarded the great G07 1730 debates of the Seventeen Nineties as polarizing the issues of centralized G07 1740 vs& limited government, with Hamilton and the nationalists G07 1750 supporting the former and Jefferson and Madison upholding the latter G07 1760 position. ## THE state's rights position was formulated by G07 1770 Jefferson and Madison in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolves, but G07 1780 in their later careers as heads of state the two proved themselves better G07 1790 Hamiltonians than Jeffersonians. In purchasing Louisiana, Jefferson G07 1800 had to adopt Hamilton's broad construction of the Constitution, G07 1810 and so did Madison in advocating the rechartering of Hamilton's G07 1820 bank, which he had so strenuously opposed at its inception, and in G07 1830 adopting a Hamiltonian protective tariff. Indeed, the old Jeffersonians G07 1840 were far more atune to the Hamilton-oriented Whigs than they G07 1850 were to the Jacksonian Democrats. ## WHEN, in 1832, the South G07 1860 Carolina nullifiers adopted the principle of state interposition G07 1870 which Madison had advanced in his old Virginia Resolve, they elicited G07 1880 no encouragement from that senior statesman. In his political testament, G07 1890 "Advice to My Country", penned just before his death, Madison G07 1900 expressed the wish "that the Union of the States be cherished G07 1910 and perpetuated. Let the open enemy to it be regarded as a Pandora G07 1920 with her box opened; and the disguised one, as the serpent creeping G07 1930 with his deadly wiles into Paradise". G08 0010 #TOBACCO ROAD IS DEAD. LONG LIVE TOBACCO ROAD.# Nostalgic Yankee G08 0020 readers of Erskine Caldwell are today informed by proud Georgians G08 0030 that Tobacco Road is buried beneath a four-lane super highway, over G08 0040 which travel each day suburbanite businessmen more concerned with the G08 0050 Dow-Jones average than with the cotton crop. Thus we are compelled G08 0060 to face the urbanization of the South- an urbanization which, despite G08 0070 its dramatic and overwhelming effects upon the Southern culture, G08 0080 has been utterly ignored by the bulk of Southern writers. Indeed, it G08 0090 seems that only in today's Southern fiction does Tobacco Road, G08 0100 with all the traditional trimmings of sowbelly and cornbread and mint G08 0110 juleps, continue to live- but only as a weary, overexploited phantom. G08 0120 Those writers known collectively as the "Southern school" G08 0130 have received accolades from even those critics least prone to eulogize; G08 0140 according to many critics, in fact, the South has led the North G08 0150 in literature since the Civil War, both quantitatively and qualitatively. G08 0160 Such writers as William Faulkner and Robert Penn Warren G08 0170 have led the field of somewhat less important writers in a sort of post-bellum G08 0180 renaissance. It is interesting, however, that despite this G08 0190 strong upsurge in Southern writing, almost none of the writers has G08 0200 forsaken the firmly entrenched concept of the white-suited big-daddy colonel G08 0210 sipping a mint julep as he silently recounts the revenue from the G08 0220 season's cotton and tobacco crops; of the stereotyped Negro servants G08 0230 chanting hymns as they plow the fields; of these and a host of G08 0240 other antiquated legends that deny the South its progressive leaps G08 0250 of the past century. This is not to say that the South is no longer G08 0260 agrarian; such a statement would be the rankest form of oversimplification. G08 0270 But the South is, and has been for the past century, engaged G08 0280 in a wide-sweeping urbanization which, oddly enough, is not reflected G08 0290 in its literature. In 1900 the South was only 15% urban; G08 0300 in 1950 it had become 47.1% urban. In a mere half-century the South G08 0310 has more than tripled its urban status. There is a New South emerging, G08 0320 a South losing the folksy traditions of an agrarian society with G08 0330 the rapidity of an avalanche- especially within recent decades. As G08 0340 the New South snowballs toward further urbanization, it becomes more G08 0350 and more homogeneous with the North- a tendency which Willard G08 0360 Thorp terms "Yankeefication", as evidenced in such cities as Charlotte, G08 0370 Birmingham, and Houston. It is said that, even at the present G08 0380 stage of Southern urbanization, such a city as Atlanta is not distinctly G08 0390 unlike Columbus or Trenton. Undoubtedly even the old Southern G08 0400 stalwart Richmond has felt the new wind: William Styron mentions G08 0410 in his latest novel an avenue named for Bankhead McGruder, a Civil G08 0420 War general, now renamed, in typical California fashion, "Buena G08 0430 Vista Terrace". The effects of television and other mass media G08 0440 are erasing regional dialects and localisms with a startling force. G08 0450 As for progress, the "backward South" can boast of Baton Rouge, G08 0460 which increased its population between 1940 and 1950 by two hundred G08 0470 and sixty-two percent, to 126,000, the second largest growth of the period G08 0480 for all cities over 25,000. The field, then, is ripe for G08 0490 new Southerners to step to the fore and write of this twentieth-century G08 0500 phenomenon, the Southern Yankeefication: the new urban economy, G08 0510 the city-dweller, the pains of transition, the labor problems; the G08 0520 list is, obviously, endless. But these sources have not been tapped. G08 0530 Truman Capote is still reveling in Southern Gothicism, exaggerating G08 0540 the old Southern legends into something beautiful and grotesque, but G08 0550 as unreal as- or even unreal than- yesterday. William G08 0560 Styron, while facing the changing economy with a certain uneasy reluctance, G08 0570 insists he is not to be classified as a Southern writer and G08 0580 yet includes traditional Southern concepts in everything he publishes. G08 0590 Even the great god Faulkner, the South's one probable contender G08 0600 for literary immortality, has little concerned himself with these matters; G08 0610 such are simply not within his bounded province. Where G08 0620 are the writers to treat these changes? Has the agrarian tradition G08 0630 become such an addiction that the switch to urbanism is somehow dreaded G08 0640 or unwanted? Perhaps present writers hypnotically cling to the G08 0650 older order because they consider it useful and reliable through repeated G08 0660 testings over the decades. Lacking the pioneer spirit necessary to G08 0670 write of a economy, these writers seem to be contenting themselves G08 0680 with an old one that is now as defunct as Confederate money. G08 0690 An example of the changes which have crept over the Southern region G08 0700 may be seen in the Southern Negro's quest for a position in G08 0710 the white-dominated society, a problem that has been reflected in regional G08 0720 fiction especially since 1865. Today the Negro must discover his G08 0730 role in an South, which indicates that the racial G08 0740 aspect of the Southern dilemma hasn't changed radically, but rather G08 0750 has gradually come to be reflected in this new context, this new coat G08 0760 of paint. The Negro faces as much, if not more, difficulty in fitting G08 0770 himself into an urban economy as he did in an agrarian one. This G08 0780 represents a gradual change in an ever-present social problem. But there G08 0790 have been abrupt changes as well: the sit-ins, the picket lines, G08 0800 the bus strikes- all of these were unheard-of even ten years ago. G08 0810 Today's evidence, such as the fact that only three Southern states G08 0820 (South Carolina, Alabama and Mississippi) still openly defy integration, G08 0830 would have astounded many of yesterday's Southerners into speechlessness. G08 0840 Other examples of changes that have G08 0850 affected the Negro have been his moving up, row by row, in the busses; G08 0860 his requesting, and often getting, higher wages, better working conditions, G08 0870 better schools- changes that were slowly emerging even before G08 0880 the Supreme Court decision of 1954. Then came this decision, which G08 0890 sped the process of gaining equality (or perhaps hindered it; only G08 0900 historical evolution will determine which): an change. G08 0910 Since 1954 the Negro's desire for social justice has led G08 0920 to an ironically anarchical rebellion. He has frequently refused to move G08 0930 from white lunch counters, refused to obey laws which he G08 0940 considers unjust, while in other cases he has appealed to G08 0950 laws. This bold self-assertion, after decades of humble subservience, G08 0960 is indeed a twentieth-century phenomenon, an abrupt change in the Southern G08 0970 way of existence. A new order is thrusting itself into being. G08 0980 A new South is emerging after the post-bellum years of hesitation, G08 0990 uncertainty, and lack of action from the Negro in defining his new role G08 1000 in the amorphously defined socio-political organizations of the white G08 1010 man. The modern Negro has not made a decisive debut into Southern G08 1020 fiction. It is clear that, while most writers enjoy picturing G08 1030 the Negro as a woolly-headed, humble old agrarian who mutters "yassuhs" G08 1040 and "sho' nufs" with blissful deference to his white employer G08 1050 (or, in Old South terms, "massuh"), this stereotype is doomed G08 1060 to become in reality as obsolete as Caldwell's Lester. While G08 1070 there may still be many Faulknerian Lucas Beauchamps scattered through G08 1080 the rural South, such men appear to be a vanishing breed. Writers G08 1090 openly admit that the Negro is easier to write than the white man; G08 1100 but they obviously mean by this, not a Negro personality, but a Negro G08 1110 . Presenting an individualized Negro character, it would G08 1120 seem, is one of the most difficult assignments a Southern writer could G08 1130 tackle; and the success of such an endeavor is, as suggested above, G08 1140 glaringly rare. Just as the Negro situation points up the G08 1150 gradual and abrupt changes affecting Southern life, it also points up G08 1160 the non-representation of urbanism in Southern literature. The book G08 1170 concerned with the Negro's role in an urban society is rare indeed; G08 1180 recently only Keith Wheeler's novel, , has G08 1190 openly faced the problem. All but the most rabid of Confederate G08 1200 flag wavers admit that the Old Southern tradition is defunct in G08 1210 actuality and sigh that its passing was accompanied by the disappearance G08 1220 of many genteel and aristocratic traditions of the reputedly languid G08 1230 ante-bellum way of life. Many earlier writers, mourning the demise G08 1240 of the old order, tended to romanticize and exaggerate this "gracious G08 1250 Old South" imagery, creating such lasting impressions as Margaret G08 1260 Mitchell's G08 1270 "Tara" plantation. Modern writers, who are supposed G08 1280 to keep their fingers firmly upon the pulse of their subjects, insist G08 1300 upon drawing out this legend, prolonging its burial, when it well deserves G08 1310 a rest after the overexploitation of the past century. Perhaps G08 1320 these writers have been too deeply moved by this romanticizing; but G08 1330 they can hardly deny that, exaggerated or not, the old panorama is dead. G08 1340 As John T& Westbrook says in his article, "Twilight of Southern G08 1350 Regionalism" (, Winter 1957): "**h G08 1360 The miasmal mausoleum where an Old South, already too minutely G08 1370 autopsied in prose and poetry, should be left to rest in peace, forever G08 1380 dead and (let us fervently hope) forever done with". Westbrook G08 1390 further bemoans the Southern writers' creation of an unreal image G08 1400 of their homeland, which is too readily assimilated by both foreign G08 1410 readers and visiting Yankees: "Our northerner is suspicious of G08 1420 all this crass evidence [of urbanization] presented to his senses. G08 1430 It bewilders and befuddles him. He is too deeply steeped in William G08 1440 Faulkner and Robert Penn Warren. The fumes of progress are in his G08 1450 nose and the bright steel of industry towers before his eyes, but his G08 1460 heart is away in Yoknapatawpha County with razorback hogs and night G08 1470 riders. On this trip to the South he wants, above all else, to sniff G08 1480 the effluvium of backwoods-and-sand-hill subhumanity and to see at G08 1490 least one barn burn at midnight". Obviously, such a Northern tourist's G08 1500 purpose is somewhat akin to a child's experience with Disneyland: G08 1510 he to see a world of make-believe. In the G08 1520 meantime, while the South has been undergoing this phenomenal modernization G08 1530 that is so disappointing to the curious Yankee, Southern writers G08 1540 have certainly done little to reflect and promote their region's G08 1550 progress. Willard Thorp, in his new book , observes, quite validly it seems: "**h G08 1570 Certain subjects are conspicuously absent or have been only lightly touched. G08 1580 No southern novelist has done for Atlanta or Birmingham what G08 1590 Herrick, Dreiser, and Farrell did for Chicago or Dos Passos did G08 1600 for New York **h There are almost no fictional treatments of the G08 1610 industrialized south". Not a single Southern author, major or minor, G08 1620 has made the urban problems of an urban South his primary source material. G08 1630 Faulkner, for one, appears to be safe from the accusing G08 1640 fingers of all assailants in this regard. Faulkner culminates the G08 1650 Southern legend perhaps more masterfully than it has ever been, or could G08 1660 ever be, done. He has made it his, and his it remains, irrevocably. G08 1670 He treats it with a mythological, universal application. As G08 1680 his disciples boast, even though his emphasis is elsewhere, Faulkner G08 1690 does show his awareness of the changing order of the South quite keenly, G08 1700 as can be proven by a quick recalling of his Sartoris and Snopes G08 1710 families. Even two decades ago in Faulkner G08 1720 was looking to the more urban future with a glimmer of hope that through G08 1730 its youth and its new way of life the South might be reborn and the G08 1740 curse of slavery erased from its soil. Yet his concern even here is G08 1750 with a slowly changing socio-economic order in general, and he never G08 1760 deals with such specific aspects of this change as the urban and industrial G08 1770 impact. Faulkner traces, in his vast and overpowering saga G08 1780 of Yoknapatawpha County, the gradual changes which seep into the G08 1790 South, building layer upon layer of minute, subtle innovation which eventually G08 1800 tend largely to hide the Old Way. Thus Faulkner reminds G08 1810 us, and wisely, that the "new" South has gradually evolved out of G08 1820 the Old South, and consequently its agrarian roots persist. Yet he G08 1830 presents a realm of source material which may well serve other writers G08 1840 if not himself: the problems with which a New South must grapple G08 1850 in groping through a blind adolescence into the maturity of urbanization. G08 1860 With new mechanization the modern farmer must perform the work of G08 1870 six men: a machine stands between the agrarian and his soil. The G08 1880 thousands of city migrants who desert the farms yearly must readjust with G08 1890 even greater stress and tension: the sacred wilderness is gradually G08 1900 surrendering to suburbs and research parks and industrial areas. G09 0010 Another element to concern the choreographer is that of the visual G09 0020 devices of the theatre. Most avant-garde creators, true to their G09 0030 interest in the self-sufficiency of pure movement, have tended to dress G09 0040 their dancers in simple lines and solid colors (often black) and to G09 0050 give them a bare cyclorama for a setting. But Robert Rauschenberg, G09 0060 the neo-dadaist artist, has collaborated with several of them. He has G09 0070 designed a matching backdrop and costumes of points of color on white G09 0080 for Mr& Cunningham's , so that dancers and background G09 0090 merge into a shimmering unity. For Mr& Taylor's he made some diaphanous tents that alternately G09 0110 hide and reveal the performer, and a girl's cape lined with grass. Mr& G09 0120 Nikolais has made a distinctive contribution to the arts of costume G09 0130 and decor. In fact, he calls his productions dance-theatre works G09 0140 of motion, shape, light, and sound. To raise the dancer out of his personal, G09 0150 pedestrian self, Mr& Nikolais has experimented with relating G09 0160 him to a larger, environmental orbit. He began with masks to make G09 0170 the dancer identify himself with the creature he appeared to be. He G09 0180 went on to use objects- hoops, poles, capes- which he employed as G09 0190 extensions of the body of the dancer, who moved with them. The depersonalization G09 0200 continued as the dancer was further metamorphosed by the play G09 0210 of lights upon his figure. In each case, the object, the color, even G09 0220 the percussive sounds of the electronic score were designed to become G09 0230 part of the theatrical being of the performer. The dancer who never G09 0240 loosens her hold on a parasol, begins to feel that it is part of herself. G09 0250 Or, clad from head to toe in fabric stretched over a series of G09 0260 hoops, the performer may well lose his sense of self in being a "finial". G09 0270 As the dancer is depersonalized, his accouterments are animized, G09 0280 and the combined elements give birth to a new being. From this being G09 0290 come new movement ideas that utilize dancer and property as a single G09 0300 unit. Thus, the avant-garde choreographers have extended the G09 0310 scope of materials available for dance composition. But, since they G09 0320 have rejected both narrative and emotional continuity, how are they G09 0330 to unify the impressive array of materials at their disposal? Some G09 0340 look deliberately to devices used by creators in the other arts and apply G09 0350 corresponding methods to their own work. Others, less consciously G09 0360 but quite probably influenced by the trends of the times, experiment G09 0370 with approaches that parallel those of the contemporary poet, painter, G09 0380 and musician. An approach that has appealed to some choreographers G09 0390 is reminiscent of Charles Olson's statement of the process G09 0400 of projective verse: "one perception must immediately and directly G09 0410 lead to a further perception". The creator trusts his intuition to G09 0420 lead him along a path that has internal validity because it mirrors G09 0430 the reality of his experience. He disdains external restrictions- conventional G09 0440 syntax, traditional metre. The unit of form is determined G09 0450 subjectively: "the Heart, by the way of the Breath, to the Line". G09 0460 The test of form is fidelity to the experience, a gauge also accepted G09 0470 by the abstract expressionist painters. An earlier but G09 0480 still influential school of painting, surrealism, had suggested the way G09 0490 of dealing with the dream experience, that event in which seemingly G09 0500 incongruous objects are linked together through the curious associations G09 0510 of the subconscious. The resulting picture might appear a maze of G09 0520 restless confusions and contradictions, but it is more true to life than G09 0530 a portrait of an artificially contrived order. The contemporary painter G09 0540 tends to depict not the concrete objects of his experience but G09 0550 their essences as revealed in abstractions of their lines, colors, masses, G09 0560 and energies. He is still concerned, however, with a personal event. G09 0570 He accepts the accidents of his brushwork because they provide evidence G09 0580 of the vitality of the experience of creation. The work must G09 0590 be true to both the physical and the spiritual character of the experience. G09 0600 Some painters have less interest in the experience of the G09 0610 moment, with its attendant urgencies and ambiguities, than in looking G09 0620 beyond the flux of particular impressions to a higher, more serene level G09 0630 of truth. Rather than putting their trust in ephemeral sensations G09 0640 they seek form in the stable relationships of pure design, which symbolize G09 0650 an order more real than the disorder of the perceptual world. The G09 0660 concept remains subjective. But in this approach it is the artist's G09 0670 ultimate insight, rather than his immediate impressions, that gives G09 0680 form to the work. Others look to more objective devices of G09 0690 order. The musician employing the serial technique of composition establishes G09 0700 a mathematical system of rotations that, once set in motion, G09 0710 determines the sequence of pitches and even of rhythms and intensities. G09 0720 The composer may reverse or invert the order of his original set of G09 0730 intervals (or rhythms or dynamic changes). He may even alter the pattern G09 0740 by applying a scheme of random numbers. But he cannot order his G09 0750 elements by will, either rational or inspired. The system works as an G09 0760 impersonal mechanism. Musicians who use the chance method also exclude G09 0770 subjective control of formal development. Again, the composer must G09 0780 select his own materials. But a tossing of coins, with perhaps the added G09 0790 safeguard of reference to the oracles of the , the Chinese G09 0800 Book of Changes, dictates the handling of the chosen materials. G09 0810 Avant-garde choreographers, seeking new forms of continuity G09 0820 for their new vocabulary of movements, have turned to similar approaches. G09 0830 Some let dances take their form from the experience of creation. G09 0840 According to Katherine Litz, "the becoming, the process of realization, G09 0850 is the dance". The process stipulates that the choreographer G09 0860 sense the quality of the initial movement he has discovered and that G09 0870 he feel the rightness of the quality that is to follow it. The sequence G09 0880 may involve a sharp contrast: for example, a quiet meditative sway G09 0890 of the body succeeded by a violent leap; or it may involve more subtle G09 0900 distinctions: the sway may be gradually minimized or enlarged, G09 0910 its rhythmic emphasis may be slightly modified, or it may be transferred G09 0920 to become a movement of only the arms or the head. Even the least G09 0930 alteration will change the quality. An exploration of these possible G09 0940 relationships constitutes the process of creation and thereby gives form G09 0950 to the dance. The approach to the depiction of the experience G09 0960 of creation may be analytic, as it is for Miss Litz, or spontaneous, G09 0970 as it is for Merle Marsicano. She, too, is concerned with "the G09 0980 becoming, the process of realization", but she does not think in G09 0990 terms of subtle variations of spatial or temporal patterns. The design G09 1000 is determined emotionally: "I must reach into myself for the spring G09 1010 that will send me catapulting recklessly into the chaos of event G09 1020 with which the dance confronts me". Looking back, Miss Marsicano G09 1030 feels that her ideas may have been influenced by those of Jackson Pollock. G09 1040 At one time she felt impelled to make dances that "moved all G09 1050 over the stage", much as Pollock's paintings move violently over G09 1060 the full extent of the canvas. But her conscious need was to break away G09 1070 from constricting patterns of form, a need to let the experience shape G09 1080 itself. Midi Garth also believes in subjective continuity G09 1090 that begins with the feeling engendered by an initial movement. It G09 1100 may be a free front-back swing of the leg, leading to a sideways swing G09 1110 of the arm that develops into a turn and the sensation of taking off G09 1120 from the ground. This became a dance called . G09 1130 A pervading quality of free lyricism and a building from turns close G09 1140 to the ground towards jumps into the air gives the work its central focus. G09 1150 Alwin Nikolais objects to art as an outpouring of personal G09 1160 emotion. He seeks to make his dancers more "godlike" by relating G09 1170 them to the impersonal elements of shape, light color, and sound. If G09 1180 his dancers are sometimes made to look as if they might be creatures G09 1190 from Mars, this is consistent with his intention of placing them in G09 1200 the orbit of another world, a world in which they are freed of their G09 1210 pedestrian identities. It is through the metamorphosed dancer that the G09 1220 germ of form is discovered. In his recognition of his impersonal self G09 1230 the dancer moves, and this self, in the "first revealed stroke of G09 1240 its existence", states the theme from which all else must follow. The G09 1250 theme may be the formation of a shape from which other shapes evolve. G09 1260 It may be a reaction to a percussive sound, the following movements G09 1270 constituting further reactions. It may establish the relation of the G09 1280 figure of the dancer to light and color, in which case changes in the G09 1290 light or color will set off a kaleidescope of visual designs. Unconcerned G09 1300 with the practical function of his actions, the dancer is engrossed G09 1310 exclusively in their "motional content". Movements unfold freely G09 1320 because they are uninhibited by emotional bias or purposive drive. G09 1330 But the metamorphosis must come first. Though he is also concerned G09 1340 with freeing dance from pedestrian modes of activity, Merce G09 1350 Cunningham has selected a very different method for achieving his aim. G09 1360 He rejects all subjectively motivated continuity, any line of action G09 1370 related to the concept of cause and effect. He bases his approach G09 1380 on the belief that anything can follow anything. An order can be chanced G09 1390 rather than chosen, and this approach produces an experience that G09 1400 is "free and discovered rather than bound and remembered". Thus, G09 1410 there is freshness not only in the individual movements of the dance G09 1420 but in the shape of their continuity as well. Chance, he finds, enables G09 1430 him to create "a world beyond imagination". He cites with pleasure G09 1440 the comment of a lady, who exclaimed after a concert: "Why, G09 1450 it's extremely interesting. But I would never have thought of it myself". G09 1460 The sequence of movements in a Cunningham dance is G09 1470 unlike any sequence to be seen in life. At one side of the stage a dancer G09 1480 jumps excitedly; nearby, another sits motionless, while still another G09 1490 is twirling an umbrella. A man and a girl happen to meet; they G09 1500 look straight at the audience, not at each other. He lifts her, puts G09 1510 her down, and walks off, neither pleased nor disturbed, as if nothing G09 1520 had happened. If one dancer slaps another, the victim may do a pirouette, G09 1530 sit down, or offer his assailant a fork and spoon. Events occur G09 1540 without apparent reason. Their consequences are irrelevant- or there G09 1550 are no consequences at all. The sequence is determined by G09 1560 chance, and Mr& Cunningham makes use of any one of several chance G09 1570 devices. He may toss coins; he may take slips of paper from a grab G09 1580 bag. The answers derived by these means may determine not only the temporal G09 1600 organization of the dance but also its spatial design, special G09 1610 slips designating the location on the stage where the movement is to be G09 1620 performed. The other variables include the dancer who is to perform G09 1630 the movement and the length of time he is to take in its performance. G09 1640 The only factors that are personally set by the choreographer are the G09 1650 movements themselves, the number of the dancers, and the approximate G09 1660 total duration of the dance. The "approximate" is important, because G09 1670 even after the order of the work has been established by the chance G09 1680 method, the result is not inviolable. Each performance may be different. G09 1690 If a work is divided into several large segments, a last-minute G09 1700 drawing of random numbers may determine the order of the segments for G09 1710 any particular performance. And any sequence can not only change its G09 1720 positions in the work but can even be eliminated from it altogether. G09 1730 Mr& Cunningham tries not to cheat the chance method; he G09 1740 adheres to its dictates as faithfully as he can. However, there is always G09 1750 the possibility that chance will make demands the dancers find impossible G09 1760 to execute. Then the choreographer must arbitrate. He must G09 1770 rearrange matters so that two performers do not bump into each other. G09 1780 He must construct transitions so that a dancer who is told to lie prone G09 1790 one second and to leap wildly the next will have some physical preparation G09 1800 for the leap. G10 0010 THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH were in greater agreement on sovereignty, G10 0020 through all their dispute about it, than were the Founding Fathers. G10 0030 The truth in their conflicting concepts was expounded by statesmen G10 0040 of the calibre of Webster and Calhoun, and defended in the end G10 0050 by leaders of the nobility of Lincoln and Lee. The people everywhere G10 0060 had grown meanwhile in devotion to basic democratic principles, in G10 0070 understanding of and belief in the federal balance, and in love of their G10 0080 Union. Repeated efforts- beginning with the Missouri Compromise G10 0090 of 1821- were made by such master moderates as Clay and Douglas G10 0100 to resolve the difference peacefully by compromise, rather than clear G10 0110 thought and timely action. Even so, confusion in this period gained G10 0120 such strength (from compromise and other factors) that it led to the G10 0130 bloodiest war of the Nineteenth century. Nothing can show more than G10 0140 this the immensity of the danger to democratic peoples that lies in G10 0150 even relatively slight deviation from their true concept of sovereignty. G10 0160 The present issue in Atlantica- whether to transform an G10 0170 alliance of sovereign nations into a federal union of sovereign citizens- G10 0180 resembles the American one of 1787-89 rather than the one that G10 0190 was resolved by Civil War. And so I would only touch upon it now G10 0200 (much as I have long wanted to write a book about it). I think it is G10 0210 essential, however, to pinpoint here the difference between the two concepts G10 0220 of sovereignty that went to war in 1861- if only to see better G10 0230 how imperative is our need today to clarify completely our far worse G10 0240 confusion on this subject. The difference came down to this: G10 0250 The Southern States insisted that the United States was, in last G10 0260 analysis, what its name implied- a Union of States. To their leaders G10 0270 the Constitution was a compact made by the people of sovereign G10 0280 states, who therefore retained the right to secede from it. This right G10 0290 of the State, its upholders contended, was essential to maintain G10 0300 the federal balance and protect the liberty of the people from the danger G10 0310 of centralizing power in the Union government. The champions of G10 0320 the Union maintained that the Constitution had formed, fundamentally, G10 0330 the united people of America, that it was a compact among sovereign G10 0340 citizens rather than states, and that therefore the states had no right G10 0350 to secede, though the citizens could. Writing to Speed on August G10 0360 24, 1855, Lincoln made the latter point clear. In homely terms whose G10 0370 timeliness is startling today, he thus declared his own right to secede. G10 0380 " We began by declaring that . G10 0390 We now practically read it, . G10 0400 When the Know-nothings get control, it will read, and foreigners and Catholics. When G10 0420 it comes to this, I shall prefer emigrating to some country where G10 0430 they make no pretence of loving liberty- to Russia, for instance, where G10 0440 despotism can be taken pure, without the base alloy of hypocrisy". G10 0450 [His emphasis] When the Southern States exercised G10 0460 their "right to secede", they formed what they officially styled "The G10 0470 Confederate States of America". Dictionaries, as we have G10 0480 seen, still cite this government, along with the Articles of Confederation G10 0490 of 1781, as an example of a confederacy. The fact is that the G10 0500 Southern Confederacy differed from the earlier one almost as much as G10 0510 the Federal Constitution did. The Confederate Constitution copied G10 0520 much of the Federal Constitution verbatim, and most of the rest in G10 0530 substance. It operated on, by and for the people individually just as G10 0540 did the Federal Constitution. It made substantially the same division G10 0550 of power between the central and state governments, and among the G10 0560 executive, legislative and judicial branches. #THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN G10 0570 CONFEDERACY AND FEDERAL UNION IN 1861# Many believe- and understandably- G10 0580 that the great difference between the Constitution of G10 0590 the Southern Confederacy and the Federal Constitution was that the G10 0600 former recognized the right of each state to secede. But though each G10 0610 of its members had asserted this right against the Union, the final G10 0620 Constitution which the Confederacy signed on March 11- nearly a month G10 0630 before hostilities began- included no explicit provision authorizing G10 0640 a state to secede. Its drafters discussed this vital point but G10 0650 left it out of their Constitution. Their President, Jefferson Davis, G10 0660 interpreted their Constitution to mean that it "admits of no coerced G10 0670 association", but this reremained so doubtful that "there were G10 0680 frequent demands that the right to secede be put into the Constitution". G10 0690 The Constitution of the Southern "Confederation" G10 0700 differed from that of the Federal Union only in two important respects: G10 0710 It openly, defiantly, recognized slavery- an institution G10 0720 which the Southerners of 1787, even though they continued it, found so G10 0730 impossible to reconcile with freedom that they carefully avoided mentioning G10 0740 the word in the Federal Constitution. They recognized that G10 0750 slavery was a moral issue and not merely an economic interest, and that G10 0760 to recognize it explicitly in their Constitution would be in explosive G10 0770 contradiction to the concept of sovereignty they had set forth in G10 0780 the Declaration of 1776 that "all men are created equal, that they G10 0790 are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among G10 0800 them are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness **h". The G10 0810 other important difference between the two Constitutions was that the G10 0820 President of the Confederacy held office for six (instead of four) G10 0830 years, and was limited to one term. These are not, however, differences G10 0840 in federal structure. The only important differences from that G10 0850 standpoint, between the two Constitutions, lies in their Preambles. G10 0860 The one of 1861 made clear that in making their government the people G10 0870 were acting through their states, whereas the Preamble of 1787-89 G10 0880 expressed, as clearly as language can, the opposite concept, that they G10 0890 were acting directly as citizens. Here are the two Preambles: _FEDERAL G10 0900 CONSTITUTION, 1789_ "we the People of the United States, G10 0910 in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure G10 0920 domestic Tranquility, provide for the common Defence, promote the general G10 0930 Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and G10 0940 our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United G10 0950 States of America". _CONFEDERATE CONSTITUTION, 1861_ "We G10 0960 the people of the Confederate States, each state acting in its G10 0970 sovereign and independent character, in order to form a permanent federal G10 0980 government, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, and secure G10 0990 the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity- invoking G10 1000 the favor and the guidance of Almighty God- do ordain and establish G10 1010 this Constitution for the Confederate States of America". G10 1020 One is tempted to say that, on the difference between the concepts G10 1030 of sovereignty in these two preambles, the worst war of the Nineteenth G10 1040 century was fought. But though the Southern States, when drafting G10 1050 a constitution to unite themselves, narrowed the difference to this G10 1060 fine point by omitting to assert the right to secede, the fact remained G10 1070 that by seceding from the Union they had already acted on the concept G10 1080 that it was composed primarily of sovereign states. If the Union G10 1090 conceded this to them, the same right must be conceded to each remaining G10 1100 state whenever it saw fit to secede: This would destroy the federal G10 1110 balance between it and the states, and in the end sacrifice to G10 1120 the sovereignty of the states all the liberty the citizens had gained G10 1130 by their Union. Lincoln saw that the act of secession made the G10 1140 issue for the Union a vital one: Whether it was a Union of sovereign G10 1150 citizens that should continue to live, or an association of sovereign G10 1160 states that must fall prey either to "anarchy or despotism". G10 1170 Much as he abhorred slavery, Lincoln was always willing to G10 1180 concede to each "slave state" the right to decide independently whether G10 1190 to continue or end it. Though his election was interpreted by G10 1200 many Southerners as the forerunner of a dangerous shift in the federal G10 1210 balance in favor of the Union, Lincoln himself proposed no such change G10 1220 in the rights the Constitution gave the states. After the war began, G10 1230 he long refused to permit emancipation of the slaves by Union action G10 1240 even in the Border States that stayed with the Union. He issued G10 1250 his Emancipation Proclamation only when he felt that necessity left G10 1260 him no other way to save the Union. In his Message of December G10 1270 2, 1862, he put his purpose and his policy in these words- which I G10 1280 would call the Lincoln Law of Liberty-and-Union: <"In giving G10 1290 freedom to the slave, we assure freedom to the free">. What G10 1300 Lincoln could not concede was that the states rather than the people G10 1310 were sovereign in the Union. He fought to the end to preserve it G10 1320 as a "government of the people, by the people, for the people". #THE G10 1330 TRUTH ON EACH SIDE WON IN THE CIVIL WAR# The fact that the Americans G10 1340 who upheld the sovereignty of their states did this in order to G10 1350 keep many of their people more securely in slavery- the antithesis G10 1360 of individual liberty- made the conflict grimmer, and the greater. G10 1370 Out of this ordeal the citizen emerged, in the South as in the North, G10 1380 as America's true sovereign, in "a new birth of freedom", as G10 1390 Lincoln promised. But before this came about, 214,938 Americans had G10 1400 given their lives in battle for the two concepts of the sovereign rights G10 1410 of men and of states. On their decisive battlefield Lincoln G10 1420 did not distinguish between them when he paid tribute to the "brave G10 1430 men, living and dead, who fought here". He understood that both G10 1440 sides were at fault, and he reached the height of saying so explicitly G10 1450 in his Second Inaugural. To my knowledge, Lincoln remains G10 1460 the only Head of State and Commander-in-Chief who, while fighting G10 1470 a fearful war whose issue was in doubt, proved man enough to say this G10 1480 publicly- to give his foe the benefit of the fact that in all human G10 1490 truth there is some error, and in all our error, some truth. So great G10 1500 a man could not but understand, too, that the thing that moves men to G10 1510 sacrifice their lives is not the error of their thought, which their G10 1520 opponents see and attack, but the truth which the latter do not see- G10 1530 any more than they see the error which mars the truth they themselves G10 1540 defend. It is much less difficult now than in Lincoln's day G10 1550 to see that on both sides sovereign Americans had given their lives G10 1560 in the Civil War to maintain the balance between the powers they had G10 1570 delegated to the States and to their Union. They differed in the G10 1580 balance they believed essential to the sovereignty of the citizen- G10 1590 but the supreme sacrifice each made served to maintain a still more fundamental G10 1600 truth: That individual life, liberty and happiness depend G10 1610 on a right balance between the two- and on the limitation of sovereignty, G10 1620 in all its aspects, which this involves. The 140,414 Americans G10 1630 who gave "the last full measure of devotion" to prevent disunion, G10 1640 preserved individual freedom in the United States from the dangers G10 1650 of anarchy, inherent in confederations, which throughout history have G10 1660 proved fatal in the end to all associations composed primarily of sovereign G10 1670 states, and to the liberties of their people. But the fact that G10 1680 70,524 other Americans gave the same measure of devotion to an opposing G10 1690 concept served Liberty-and-Union in other essential ways. G10 1700 Its appeal from ballots to bullets at Fort Sumter ended by costing G10 1710 the Southerners their right to have slaves- a right that was even G10 1720 less compatible with the sovereignty of man. The very fact that they G10 1730 came so near to winning by the wrong method, war, led directly to their G10 1740 losing both the war and the wrong thing they fought for, since it forced G10 1750 Lincoln to free their slaves as a military measure. There was G10 1760 a divine justice in one wrong thus undoing another. There was also a G10 1770 lesson, one that has served ever since to keep Americans, in their conflicts G10 1780 with one another, from turning from the ballot to the bullet. G10 1790 Yet though the Southern States lost the worst errors in their case, G10 1800 they did not lose the truth they fought for. The lives so many of them G10 1810 gave, to forestall what they believed would be a fatal encroachment G10 1820 by the Union on the powers reserved to their states have continued G10 1830 ever since to safeguard all Americans against freedom's other foe. G11 0010 As cells coalesced into organisms, they built new "unnatural" and G11 0020 internally controlled environments to cope even more successfully with G11 0030 the entropy-increasing properties of the external world. The useful G11 0040 suggestion of Professor David Hawkins which considers culture as a G11 0050 third stage in biological evolution fits quite beautifully then with G11 0060 our suggestion that science has provided us with a rather successful technique G11 0070 for building protective artificial environments. One wonders G11 0080 about its applicability to people. Will advances in human sciences help G11 0090 us build social structures and governments which will enable us to G11 0100 cope with people as effectively as the primitive combination of protein G11 0110 and nucleic acid built a structure of molecules which enabled it to G11 0120 adapt to a sea of molecular interaction? The answer is of course yes. G11 0130 For the family is the simplest example of just such a unit, composed G11 0140 of people, which gives us both some immunity from, and a way of dealing G11 0150 with, other people. Social invention did not have to await social G11 0160 theory any more than use of the warmth of a fire had to await Lavoisier G11 0170 or the buoyant protection of a boat the formulations of Archimedes. G11 0180 But it has been during the last two centuries, during the scientific G11 0190 revolution, that our independence from the physical environment has G11 0200 made the most rapid strides. We have ample light when the sun sets; G11 0210 the temperature of our homes is independent of the seasons; we fly G11 0220 through the air, although gravity pulls us down; the range of our G11 0230 voice ignores distance. At what stage are social sciences then? Is G11 0240 the future of psychology akin to the rich future of physics at the time G11 0250 of Newton? There is a haunting resemblance between the notion G11 0260 of cause in Copernicus and in Freud. And it is certainly no slight G11 0270 to either of them to compare both their achievements and their impact. G11 0280 Political theoretical understanding, although almost at a standstill G11 0290 during this century, did develop during the eighteenth and nineteenth G11 0300 centuries, and resulted in a flood of inventions which increased G11 0310 the possibility for man to coexist with man. Consitutional government, G11 0320 popular vote, trial by jury, public education, labor unions, cooperatives, G11 0330 communes, socialized ownership, world courts, and the veto G11 0340 power in world councils are but a few examples. Most of these, with G11 0350 horrible exceptions, were conceived as is a ship, not as an attempt to G11 0360 quell the ocean of mankind, nor to deny its force, but as a means to G11 0370 survive and enjoy it. The most effective political inventions seem to G11 0380 make maximum use of natural harbors and are aware that restraining breakwaters G11 0390 can play only a minor part in the whole scheme. Just as present G11 0400 technology had to await the explanations of physics, so one might G11 0410 expect that social invention will follow growing sociological understanding. G11 0420 We are desperately in the need of such invention, for man is G11 0430 still very much at the mercy of man. In fact the accumulation of the G11 0440 hardware of destruction is day by day increasing our fear of each other. G11 0450 #/3,# I want, therefore, to discuss a second and quite different G11 0460 fruit of science, the connection between scientific understanding G11 0470 and fear. There are certainly large areas of understanding in the human G11 0480 sciences which in themselves and even without political invention G11 0490 can help to dispel our present fears. Lucretius has remarked: "The G11 0500 reason why all Mortals are so gripped by fear is that they see all G11 0510 sorts of things happening in the earth and sky with no discernable cause, G11 0520 and these they attribute to the will of God". Perhaps things G11 0530 were even worse then. It is difficult to reconstruct the primeval fears G11 0540 of man. We get some clue from a few remembrances of childhood and G11 0550 from the circumstance that we are probably not much more afraid of people G11 0560 now than man ever was. We are not now afraid of atomic bombs in G11 0570 the same way that people once feared comets. The bombs are as harmless G11 0580 as an automobile in a garage. We are worried about what people may G11 0590 do with them- that some crazy fool may "push the button". G11 0600 I am certainly not adequately trained to describe or enlarge on human G11 0610 fears, but there are certain features of the fears dispelled by scientific G11 0620 explanations that stand out quite clearly. They are in general G11 0630 those fears that once seemed to have been amenable to prayer or ritual. G11 0640 They include both individual fears and collective ones. They arise G11 0650 in situations in which one believes that what happens depends not G11 0660 only on the external world, but also on the precise pattern of behavior G11 0670 of the individual or group. Often it is recognized that all the details G11 0680 of the pattern may not be essential to the outcome but, because G11 0690 the pattern was empirically determined and not developed through theoretical G11 0700 understanding, one is never quite certain which behavior elements G11 0710 are effective, and the whole pattern becomes ritualized. Yet often G11 0720 fear persists because, even with the most rigid ritual, one is never G11 0730 quite free from the uneasy feeling that one might make some mistake or G11 0740 that in every previous execution one had been unaware of the really decisive G11 0750 act. To say that science had reduced many such fears merely reiterates G11 0760 the obvious and frequent statement that science eliminated much G11 0770 of magic and superstition. But a somewhat more detailed analysis G11 0780 of this process may be illuminating. The frequently postulated G11 0790 antique worry that the daylight hours might dwindle to complete darkness G11 0800 apparently gave rise to a ritual and celebration which we still recognize. G11 0810 It is curious that even centuries of repetition of the yearly G11 0820 cycle did not induce a sufficient degree of confidence to allow people G11 0830 to abandon the ceremonies of the winter solstice. This and other G11 0840 fears of the solar system have disappeared gradually, first, with the G11 0845 Ptolemaic G11 0850 system and its built-in concept of periodicity and then, more G11 0860 firmly, with the Newtonian innovation of an universal force that could G11 0870 account quantitatively for both terrestial and celestial motions. G11 0880 This understanding provides a very simple example of the fact that one G11 0890 can eliminate fear without instituting any controls. In fact, although G11 0900 we have dispelled the fear, we have not necessarily assured ourselves G11 0910 that there are no dangers. There is still the remote possibility G11 0920 of planetoid collision. A meteor could fall on San Francisco. Solar G11 0930 activities could presumably bring long periods of flood or drought. G11 0940 Our understanding of the solar system has taught us to replace our G11 0950 former elaborate rituals with the appropriate action which, in this case, G11 0960 amounts to doing nothing. Yet we no longer feel uneasy. This almost G11 0970 trivial example is nevertheless suggestive, for there are some elements G11 0980 in common between the antique fear that the days would get shorter G11 0990 and shorter and our present fear of war. We, in our country, think G11 1000 of war as an external threat which, if it occurs, will not be primarily G11 1010 of our own doing. And yet we obviously also believe that the avoidance G11 1020 of the disaster depends in some obscure or at least uncertain way G11 1030 on the details of how we behave. What elements of our behavior are decisive? G11 1040 Our weapons production, our world prestige, our ideas of democracy, G11 1050 our actions of trust or stubbornness or secrecy or espionage? G11 1060 We have staved off a war and, since our behavior has involved all G11 1070 these elements, we can only keep adding to our ritual without daring G11 1080 to abandon any part of it, since we have not the slightest notion which G11 1090 parts are effective. I think that we are here also talking of G11 1100 the kind of fear that a young boy has for a group of boys who are approaching G11 1110 at night along the streets of a large city. If an automobile G11 1120 were approaching him, he would know what was required of him, even though G11 1130 he might not be able to act quickly enough. With the group of boys G11 1140 it is different. He does not know whether to look up or look aside, G11 1150 to put his hands in his pockets or to clench them at his side, to cross G11 1160 the street, or to continue on the same side. When confronted with G11 1170 a drunk or an insane person I have no notion of what any one of them G11 1180 might do to me or to himself or to others. I believe that what I do G11 1190 has some effect on his actions and I have learned, in a way, to commune G11 1200 with drunks, but certainly my actions seem to resemble more nearly G11 1210 the performance of a rain dance than the carrying out of an experiment G11 1220 in physics. I am usually filled with an uneasiness that through some G11 1230 unwitting slip all hell may break loose. Our inability to explain G11 1240 why certain people are fond of us frequently induces the same kind of G11 1250 ritual and malaise. We are forced, in our behavior towards others, to G11 1260 adopt empirically successful patterns in toto because we have such a G11 1270 minimal understanding of their essential elements. Our collective G11 1280 policies, group and national, are similarly based on voodoo, but G11 1290 here we often lack even the empirically successful rituals and are still G11 1300 engaged in determing them. We use terms from our personal experience G11 1310 with individuals such as "trust", "cheat", and "get tough". G11 1320 We talk about national character in the same way that Copernicus G11 1330 talked of the compulsions of celestial bodies to move in circles. We G11 1340 perform elaborate international exhortations and ceremonies with virtually G11 1350 no understanding of social cause and effect. Small wonder, then, G11 1360 that we fear. The achievements which dispelled our fears of G11 1370 the cosmos took place three centuries ago. What additional roles has G11 1380 the scientific understanding of the 19th and 20th centuries played? G11 1390 In the physical sciences, these achievements concern electricity, chemistry, G11 1400 and atomic physics. In the life sciences, there has been an G11 1410 enormous increase in our understanding of disease, in the mechanisms of G11 1420 heredity, and in bio- and physiological chemistry. The major effect G11 1430 of these advances appears to lie in the part they have played in the G11 1440 industrial revolution and in the tools which scientific understanding G11 1450 has given us to build and manipulate a more protective environment. In G11 1460 addition, our way of dealing directly with natural phenomena has also G11 1470 changed. Even in domains where detailed and predictive understanding G11 1480 is still lacking, but where some explanations are possible, as with G11 1490 lightning and weather and earthquakes, the appropriate kind of human action G11 1500 has been more adequately indicated. Apparently the population G11 1510 as a whole eventually acquires enough confidence in the explanations G11 1520 of the scientists to modify its procedures and its fears. How and G11 1530 why this process occurs would provide an interesting separate subject G11 1540 for study. In some areas, the progress is slower than in others. In G11 1550 agriculture, for example, despite the advances in biology, elaborate G11 1560 rituals tend to persist along with a continued sense of the imminence G11 1570 of some natural disaster. In child care, the opposite extreme prevails; G11 1580 procedures change rapidly and parental confidence probably exceeds G11 1590 anything warranted by established psychological theory. There are G11 1600 many domains in which understanding has brought about widespread and quite G11 1610 appropriate reduction in ritual and fear. Much of the former extreme G11 1620 uneasiness associated with visions and hallucinations and with death G11 1630 has disappeared. The persistent horror of having a malformed child G11 1640 has, I believe, been reduced, not because we have gained any control G11 1650 over this misfortune, but precisely because we have learned that we G11 1660 have so little control over it. In fact, the recent warnings about the G11 1670 use of ~X-rays have introduced fears and ambiguities of action which G11 1680 now require more detailed understanding, and thus in this instance, G11 1690 science has momentarily aggravated our fears. In fact, insofar as G11 1700 science generates any fear, it stems not so much from scientific prowess G11 1710 and gadgets but from the fact that new unanswered questions arise, G11 1720 which, until they are understood, create uncertainty. Perhaps G11 1730 the most illuminating example of the reduction of fear through understanding G11 1740 is derived from our increased knowledge of the nature of disease. G11 1750 The situation with regard to our attitude and "control" of disease G11 1760 contains close analogies to problems confronting us with respect G11 1770 to people. The fear of disease was formerly very much the kind of fear G11 1780 I have tried to describe. G12 0010 ## Nothing like Godot, he arrived before the hour. His letter had G12 0020 suggested we meet at my hotel at noon on Sunday, and I came into G12 0030 the lobby as the clock struck twelve. He was waiting. My wish G12 0040 to meet Samuel Beckett had been prompted by simple curiosity and interest G12 0050 in his work. American newspaper reviewers like to call his plays G12 0060 nihilistic. They find deep pessimism in them. Even so astute a commentator G12 0070 as Harold Clurman of has said that "Waiting G12 0080 for Godot" is "the concentrate **h of the contemporary European G12 0090 **h mood of despair". But to me Beckett's writing had seemed G12 0100 permeated with love for human beings and with a kind of humor that G12 0110 I could reconcile neither with despair nor with nihilism. Could it G12 0120 be that my own eyes and ears had deceived me? Is his a literature of G12 0130 defeat, irrelevant to the social crises we face? Or is it relevant G12 0140 because it teaches us something useful to know about ourselves? G12 0150 I knew that a conversation with the author would not settle such G12 0160 questions, because a man is not the same as his writing: in the last G12 0170 analysis, the questions had to be settled by the work itself. Nevertheless G12 0180 I was curious. My curiosity was sharpened a day or two G12 0190 before the interview by a conversation I had with a well-informed teacher G12 0200 of literature, a Jesuit father, at a conference on religious G12 0210 drama near Paris. When Beckett's name came into the discussion, G12 0220 the priest G12 0230 grew loud and told me that Beckett "hates life". That, G12 0240 I thought, is at least one thing I can find out when we meet. ## G12 0250 Beckett's appearance is rough-hewn Irish. The features of his face G12 0260 are distinct, but not fine. They look as if they had been sculptured G12 0270 with an unsharpened chisel. Unruly hair goes straight up from his G12 0280 forehead, standing so high that the top falls gently over, as if to show G12 0290 that it really is hair and not bristle. One might say it combines G12 0300 the man; own pride and humility. For he has the pride that comes of G12 0310 self-acceptance and the humility, perhaps of the same genesis, not to G12 0320 impose himself upon another. His light blue eyes, set deep within the G12 0330 face, are actively and continually looking. He seems, by some unconscious G12 0340 division of labor, to have given them that one function and no G12 0350 other, leaving communication to the rest of the face. The mouth frequently G12 0360 breaks into a disarming smile. The voice is light in timbre, with G12 0370 a rough edge that corresponds to his visage. The Irish accent is, G12 0380 as one would expect, combined with slight inflections from the French. G12 0390 His tweed suit was a baggy gray and green. He wore a brown knit G12 0400 sports shirt with no tie. We walked down the Rue de L'Arcade, G12 0410 thence along beside the Madeleine and across to a sidewalk cafe G12 0420 opposite that church. The conversation that ensued may have been engrossing G12 0430 but it could hardly be called world-shattering. For one thing, G12 0440 the world that Beckett sees is already shattered. His talk turns to G12 0450 what he calls "the mess", or sometimes "this buzzing confusion". G12 0460 I reconstruct his sentences from notes made immediately after our G12 0470 conversation. What appears here is shorter than what he actually said G12 0480 but very close to his own words. "The confusion is not my G12 0490 invention. We cannot listen to a conversation for five minutes without G12 0500 being acutely aware of the confusion. It is all around us and our G12 0510 only chance now is to let it in. The only chance of renovation is to G12 0520 open our eyes and see the mess. It is not a mess you can make sense of". G12 0530 I suggested that one must let it in because it is the truth, G12 0540 but Beckett did not take to the word truth. "What is more G12 0550 true than anything else? To swim is true, and to sink is true. G12 0560 One is not more true than the other. One cannot speak anymore of being, G12 0570 one must speak only of the mess. When Heidegger and Sartre speak G12 0580 of a contrast between being and existence, they may be right, I don't G12 0590 know, but their language is too philosophical for me. I am not a G12 0600 philosopher. One can only speak of what is in front of him, and that G12 0610 now is simply the mess". Then he began to speak about the tension G12 0620 in art between the mess and form. Until recently, art has withstood G12 0630 the pressure of chaotic things. It has held them at bay. It realized G12 0640 that to admit them was to jeopardize form. "How could the mess G12 0650 be admitted, because it appears to be the very opposite of form and G12 0660 therefore destructive of the very thing that art holds itself to be"? G12 0670 But now we can keep it out no longer, because we have come into a G12 0680 time when "it invades our experience at every moment. It is there G12 0690 and it must be allowed in". I granted this might be so, but G12 0700 found the result to be even more attention to form than was the case previously. G12 0710 And why not? How, I asked, could chaos be admitted to G12 0720 chaos? Would not that be the end of thinking and the end of art? G12 0730 If we look at recent art we find it preoccupied with form. Beckett's G12 0740 own work is an example. Plays more highly formalized than "Waiting G12 0750 for Godot", "Endgame", and "Krapp's Last Tape" would G12 0760 be hard to find. "What I am saying does not mean that there G12 0770 will henceforth be no form in art. It only means that there will G12 0780 be new form, and that this form will be of such a type that it admits G12 0790 the chaos and does not try to say that the chaos is really something G12 0800 else. The form and the chaos remain separate. The latter is not reduced G12 0810 to the former. That is why the form itself becomes a preoccupation, G12 0820 because it exists as a problem separate from the material it accommodates. G12 0830 To find a form that accommodates the mess, that is the task of G12 0840 the artist now". Yet, I responded, could not similar things G12 0850 be said about the art of the past? Is it not characteristic of the G12 0860 greatest art that it confronts us with something we cannot clarify, G12 0870 demanding that the viewer respond to it in his own never-predictable G12 0880 way? What is the history of criticism but the history of men attempting G12 0890 to make sense of the manifold elements in art that will not allow G12 0900 themselves to be reduced to a single philosophy or a single aesthetic G12 0910 theory? Isn't all art ambiguous? "Not this", he said, G12 0920 and gestured toward the Madeleine. The classical lines of the church G12 0930 which Napoleon thought of as a Temple of Glory, dominated all G12 0940 the scene where we sat. The Boulevard de la Madeleine, the Boulevard G12 0950 Malesherbes, and the Rue Royale ran to it with graceful flattery, G12 0960 bearing tidings of the Age of Reason. "Not this. This is clear. G12 0970 This does not allow the mystery to invade us. With classical art, G12 0980 all is settled. But it is different at Chartres. There is the unexplainable, G12 0990 and there art raises questions that it does not attempt to G12 1000 answer". I asked about the battle between life and death in G12 1010 his plays. Didi and Gogo hover on the edge of suicide; Hamm's G12 1020 world is death and Clov may or may not get out of it to join the living G12 1030 child outside. Is this life-death question a part of the chaos? G12 1040 "Yes. If life and death did not both present themselves to G12 1050 us, there would be no inscrutability. If there were only darkness, all G12 1060 would be clear. It is because there is not only darkness but also G12 1070 light that our situation becomes inexplicable. Take Augustine's doctrine G12 1080 of grace given and grace withheld: have you pondered the dramatic G12 1090 qualities in this theology? Two thieves are crucified with Christ, G12 1100 one saved and the other damned. How can we make sense of this G12 1110 division? In classical drama, such problems do not arise. The destiny G12 1120 of Racine's Phedre is sealed from the beginning: she will proceed G12 1130 into the dark. As she goes, she herself will be illuminated. At G12 1140 the beginning of the play she has partial illumination and at the end G12 1150 she has complete illumination, but there has been no question but that G12 1160 she moves toward the dark. That is the play. Within this notion clarity G12 1170 is possible, but for us who are neither Greek nor Jansenist there G12 1180 is not such clarity. The question would also be removed if we believed G12 1190 in the contrary- total salvation. But where we have both dark G12 1200 and light we have also the inexplicable. The key word in my plays is G12 1210 'perhaps'". ## Given a theological lead, I asked what he G12 1220 thinks about those who find a religious significance to his plays. G12 1230 "Well, really there is none at all. I have no religious feeling. G12 1240 Once I had a religious emotion. It was at my first Communion. G12 1250 No more. My mother was deeply religious. So was my brother. He knelt G12 1260 down at his bed as long as he could kneel. My father had none. The G12 1270 family was Protestant, but for me it was only irksome and I let it G12 1280 go. My brother and mother got no value from their religion when they G12 1290 died. At the moment of crisis it had no more depth than an old-school G12 1300 tie. Irish Catholicism is not attractive, but it is deeper. When G12 1310 you pass a church on an Irish bus, all the hands flurry in the sign of G12 1320 the cross. One day the dogs of Ireland will do that too and perhaps G12 1330 also the pigs". But do the plays deal with the same facets G12 1340 of experience religion must also deal with? "Yes, for they G12 1350 deal with distress. Some people object to this in my writing. At a G12 1360 party an English intellectual- so-called- asked me why I write G12 1370 always about distress. As if it were perverse to do so! He wanted G12 1380 to know if my father had beaten me or my mother had run away from home G12 1390 to give me an unhappy childhood. I told him no, that I had had a very G12 1400 happy childhood. Then he thought me more perverse than ever. I left G12 1410 the party as soon as possible and got into a taxi. On the glass partition G12 1420 between me and the driver were three signs: one asked for help G12 1430 for the blind, another help for orphans, and the third for relief for G12 1440 the war refugees. One does not have to look for distress. It is screaming G12 1450 at you even in the taxis of London". Lunch was over, G12 1460 and we walked back to the hotel with the light and dark of Paris screaming G12 1470 at us. ## The personal quality of Samuel Beckett is similar G12 1480 to qualities I had found in the plays. He says nothing that compresses G12 1490 experience within a closed pattern. "Perhaps" stands in G12 1500 place of commitment. At the same time, he is plainly sympathetic, clearly G12 1510 friendly. If there were only the mess, all would be clear; but G12 1520 there is also compassion. As a Christian, I know I do not G12 1530 stand where Beckett stands, but I do see much of what he sees. As a G12 1540 writer on the theater, I have paid close attention to the plays. Harold G12 1550 Clurman is right to say that "Waiting for Godot" is a reflection G12 1560 (he calls it a distorted reflection) "of the impasse and disarray G12 1570 of Europe's present politics, ethic, and common way of life". G12 1580 Yet it is not only Europe the play refers to. "Waiting for Godot" G12 1590 sells even better in America than in France. The consciousness G12 1600 it mirrors may have come earlier to Europe than to America, but it G12 1610 is the consciousness that most "mature" societies arrive at when G12 1620 their successes in technological and economic systematization propel G12 1630 them into a time of examining the not-strictly-practical ends of culture. G12 1640 America is now joining Europe in this "mature" phase of development. G12 1660 Whether any of us remain in it long will depend on what happens G12 1670 as a result of the technological and economic revolutions now going G12 1680 on in the countries of Asia and Africa, and also of course on how long G12 1690 the cold war remains cold. G13 0010 Even Hemingway, for all his efforts to formulate a naturalistic morality G13 0020 in and never G13 0030 maintained that sex was all. Hemingway's fiction is supported by a G13 0040 "moral" backbone and in its search for ultimate meaning hints at G13 0050 a religious dimension. And D& H& Lawrence, in protested vehemently against the overestimation of G13 0070 the sexual motive. Though sex in some form or other enters into all human G13 0080 activity and it was a good thing that Freud emphasized this aspect G13 0090 of human nature, it is fantastic to explain everything in terms of G13 0100 sex. "All is sex", declared Lawrence. Man is not confined G13 0110 to one outlet for his vital energy. The creative urge, for example, G13 0120 transcends the body and the self. But for the beat generation G13 0130 all sex. Nothing is more revealing of the way of life and literary G13 0140 aspirations of this group than their attitude toward sex. For G13 0150 the beatnik, like the hipster, is in opposition to a society that is based G13 0160 on the repression of the sex instinct. He has elevated sex- not G13 0170 Eros or libido but pure, spontaneous, uninhibited sex- to the rank G13 0180 of the godhead; it is Astarte, Ishtar, Venus, Yahwe, Dionysus, G13 0190 Christ, the mysterious and divine orgone energy flowing through the G13 0200 body of the universe. Jazz is sex, marijuana is a stimulus to sex, the G13 0210 beat tempo is adjusted to the orgiastic release of the sexual impulse. G13 0220 Lawrence Lipton, in stresses that for G13 0230 the beat generation sex is more than a source of pleasure; it is a G13 0240 mystique, and their private language is rich in the multivalent ambiguities G13 0250 of sexual reference so that they dwell in a sexualized universe G13 0260 of discourse. The singular uncompromising force of their revolt against G13 0270 the cult of restraint is illustrated by their refusal to dance in G13 0280 a public place. The dance is but a disguised ritual for the expression G13 0290 of ungratified sexual desire. For this reason, too, their language G13 0300 is more forthright and earthy. The beatniks crave a sexual experience G13 0310 in which their whole being participates. It is therefore not G13 0320 surprising that they resist the lure of marriage and the trap of domesticity, G13 0330 for like cats they are determined not to tame their sexual energy. G13 0340 They withdraw to the underground of the slums where they can defy G13 0350 the precepts of legalized propriety. Unlike the heroes and flappers G13 0360 of the lost generation, they disdain the art of "necking" and "petting". G13 0370 That is reserved for the squares. If they avoid the use G13 0380 of the pungent, outlawed four-letter word it is because it is taboo; G13 0390 it is sacred. As Lipton, the prophet of the beat generation, declares: G13 0400 "In the sexual act, the beat are filled with mana, the divine G13 0410 power. This is far from the vulgar, leering sexuality of the middle-class G13 0420 square in heat". This is the Holy Grail these knights of G13 0430 the orgasm pursue, this is the irresistible cosmic urge to which they G13 0440 respond. If Wilhelm Reich is the Moses who has led them out G13 0450 of the Egypt of sexual slavery, Dylan Thomas is the poet who offers G13 0460 them the Dionysian dialectic of justification for their indulgence G13 0470 in liquor, marijuana, sex, and jazz. In addition, they have been converted G13 0480 to Zen Buddhism, with its glorification of all that is "natural" G13 0490 and mysteriously alive, the sense that everything in the world G13 0500 is flowing. Thus, paradoxically, the beat writers resort to "religious" G13 0510 metaphors: they are in search of mana, the spiritual, the numinous, G13 0520 but not anything connected with formal religion. What they are G13 0530 after is the beatific vision. And Zen Buddhism, though it is extremely G13 0540 difficult to understand how these internal contradictions are reconciled, G13 0550 helps them in their struggle to achieve personal salvation through G13 0560 sexual release. The style of life chosen by the beat generation, G13 0570 the rhythm and ritual they have adopted as uniquely their own, G13 0580 is designed to enhance the value of the sexual experience. Jazz is G13 0590 good not only because it promotes wholeness but because of its decided G13 0600 sexual effect. Jazz is the musical language of sex, the vocabulary of G13 0610 the orgasm; indeed, it is maintained that the sexual element in jazz, G13 0620 by freeing the listener of his inhibitions, can have therapeutic G13 0630 value. That is why, the argument runs, the squares are so fearful of G13 0640 jazz and yet perversely fascinated by it. Instead of giving themselves G13 0650 spontaneously to the orgiastic release that jazz can give them, they G13 0660 undergo psychoanalysis or flirt with mysticism or turn to prostitutes G13 0670 for satisfaction. Thus jazz is transmuted into something holy, the G13 0680 sacred road to integration of being. Jazz, like sex, is a mystique. It G13 0690 is not a substitute for sex but a dynamic expression of the creative G13 0700 impulse in unfettered man. The mystique of sex, combined with G13 0710 marijuana and jazz, is intended to provide a design for living. Those G13 0720 who are sexually liberated can become creatively alive and free, their G13 0730 instincts put at the service of the imagination. Righteous in their G13 0740 denunciation of all that makes for death, the beat prophets bid all G13 0750 men become cool cats; let them learn to "swing" freely, to let G13 0760 go, to become authentically themselves, and then perhaps civilization G13 0770 will be saved. The beatnik, seceding from a society that is fatally G13 0780 afflicted with a deathward drive, is concerned with his personal salvation G13 0790 in the living present. If he is the child of nothingness, if he G13 0800 is the predestined victim of an age of atomic wars, then he will consult G13 0810 only his own organic needs and go beyond good and evil. He will not G13 0820 curb his instinctual desires but release the energy within him that G13 0830 makes him feel truly and fully alive, even if it is only for this brief G13 0840 moment before the apocalypse of annihilation explodes on earth. G13 0850 That is why the members of the beat generation proudly assume the G13 0860 title of the holy barbarians; they will destroy the shrines, temples, G13 0870 museums, and churches of the state that is the implacable enemy of the G13 0880 life they believe in. Apart from the categorical imperative they derive G13 0890 from the metaphysics of the orgasm, the only affirmation they are G13 0900 capable of making is that art is their only refuge. Their writing, G13 0910 born of their experiments in marijuana and untrammeled sexuality, reflects G13 0920 the extremity of their existential alienation. The mind has betrayed G13 0930 them, reason is the foe of life; they will trust only their physical G13 0940 sensations, the wisdom of the body, the holy promptings of the unconscious. G13 0950 With lyrical intensity they reveal what they hate, but their G13 0960 faith in love, inspired by the revolutionary rhythms of jazz, culminates G13 0970 in the climax of the orgasm. Their work mirrors the mentality G13 0980 of the psychopath, rootless and irresponsible. Their rebellion against G13 0990 authoritarian society is not far removed from the violence of revolt G13 1000 characteristic of the juvenile delinquent. And the life they G13 1010 lead is undisciplined and for the most part unproductive, even though G13 1020 they make a fetish of devoting themselves to some creative pursuit- G13 1030 writing, painting, music. They are non-conformists on principle. When G13 1040 they express themselves it is incandescent hatred that shines forth, G13 1050 the rage of repudiation, the ecstasy of negation. It is sex that obsesses G13 1060 them, sex that is at the basis of their aesthetic creed. What G13 1070 they discuss with dialectical seriousness is the degree to which sex can G13 1080 inspire the Muse. Monogamy is the vice from which the abjectly fearful G13 1090 middle class continue to suffer, whereas the beatnik has the courage G13 1100 to break out of that prison of respectability. One girl describes G13 1110 her past, her succession of broken marriages, the abortions she has G13 1115 had G13 1120 and finally confesses that she loves sex and sees no reason why she G13 1130 must justify her passion. If it is an honest feeling, then why should G13 1140 she not yield to it? " often", she says, "it's the G13 1150 relationship that is honest". There is nothing G13 1160 holy in wedlock. This girl soon drops the bourgeois pyschiatrist G13 1170 who disapproves of her life. She finds married life stifling and every G13 1180 prolonged sex relationship unbearably monotonous. This confession G13 1190 serves to make clear in part what is behind this sexual revolution: G13 1200 the craving for sensation for its own sake, the need for change, G13 1210 for new experiences. Boredom is death. In the realm of physical sensations, G13 1220 sex reigns supreme. Hence the beatniks sustain themselves on G13 1230 marijuana, jazz, free swinging poetry, exhausting themselves in orgies G13 1240 of sex; some of them are driven over the borderline of sanity and G13 1250 lose contact with reality. One beat poet composes a poem, "Lines on G13 1260 a Tijuana John", which contains a few happy hints for survival. G13 1270 The new fact the initiates of this cult have to learn is that they must G13 1280 move toward simplicity. The professed mission of this disaffiliated G13 1290 generation is to find a new way of life which they can express in poetry G13 1300 and fiction, but what they produce is unfortunately disordered, nourished G13 1310 solely on the hysteria of negation. Who are the creative G13 1320 representatives of this movement? Nymphomaniacs, junkies, homosexuals, G13 1330 drug addicts, lesbians, alcoholics, the weak, the frustrated, G13 1340 the irresolute, the despairing, the derelicts and outcasts of society. G13 1350 They embrace independent poverty, usually with a "shack-up" partner G13 1360 who will help support them. They are full of contempt for the institution G13 1370 of matrimony. Their previous legalized marriages do not count, G13 1380 for they hold the laws of the state null and void. They feel they G13 1390 are leagued against a hostile, persecutory world, faced with the concerted G13 1400 malevolent opposition of squares and their hirelings, the police. G13 1410 This is the rhetoric of righteousness the beatniks use in defending G13 1420 their way of life, their search for wholeness, though their actual existence G13 1430 fails to reach these "religious" heights. One beatnik got G13 1440 the woman he was living with so involved in drugs and self-analysis and G13 1450 all-night sessions of sex that she was beginning to crack up. What G13 1460 obsessions had she picked up during these long nights of talk? Sex G13 1470 as the creative principle of the universe, the secret of primitive religion, G13 1480 the life of myth. Everything in the final analysis reduced itself G13 1490 to sexual symbolism. In his chapter on "The Loveways of the G13 1500 Beat Generation", Lipton spares the reader none of the sordid details. G13 1510 No one asks questions about the free union of the sexes in West G13 1520 Venice so long as the partners share the negative attitudes of the G13 1530 group. The women who come to West Venice, having forsaken radicalism, G13 1540 are interested in living only for the moment, in being constantly G13 1550 on the move. Others who are attracted to this Mecca of the beat G13 1560 generation are homosexuals, heroin addicts, and smalltime hoodlums. G13 1570 Those who are sexual deviants are naturally drawn to join the beatniks. G13 1580 Since the homosexuals widely use marijuana, they do not have to be G13 1590 initiated. Part of the ritual of sex is the use of marijuana. As Lipton G13 1600 puts it: "The Eros is felt in the magic circle of marijuana G13 1610 with far greater force, as a unifying principle in human relationships, G13 1620 than at any other time except, perhaps, in the mutual metaphysical G13 1630 orgasms. The magic circle is, in fact, a symbol of and preparation for G13 1640 the metaphysical orgasm". Under the influence of marijuana the beatnik G13 1650 comes alive within and experiences a wonderfully enhanced sense G13 1660 of self as if he had discovered the open sesame to the universe of being. G13 1670 Carried high on this "charge", he composes "magical" poetry G13 1680 that captures the organic rhythms of life in words. If he thus achieves G13 1690 a lyrical, dreamlike, drugged intensity, he pays the price for his G13 1700 indulgence by producing work- Allen Ginsberg's "Howl" is G13 1710 a striking example of this tendency- that is disoriented, Dionysian G13 1720 but without depth and without Apollonian control. For drugs are in G13 1730 themselves no royal road to creativity. How is the beat poet to achieve G13 1740 unity of form when he is at the same time engaged in a systematic G13 1750 derangement of senses. If love reflects the nature of man, as G13 1760 Ortega y Gasset believes, if the person in love betrays decisively what G13 1770 he is by his behavior in love, then the writers of the beat generation G13 1780 are creating a new literary genre. G14 0010 _@_ There were fences in the old days when we were children. Across G14 0020 the front of a yard and down the side, they were iron, either spiked G14 0030 along the top or arched in half circles. Alley fences were made G14 0040 of solid boards higher than one's head, but not so high as the golden G14 0050 glow in a corner or the hollyhocks that grew in a line against them. G14 0060 Side fences were hidden beneath lilacs and hundred-leaf roses; front G14 0070 fences were covered with Virginia creeper or trumpet vines or honeysuckle. G14 0080 Square corner- and gate posts were an open-work pattern of G14 0090 cast-iron foliage; they were topped by steeples complete in every detail: G14 0100 high-pitched roof, pinnacle, and narrow gable. On these posts G14 0110 the gates swung open with a squeak and shut with a metallic clang. G14 0120 The only extended view possible to anyone less tall than the fences G14 0130 was that obtained from an upper bough of the apple tree. The primary G14 0140 quality of that view seems, now, to have been its quietness, but that G14 0150 cannot at the time have impressed us. What one actually remembers G14 0160 is its greenness. From high in the tree, the whole block lay within G14 0170 range of the eye, but the ground was almost nowhere visible. One looked G14 0180 down on a sea of leaves, a breaking wave of flower. Every path from G14 0190 back door to barn was covered by a grape-arbor, and every yard had its G14 0200 fruit trees. In the center of any open space remaining our grandfathers G14 0210 had planted syringa and sweet-shrub, snowball, rose-of-Sharon and G14 0220 balm-of-Gilead. From above one could only occasionally catch a glimpse G14 0230 of life on the floor of this green sea: a neighbor's gingham G14 0240 skirt flashing into sight for an instant on the path beneath her grape-arbor, G14 0250 or the movement of hands above a clothesline and the flutter G14 0260 of garments hung there, half-way down the block. That was one G14 0270 epoch: the apple-tree epoch. Another had ended before it began. Time G14 0280 is a queer thing and memory a queerer; the tricks that time plays G14 0290 with memory and memory with time are queerest of all. From maturity G14 0300 one looks back at the succession of years, counts them and makes them G14 0310 many, yet cannot feel in the number, however large. In a G14 0320 stream that turns a mill-wheel there is a lot of water; the mill-pond G14 0330 is quiet, its surface dark and shadowed, and there does not seem to G14 0340 be much water in it. Time in the sum is nothing. And yet- a year to G14 0350 a child is an eternity, and in the memory that phase of one's being- G14 0360 a certain mental landscape- will seem to have endured without beginning G14 0370 and without end. The part of the mind that preserves dates and G14 0380 events may remonstrate, "It could have been like that for only a G14 0390 little while"; but true memory does not count nor add: it holds G14 0400 fast to things that were and they are outside of time. Once, G14 0410 then- for how many years or how few does not matter- my world was G14 0420 bound round by fences, when I was too small to reach the apple tree bough, G14 0430 to twist my knee over it and pull myself up. That world was in G14 0440 scale with my own smallness. I have no picture in my mind of the garden G14 0450 as a whole- that I could not see- but certain aspects of certain G14 0460 corners linger in the memory: wind-blown, frost-bitten, white chrysanthemums G14 0470 beneath a window, with their brittle brown leaves and their G14 0480 sharp scent of November; ripe pears lying in long grass, to be turned G14 0490 over by a dusty-slippered foot, cautiously, lest bees still worked G14 0500 in the ragged, brown-edged holes; hot-colored verbenas in the corner G14 0510 between the dining-room wall and the side porch, where we passed on G14 0520 our way to the pump with the half-gourd tied to it as a cup by my grandmother G14 0530 for our childish pleasure in drinking from it. It was G14 0540 mother who planted the verbenas. I think that my grandmother was not G14 0550 an impassioned gardener: she was too indulgent a lover of dogs and G14 0560 grandchildren. My great-grandmother, I have been told, made her garden G14 0570 her great pride; she cherished rare and delicate plants like oleanders G14 0580 in tubs and wall-flowers and lemon verbenas in pots that had to G14 0590 be wintered in the cellar; she filled the waste spots of the yard with G14 0600 common things like the garden heliotrope in a corner by the woodshed, G14 0610 and the plantain lilies along the west side of the house. These my G14 0620 grandmother left in their places (they are still there, more persistent G14 0630 and longer-lived than the generations of man) and planted others like G14 0640 them, that flourished without careful tending. Three of these only G14 0650 were protected from us by stern commandment: the roses, whose petals G14 0660 might not be collected until they had fallen, to be made into perfume G14 0670 or rose-tea to drink; the peonies, whose tight sticky buds would G14 0680 be blighted by the laying on of a finger, although they were not apparently G14 0690 harmed by the ants that crawled over them; and the poppies. I G14 0700 have more than once sat cross-legged in the grass through a long summer G14 0710 morning and watched without touching while a poppy bud higher than G14 0720 my head slowly but visibly pushed off its cap, unfolded, and shook out G14 0730 like a banner in the sun its flaming vermilion petals. Other flowers G14 0740 we might gather as we pleased: myrtle and white violets from beneath G14 0750 the lilacs; the lilacs themselves, that bloomed so prodigally but G14 0760 for the most part beyond our reach; snowballs; hollyhock blossoms G14 0770 that, G14 0780 turned upside down, make pink-petticoated ladies; and the little, G14 0790 dark blue larkspur that scattered its seed everywhere. More G14 0800 potent a charm to bring back that time of life than this record of a G14 0810 few pictures and a few remembered facts would be a catalogue of the minutiae G14 0820 which are of the very stuff of the mind, intrinsic, because they G14 0830 were known in the beginning not by the eye alone but by the hand that G14 0840 held them. Flowers, stones, and small creatures, living and dead. Pale G14 0850 yellow snapdragons that by pinching could be made to bite; seed-pods G14 0860 of the balsams that snapped like fire-crackers at a touch; red-and-yellow G14 0870 columbines whose round-tipped spurs were picked off and G14 0880 eaten G14 0890 for the honey in them; morning-glory buds which could be so grasped G14 0900 and squeezed that they burst like a blown-up paper bag; bright flowers G14 0910 from the trumpet vine that made "gloves" on the ends of ten G14 0920 waggling fingers. Fuzzy caterpillars, snails with their sensitive horns, G14 0930 struggling grasshoppers held by their long hind legs and commanded G14 0940 to "spit tobacco, spit". Dead fledgling birds, their squashed-looking G14 0950 nakedness and the odor of decay that clung to the hand when they G14 0960 had been buried in our graveyard in front of the purple flags. And G14 0970 the G14 0980 cast shell of a locust, straw-colored and transparent, weighing nothing, G14 0990 fragile but entire, with eyes like bubbles and a gaping slit down G14 1000 its back. Every morning early, in the summer, we searched the trunks G14 1010 of the trees as high as we could reach for the locust shells, carefully G14 1020 detached their hooked claws from the bark where they hung, and stabled G14 1030 them, a weird faery herd, in an angle between the high roots of the G14 1040 tulip tree, where no grass grew in the dense shade **h. We collected G14 1050 "lucky stones"- all the creamy translucent pebbles, worn smooth G14 1060 and round, that we could find in the driveway. When these had been G14 1070 pocketed, we could still spend a morning cracking open other pebbles G14 1080 for our delight in seeing how much prettier they were inside than their G14 1090 dull exteriors indicated. We showed them to each other and said "Would G14 1100 you have guessed **h"? Squatting on our haunches beside the G14 1110 flat stone we broke them on, we were safe behind the high closed gates G14 1120 at the end of the drive: safe from interruption and the observation G14 1130 and possible amusement of the passers-by. Thus shielded, we played G14 1140 many foolish games in comfortable unselfconsciousness; even when the G14 1150 fences became a part of the game- when a vine-embowered gate-post G14 1160 was the Sleeping Beauty's enchanted castle, or when Rapunzel let G14 1170 down her golden hair from beneath the crocketed spire, even then we paid G14 1180 little heed to those who went by on the path outside. We enjoyed G14 1190 a paradoxical freedom when we were still too young for school. In G14 1200 the heat of the summer, the garden solitudes were ours alone; our G14 1210 elders stayed in the dark house or sat fanning on the front porch. They G14 1220 never troubled themselves about us while we were playing, because G14 1230 the fence formed such a definite boundary and "Don't go outside G14 1240 the gate" was a command so impossible of misinterpretation. We were G14 1250 not, however, entirely unacquainted with the varying aspects of the street. G14 1260 We were forbidden to swing on the gates, lest they sag on their G14 1270 hinges in a poor-white-trash way, but we could stand on them, when they G14 1280 were latched, rest our chins on the top, and stare and stare, committing G14 1290 to memory, quite unintentionally, all the details that lay before G14 1300 our eyes. The street that is full now of traffic and parked G14 1310 cars then and for many years drowsed on an August afternoon in the shade G14 1320 of the curbside trees, and silence was a weight, almost palpable, G14 1330 in the air. Every slight sound that rose against that pressure fell G14 1340 away again, crushed beneath it. A hay-wagon moved slowly along the gutter, G14 1350 the top of it swept by the low boughs of the maple trees, and loose G14 1360 straws were left hanging tangled among the leaves. A wheel squeaked G14 1370 on a hub, was still, and squeaked again. If a child watched its progress G14 1380 he whispered, "Hay, hay, load of hay- make a wish and turn G14 1390 away", and then stared rigidly in the opposite direction until the G14 1400 sound of the horses' feet returned no more. When the hay wagon had G14 1410 gone, and an interval passed, a huckster's cart might turn the corner. G14 1420 The horse walked, the reins were slack, the huckster rode with bowed G14 1430 shoulders, his forearms across his knees. Sleepily, as if half-reluctant G14 1440 to break the silence, he lifted his voice: "Rhu-beb-ni-ice G14 1450 fresh rhu- today"! The lazy sing-song was spaced in time G14 1460 like the drone of a bumble-bee. No one seemed to hear him, no one heeded. G14 1470 The horse plodded on, and he repeated his call. It became so monotonous G14 1480 as to seem a part of the quietness. After his passage, the street G14 1490 was empty again. The sun moved slant-wise across the sky and down; G14 1500 the trees' shadows circled from street to sidewalk, from sidewalk G14 1510 to lawn. At four-o'clock, or four-thirty, the coming of the newsboy G14 1520 marked the end of the day; he tossed a paper toward every front G14 1530 door, and housewives came down to their steps to pick them up and read G14 1540 what their neighbors had been doing. The streets of any county G14 1550 town were like this on any sunshiny afternoon in summer; they were G14 1560 like this fifty-odd years ago, and yesterday. But the fences were still G14 1570 in place fifty-odd years ago, and when we stood on the gate to look G14 1580 over, the sidewalk under our eyes was not cement but two rows of paving G14 1590 stones with grass between and on both sides. The curb was a line G14 1600 of stone laid edgewise in the dirt and tilted this way and that by frost G14 1610 in the ground or the roots of trees. Opposite every gate was a hitching G14 1620 post or a stone carriage-step, set with a rusty iron ring for tying G14 1630 a horse. The street was unpaved and rose steeply toward the center; G14 1640 it was mud in wet weather and dust, ankle-deep, in dry, and could G14 1650 be crossed only at the corner where there were stepping stones. It had G14 1660 a bucolic atmosphere that it has lost long since. The hoofmarks of G14 1670 cattle and the prints of bare feet in the mud or in the dust were as G14 1680 numerous as the traces of shod horses. Cows were kept in backyard barns, G14 1690 boys were hired to drive them to and from the pasture on the edge G14 1700 of town, and familiar to the ear, morning and evening, were the boys' G14 1710 coaxing voices, the thud of hooves, and the thwack of a stick on cowhide. G15 0010 It is worth dwelling in some detail on the crisis of this story, G15 0020 because it brings together a number of characteristic elements and G15 0030 makes of them a curious, riddling compound obscurely but centrally significant G15 0040 for Mann's work. The wife, Amra, and her lover are G15 0050 both savagely portrayed, she as incarnate sensuality, "voluptuous" G15 0060 and "indolent", possibly "a mischief maker", with "a kind G15 0070 of luxurious cunning" to set against her apparent simplicity, her "birdlike G15 0080 brain". La^utner, for his part, "belonged to the present-day G15 0090 race of small artists, who do not demand the utmost of themselves", G15 0100 and the bitter description of the type includes such epithets G15 0110 as "wretched little poseurs", the devastating indictment "they G15 0120 do not know how to be wretched decently and in order", and the somewhat G15 0130 extreme prophecy, so far not fulfilled: "They will be destroyed". G15 0140 The trick these two play upon Jacoby reveals their want G15 0150 not simply of decency but of imagination as well. His appearance as G15 0160 Lizzy evokes not amusement but horror in the audience; it is a spectacle G15 0170 absolutely painful, an epiphany of the suffering flesh unredeemed G15 0180 by spirit, untouched by any spirit other than abasement and humiliation. G15 0190 At the same time the multiple transvestitism involved- the fat G15 0200 man as girl and as baby, as coquette pretending to be a baby- touches G15 0210 for a moment horrifyingly upon the secret sources of a life like Jacoby's, G15 0220 upon the sinister dreams which form the sources of any human G15 0230 life. The music which La^utner has composed for this episode G15 0240 is for the most part "rather pretty and perfectly banal". But G15 0250 it is characteristic of him, we are told, "his little artifice", G15 0260 to be able to introduce "into a fairly vulgar and humorous piece of G15 0270 hackwork a sudden phrase of genuine creative art". And this occurs G15 0280 now, at the refrain of Jacoby's song- at the point, in fact, of G15 0290 the name "Lizzy"-; a modulation described as "almost a stroke G15 0300 of genius". "A miracle, a revelation, it was like a curtain suddenly G15 0310 torn away to reveal something nude". It is this modulation G15 0320 which reveals to Jacoby his own frightful abjection and, simultaneously, G15 0330 his wife's infidelity. By the same means he perceives this fact G15 0340 as having communicated itself to the audience; he collapses, and dies. G15 0350 In the work of every artist, I suppose, there may be found G15 0360 one or more moments which strike the student as absolutely decisive, G15 0370 ultimately emblematic of what it is all about; not less strikingly G15 0380 so for being mysterious, as though some deeply hidden constatation of G15 0390 thoughts were enciphered in a single image, a single moment. So here. G15 0400 The horrifying humor, the specifically sexual embarrassment of the joke G15 0410 gone wrong, the monstrous image of the fat man dressed up as a whore G15 0420 dressing up as a baby; the epiphany of that quivering flesh; the G15 0430 bringing together around it of the secret liaison between indolent, G15 0440 mindless sensuality and sharp, shrewd talent, cleverness with an occasional G15 0450 touch of genius (which, however, does not know "how to attack G15 0460 the problem of suffering"); the miraculous way in which music, revelation G15 0470 and death are associated in a single instant- all this seems G15 0480 a triumph of art, a rather desperate art, in itself; beyond itself, G15 0485 also, G15 0490 it evokes numerous and distant resonances from the entire body of Mann's G15 0500 work. When I try to work out my reasons for feeling that G15 0510 this passage is of critical significance, I come up with the following G15 0520 ideas, which I shall express very briefly here and revert to in G15 0530 a later essay. Love is the crucial dilemma of experience for Mann's G15 0540 heroes. The dramatic construction of his stories characteristically G15 0550 turns on a situation in which someone is simultaneously compelled G15 0560 and forbidden to love. The release, the freedom, involved in loving G15 0570 another is either terribly difficult or else absolutely impossible; G15 0580 and the motion toward it brings disaster. This prohibition G15 0590 on love has an especially poignant relation to art; it is particularly G15 0600 the artist (Tonio Kro^ger, Aschenbach, Leverku^hn) who suffers G15 0610 from it. The specific analogy to the dilemma of love is the problem G15 0620 of the "breakthrough" in the realm of art. Again, the sufferings G15 0630 and disasters produced by any transgression against the commandment G15 0640 not to love are almost invariably associated in one way or another G15 0650 with childhood, with the figure of a child. Finally, the G15 0660 theatrical (and perversely erotic) notions of dressing up, cosmetics, G15 0670 disguise, and especially change of costume (or singularity of costume, G15 0680 as with Cipolla), are characteristically associated with the catastrophes G15 0690 of Mann's stories. We shall return to these statements G15 0700 and deal with them more fully as the evidence for them accumulates. G15 0710 For the present it is enough to note that in the grotesque figure of G15 0720 Jacoby, at the moment of his collapse, all these elements come together G15 0730 in prophetic parody. Professionally a lawyer, that is to say associated G15 0740 with dignity, reserve, discipline, with much that is essentially G15 0750 middle-class, he is compelled by an impossible love to exhibit himself G15 0760 dressed up, disguised- that is, paradoxically, revealed- as a G15 0770 child, and, worse, as a whore masquerading as a child. That this abandonment G15 0780 takes place on a stage, during an 'artistic' performance, G15 0790 is enough to associate Jacoby with art, and to bring down upon him the G15 0800 punishment for art; that is, he is suspect, guilty, punishable, as G15 0810 is anyone in Mann's stories who produces , and this is G15 0820 true even though the constant elements of the artist-nature, technique, G15 0830 magic, guilt and suffering, are divided in this story between Jacoby G15 0840 and La^utner. It appears that the dominant tendency of G15 0850 Mann's early tales, however pictorial or even picturesque the surface, G15 0860 is already toward the symbolic, the emblematic, the expressionistic. G15 0870 In a certain perfectly definite way, the method and the theme of his G15 0880 stories are one and the same. Something of this can be learned G15 0890 from "The Way to the Churchyard" (1901), an anecdote about G15 0900 an old failure whose fit of anger at a passing cyclist causes him to die G15 0910 of a stroke or seizure. There is no more "plot" than that; only G15 0920 slightly more, perhaps, than a newspaper account of such an incident G15 0930 would give. The artistic interest, then, lies in what the encounter G15 0940 may be made to represent, in the power of some central significance G15 0950 to draw the details into relevance and meaningfulness. The first G15 0960 sentence, with its platitudinous irony, announces an emblematic intent: G15 0970 "The way to the churchyard ran along beside the highroad, ran G15 0980 beside it all the way to the end; that is to say, to the churchyard". G15 0990 And the action is consistently presented with regard for this distinction. G15 1000 The highroad, one might say at first, belongs to life, while G15 1010 the way to the churchyard belongs to death. But that is too simple, G15 1020 and won't hold up. As the first sentence suggests, both roads belong G15 1030 to death in the end. But the highroad, according to the description G15 1040 of its traffic, belongs to life as it is lived in unawareness of death, G15 1050 while the way to the churchyard belongs to some other sort of life: G15 1060 a suffering form, an existence wholly comprised in the awareness G15 1070 of death. Thus, on the highroad, a troop of soldiers "marched in their G15 1080 own dust and sang", while on the footpath one man walks alone. G15 1090 This man's isolation is not merely momentary, it is permanent. G15 1100 He is a widower, his three children are dead, he has no one left on G15 1110 earth; also he is a drunk, and has lost his job on that account. His G15 1120 name is Praisegod Piepsam, and he is rather fully described as to G15 1130 his clothing and physiognomy in a way which relates him to a sinister G15 1140 type in the author's repertory- he is a forerunner of those enigmatic G15 1150 strangers in "Death in Venice", for example, who represent G15 1160 some combination of cadaver, exotic, and psychopomp. This strange G15 1170 person quarrels with a cyclist because the latter is using the path G15 1180 rather than the highroad. The cyclist, a sufficiently commonplace G15 1190 young fellow, is not named but identified simply as "Life"- that G15 1200 and a license number, which Piepsam uses in addressing him. "Life" G15 1210 points out that "everybody uses this path", and starts to ride G15 1220 on. Piepsam tries to stop him by force, receives a push in the chest G15 1230 from "Life", and is left standing in impotent and growing rage, G15 1240 while a crowd begins to gather. His rage assumes a religious form; G15 1250 that is, on the basis of his own sinfulness and abject wretchedness, G15 1260 Piepsam becomes a prophet who in his ecstasy and in the name of God G15 1270 imprecates doom on Life- not only the cyclist now, but the audience, G15 1280 the world, as well: "all you light-headed breed". This passion G15 1290 brings on a fit which proves fatal. Then an ambulance comes along, G15 1300 and they drive Praisegod Piepsam away. This is simple enough, G15 1310 but several more points of interest may be mentioned as relevant. The G15 1320 season, between spring and summer, belongs to life in its carefree G15 1330 aspect. Piepsam's fatal rage arises not only because cannot G15 1340 stop the cyclist, but also because God will not stop him; as Piepsam G15 1350 says to the crowd in his last moments: "His justice is not of G15 1360 this world". Life is further characterized, in antithesis to G15 1370 Piepsam, as animal: the image of a dog, which appears at several G15 1380 places, is first given as the criterion of amiable, irrelevant interest G15 1390 aroused by life considered simply as a spectacle: a dog in a wagon G15 1400 is "admirable", "a pleasure to contemplate"; another wagon G15 1410 has no dog, and therefore is "devoid of interest". Piepsam calls G15 1420 the cyclist "cur" and "puppy" among other things, and at the crisis G15 1430 of his fit a little fox-terrier stands before him and howls into G15 1440 his face. The ambulance is drawn by two "charming" little horses. G15 1450 Piepsam is not, certainly, religious in any conventional sense. G15 1460 His religiousness is intimately, or dialectically, connected with G15 1470 his sinfulness; the two may in fact be identical. His unsuccessful G15 1480 strivings to give up drink are represented as religious strivings; G15 1490 he keeps a bottle in a wardrobe at home, and "before this wardrobe Praisegod G15 1500 Piepsam had before now gone literally on his knees, and in G15 1510 his wrestlings had bitten his tongue- and still in the end capitulated". G15 1520 The cyclist, by contrast, blond and blue-eyed, is simply G15 1530 unreflective, unproblematic Life, "blithe and carefree". "He G15 1540 made no claims to belong to the great and mighty of this earth". G15 1550 Piepsam is grotesque, a disturbing parody; his end is ridiculous G15 1560 and trivial. He is "a man raving mad on the way to the churchyard". G15 1570 But he is more interesting than the others, the ones who come from G15 1580 the highroad to watch him, more interesting than Life considered G15 1590 as a cyclist. And if I have gone into so much detail about so small G15 1600 a work, that is because it is also so typical a work, representing the G15 1610 germinal form of a conflict which remains essential in Mann's writing: G15 1620 the crude sketch of Piepsam contains, in its critical, destructive G15 1630 and self-destructive tendencies, much that is enlarged and illuminated G15 1640 in the figures of, for instance, Naphta and Leverku^hn. G15 1650 In method as well as in theme this little anecdote with its details G15 1660 selected as much for expressiveness and allegory as for "realism", G15 1670 anticipates a kind of musical composition, as well as a kind of fictional G15 1680 composition, in which, as Leverku^hn says, "there shall be G15 1690 nothing unthematic". It resembles, too, pictures such as Du^rer G15 1700 and Bruegel did, in which all that looks at first to be solely pictorial G15 1710 proves on inspection to be also literary, the representation of a G15 1720 proverb, for example, or a deadly sin. "Gladius Dei" (1902) G15 1730 resembles "The Way to the Churchyard" in its representation G15 1740 of a conflict between light and dark, between "Life" and a spirit G15 1750 of criticism, negation, melancholy, but it goes considerably further G15 1760 in characterizing the elements of this conflict. The monk Savonarola, G15 1770 brought over from the Renaissance and placed against the background G15 1780 of Munich at the turn of the century, protests against the luxurious G15 1790 works displayed in the art-shop of M& Bluthenzweig; in G15 1800 particular against a Madonna portrayed in a voluptuous style and modeled, G15 1810 according to gossip, upon the painter's mistress. Hieronymus, G15 1820 like Piepsam, makes his protest quite in vain, and his rejection, though G15 1830 not fatal, is ridiculous and humiliating; he is simply thrown out G15 1840 of the shop by the porter. On the street outside, Hieronymus envisions G15 1850 a holocaust of the vanities of this world, such a burning of artistic G15 1860 and erotic productions as his namesake actually brought to pass in G15 1870 Florence, and prophetically he issues his curse: "". G16 0010 The "reality" to which they respond is rationally empty and their G16 0020 art is an imitation of the inescapable powerfulness of this unknown and G16 0030 empty world. Their artistic rationale is given to the witness of unreason. G16 0040 These polar concerns (imitation vs& formalism) reflect G16 0050 a philosophical and religious situation which has been developing G16 0060 over a long period of time. The breakdown of classical structures of G16 0070 meaning in all realms of western culture has given rise to several generations G16 0080 of artists who have documented the disintegrative processes. G16 0090 Thus the image of man has suffered complete fragmentation in personal G16 0100 and spiritual qualities, and complete objectification in sub-human and G16 0110 quasi-mechanistic powers. The image of the world tends to reflect the G16 0120 hostility and indifference of man or else to dissolve into empty spaces G16 0130 and overwhelming mystery. The image of God has simply disappeared. G16 0140 All such imitations of negative quality have given rise to a compensatory G16 0150 response in the form of a heroic and highly individualistic humanism: G16 0160 if man can neither know nor love reality as it is, he can at G16 0170 least invent an artistic "reality" which is its own world and which G16 0180 can speak to man of purely personal and subjective qualities capable G16 0190 of being known and worthy of being loved. The person of the artist G16 0200 becomes a final bastion of meaning in a world rendered meaningless by G16 0210 the march of events and the decay of classical religious and philosophical G16 0220 systems. Whatever pole of this contrast one emphasizes and G16 0230 whatever the tension between these two approaches to understanding G16 0240 the artistic imagination, it will be readily seen that they are not mutually G16 0250 exclusive, that they belong together. Without the decay of a G16 0260 sense of objective reference (except as the imitation of mystery), the G16 0270 stress on subjective invention would never have been stimulated into G16 0280 being. And although these insights into the nature of art may be in themselves G16 0290 insufficient for a thoroughgoing philosophy of art, their peculiar G16 0300 authenticity in this day and age requires that they be taken seriously G16 0310 and gives promise that from their very substance, new and valid G16 0320 chapters in the philosophy of art may be written. For better or worse G16 0330 we cannot regard "imitation" in the arts in the simple mode of G16 0340 classical rationalism or detached realism. A broader concept of imitation G16 0350 is needed, one which acknowledges that true invention is important, G16 0360 that the artist's creativity in part transcends the non-artistic G16 0370 causal factors out of which it arises. On the other hand, we cannot regard G16 0380 artistic invention as pure, uncaused, and unrelated to the times G16 0390 in which it occurs. We need a doctrine of imitation to save us from G16 0400 the solipsism and futility of pure formalism. Accordingly, it is the G16 0410 aim of this essay to advance a new theory of imitation (which I shall G16 0420 call in order to distinguish it from earlier theories of G16 0430 imitation) and a new theory of invention (which I shall call G16 0440 for reasons to be stated hereafter). #THE MIMETIC IMAGINATION IN G16 0450 THE ARTS# The word "mimesis" ("imitation") is usually associated G16 0460 with Plato and Aristotle. For Plato, "imitation" is twice G16 0470 removed from reality, being a poor copy of physical appearance, which G16 0480 in itself is a poor copy of ideal essence. All artistic and mythological G16 0490 representations, therefore, are "imitations of imitations" and G16 0500 are completely superseded by the truth value of "dialectic", the G16 0510 proper use of the inquiring intellect. In Plato's judgment, the G16 0520 arts play a meaningful role in society only in the education of the young, G16 0530 prior to the full development of their intellectual powers. Presupposed G16 0540 in Plato's system is a doctrine of levels of insight, in which G16 0550 a certain kind of detached understanding is alone capable of penetrating G16 0560 to the most sublime wisdom. Aristotle also tended to stratify all G16 0570 aspects of human nature and activity into levels of excellence and, G16 0580 like Plato, he put the pure and unimpassioned intellect on the top level. G16 0590 The , in affirming that all human arts are "modes G16 0600 of imitation", gives a more serious role to artistic mimesis than G16 0610 did Plato. But Aristotle kept the principle of levels and even augmented G16 0620 it by describing in the what kinds of character and G16 0630 action must be imitated if the play is to be a vehicle of serious and G16 0640 important human truths. For both Plato and Aristotle artistic mimesis, G16 0650 in contrast to the power of dialectic, is relatively incapable of G16 0660 expressing the character of fundamental reality. The central G16 0670 concern of Erich Auerbach's impressive volume called G16 0680 is to describe the shift from a classic theory of imitation (based upon G16 0690 a recognition of levels of truth) to a Christian theory of imitation G16 0700 in which the levels are dissolved. Following the theme of Incarnation G16 0710 in the Gospels, the Christian artist and critic sees in the most G16 0720 commonplace and ordinary events "figures" of divine power and reality. G16 0730 Here artistic realism involves the audience in an impassioned participation G16 0740 in events whose overtones and implications are transcendent. G16 0750 Artistic mimesis under Christian influence records the involvement G16 0760 of all persons, however humble, in a divine drama. The artist, unlike G16 0770 the philosopher, is not a removed observer aiming at neutral and rarified G16 0780 high levels of abstraction. He is the conveyor of a sacred reality G16 0790 by which he has been grasped. I have chosen to use the word "mimesis" G16 0800 in its Christian rather than its classic implications and G16 0810 to discover in the concrete forms of both art and myth powers of theological G16 0820 expression which, as in the Christian mind, are the direct consequence G16 0830 of involvement in historical experience, which are not reserved, G16 0840 as in the Greek mind, only to moments of theoretical reflection. G16 0850 In the first instance, "mimesis" is here used to mean the G16 0860 recalling of experience in terms of vivid images rather than in terms G16 0870 of abstract ideas or conventional designations. By "image" is meant G16 0880 not only a visual presentation, but also remembered sensations of any G16 0890 of the five senses plus the feelings which are immediately conjoined G16 0900 therewith. This is the primary function of the imagination operating G16 0910 in the absence of the original experiential stimulus by which the images G16 0920 were first appropriated. Mimesis is the nearest possible thing to G16 0930 the actual re-living of experience, in which the imagining person recovers G16 0940 through images something of the force and depth characteristic G16 0950 of experience itself. The images themselves, like their counterparts G16 0960 in experience, are not neutral qualities to be surveyed dispassionately; G16 0970 they are fields of force exerting a unique influence on the sensibilities G16 0980 and a unique relatedness to one another. They bring an inextricable G16 0990 component of value within themselves, with attractions and repulsions G16 1000 native to their own quality. As in experience one is seized by G16 1010 given entities and their interrelations and is forced to respond in G16 1020 value feelings to them, so one is similarly seized in the mimetic presentation G16 1030 of images. Mimesis here is not to be confused with literalism G16 1040 or realism in the conventional sense. A word taken in its dictionary G16 1050 meaning, a photographic image of a recognizable object, the mere picturing G16 1060 of a "scene" tends to lose experiential vividness and to connote G16 1070 such conventional abstractions as to invite neutral reception without G16 1080 the incitement of value feelings. Similarly experience itself can G16 1090 be conventionalized so that people react to certain preconceived clues G16 1100 for behavior without awareness of the vitality of their experiential G16 1120 field. A truly vivid imagination moves beyond the conventional recollection G16 1130 to a sense of immediacy. The mimetic character of the G16 1140 imaginative consciousness tends to express itself in the presentation G16 1150 of artistic forms and materials. When words can be used in a more fresh G16 1160 and primitive way so that they strike with the force of sights and G16 1170 sounds, when tones of sound and colors of paint and the carven shape G16 1180 all strike the sensibilities with an undeniable force of data in and of G16 1190 themselves, compelling the observer into an attitude of attention, all G16 1200 this imitates the way experience itself in its deepest character strikes G16 1210 upon the door of consciousness and clamors for entrance. These G16 1220 are like the initial ways in which the world forces itself upon the self G16 1230 and thrusts the self into decision and choice. The presence of genuine G16 1240 mimesis in art is marked by the persistence with which the work G16 1250 demands attention and compels valuation even though it is but vaguely G16 1260 understood. Underlying these conceptions of mimesis are certain G16 1270 presuppositions concerning the nature of primary human experience which G16 1280 require some exposition before the main argument can proceed. Experience G16 1290 is not seen, as it is in classical rationalism, as presenting G16 1300 us initially with clear and distinct objects simply located in space G16 1310 and G16 1320 registering their character, movements, and changes on the of an uninvolved intellect. Neither is primary experience understood G16 1340 according to the attitude of modern empiricism in which nothing G16 1350 is thought to be received other than signals of sensory qualities producing G16 1360 their responses in the appropriate sense organs. Primary feelings G16 1370 of the world come neither as a collection of clearly known objects G16 1380 (houses, trees, implements, etc&) nor a collection of isolated and G16 1390 neutral sensory qualities. In contrast to all this, primary data are G16 1400 data of a self involved in environing processes and powers. The G16 1410 most primitive feelings are rudimentary value feelings, both positive G16 1420 and negative: a desire to appropriate this or that part of the environment G16 1430 into oneself; a desire to avoid and repel this or that other G16 1440 part. These desires presuppose a sense of causally efficacious powers G16 1450 in which one is involved, some working for one's good, others threatening G16 1460 ill. Gone is the of the mind. In its place G16 1470 is a passionate consciousness grasped and molded to feelings of positive G16 1480 or negative values even as the actions of one's life are determined G16 1500 by constellations of process in which one is caught. The principal G16 1510 defender of this view of primary experience as "causal efficacy" G16 1520 is Alfred North Whitehead. Our most elemental and unavoidable G16 1530 impressions, he says, are those of being involved in a large arena of G16 1540 powers which have a longer past than our own, which are interrelated G16 1550 in a vast movement through the present toward the future. We feel the G16 1560 quality of these powers initially as in some degree wholesome or threatening. G16 1570 Later abstractive and rational processes may indicate errors G16 1580 of judgment in these apprehensions of value, but the apprehensions themselves G16 1590 are the primary stuff of experience. It takes a great deal G16 1600 of abstraction to free oneself from the primitive impression of larger G16 1610 unities of power and influence and to view one's world simply as a G16 1620 collection of sense data arranged in such and such sequence and pattern, G16 1630 devoid of all power to move the feelings and actions except in so far G16 1640 as they present themselves for inspection. Whitehead is here questioning G16 1650 David Hume's understanding of the nature of experience; he G16 1660 is questioning, also, every epistemology which stems from Hume's G16 1665 presupposition G16 1670 that experience is merely sense data in abstraction from G16 1680 causal efficacy, and that causal efficacy is something intellectually G16 1690 imputed to the world, not directly perceived. What Hume calls "sensation" G16 1700 is what Whitehead calls "perception in the mode of presentational G16 1710 immediacy" which is a sophisticated abstraction from perception G16 1720 in the mode of causal efficacy. As long as perception is seen as G16 1730 composed only of isolated sense data, most of the quality and interconnectedness G16 1740 of existence loses its objectivity, becomes an invention G16 1750 of consciousness, and the result is a philosophical scepticism. Whitehead G16 1760 contends that the human way of understanding existence as a unity G16 1770 of interlocking and interdependent processes which constitute each other G16 1780 and which cause each other to be and not to be is possible only because G16 1790 the basic form of such an understanding, for all its vagueness and G16 1800 tendency to mistake the detail, is initially in the way man G16 1810 feels the world. In this respect experience is broader and full of G16 1820 a richer variety of potential meanings than the mind of man or any of G16 1830 his arts or culture are capable of making clear and distinct. G16 1840 A chief characteristic of experience in the mode of causal efficacy is G16 1850 one of derivation from the past. Both I and my feelings come up out G16 1860 of a chain of events that fan out into the past into sources that are G16 1870 ultimately very unlike the entity which I now am. G17 0010 After only eighteen years of non-interference, there were already indications G17 0020 of melioration, though "in a slight degree", to be sure. G17 0030 There were more indications by the mid-twentieth century. I leave G17 0040 it to the statisticians to say what they were, but I noticed several G17 0050 a few years ago, during an automobile ride from Memphis to Hattiesburg. G17 0060 In town after town my companion pointed out the Negro school G17 0070 and the White school, and in every instance the former made a better G17 0080 appearance (it was newer, for one thing). It really looked as if a G17 0090 change of the sort predicted by Booker T& Washington had been going G17 0100 on. But with the renewal of interference in 1954 (as with its beginning G17 0110 in 1835), the improvement was impaired. For over a hundred G17 0120 years Southerners have felt that the North was picking on them. G17 0130 It's infuriating, this feeling that one is being picked on, continually, G17 0140 constantly. By what right of superior virtue, Southerners ask, G17 0150 do the people of the North do this? The traditional strategy of the G17 0160 South has been to expose the vices of the North, to demonstrate that G17 0170 the North possessed no superior virtue, to "show the world that" G17 0180 (as James's Christopher Newman said to adversaries) "however G17 0190 bad I may be, you're not quite the people to say it". G17 0200 In the pre-Civil War years, the South argued that the slave was G17 0210 not less humanely treated than the factory worker of the North. At G17 0220 the present time, the counter-attack takes the line that there's no G17 0230 more of the true of "integration" in the North than G17 0240 in the South. The line is a pretty good one. People talk about G17 0250 "the law of the land". The expression has become quite a cliche. G17 0260 But people can't be made to integrate, socialize (the two are inseparable G17 0270 by Southern standards) by law. I was having lunch not G17 0280 long ago (apologies to N& V& Peale) with three distinguished G17 0290 historians (one specializing in the European Middle Ages, one in American G17 0300 history, and one in the Far East), and I asked them if they G17 0310 could name instances where the general mores had been radically changed G17 0320 with "deliberate speed, majestic instancy" (Francis Thompson's G17 0330 words for the Hound of pursuit) by judicial fiat. G17 0340 They didn't seem to be able to think of any. A Virginia G17 0350 judge a while back cited a Roman jurist to the effect that ten years G17 0360 might be a reasonable length of time for such a change. But I suspect G17 0370 that the old Roman was referring to change made under military occupation- G17 0380 the sort of change which Tacitus was talking about when he G17 0390 said, "They make a desert, and call it peace" ("Solitudinem faciunt, G17 0395 pacem appellant".). G17 0400 Moreover, the law of the land is not G17 0410 irrevocable; it can be changed; it has been, many times. Mr& G17 0420 Justice Taney's Dred Scott decision in 1857 was unpopular in the G17 0430 North, and soon became a dead letter. Prohibition was the law of the G17 0440 land, but it was unpopular (how many of us oldsters took up drinking G17 0450 in prohibition days, drinking was so gay, so fashionable, especially G17 0460 in the sophisticated Northeast!) and was repealed. The cliche loses G17 0470 its talismanic virtue in the light of a little history. The G17 0480 Declaration of Independence says that "governments derive their G17 0490 just powers from the consent of the governed". The phrase "consent G17 0500 of the governed" needs a hard look. How do we define it? Is the G17 0510 consent of the governed a numerical majority? Calhoun dealt with G17 0520 this question in his "Disquisition on Government". To guard G17 0530 against the tyranny of a numerical majority, Calhoun developed his G17 0540 theory of "concurrent majority", which, he said, "by giving to G17 0550 each portion of the community which may be unequally affected by the G17 0560 action of government, a negative on the others, prevents all partial G17 0570 or local legislation". Who will say that our country is even now a G17 0580 homogeneous community? that regional peculiarities do not still exist? G17 0590 that the Court order does not unequally affect the Southern region? G17 0600 Who will deny that in a vast portion of the South the Federal G17 0610 action is incompatible with the Jeffersonian concept of "the consent G17 0620 of the governed"? Circumstances alter cases. A friend G17 0630 of mine in New Mexico said the Court order had caused no particular G17 0640 trouble out there, that all had gone as merry as a marriage bell. He G17 0650 seemed a little surprised that it should have caused any particular G17 0660 trouble anywhere. I murmured something about a possible difference between G17 0670 New Mexico's history and Mississippi's. One can meet G17 0680 with aloofness almost anywhere: the Thank-Heaven-We're-not-Involved G17 0690 viewpoint, It Doesn't Affect Us! Southern Liberals G17 0700 (there are a good many)- especially if they're rich- often exhibit G17 0710 blithe insouciance. The trouble here is that it's almost too easy G17 0720 to take the high moral ground when it doesn't cost you anything. G17 0730 You've already sent your daughter to Miss ~X's select academy G17 0740 for girls and your son to Mr& ~Y's select academy for boys, and G17 0750 you can be as liberal as you please with strict impunity. If there's G17 0760 no suitable academy in your own neighborhood, there's always New G17 0770 England. New England academies welcome fugitives from the provinces, G17 0780 South as well as West. They may even enroll a colored student G17 0790 or two for show, though he usually turns out to be from Thailand, or G17 0800 any place other than the American South. It would be interesting to G17 0810 know how much "integration" there is in the famous, fashionable colleges G17 0820 and prep schools of New England. A recent newspaper report G17 0830 said there were five Negroes in the 1960 graduating class of nearly one G17 0840 thousand at Yale; that is, about one-half of one per cent, which G17 0850 looks pretty "tokenish" to me, especially in an institution which G17 0860 professes to be "national". I must confess that I prefer G17 0870 the Liberal who is personally affected, who is willing to send his own G17 0880 children to a mixed school as proof of his faith. I leave out of account G17 0890 the question of the best interests of the children, the question G17 0900 of what their best interests really are. I'm talking about the grand G17 0910 manner of the Liberal- North South- who is not affected G17 0920 personally. If these people were denied a voice (do they have a G17 0930 moral right to a voice?), what voices would be left? Who is involved G17 0940 Well, after everybody has followed the New England G17 0950 pattern of segregating one's children into private schools, G17 0960 only the poor folks are left. And it is precisely in this poorer economic G17 0970 class that one finds, and has always found, the most racial friction. G17 0980 ## A dear, respected friend of mine, who like myself grew up G17 0990 in the South and has spent many years in New England, said to me G17 1000 not long ago: "I can't forgive New England for rejecting G17 1010 all complicity". Being a teacher of American literature, I remembered G17 1020 Whittier's "Massachusetts to Virginia", where he said: G17 1030 "But that one dark loathsome burden ye must stagger with alone, G17 1040 And reap the bitter harvest which ye yourselves have sown". There G17 1050 is a legend (Hawthorne records it in his "English Notebooks". and G17 1060 one finds it again in Thomas Nelson Page) to the effect that the G17 1065 G17 1070 on its second voyage brought a cargo of Negro slaves. Whether G17 1080 historically a fact or not, the legend has a certain symbolic value. G17 1090 is an embarrassing word. It is something G17 1100 which most of us try to get out from under. Like the cowboy in Stephen G17 1110 Crane's "Blue Hotel", we run around crying, "Well, I G17 1120 didn't do anything, did I"? Robert Penn Warren puts it this G17 1130 way in "Brother to Dragons": "The recognition of complicity G17 1140 is the beginning of innocence", where innocence, I think, means G17 1150 about the same thing as redemption. A man must be able to say, "Father, G17 1155 I have sinned", G17 1160 or there is no hope for him. Lincoln understood G17 1170 this better than most when he said in his "Second Inaugural" G17 1180 that God "gives to both North and South this terrible war, as the G17 1190 woe due to those by whom the offense came". He also spoke of "the G17 1200 wealth piled by the bondsman's two hundred and fifty years in unrequited G17 1210 toil". Lincoln was historian and economist enough to know that G17 1220 a substantial portion of this wealth had accumulated in the hands of G17 1230 the descendants of New Englanders engaged in the slave trade. After G17 1240 how many generations is such wealth (mounting all the while through G17 1250 the manipulations of high finance) purified of taint? It is a question G17 1260 which New Englanders long ago put out of their minds. But didn't G17 1270 they get off too easy? The slaves never shared in profits, G17 1280 while they did share, in a very real sense, in the profits of the G17 1290 slave-owners: they were fed, clothed, doctored, and so forth; they G17 1300 were the beneficiaries of responsible, paternalistic care. G17 1310 Emerson- Platonist, idealist, doctrinaire- sounded a high Transcendental G17 1320 note in his "Boston Hymn", delivered in 1863 in the Boston Music G17 1330 Hall amidst thundering applause: "Pay ransom to the owner and G17 1340 fill the bag to the brim. Who is the owner? The slave is owner, G17 1350 And ever was. Pay him"! It is the abstractionism, the unrealism, G17 1360 of the pure idealist. It ignores the sordid financial aspects (quite G17 1370 conveniently, too, for his audience, who could indulge in moral indignation G17 1380 without visible, or even conscious, discomfort, their money G17 1390 from the transaction having been put away long ago in a good antiseptic G17 1400 brokerage). Like Pilate, they had washed their hands. But can one, G17 1410 really? Can God be mocked, ever, in the long run? New G17 1420 Englanders were a bit sensitive on the subject of their complicity in G17 1430 Negro slavery at the time of the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, G17 1440 as Jefferson explained in his "Autobiography": " G17 1450 The clause reprobating the enslaving the inhabitants of Africa G17 1460 was struck out in complaisance to South Carolina and Georgia, who G17 1470 had never attempted to restrain the importation of slaves, and who on G17 1480 the contrary still wished to continue it. Our Northern brethren also G17 1490 I believe felt a little tender under those censures; for though their G17 1500 people had very few slaves themselves, yet they had been pretty considerable G17 1510 carriers of them to others". But that was a long G17 1520 time ago. The New England conscience became desensitized. George G17 1530 W& Cable (naturalized New Englander), writing in 1889 from "Paradise G17 1540 Road, Northampton" (lovely symbolic name), agitated continuously G17 1550 the " question". It was nice to be able to isolate G17 1560 it. ## New England, as everyone knows, has long been schoolmaster G17 1570 to the Nation. There one finds concentrated in a comparatively G17 1580 small area the chief universities, colleges, and preparatory schools G17 1590 of the United States. Why should this be so? It is true that New G17 1600 England, more than any other section, was dedicated to education G17 1610 from the start. But I think that something more than this is involved. G17 1620 How did it happen, for example, that the state university, G17 1630 that great symbol of American democracy, failed to flourish in New England G17 1640 as it did in other parts of the country? Isn't it a bit odd G17 1650 that the three states of Southern New England (Massachusetts, Connecticut, G17 1660 and Rhode Island) have had state institutions of university G17 1670 status only in the very recent past, these institutions having previously G17 1680 been ~A+~M colleges? Was it supposed, perchance, that G17 1690 ~A+~M (vocational training, that is) was quite sufficient for the G17 1700 immigrant class which flooded that part of the New England world in G17 1710 the post-Civil War period, the immigrants having been brought in from G17 1720 Southern Europe, to work in the mills, to make up for the labor G17 1730 shortage caused by migration to the West? Is it not ironical that G17 1740 Roger Williams's state, Rhode Island, should have been the very G17 1750 last of the forty-eight to establish a state university? The state G17 1760 universities of Maine, New Hampshire, And Vermont are older and more G17 1770 "respectable"; they had less immigration to contend with. G17 1780 A Yale historian, writing a few years ago in , G17 1790 said: "We in New England have long since segregated our children". G17 1800 He was referring not only to the general college situation G17 1810 but more especially to the preparatory schools. And what a galaxy of G17 1820 those adorns that fair land! I don't propose to go into their history, G17 1830 but I have one or two surmises. One is that they were established, G17 1840 or gained eminence, under pressure provided by these same immigrants, G17 1850 from whom the old families wished to segregate their children. G17 1860 In the early days of a homogeneous population, the public school was G17 1870 quite satisfactory. G18 0010 AMONG THE RECIPIENTS of the Nobel Prize for Literature G18 0020 more than half are practically unknown to readers of English. Of these G18 0030 there are surely few that would be more rewarding discoveries than G18 0040 Verner von Heidenstam, the Swedish poet and novelist who received G18 0050 the award in 1916 and whose centennial was celebrated two years ago. G18 0060 Equally a master of prose and verse, he recreates the glory of Sweden G18 0070 in the past and continues it into the present. In the following sketch G18 0080 we shall present a brief outline of his life and let him as much as G18 0090 possible speak for himself. Heidenstam was born in 1859, of G18 0100 a prosperous family. On his father's side he was of German descent, G18 0110 on his mother's he came of the old Swedish nobility. The family G18 0120 estate was situated near Vadstena on Lake Va^ttern in south central G18 0130 Sweden. It is a lonely, rather desolate region, but full of legendary G18 0140 and historic associations. As a boy in a local school he was shy G18 0150 and solitary, absorbed in his fondness for nature and his visions of G18 0160 Sweden's ancient glory. He liked to fancy himself as a chieftain G18 0170 and to dress for the part. Being somewhat delicate in health, at the G18 0180 age of sixteen he was sent to Southern Europe, for which he at once G18 0190 developed a passion, so that he spent nearly all of the following ten G18 0200 years abroad, at first in Italy, then in Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, G18 0210 and Palestine. In one of his summers at home he married, to the G18 0220 great disapproval of his father, who objected because of his extreme youth. G18 0230 Deciding to become a painter, he entered the studio of Gerome G18 0240 in Paris, where he enjoyed the life of the artists, but soon found G18 0250 that whatever talent he might have did not lie in that direction. G18 0260 He gives us an account of this in his lively and humorous poem, "The G18 0270 Happy Artists". "I scanned the world through printed symbol G18 0280 swart, And through the beggar's rags I strove to see The inner man. G18 0290 I looked unceasingly With my cold mind and with my burning heart". G18 0300 In this final line, we have the key to his nature. Few writers G18 0310 have better understood their deepest selves. Heidenstam could never be G18 0320 satisfied by surface. It may, however, be noted that his gift for color G18 0330 and imagery must have been greatly stimulated by his stay in Paris. G18 0340 The first result of Heidenstam's long sojourn abroad was G18 0350 a volume of poems, G18 0360 published in 1888. It was a brilliant debut, so much so G18 0370 indeed that it aroused a new vitality in the younger poets, as did Byron's G18 0380 . Professor Fredrik Bo^o^k, Sweden's G18 0390 foremost critic of the period, acclaims it as follows: "In G18 0400 this we have the verse of a painter; strongly colorful, plastic, racy, G18 0410 vivid. In a bold, sometimes careless, form there is nothing academic; G18 0420 all is seen and felt and experienced, the observation is sharp G18 0430 and the imagination lively. The young poet-painter reproduces the French G18 0440 life of the streets; he tells stories of the Thousand and One G18 0450 Nights, and conjures up before us the bazaars of Damascus. In the G18 0460 care-free indolence of the East he sees the last reflection of the G18 0470 old happy existence, and for that reason he loves it. And yet amid all G18 0480 the gay hedonism in is a cycle of G18 0490 short poems, "Thoughts in Loneliness", filled with brooding, melancholy, G18 0500 and sombre longing". Of the longer pieces of the volume G18 0510 none is so memorable as "Nameless and Immortal", which at G18 0520 once took rank among the finest poems ever written in the Swedish language. G18 0530 It celebrates the unknown architect who designed the temple of G18 0540 Neptune at Paestum, next to the Parthenon the noblest example of Grecian G18 0550 classic style now in existence. On the eve of his return to their G18 0560 native Naxos he speaks with his wife of the masterpiece which rises G18 0570 before them in its completed perfection. The supreme object of their G18 0580 lives is now fulfilled, says the wife, her husband has achieved immortality. G18 0590 Not so, he answers, it is not the architect but the temple G18 0600 that is immortal. "The man's true reputation is his work". G18 0610 The short poems grouped at the end of the volume as "Thoughts G18 0620 in Loneliness" is, as Professor Bo^o^k indicated, in sharp contrast G18 0630 with the others. It consists of fragmentary personal revelations, G18 0640 such as "The Spark": "There is a spark dwells deep within G18 0650 my soul. To get it out into the daylight's glow Is my life's G18 0660 aim both first and last, the whole. It slips away, it burns and tortures G18 0670 me. That little spark is all the wealth I know, That little spark G18 0680 is my life's misery". A dominant motive is the poet's longing G18 0690 for his homeland and its boyhood associations: "Not men-folk, but G18 0700 the fields where I would stray, The stones where as a child I used G18 0710 to play". He is utterly disappointed in himself and in the desultory G18 0720 life he has been leading. What he really wants is to find "a G18 0730 sacred cause" to which he can honestly devote himself. This restless G18 0740 individualism found its answer when he returned to live nearly all G18 0750 the rest of his life in Sweden. His cause was to commemorate the glory G18 0760 of her past and to incite her people to perpetuate it in the present. G18 0770 He did not, however, find himself at once. His next major G18 0780 work, completed in 1892, was a long fantastic epic in prose, entitled G18 0790 which Professor Bo^o^k describes as a monument G18 0800 on the grave of his carefree and indolent youth. The hero, who is G18 0810 himself, is represented as a pilgrim in the storied lands of the East, G18 0820 a sort of Faustus type, who, to quote from Professor Bo^o^k again, G18 0830 "even in the pleasure gardens of Sardanapalus can not cease from G18 0840 his painful search after the meaning of life. He is driven back by G18 0850 his yearning to the wintry homeland of his fathers in the forest of G18 0860 Tiveden". From this time on Heidenstam proceeded to find his G18 0870 deeper self. By the death of his father in 1888 he had come into possession G18 0880 of the family estate and had re-assumed its traditions. He G18 0890 did not, however, settle back into acquiescence with things as they were. G18 0900 Like his friend and contemporary August Strindberg he had little G18 0910 patience with collective mediocrity. He saw Sweden as a country of G18 0920 smug and narrow provincialism, indifferent to the heroic spirit of its G18 0930 former glory. Strindberg's remedy for this condition was to tear G18 0940 down the old structures and build anew from the ground up. Heidenstam's G18 0950 conception, on the contrary, was to revive the present by the memories G18 0960 of the past. ## Whether in prose or poetry, all of Heidenstam's G18 0970 later work was concerned with Sweden. With the first of a group G18 0980 of historical novels, , published G18 0990 in 1897-8, he achieved the masterpiece of his career. In scope G18 1000 and power it can only be compared to Tolstoy's . G18 1010 About one-third as long, it is less intimate and detailed, but better G18 1020 coordinated, more concise and more dramatic. Though it centers around G18 1030 the brilliant and enigmatic figure of Charles /12,, the true hero G18 1040 is not finally the king himself. Hence the title of the book, referring G18 1050 to the soldiers and subjects of the king; on the fatal battlefield G18 1060 of Poltava, to quote from the novel, "the wreath he twined for G18 1070 himself slipped down upon his people". G18 1080 consists not of a connected narrative but of a group of short stories, G18 1090 each depicting a special phase of the general subject. Somewhat uneven G18 1100 in interest for an average reader, eight or ten of these are among G18 1110 the finest of their kind in literature. They comprise a great variety G18 1120 of scene and interest: grim episodes of war, idyllic interludes, superb G18 1130 canvases of world-shaking events, and delightfully humorous sketches G18 1140 of odd characters. The general effect is tragic. Almost nothing G18 1150 is said of Charles' spectacular victories, the central theme being G18 1160 the heroic loyalty of the Swedish people to their idolized king in misfortune G18 1170 and defeat. To carry out this exalted conception the G18 1180 author has combined the vivid realism and imaginative power we have noticed G18 1190 in his early poetry and carried them out on a grand scale. His G18 1200 peculiar gift, as had been suggested before, is his intensity. George G18 1210 Meredith has said that fervor is the core of style. Of few authors G18 1220 is this more true than of Heidenstam. has a tremendous G18 1230 range of characters, of common folk even more than of major G18 1240 figures. The career of Charles /12, is obviously very similar to that G18 1250 of Napoleon. His ideal was Alexander of Macedon, as Napoleon's G18 1260 was Julius Caesar. His purpose, however, was not to establish an G18 1270 empire, but to assert the principle of divine justice. Each aspired G18 1280 to be a god in human form, but with each it was a different kind of god. G18 1290 Each failed catastrophically in an invasion of Russia and each brought G18 1300 ruin on the country that worshipped him. Each is still glorified G18 1310 as a national hero. The first half of G18 1320 ending on the climax of the battle of Poltava in 1709, is more dramatically G18 1330 coherent than the second. After the collapse of that desperate G18 1340 and ill-fated campaign the character of the king degenerated for a G18 1350 time into a futility that was not merely pitiable but often ridiculous. G18 1360 Like Napoleon, he was the worst of losers. There are, however, some G18 1370 wonderful chapters at the beginning of the second part, concerning G18 1380 the reactions of the Swedes in adversity. Then more than ever before G18 1390 did they show their fortitude and patient cheerfulness. This comes G18 1400 out in "When the Bells Ring", which describes the rallying of the G18 1410 peasants in southern Sweden to repel an invasion by the Danes. G18 1420 In "The King's Ride", Charles breaks out of a long period G18 1430 of petulance and inertia, regains his old self, escapes from Turkey, G18 1440 and finally reaches his own land after an absence of eighteen years. G18 1450 He finds it in utter misery and desolation. All his people ask for G18 1460 is no more war. But he plunges into yet another, this time with Norway, G18 1470 and is killed in an assault on the fortress of Fredrikshall, being G18 1480 only thirty-six years of age when he died. He had become king at fifteen. G18 1490 Then suddenly there was a tremendous revulsion of popular G18 1500 feeling. From being a hated tyrant and madman he was now the symbol G18 1510 of all that was noblest and best in the history of Sweden. This is G18 1520 brought out in the next to last chapter of the book, "A Hero's G18 1530 Funeral", written in the form of an impassioned prose poem. Slowly G18 1540 the procession of warriors and statesmen passes through the snow beside G18 1550 the black water and into the brilliantly lighted cathedral, the shrine G18 1560 of so many precious memories. The guns are fired, the hymns are G18 1570 sung, and the body of Charles is carried down to the vault and laid beside G18 1580 the tombs of his ancestors. As he had longed to be, he became the G18 1590 echo of a saga. Heidenstam wrote four other works of fiction G18 1600 about earlier figures revered in Swedish memory. Excellent in their G18 1610 way, they lack the wide appeal of , and need G18 1620 not detain us here. It is different with his volume a history G18 1640 intended for the general reader and particularly suited for high G18 1650 school students. Admirably written, it is a perfect introduction to Swedish G18 1660 history for readers of other countries. Some of the earlier episodes G18 1670 have touches of the supernatural, as suited to the legendary background. G18 1680 These are suggestive of Selma Lagerlo^f. Especially touching G18 1690 is the chapter, "The Little Sister", about a king's daughter G18 1700 who became a nun in the convent of St& Birgitta. The record G18 1710 teems with romance and adventure. Gustaf Vasa is a superb example, G18 1720 and Charles /10,, the conqueror of Denmark, hardly less so. Of G18 1730 Gustavus Adolphus and Charles /12, it is unnecessary to speak. G19 0010 Today the private detective will also investigate insurance claims or G19 0020 handle divorce cases, but his primary function remains what it has always G19 0030 been, to assist those who have money in their unending struggle with G19 0040 those who have not. It is from this unpromising background that the G19 0050 fictional private detective was recruited. ## THE mythological G19 0060 private eye differs from his counterpart in real life in two essential G19 0070 ways. On the one hand, he does not work for a large agency, but G19 0080 is almost always self-employed. As a free-lance investigator, the fictional G19 0090 detective is responsible to no one but himself and his client. G19 0100 For this reason, he appears as an independent and self-reliant figure, G19 0110 whose rugged individualism need not be pressed into the mold of a G19 0120 9 to 5 routine. On the other hand, the fictional detective does not G19 0130 break strikes or handle divorce cases; no client would ever think of G19 0140 asking him to do such things. Whatever his original assignment, the G19 0150 fictional private eye ends up by investigating and solving a crime, usually G19 0160 a murder. Operating as a one man police force in fact if not in G19 0170 name, he is at once more independent and more dedicated than the police G19 0180 themselves. He catches criminals not merely because he is paid to G19 0190 do so (frequently he does not receive a fee at all), but because he enjoys G19 0200 his work, because he firmly believes that murder must be punished. G19 0210 Thus the fictional detective is much more than a simple businessman. G19 0220 He is, first and foremost, a defender of public morals, a servant of G19 0230 society. It is this curious blend of rugged individualism and G19 0240 public service which accounts for the great appeal of the mythological G19 0250 detective. By virtue of his self-reliance, his individualism and G19 0260 his freedom from external restraint, the private eye is a perfect embodiment G19 0270 of the middle class conception of liberty, which amounts to doing G19 0280 what you please and let the devil take the hindmost. At the same time, G19 0290 because the personal code of the detective coincides with the legal G19 0300 dictates of his society, because he likes to catch criminals, he is G19 0310 in middle class eyes a virtuous man. In this way, the private detective G19 0320 gets the best of two possible worlds. He is an individualist but G19 0330 not an anarchist; he is a public servant but not a cop. In short, the G19 0340 fictional private eye is a specialized version of Adam Smith's G19 0350 ideal entrepreneur, the man whose private ambitions must always and everywhere G19 0360 promote the public welfare. In the mystery story, as in individualism and the social good are two sides G19 0380 of the same benevolent coin. ## THERE is only one G19 0390 catch to this idyllic arrangement: Adam Smith was wrong. Not only G19 0400 did the ideal entrepreneur not produce the greatest good for the greatest G19 0410 number, he ended by destroying himself, by giving birth to monopoly G19 0420 capitalism. The rise of the giant corporations in Western Europe G19 0430 and the United States dates from the period 1880-1900. Now, although G19 0440 the roots of the mystery story in serious literature go back as far G19 0450 as Balzac, Dickens, and Poe, it was not until the closing decades G19 0460 of the 19th century that the private detective became an established G19 0470 figure in popular fiction. Sherlock Holmes, the ancestor of all private G19 0480 eyes, was born during the 1890s. Thus the transformation of Adam G19 0490 Smith's ideal entrepreneur into a mythological detective coincides G19 0500 closely with the decline of the real entrepreneur in economic life. Driven G19 0510 from the marketplace by the course of history, our hero disguises G19 0520 himself as a private detective. The birth of the myth compensates G19 0530 for the death of the ideal. Even on the fictional level, however, G19 0540 the contradictions which give rise to the mystery story are not fully G19 0550 resolved. The individualism and public service of the private detective G19 0560 both stem from his dedication to a personal code of conduct: G19 0570 he enforces the law without being told to do so. The private eye is therefore G19 0580 a moral man; but his morality rests upon that of his society. G19 0590 The basic premise of all mystery stories is that the distinction between G19 0600 good and bad coincides with the distinction between legal and illegal. G19 0610 Unfortunately, this assumption does not always hold good. As G19 0620 capitalism in the 20th century has become increasingly dependent upon G19 0630 force and violence for its survival, the private detective is placed G19 0640 in a serious dilemma. If he is good, he may not be legal; if he is G19 0650 legal, he may not be good. It is the gradual unfolding and deepening G19 0660 of this contradiction which creates the inner dialectic of the evolution G19 0670 of the mystery story. ## WITH the advent of Sir Arthur G19 0680 Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes, the development of the modern private G19 0690 detective begins. Sherlock Holmes is not merely an individualist; G19 0700 he is very close to being a mental case. A brief list of the great G19 0710 detective's little idiosyncrasies would provide Dr& Freud with G19 0720 ample food for thought. Holmes is addicted to the use of cocaine and G19 0730 other refreshing stimulants; he is prone to semi-catatonic trances G19 0740 induced by the playing of the vioiln; he is a recluse, an incredible G19 0750 egotist, a confirmed misogynist. Holmes rebels against the social G19 0760 conventions of his day not on moral but rather on aesthetic grounds. His G19 0770 eccentricity begins as a defense against boredom. It was in order G19 0780 to avoid the stuffy routine of middle class life that Holmes became G19 0790 a detective in the first place. As he informs Watson, "My life is G19 0800 spent in one long effort to escape from the commonplaces of existence. G19 0810 These little problems help me to do so". Holmes is a public servant, G19 0820 to be sure; but the society which he serves bores him to tears. G19 0830 The curious relationship between Holmes and Scotland Yard G19 0840 provides an important clue to the deeper significance of his eccentric G19 0850 behavior. Although he is perfectly willing to cooperate with Scotland G19 0860 Yard, Holmes has nothing but contempt for the intelligence and mentality G19 0870 of the police. They for their part are convinced that Holmes G19 0880 is too "unorthodox" and "theoretical" to make a good detective. G19 0890 Why do the police find Holmes "unorthodox"? On the face of G19 0900 it, it is because he employs deductive techniques alien to official G19 0910 police routine. Another, more interesting explanation, is hinted at by G19 0920 Watson when he observes on several occasions that Holmes would have G19 0930 made a magnificent criminal. The great detective modestly agrees. Watson's G19 0940 insight is verified by the mysterious link between Holmes G19 0950 and his arch-opponent, Dr& Moriarty. The two men resemble each other G19 0960 closely in their cunning, their egotism, their relentlessness. The G19 0970 first series of Sherlock Holmes adventures ends with Holmes and Moriarty G19 0980 grappling together on the edge of a cliff. They are presumed G19 0990 to have plunged to a common grave in this fatal embrace. Linked to Holmes G19 1000 even in death, Moriarty represents the alter-ego of the great G19 1010 detective, the image of what our hero might have become were he not a G19 1020 public servant. Just as Holmes the eccentric stands behind Holmes the G19 1030 detective, so Holmes the potential criminal lurks behind both. ## G19 1040 IN the modern English "whodunnit", this insinuation of G19 1050 latent criminality in the detective himself has almost entirely disappeared. G19 1060 Hercule Poirot and Lord Peter Whimsey (the respective creations G19 1070 of Agatha Christie and Dorothy Sayers) have retained G19 1080 Holmes' G19 1090 egotism but not his zest for life and eccentric habits. Poirot and G19 1100 his counterparts are perfectly respectable people; it is true that G19 1110 they are also extremely dull. Their dedication to the status quo has G19 1120 been affirmed at the expense of the fascinating but dangerous individualism G19 1130 of a Sherlock Holmes. The latter's real descendents were unable G19 1140 to take root in England; they fled from the Victorian parlor G19 1150 and made their way across the stormy Atlantic. In the American "hardboiled" G19 1160 detective story of the '20s and '30s, the spirit of the G19 1170 mad genius from Baker Street lives on. Like Holmes, the G19 1180 American private eye rejects the social conventions of his time. But G19 1190 unlike Holmes, he feels his society to be not merely dull but also corrupt. G19 1200 Surrounded by crime and violence everywhere, the "hardboiled" G19 1210 private eye can retain his purity only through a life of self-imposed G19 1220 isolation. His alienation is far more acute than Holmes'; he G19 1230 is not an eccentric but rather an outcast. With Rex Stout's Nero G19 1240 Wolfe, alienation is represented on a purely physical plane. Wolfe G19 1250 refuses to ever leave his own house, and spends most of his time drinking G19 1260 beer and playing with orchids. More profound and more disturbing, G19 1270 however, is the moral isolation of Raymond Chandler's Philip Marlowe. G19 1280 In a society where everything is for sale, Marlowe is the only G19 1290 man who cannot be bought. His tough honesty condemns him to a solitary G19 1300 and difficult existence. Beaten, bruised and exhausted, he pursues G19 1310 the elusive killer through the demi-monde of high society and low G19 1320 morals, always alone, always despised. In the end, he gets his man, but G19 1330 no one seems to care; virtue is its own and only reward. A similar G19 1340 tone of underlying futility and despair pervades the spy thrillers G19 1350 of Eric Ambler and dominates the most famous of all American mystery G19 1360 stories, Dashiell Hammett's . Sam Spade G19 1370 joins forces with a band of adventurers in search of a priceless jeweled G19 1380 statue of a falcon; but when the bird is found at last, it turns G19 1390 out to be a fake. Now the detective must save his own skin by informing G19 1400 on the girl he loves, who is also the real murderer. For Sam Spade, G19 1410 neither crime nor virtue pays; moreover, it is increasingly difficult G19 1420 to distinguish between the two. Because the private eye G19 1430 intends to save society in spite of himself, he invariably finds himself G19 1440 in trouble with the police. The latter are either too stupid to G19 1450 catch the killer or too corrupt to care. In either case, they do not G19 1460 appreciate the private detective's zeal. Perry Mason and Hamilton G19 1470 Burger, Nero Wolfe and Inspector Cramer spend more time fighting G19 1480 each other than they do in looking for the criminal. Frequently enough, G19 1490 the police are themselves in league with the killer; Dashiell G19 1495 Hammett's G19 1500 provides a classic example of this theme. G19 1510 But even when the police are honest, they do not trust the private G19 1520 eye. He is, like Phillip Marlowe, too alienated to be reliable. Finally, G19 1530 in among others, the clash between detective G19 1540 and police is carried to its logical conclusion: Sam Spade G19 1550 becomes the chief murder suspect. In order to exonerate himself, he G19 1560 is compelled to find the real criminal, who happens to be his girl friend. G19 1570 What was only a vague suspicion in the case of Sherlock Holmes G19 1580 now appears as a direct accusation: the private eye is in danger of G19 1590 turning into his opposite. ## IT IS the growing contradiction G19 1600 between individualism and public service in the mystery story which G19 1610 creates this fatal dilemma. By upholding his own personal code of behavior, G19 1620 the private detective has placed himself in opposition to a society G19 1630 whose fabric is permeated with crime and corruption. That society G19 1640 responds by condemning the private eye as a threat to the status quo, G19 1650 a potential criminal. If the detective insists upon retaining his G19 1660 personal standards, he must now do so in conscious defiance of his society. G19 1670 He must, in short, cease to be a detective and become a rebel. G19 1680 On the other hand, if he wishes to continue in his chosen profession, G19 1690 he must abandon his own code and sacrifice his precious individualism. G19 1700 Dashiell Hammett resolved this contradiction by ceasing to write G19 1705 mystery G19 1710 stories and turning to other pursuits. His successors have adopted G19 1720 the opposite alternative. In order to save the mystery story, they G19 1730 have converted the private detective into an organization man. G19 1740 The first of two possible variations on this theme is symbolized by G19 1750 Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer. At first glance, this hero seems G19 1760 to be more rather than less of an individualist than any of his predecessors. G19 1770 For Hammer, nothing is forbidden. He kills when he pleases, G19 1780 takes his women where he finds them and always acts as judge, jury G19 1790 and executioner rolled into one. G20 0010 It will be shown that the of the cooperative people in G20 0020 an organization determine the type of required, because the G20 0030 type of network functions according to the characteristics of the messages G20 0040 enumerated in Table 1. Great stress is placed on the role that G20 0050 the monitoring of information sending plays in maintaining the effectiveness G20 0060 of the network. By monitoring, we mean some system of control G20 0070 over the types of information sent from the various centers. G20 0080 As a word of caution, we should be aware that in actual practice no G20 0090 message is purely one of the four types, question, command, statement, G20 0100 or exclamation. For example, suppose a man wearing a $200 watch, driving G20 0110 a 1959 Rolls Royce, stops to ask a man on the sidewalk, "What G20 0120 time is it"? This sentence would have most of the characteristics G20 0130 of a question, but it has some of the characteristics of a statement G20 0140 because the questioner has conveyed the fact that he has no faith in G20 0150 his own timepiece or the one attached to his car. If the man on the G20 0160 sidewalk is surprised at this question, it has served as an exclamation. G20 0170 Also, since the man questioned feels a strong compulsion to answer G20 0180 (and thereby avoid the consequences of being thought queer) the question G20 0190 has assumed some measurable properties of a command. However, for G20 0200 convenience we will stick to the idea that information can be classified G20 0210 according to Table 1. On this basis, certain extreme kinds of networks G20 0220 will be discussed for illustrative purposes. #NETWORKS ILLUSTRATING G20 0230 SOME SPECIAL TYPES OF ORGANIZATION# _THE COCKTAIL PARTY._ G20 0240 Presumably a cocktail party is expected to fulfill the host's desire G20 0250 to get together a number of people who are inadequately acquainted G20 0260 and thereby arrange for bringing the level of acquaintance up to adequacy G20 0270 for future cooperative endeavors. The party is usually in a room G20 0280 small enough so that all guests are within sight and hearing of one another. G20 0290 The information is furnished by each of the guests, is sent by G20 0300 oral broadcasting over the air waves, and is received by the ears. Since G20 0310 the air is a continuum, the network of communication remains intact G20 0320 regardless of the positions or motions of the points (the people) G20 0330 in the net. As shown in Figure 1, there is a connection for communication G20 0340 between every pair of points. This, and other qualifications, make G20 0350 the cocktail party the most complete and most chaotic communication G20 0360 system ever dreamed up. All four types of message listed in Table G20 0370 1 are permitted, although decorum and cocktail tradition require holding G20 0380 the commands to a minimum, while having complimentary G20 0390 intonations are more than customarily encouraged. The completeness G20 0400 of the connections provide that, for ~ people, there are **f G20 0410 lines of communication between the pairs, which can become a large number G20 0420 (1,225) for a party of fifty guests. Looking at the diagram, we G20 0430 see that **f connection lines come in to each member. Thus the cocktail G20 0440 party would appear to be the ideal system, but there is one weakness. G20 0450 In spite of the dreams of the host for oneness in the group, the G20 0460 **f incoming messages for each guest overload his receiving system beyond G20 0470 comprehension if ~ exceeds about six. The crowd consequently G20 0480 breaks up into temporary groups ranging in size from two to six, with G20 0490 a half-life for the cluster ranging from three to twenty minutes. G20 0500 For the occasion on which everyone already knows everyone else G20 0510 and the host wishes them to meet one or a few honored newcomers, then G20 0520 the "open house" system is advantageous because the honored guests G20 0530 are fixed connective points and the drifting guests make and break connections G20 0540 at the door. _THE RURAL COMMUNITY._ We consider a rural G20 0550 community as an assemblage of inhabited dwellings whose configuration G20 0560 is determined by the location and size of the arable land sites necessary G20 0570 for family subsistence. We assume for this illustration that the G20 0580 size of the land plots is so great that the distance between dwellings G20 0590 is greater than the voice can carry and that most of the communication G20 0600 is between nearest neighbors only, as shown in Figure 2. Information G20 0610 beyond nearest neighbor is carried second-, third-, and fourth-hand G20 0620 as a distortable rumor. In Figure 2, the points in the network are G20 0630 designated by a letter accompanied by a number. The numbers indicate G20 0640 the number of nearest neighbors. It will be noted that point ~ G20 0650 has seven nearest neighbors, ~ and ~ have six, and ~

G20 0660 has only one, while the remaining points have intermediate numbers. G20 0670 In any social system in which communications have an importance G20 0680 comparable with that of production and other human factors, a point G20 0690 like ~ in Figure 2 would (other things being equal) be the dwelling G20 0700 place for the community leader, while ~ and ~ would G20 0710 house the next most important citizens. A point like ~

gets G20 0720 information directly from ~, but all information beyond ~ G20 0730 is indirectly relayed through ~. The dweller at ~

is G20 0740 last to hear about a new cure, the slowest to announce to his neighbors G20 0750 his urgent distresses, the one who goes the farthest to trade, and the G20 0760 one with the greatest difficulty of all in putting over an idea or G20 0770 getting people to join him in a cooperative effort. Since the hazards G20 0780 of poor communication are so great, ~

can be justified as a habitable G20 0790 site only on the basis of unusual productivity such as is made G20 0800 available by a waterfall for milling purposes, a mine, or a sugar maple G20 0810 camp. Location theorists have given these matters much consideration. G20 0820 _MILITARY ORGANIZATIONS._ The networks for military communications G20 0830 are one of the best examples of networks which not only must be G20 0840 changed with the changes in objectives but also must be changed with the G20 0850 addition of new machines of war. They also furnish proof that, in G20 0860 modern war, message sending must be monitored. Without monitoring, a G20 0870 military hookup becomes a noisy party. The need for monitoring became G20 0880 greater when radio was adopted for military signaling. Alexander the G20 0890 Great, who used runners as message carriers, did not have to worry about G20 0900 having every officer in his command hear what he said and having G20 0910 hundreds of them comment at once. As time has passed and science has G20 0920 progressed, the speed of military vehicles has increased, the range of G20 0930 missiles has been extended, the use of target-hunting noses on the projectiles G20 0940 has been adopted, and the range and breadth of message sending G20 0950 has increased. Next to the old problem of the slowness of decision G20 0960 making, network structure seems to be paramount, and without monitoring G20 0970 no network has value. On the parade ground the net may be similar G20 0980 to that shown in Figure 3. The monitoring is the highest and G20 0990 most restrictive of any organization in existence. No questions, statements, G20 1000 or explanations are permitted- only commands. Commands go only G20 1010 from an officer to the man of nearest lower rank. The same command G20 1020 is repeated as many times as there are levels in rank from general to G20 1030 corporal. All orders originate with the officer of highest rank and G20 1040 terminate with action of the men in the ranks. Even the officer in charge, G20 1050 be it a captain (for small display) or a general, is restrained G20 1060 by monitoring. This is done for simplicity of commands and to bring the G20 1070 hidden redundancy up to where misunderstanding has almost zero possibility. G20 1080 The commands are specified by the military regulations; are G20 1090 few in number, briefly worded, all different in sound; and are combinable G20 1100 into sequences which permit any marching maneuver that could be G20 1110 desired on a parade ground. This monitoring is necessary because, on G20 1120 a parade ground, everyone can hear , and without monitoring G20 1130 a confused social event would develop. With troops dispersed G20 1140 on fields of battle rather than on the parade ground, it may seem that G20 1150 a certain amount of monitoring is automatically enforced by the lines G20 1160 of communication. Years ago this was true, but with the replacement G20 1170 of wires or runners by radio and radar (and perhaps television), these G20 1180 restrictions have disappeared and now again is heard. G20 1190 In contrast to cocktail parties, military organizations, even G20 1200 in the field, are more formal. In the extreme and oversimplified example G20 1210 suggested in Figure 3, the organization is more easily understood G20 1220 and more predictable in behavior. A military organization has an objective G20 1230 chosen by the higher command. This objective is adhered to throughout G20 1240 the duration of the action. The connective system, or network, G20 1250 is tailored to meet the requirements of the objective, and it is therefore G20 1260 not surprising that a military body acting as a single coordinated G20 1270 unit has a different communication network than a factory, a college, G20 1280 or a rural village. The assumptions upon which the example G20 1285 shown G20 1290 in Figure 3 is based are: (a) One man can direct about six subordinates G20 1300 if the subordinates are chosen carefully so that they do not G20 1310 need too much personal coaching, indoctrinating, etc&. (b) A message G20 1320 runs too great a risk of being distorted if it is to be relayed more G20 1330 than about six consecutive times. (c) Decisions of a general kind G20 1340 are made by the central command. And (d) all action of a physical kind G20 1350 pertinent to the mission is relegated to the line of men on the lower G20 1360 rank. These assumptions lead to an organization with one man at the G20 1370 top, six directly under him, six under each of these, and so on until G20 1380 there are six levels of personnel. The number of people acting as one G20 1390 body by this scheme gives a surprisingly large army of **f 55,987 G20 1400 men. This organizational network would be of no avail if there G20 1410 were no regulations pertaining to the types of message sent. Of types G20 1420 of message listed in Table 1, commands and statements are the only G20 1430 ones sent through the vertical network shown in Figure 3. A further G20 1440 regulation is that commands always go , unaccompanied by statements, G20 1450 and statements always go , unaccompanied by commands. Questions G20 1460 and, particularly, exclamations are usually channeled along informal, G20 1470 horizontal lines not indicated in Figure 3 and seldom are carried G20 1480 beyond the nearest neighbor. It will readily be seen that G20 1490 in this suggested network (not materially different from some of the G20 1500 networks in vogue today) greater emphasis on monitoring is implied than G20 1510 is usually put into practice. Furthermore, the network in Figure G20 1520 3 is only the basic net through which other networks pertaining to logistics G20 1530 and the like are interlaced. Not discussed here are some G20 1540 military problems of modern times such as undersea warfare, where the G20 1550 surveillance, sending, transmitting, and receiving are all so inadequate G20 1560 that networks and decision making are not the bottlenecks. Such G20 1570 problems are of extreme interest as well as importance and are so much G20 1580 like fighting in a rain forest or guerrilla warfare at night in tall G20 1590 grass that we might have to re-examine primitive conflicts for what they G20 1600 could teach. _A TEAM FOR USEFUL RESEARCH._ This is an unsolved G20 1610 problem which probably has never been seriously investigated, although G20 1620 one frequently hears the comment that we have insufficient G20 1630 of the kind who can compete with the Germans or Swiss, for example, G20 1640 in precision machinery and mathematics, or the Finns in geochemistry. G20 1650 We hear equally fervent concern over the belief that we have G20 1660 not enough who can see the over-all picture and combine G20 1670 our national skills and knowledge for useful purposes. This problem G20 1680 of the optimum balance in the relative numbers of generalists and G20 1690 specialists can be investigated on a communicative network basis. Since G20 1700 the difficulty of drawing the net is great, we will merely discuss G20 1710 it. First, we realize that a pure specialist does not exist. But, G20 1720 for practical purposes, we have people who can be considered as such. G20 1730 For example, there are persons who are in physical science, in the G20 1750 field of mineralogy, trained in crystallography, who use only X-rays, G20 1760 applying only the powder technique of X-ray diffraction, to clay G20 1770 minerals only, and who have spent the last fifteen years concentrating G20 1780 on the montmorillonites; or persons in the social sciences in the G20 1790 field of anthropology, studying the lung capacity of seven Andean G20 1800 Indians. So we see that a specialist is a man who knows more and more G20 1810 about less and less as he develops, as contrasted to the generalist, G20 1820 who knows less and less about more and more. G21 0010 AMERICAN DEMOCRATIC THOUGHT, pointed up the relation between the G21 0020 Protestant movement in this country and the development of a social G21 0030 religion, which he called the American Democratic Faith. Those familiar G21 0040 with his work will remember that he placed the incipience of the G21 0050 democratic faith at around 1850. And he describes it as a balanced polarity G21 0060 between the notions of the free individual and what he called G21 0070 the fundamental law. I want to say more about Gabriel's so-called G21 0080 fundamental law. But first I want to quote him on the relationship G21 0090 that he found between religion and politics in this country and G21 0100 what happened to it. He points out that from the time of Jackson on G21 0110 through World War /1,, evangelical Protestantism was a dominant influence G21 0120 in the social and political life of America. He terms this G21 0130 early enthusiasm "Romantic Christianity" and concludes that its G21 0140 similarity to democratic beliefs of that day is so great that "the doctrine G21 0150 of liberty seems but a secular version of its counterpart in evangelical G21 0160 Protestantism". Let me quote him even more fully, for his G21 0170 analysis is important to my theme. He says: "Beside the G21 0180 Protestant philosophy of Progress, as expressed in radical or conservative G21 0190 millenarianism, should be placed the doctrine of the democratic G21 0200 faith which affirmed it to be the duty of the destiny of the United G21 0210 States to assist in the creation of a better world by keeping lighted G21 0220 the beacon of democracy". He specifies, "In the middle period G21 0230 of the Nineteenth Century it was colored by Christian supernaturalism, G21 0240 in the Twentieth Century it was affected by naturalism. But in G21 0250 every period it has been humanism". And let me add, utopianism, also. G21 0260 Some fourteen or fifteen years ago, in an essay I called G21 0270 I used his polarity to illustrate G21 0280 what I thought had happened to us in that form of liberalism we call G21 0290 Progressivism. It seemed to me that the liberals had scrapped the G21 0300 balanced polarity and reposed both liberty and the fundamental law G21 0310 in the common man. That is to say Gabriel's fundamental law had been G21 0320 so much modified by this time that it was neither fundamental nor G21 0330 law any more. It is a weakness of Gabriel's analysis that he never G21 0340 seems to realize that his so-called fundamental law had already been G21 0350 cut loose from its foundations when it was adapted to democracy. And G21 0360 with Progressivism the Religion of Humanity was replacing what Gabriel G21 0370 called Christian supernaturalism. And the common man was developing G21 0380 mythic power, or charisma, on his own. During the decade G21 0390 that followed, the common man, as that piece put it, grew uncomfortable G21 0400 as the Voice of God and fled from behind Saint Woodrow (Wilson) G21 0410 only to learn from Science, to his shocked relief that after all there G21 0420 was no God he had to speak for and that he was just an animal anyhow- G21 0430 that there was a chemical formula for him, and that too much couldn't G21 0440 be expected of him. The socialism implicit in the slogan G21 0450 of the Roosevelt Revolution, freedom from want and fear, seems a G21 0460 far cry from the individualism of the First Amendment to the Constitution, G21 0470 or of the Jacksonian frontier. What had happened to the common G21 0480 man? French Egalitarianism had had only nominal influence G21 0490 in this country before the days of Popularism. The riotous onrush G21 0500 of industrialism after the War for Southern Independence and the general G21 0510 secular drift to the Religion of Humanity, however, prepared G21 0520 the way for a reception of the French Revolution's socialistic offspring G21 0530 of one sort of another. The first of which to find important place G21 0540 in our federal government was the graduated income tax under Wilson. G21 0550 Moreover the centralization of our economy during the 1920s, the G21 0560 dislocations of the Depression, the common ethos of Materialism everywhere, G21 0570 all contributed in various ways to the face-lifting that replaced G21 0580 Mike Fink and the Great Gatsby with the anonymous physiognomy G21 0590 of the Little People. However, it is important to trace the G21 0600 philosophy of the French Revolution to its sources to understand the G21 0610 common democratic origin of individualism and socialism and the influence G21 0620 of the latter on the former. That John Locke's philosophy of G21 0630 the social contract fathered the American Revolution with its Declaration G21 0640 of Independence, I believe, we generally accept. Yet, after G21 0650 Rousseau had given the a new twist with his notion G21 0660 of the General Will, the same philosophy, it may be said, became G21 0670 the idea source of the French Revolution also. The importance G21 0680 of Rousseau's twist has not always been clear to us, however. This G21 0690 notion of the General Will gave rise to the Commune of Paris in G21 0700 the Revolution and later brought Napoleon to dictatorship. And it G21 0710 is clearly argued by Lord Percy of Newcastle, in his remarkable long G21 0720 essay, , and in a more general way by G21 0730 Voegelin, in his , that this same Rousseauan G21 0740 idea, descending through European democracy, is the source of G21 0750 Marx's theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat. This is important G21 0760 to understanding the position that doctrinaire liberals found themselves G21 0770 in after World War /2, and our great democratic victory G21 0780 that brought no peace. The long road that had taken liberals in G21 0790 this country into the social religion of democracy, into a worship of G21 0800 man, led logically to the Marxist dream of a classless society under G21 0810 a Socialist State. And the ~USSR existed as the revolutionary G21 0820 experiment in radical socialism, the ultimate exemplar. And by the G21 0830 time the war ended, liberal leadership in this country was spiritually G21 0840 Marxist. We will recall that the still confident liberals of G21 0850 the Truman administration gathered with other Western utopians in G21 0860 San Francisco to set up the legal framework, finally and at last, to G21 0870 rationalize war- to rationalize want and fear- out of the world: G21 0880 the United Nations. We of the liberal-led world got all set for peace G21 0890 and rehabilitation. Then suddenly we found ourselves in the middle G21 0900 of another fight, an irrational, an indecent, an undeclared and immoral G21 0910 war with our strongest (and some had thought noblest) ally. G21 0920 During the next five years the leaders of the Fair Deal reluctantly G21 0930 backed down from the optimistic expectations of the New Deal. During G21 0940 the next five years liberal leaders in the United States sank in G21 0950 the cumulative confusion attendant upon and manifested in a negative G21 0960 policy of Containment- and the bitterest irony- enforced and enforceable G21 0970 only by threat of a weapon that we felt the greatest distaste G21 0980 for but could not abandon: the atom bomb. In 1952, it will be remembered, G21 0990 the G&O&P& without positive program campaigned on the G21 1000 popular disillusionment with liberal leadership and won overwhelmingly. G21 1010 All of this, I know, is recent history familiar to you. But G21 1020 I have been at some pains to review it as the drama of the common G21 1030 man, to point up what happened to him under Eisenhower's leadership. G21 1040 A perceptive journalist, Sam Lubell, has phrased it in the G21 1050 title of one of his books as THE REVOLT OF THE MODERATES. He opens G21 1060 his discourse, however, with a review of the Eisenhower inaugural G21 1070 festivities at which a sympathetic press had assembled its massive talents, G21 1080 all primed to catch some revelation of the emerging new age. The G21 1090 show was colorful, indeed, exuberant, but the press for all its assiduity G21 1100 could detect no note of a fateful rendezvous with destiny. G21 1110 Lubell offers his book as an explanation of why there was no clue. G21 1120 And I select this sentence as its pertinent summation: "In essence G21 1130 the drama of his (Eisenhower's) Presidency can be described G21 1140 as the ordeal of a nation turned conservative and struggling- thus far G21 1150 with but limited and precarious success- to give effective voice G21 1160 and force to that conservatism". I will assume that we are G21 1170 all aware of the continuing struggle, with its limited and precarious G21 1180 success, toward conservatism. It has moved on various levels, it has G21 1190 been clamorous and confused. Obviously there has been no agreement on G21 1200 what American conservatism is, or rather, what it should be. For it G21 1210 was neglected, not to say nascent, when the struggle began. I saw a G21 1220 piece the other day assailing William Buckley, author of MAN AND G21 1230 GOD AT YALE and publisher of the , as no conservative G21 1240 at all, but an old liberal. I would agree with this view. But G21 1250 I'm not here to define conservatism. What I am here to do G21 1260 is to report on the gyrations of the struggle- a struggle that amounts G21 1270 to self-redefinition- to see if we can predict its future course. G21 1280 One of the obvious conclusions we can make on the basis of G21 1290 the last election, I suppose, is that we, the majority, were dissatisfied G21 1300 with Eisenhower conservatism. Though, to be sure, we gave Kennedy G21 1310 no very positive approval in the margin of his preferment. G21 1320 This is, however, symptomatic of our national malaise. But before I G21 1330 try to diagnose it, I would offer other evidence. I will mention two G21 1340 volumes of specific comment on this malaise that appeared last year. G21 1350 The earlier of them was an unofficial enterprise, sponsored by G21 1360 magazine, under the title of . The contributors G21 1380 to this testament were all well-known: a former Democratic G21 1390 candidate for President, a New Deal poet, the magazine's chief G21 1400 editorial writer, two newspaper columnists, head of a national broadcasting G21 1410 company, a popular Protestant evangelist, etc&. What I want G21 1420 to point out here is that all of them are ex-liberals, or modified liberals, G21 1430 with perhaps one exception. I suppose we might classify Billy G21 1440 Graham as an old liberal. And I would further note that they all- G21 1450 with one exception again- sang in one key or another the same song. G21 1460 Its refrain was: "Let us return to the individualistic democracy G21 1470 of our forefathers for our salvation". Adlai Stevenson G21 1480 expressed some reservations about this return. Others invoked technology G21 1490 and common sense. Only Walter Lippman envisioned the possibility G21 1500 of our having "outlived most of what we used to regard as the program G21 1510 of our national purposes". But the most notable thing about G21 1520 the incantation of these ex-liberals was that the one-time shibboleth G21 1530 of was conspicuously absent. The second specific G21 1540 comment was the report of Eisenhower's Commission on National G21 1550 Goals, titled GOALS FOR AMERICANS. They, perhaps, gave the pitch G21 1560 of their position in the preface where it was said that Eisenhower G21 1570 requested that the Commission be administered by the American Assembly G21 1580 of Columbia University, because it was . The G21 1590 Commission seems to represent the viewpoint of what I would call the G21 1600 liberal, but not unconscious enough, to invoke the now G21 1610 taboo symbolism of socialism. And here again we hear the same refrain G21 1620 mentioned above: "The paramount goal of the United States G21 1630 **h set long ago **h was to guard the rights of the individual **h ensure G21 1640 his development **h enlarge his opportunity". This group is secularist G21 1650 and their program tends to be technological. But it is G21 1660 the need to undertake these testaments that I would submit here as G21 1670 symptom of the common man's malaise. And let me add Murray's new G21 1680 book as another symptom of it, particularly so in view of the attention G21 1690 TIME magazine gave it when it came out recently. Father Murray G21 1700 goes back to the Declaration of Independence, too, though I may G21 1710 add, with considerably more historical perception. I will reserve G21 1720 discussion of it for a moment, however, to return to President Kennedy. G21 1730 As symptomatic of the common man's malaise, he is most significant: G21 1740 a liberal and a Catholic, elected by the skin of his teeth. G21 1750 Does that not suggest to you an uncertain and uneasy, not to say confused, G21 1760 state of the public mind? What is the common man's G21 1770 complaint? Let's take a panoramic look back over the course we G21 1780 have come. Has not that way been lit always by the lamp of liberalism G21 1790 up until the turning back under Eisenhower? And the basic character G21 1800 of that liberalism has been spiritual rather than economic. Ralph G21 1810 Gabriel gave it the name of Protestant philosophy of Progress. But G21 1820 there's a subjective side to that utopian outlook. G22 0010 DOES our society have a runaway, uncontrollable growth of G22 0020 technology which may end our civilization, or a normal, healthy growth? G22 0030 Here there may be an analogy with cancer: we can detect cancers G22 0040 by their rapidly accelerating growth, determinable only when related G22 0050 to the more normal rate of healthy growth. Should the accelerating G22 0060 growth of technology then warn us? Noting such evidence is the first G22 0070 step; and almost the only "cure" is detection and removal. G22 0080 One way to determine whether we have so dangerous a technology G22 0090 would be to check the strength of our society's organs to see if their G22 0100 functioning is as healthy as before. So an objective look at our G22 0110 present procedures may move us to consider seriously this possibly analogous G22 0120 situation. In any event, whether society may have cancer, or merely G22 0130 a virus infection, the "disease", we shall find, is political, G22 0140 economical, social, and even medical. Have not our physical abilities G22 0150 already deteriorated because of the more sedentary lives we are now G22 0160 living? Hence the prime issue, as I see it, is whether a democratic G22 0170 or free society can master technology for the benefit of mankind, G22 0180 or whether technology will rule and develop its own society compatible G22 0190 with own needs as a force of nature. We are already committed G22 0200 to establishing man's supremacy over nature and everywhere G22 0210 on earth, not merely in the limited social-political-economical context G22 0220 we are fond of today. Otherwise, we go on endlessly trying to draw G22 0230 the line, color and other, as to which kind of man we wish to see dominate. G22 0240 We have proved so able to solve technological problems that to G22 0250 contend we cannot realize a universal goal in the immediate future is G22 0260 to be extremely shortsighted, if nothing else. We must believe we have G22 0270 the ability to affect our own destinies: otherwise why try anything? G22 0280 So in these pages the term "technology" is used to include any G22 0290 and all means which could amplify, project, or augment man's control G22 0300 over himself and over other men. Naturally this includes all communication G22 0310 forms, e&g& languages, or any social, political, economic G22 0320 or religious structures employed for such control. Properly mindful G22 0330 of the cultures in existence today throughout the world, we must G22 0340 employ these resources without war or violent revolution. If G22 0350 we were creating a wholly new society, we could insist that our social, G22 0360 political, economic and philosophic institutions foster rather than G22 0370 hamper man; best growth. But we cannot start off with a clean slate. G22 0380 So we must first analyze our present institutions with respect to G22 0390 the effect of each on man's major needs. Asked which institution G22 0400 most needs correction, I would say the corporation as it exists in America G22 0410 today. At first glance this appears strange: of all people, G22 0430 was not America founded by rugged individualists who established a new G22 0440 way of life still inspiring "undeveloped" societies abroad? But G22 0450 hear Harrison E& Salisbury, former Moscow correspondent of The G22 0460 New York Times, and author of "To Moscow- And Beyond". G22 0470 In a book review of "The Soviet Cultural Offensive", he says, G22 0480 "Long before the State Department organized its bureaucracy into G22 0490 an East-West Contacts Staff in order to wage a cultural counter-offensive G22 0500 within Soviet borders, the sharp cutting-edge of American G22 0510 culture had carved its mark across the Russian steppes, as when the enterprising G22 0520 promoters of 'Porgy and Bess' overrode the State Department G22 0530 to carry the contemporary 'cultural warfare' behind the G22 0540 enemy lines. They were not diplomats or jazz musicians, or even organizers G22 0550 of reading-rooms and photo-montage displays, but rugged capitalist G22 0560 entrepreneurs like Henry Ford, Hugh Cooper, Thomas Campbell, G22 0570 the International Harvester Co&, and David W& Griffith. Their G22 0580 kind created an American culture superior to any in the world, an G22 0590 industrial and technological culture which penetrated Russia as it did G22 0600 almost every corner of the earth without a nickel from the Federal G22 0610 treasury or a single governmental specialist to contrive directives or G22 0620 program a series of consultations of interested agencies. This favorable G22 0630 image of America in the minds of Russian men and women is still G22 0640 there despite years of energetic anti-American propaganda **h" G22 0650 #CORPORATIONS NOW OUTMODED# Perhaps the public's present attitude G22 0660 toward business stems from the fact that the "rugged capitalist entrepreneur" G22 0670 no more exists in America. In his stead is a milquetoast G22 0680 version known as "the corporation". But even if we cannot see G22 0690 the repulsive characteristics in this new image of America, foreigners G22 0700 can; and our loss of "prestige" abroad is the direct result. G22 0710 No amount of ballyhoo will cover up the sordid facts. If we want respect G22 0720 from ourselves or others, we will have to earn it. First, let us G22 0730 realize that whatever good this set-up achieved in earlier times, now G22 0740 the corporation cannot take economic leadership. Businesses G22 0750 must develop as a result of the ideas, energies and ambitions of an G22 0760 individual having purpose and comprehensive ability within mind. G22 0770 When we "forced" individuals to assume the corporate structure G22 0780 by means of taxes and other legal statutes, we adopted what I would G22 0790 term "pseudo-capitalism" and so took a major step toward socialism. G22 0800 The biggest loss, of course, was the individual's lessened desire G22 0810 and ability to give his services to the growth of his company and G22 0820 our economy. Socialism, I grant, has a definite place in our society. G22 0830 But let us not complain of the evils of capitalism by referring to G22 0840 a form that is not truly capitalistic. Some forms of capitalism do indeed G22 0850 work- superb organizations, a credit to any society. But the pseudo-capitalism G22 0860 which dictates our whole economy as well as our politics G22 0870 and social life, will not stand close scrutiny. Its pretense to operate G22 0880 in the public interest is little more than a sham. It serves G22 0890 only its own stockholders and poorly at that. As a creative enterprise, G22 0900 its abilities are primarily in "swallowing" creative enterprises G22 0910 developed outside its own organization (an ability made possible by G22 0920 us, and almost mandatory). As to benefits to employees, it is notorious G22 0930 for its callous disregard except where it depends on them for services. G22 0940 The corporation in America is in reality our form of socialism, G22 0950 vying in a sense with the other socialistic form that has emerged G22 0960 within governmental bureaucracy. But while the corporation has all G22 0970 the disadvantages of the socialist form of organization (so cumbersome G22 0980 it cannot constructively do much of anything not compatible with its G22 0990 need to perpetuate itself and maintain its status quo), unluckily it G22 1000 does not have the desirable aspect of socialism, the motivation to operate G22 1010 for the benefit of society as a whole. So we are faced with a G22 1020 vast network of amorphous entities perpetuating themselves in whatever G22 1030 manner they can, without regard to the needs of society, controlling G22 1040 society and forcing upon it a regime representing only the corporation's G22 1050 needs for survival. The corporation has a limited, specific G22 1060 place in our society. Ideally speaking, it should be allowed to operate G22 1070 only where the public has a great stake in the continuity of supply G22 1080 or services, and where the actions of a single proprietor are secondary G22 1090 to the needs of society. Examples are in public utilities, making G22 1100 military aircraft and accessories, or where the investment and risk G22 1110 for a proprietorship would be too great for a much needed project impossible G22 1120 to achieve by any means other than the corporate form, e&g& G22 1130 constructing major airports or dams. Thus, if corporations are not G22 1140 to run away with us, they must become quasi-governmental institutions, G22 1150 subject to public control and needs. In all other areas, private initiative G22 1160 of the "proprietorship" type should be urged to produce the G22 1170 desired goods and services. #PROPRIETORSHIP# Avoiding runaway G22 1180 technology can be done only by assuring a humane society; and for this G22 1190 human beings must be firmly in control of the economics on which our G22 1200 society rests. Such genuine human leadership the proprietorship can G22 1210 offer, corporations cannot. It can project long-range goals for itself. G22 1220 Corporations react violently to short-range stimuli, e& g&, G22 1230 quarterly and annual dividend reports. Proprietorships can establish G22 1240 a unity and integrity of control; corporations, being more amorphous, G22 1250 cannot. Proprietorships can establish a meaningful identity, representing G22 1260 a human personality, and thus establish sincere relationships with G22 1270 customers and community. Corporations are apt by nature to be impersonal, G22 1280 inhumane, shortsighted and almost exclusively profit-motivated, G22 1290 a picture they could scarcely afford to present to the public. The G22 1300 proprietor is able to create a leadership impossible in the corporate G22 1310 structure with its board of directors and stockholders. Leadership is G22 1320 lacking in our society because it has no legitimate place to develop. G22 1330 Men continuously at the head of growing enterprises can acquire experiences G22 1340 of the most varied, complicated and trying type so that at maturation G22 1350 they have developed the competence and willingness to accept G22 1360 the personal responsibility so sorely needed now. Hence government G22 1370 must establish greater controls upon corporations so that their G22 1380 activities promote what is deemed essential to the national interest. G22 1390 Proprietorships should get the tax advantages now accruing to corporations, G22 1400 e& g& the chance to accumulate capital so vital for growth. G22 1410 Corporations should pay added taxes, to be used for educational purposes G22 1420 (not necessarily of the formal type). The right to leave legacies G22 1430 should be substantially reduced and ultimately eliminated. To perpetuate G22 1440 wealth control led by small groups of individuals who played no G22 1450 role in its creation prevents those with real initiative from coming to G22 1460 the fore, and is basically anti-democratic. When the proprietor dies, G22 1470 the establishment should become a corporation until it is either acquired G22 1480 by another proprietor or the government decides to drop it. Strikes G22 1490 should be declared illegal against corporations because disagreements G22 1500 would have to be settled by government representatives acting as G22 1510 controllers of the corporation whose responsibility to the state would G22 1520 now be defined against proprietorship because employees and proprietors G22 1530 must be completely interdependent, as they are each a part of the G22 1540 whole. Strikes threatening the security of the proprietorship, if internally G22 1550 motivated, prevent a healthy relationship. Certainly external G22 1555 forces G22 1560 should not be applied arbitrarily out of mere power available to G22 1580 do so. #ONE KIND OF PROPRIETORSHIP# G22 1600 These proposals would go far toward creating the economic G22 1610 atmosphere favoring growth of the individual, who, in turn, would help G22 1620 us to cope with runaway technology. Individual strength is G22 1630 needed to pit against an inhuman condition. The battle is not easy. G22 1640 We are tempted to blame others for our problems rather than look them G22 1650 straight in the face and realize they are of our own making and possible G22 1660 of solution only by ourselves with the help of desperately needed, G22 1670 enlightened, competent leaders. Persons developed in to-day's corporations G22 1680 cannot hope to serve here- a judgment based on experiences G22 1690 of my own in business and in activities outside. In my own company, in G22 1700 effect a partnership, although legally a corporation, I have been able G22 1710 to do many things for my employees which "normal" corporations G22 1720 of comparable size and nature would have been unable to do. Also, I G22 1730 am convinced that if my company were a sole proprietorship instead of G22 1740 a partnership, I would have been even abler to solve long-range problems G22 1750 for myself and my fellow-employees. Any abilities I may have were G22 1760 achieved in their present shape from experience in sharing in the G22 1770 growth and control of my business, coupled with raising my family. This G22 1780 combined experience, on a foundation of very average, I assure you, G22 1790 intelligence and background, has helped me do things many well-informed G22 1800 people would bet heavily against. Perhaps a list of some of the "practices" G22 1810 of my company will help here. The company grew G22 1820 out of efforts by two completely inexperienced men in their late twenties, G22 1830 neither having a formal education applicable to, or experience in, G22 1840 manufacturing or selling our type of articles. From an initial investment G22 1850 of $1,200 in 1943, it has grown, with no additional capital investment, G22 1860 to a present value estimated by some as exceeding $10,000,000 G22 1870 ( don't disclose financial figures to the public). Its growth G22 1880 continues steadily on a par with past growth; and no limitation is G22 1890 in evidence. Our pin-curl clips and self-locking nuts achieved dominance G22 1900 in just a few years time, despite substantial, well established competition. G23 0010 DURING the last years of Woodrow Wilson's administration, G23 0020 a red scare developed in our country. Many Americans reacted irrationally G23 0030 to the challenge of Russia and turned to the repression of G23 0040 ideas by force. Postmaster General Burleson set about to protect the G23 0050 American people against radical propaganda that might be spread through G23 0060 the mails. Attorney General Palmer made a series of raids that G23 0070 sent more than 4,000 so-called radicals to the jails, in direct violation G23 0080 of their constitutional rights. Then, not many years later, the G23 0090 Un-American Activities Committee, under the leadership of Martin G23 0100 Dies, pilloried hundreds of decent, patriotic citizens. Anyone who G23 0110 tried to remedy some of the most glaring defects in our form of democracy G23 0120 was denounced as a traitorous red whose real purpose was the destruction G23 0130 of our government. This hysteria reached its height under the G23 0140 leadership of Senator Joseph McCarthy. Demagogues of this sort found G23 0150 communist bogeys lurking behind any new idea that would run counter G23 0160 to stereotyped notions. New ideas were dangerous and must be repressed, G23 0170 no matter how. Those who would suppress dangerous thoughts, G23 0180 credit ideas with high potency. They give strict interpretation to G23 0190 William James' statement that "Every idea that enters the mind G23 0200 tends to express itself". They seem to believe that a person will G23 0210 act automatically as soon as he contacts something new. Hence, the only G23 0220 defensible procedure is to repress any and every notion, unless it G23 0230 gives evidence that it is perfectly safe. Despite this danger, G23 0240 however, we are informed on every hand that ideas, not machines, are G23 0250 our finest tools; they are priceless even though they cannot be recorded G23 0260 on a ledger page; they are the most valuable of commodities- G23 0270 and the most salable, for their demand far exceeds supply. So all-important G23 0280 are ideas, we are told, that persons successful in business and G23 0290 happy in social life usually fall into two classes: those who invent G23 0300 new ideas of their own, and those who borrow, beg, or steal from others. G23 0310 Seemingly, with an unrestricted flow of ideas, all will G23 0320 be well, and we are even assured that "an idea a day will keep the sheriff G23 0330 away". That, however, may also bring the police, if the thinking G23 0340 does not meet with social approval. Criminals, as well as model G23 0350 citizens, exercise their minds. Merely having a mental image of some G23 0360 sort is not the all-important consideration. Of course, there G23 0370 must be clarity: a single distinct impression is more valuable than G23 0380 many fuzzy ones. But clarity is not enough. The writer took a class G23 0390 of college students to the state hospital for the mentally ill in St& G23 0400 Joseph, Missouri. An inmate, a former university professor, expounded G23 0410 to us, logically and clearly, that someone was pilfering his thoughts. G23 0420 He appealed to us to bring his case to the attention of the authorities G23 0430 that justice might be done. Despite the clarity of his presentation, G23 0440 his idea was not of Einsteinian calibre. True, ideas G23 0450 are important, perhaps life's most precious treasures. But have we G23 0460 not gone overboard in stressing their significance? Have we not actually G23 0470 developed idea worship? Ideas we must have, and we seek G23 0480 them everywhere. We scour literature for them; here we find stored G23 0490 the wisdom of great minds. But are all these works worthy of consideration? G23 0500 Can they stand rigid scrutiny? Shakespeare's G23 0510 wit and wisdom, his profound insight into human nature, have stood the G23 0520 test of centuries. But was he infallible in all things? What of G23 0530 his treatment of the Jew in G23 0535 Shakespeare G23 0540 gives us a vivid picture of Shylock, but probably he never saw a G23 0550 Jew, unless in some of his travels. The Jews had been banished from G23 0560 England in 1290 and were not permitted to return before 1655, when G23 0570 Shakespeare had been dead for thirty-nine years. If any had escaped G23 0580 expulsion by hiding, they certainly would not frequent the market-place. G23 0590 Shakespeare did not usually invent the incidents in his plays, G23 0600 but borrowed them from old stories, ballads, and plays, wove them G23 0610 together, and then breathed into them his spark of life. Rather than G23 0620 from a first-hand study of Jewish people, his delineation of Shylock G23 0630 stems from a collection of Italian stories, , published G23 0640 in 1558, G23 0650 although written almost two centuries earlier. He could G23 0660 learn at second hand from books, but could not thus capture the real G23 0670 Jewish spirit. Harris J& Griston, in (216), writes: "There is not a word spoken by Shylock G23 0690 which one would expect from a real Jew". He took the G23 0700 story of the pound of flesh and had to fasten it on someone. The Jew G23 0710 was the safest victim. No Jew was on hand to boycott his financially G23 0720 struggling theater. It would have been unwise policy, for instance, G23 0730 to apply the pound-of-flesh characterization to the thrifty Scotchman. G23 0740 Just as now anyone may hurl insults at a citizen of Mars, or even G23 0750 of Tikopia, and no senatorial investigation will result. Who cares G23 0760 about them! Shakespeare does not tell us that Shylock was an G23 0770 aberrant individual. He sets him forth as being typical of the group. G23 0780 He tells of his "Jewish heart"- not a Shylockian heart; G23 0790 but a Jewish heart. This would make anyone crafty and cruel, capable G23 0800 of fiendish revenge. There is no justification for such misrepresentation. G23 0810 If living Jews were unavailable for study, the Bible G23 0820 was at hand. Reading the Old Testament would have shown the dramatist G23 0830 that the ideas attributed to Shylock were abhorrent to the Jews. G23 0840 Are we better off for having Shakespeare's idea of Shylock? G23 0850 Studying in high school and college G23 0860 has given many young people their notions about Jews. Does this help G23 0870 the non-Jew to understand this group? Thomas de Torquemada, G23 0880 Inquisitor-General of the Spanish Inquisition, put many persons G23 0890 to death. His name became synonymous with cold-blooded cruelty. Would G23 0900 we gain by keeping alive his memory and besmirching today's Roman G23 0910 Catholics by saying he had a Catholic heart? Let his bones and G23 0920 his memory rest in the fifteenth century where they belong; he is G23 0930 out of place in our times. Shakespeare's Shylock, too, is of dubious G23 0940 value in the modern world. Ideas, in and of themselves, are G23 0950 not necessarily the greatest good. A successful businessman recently G23 0960 prefaced his address to a luncheon group with the statement that all G23 0970 economists should be sent to the hospitals for the mentally deranged where G23 0980 they and their theories might rot together. Will his words come G23 0990 to be treasured and quoted through the years? Frequently we G23 1000 are given assurance that automatically all ideas will be sifted and resifted G23 1010 and in the end only the good ones will survive. But is that not G23 1020 like going to a chemistry laboratory and blindly pouring out liquids G23 1030 and powders from an array of bottles and then, after stirring, expecting G23 1040 a new wonder drug inevitably to result? What of the efficiency G23 1050 of this natural instrument of free discussion? Is there some G23 1060 magic in it that assures results? When Peter B& Kyne G23 1070 (, 43) informed us in 1921 that we had an G23 1080 dislike for the Japanese, did the heated debates of the Californians G23 1090 settle the truth or falsity of the proposition? came from the pen of Thomas Dixon in 1902, G23 1110 and in this he announced an "unchangeable" law. If a child had G23 1120 a single drop of Negro blood, he would revert to the ancestral line which, G23 1130 except as slaves under a superior race, had not made one step of G23 1140 progress in 3,000 years. That doctrine has been accepted by many, but G23 1150 has it produced good results? In the same vein, a certain G23 1160 short-story plot has been overworked. The son and heir of a prominent G23 1170 family marries a girl who has tell-tale shadows on the half-moons of G23 1180 her finger nails. In time she presents her aristocratic husband with G23 1190 a coal-black child. Is the world better for having this idea thrust upon G23 1200 it? Will argument and debate decide its truth or falsity? G23 1210 For answers to such questions we must turn to the anthropologists, G23 1220 the biologists, the historians, the psychologists, and the sociologists. G23 1230 Long ago they consigned the notions of Kyne and Dixon to the scrap G23 1240 heap. False ideas surfeit another sector of our life. For G23 1250 several generations much fiction has appeared dealing with the steprelationship. G23 1260 The stepmother, almost without exception, has been presented G23 1270 as a cruel ogress. Children, conditioned by this mistaken notion, G23 1280 have feared stepmothers, while adults, by their antagonistic attitudes, G23 1290 have made the role of the substitute parents a difficult one. Debate G23 1300 is not likely to resolve the tensions and make the lot of the stepchild G23 1310 a happier one. Research, on the other hand, has shown many stepmothers G23 1320 to be eminently successful, some far better than the real mothers. G23 1330 Helen Deutsch informed us (, G23 1340 Vol& /2,, 434) that in all cultures "the term 'stepmother' G23 1350 automatically evokes deprecatory implications", a conclusion accepted G23 1360 by many. Will mere debate on that proposition, even though it be G23 1370 free and untrammeled, remove the dross and leave a residue of refined G23 1380 gold? That is questionable, to say the least. Research into several G23 1390 cultures has proven her position to be a mistaken one. Most G23 1400 assuredly ideas are invaluable. But ideas, just for the sake of having G23 1410 them, are not enough. In the 1930's, cures for the depression literally G23 1420 flooded Washington. For a time the President received hundreds G23 1430 of them every day, most of them worthless. Ideas need to be G23 1440 tested, and not merely by argument and debate. When some question arises G23 1450 in the medical field concerning cancer, for instance, we do not G23 1460 turn to free and open discussion as in a political campaign. We have G23 1470 recourse to the scientifically-trained specialist in the laboratory. The G23 1480 merits of the Salk anti-polio vaccine were not established on the G23 1490 forensic platform or in newspaper editorials, but in the laboratory G23 1500 and by tests in the field on thousands of children. Our presidential G23 1510 campaigns provide much debate and argument. But is the result G23 1520 new barnsful of tested knowledge on the basis of which we can with confidence G23 1530 solve our domestic and international problems? Man, we are G23 1540 told, is endowed with reason and is capable of distinguishing good from G23 1550 bad. But what a super-Herculean task it is to winnow anything of value G23 1560 from the mud-beplastered arguments used so freely, particularly since G23 1570 such common use is made of cliches and stereotypes, in themselves G23 1580 declarations of intellectual bankruptcy. We are reminded, however, G23 1590 that freedom of thought and discussion, the unfettered exchange G23 1600 of ideas, is basic under our form of government. Assuredly in G23 1610 our political campaigns there is freedom to think, to examine any and G23 1620 all issues, and to speak without restraint. No holds are barred. But G23 1630 have the results been heartening? May we state with confidence that G23 1640 in such an exhibition a republic will find its greatest security? G23 1650 We must not forget, to be sure, that free discussion and debate G23 1660 have produced beneficial results. In truth, we can say that this broke G23 1670 the power of Senator Joseph McCarthy, who was finally exposed G23 1680 in full light to the American people. If he had been "liquidated" G23 1690 in some way, he would have become a martyr, a rallying point for people G23 1700 who shared his ideas. Debate in the political arena can be productive G23 1710 of good. But it is a clumsy and wasteful process: it can produce G23 1720 negative results but not much that is positive. Debate rid us of G23 1730 McCarthy but did not give us much that is positive. It did something G23 1740 to clear the ground, but it erected no striking new structure; it G23 1750 did not even provide the architect's plan for anything new. G23 1760 In the field of the natural sciences, scientifically verified data are G23 1770 quite readily available and any discussion can be shortened with good G23 1780 results. In the field of the social sciences a considerable fund of G23 1790 tested knowledge has been accumulated that can be used to good advantage. G23 1800 By no means would we discourage the production of ideas: G23 1810 they provide raw materials with which to work; they provide stimulations G23 1820 that lead to further production. We would establish no censorship. G24 0010 The President's personality would have opened that office to him. G24 0020 And for the first time a representative of the highest office in the G24 0030 land would have been liable to the charge that he had attempted to make G24 0040 it a successorship by inheritance. It is testimony to the deep respect G24 0050 in which Mr& Eisenhower was held by members of all parties that G24 0060 the moral considerations raised by his approach to the matter were G24 0070 not explicitly to be broached. These began to be apparent in a G24 0080 press conference held during the second illness in order that the consulting G24 0090 specialists might clarify the President's condition for the G24 0100 nation. And if Howard Rutstein felt impelled thereafter to formulate G24 0110 the ethics of the medical profession, his article in the accomplished a good deal more. It forced us to fix the responsibility G24 0130 for the position in which all medical commentators had been G24 0140 placed. The discussion of professional ethics inevitably reminded G24 0150 us that in the historical perspective the President's decision will G24 0160 finally clarify itself as a moral, rather than a medical, problem. Because G24 0170 the responsibility for resolving the issue lay with the President, G24 0180 rather than with his doctors, nothing raises more surely for us G24 0190 the difficulties simple goodness faces in dealing with complex moral problems G24 0200 under political pressure. For the President had dealt with the G24 0210 matter humbly, in what he conceived as the democratic way. But the G24 0220 problem is one which gives us the measure of a man, rather than a group G24 0230 of men, whether a group of doctors, a group of party members assembled G24 0240 at a dinner to give their opinion, or the masses of the voters. G24 0250 Any attempt to reconcile this statement of the central issue in G24 0260 the campaign of 1956 with the nature of the man who could not conceive G24 0270 it as the central issue will at least resolve our confusions about the G24 0280 chaotic and misleading results of the earnestness of both doctors and G24 0290 President in a situation which should never have arisen. It was a G24 0300 response to the conflict between political pressure and the moral intuition G24 0310 which resulted in attempts at prediction. In no other situation G24 0320 would a group of doctors, struggling competently to improve the life G24 0330 expectancy of a man beloved by the world, be subjected to such merciless G24 0340 and persistent questioning, and before they were prepared to demonstrate G24 0350 the kind of verbal precision which alone can clarify for mankind G24 0360 the problems it faces. And though we can look back now and see their G24 0370 errors, we can look back also to the ultimate error. It recurred G24 0380 in the press conferences: the President's remarks about his running G24 0390 developed a singular tone, one which we find in few statements G24 0400 made by public individuals on such a matter. The press conference became G24 0410 a stage which betrayed the drift of his private thinking, rather than G24 0420 his convictions. He commented- thoughtfully, a reporter told us- G24 0430 that it was "not too important for the individual how he ends up". G24 0440 He gave us a simile to explain his admission that even at the worst G24 0450 period of his second illness it never occurred to him there was any G24 0460 renewed question about his running: as in the Battle of the Bulge, G24 0470 he had no fears about the outcome until he read the American newspapers. G24 0480 Yet the attitude that the fate of the Presidency demands in such G24 0490 a situation is quite distinct from the simple courage that can proceed G24 0500 with battles to be fought, regardless of the consequences. In this G24 0510 case others should not have had to raise the doubts and fears. The G24 0520 Presidency demands an incisive awareness of the larger implications G24 0530 of the death of any incumbent. It is of the utmost importance to the G24 0540 people of America and of the world how their governing President "ends G24 0550 up" during the four years of his term. Only when that term is G24 0560 ended and he is a private citizen again can he be permitted the freedom G24 0570 and the courage to discount the dangers of his death. Ironically enough, G24 0580 in this instance such personal virtues were a luxury. At G24 0590 the national and international level, then, what is the highest kind G24 0600 of morality for the private citizen represents an instance of political G24 0610 immorality. And we had the uneasy sense that the cleavage between the G24 0620 moral and the political progressed amid the events which concern us. G24 0630 For the tone of the editorials which greeted Mr& Eisenhower's G24 0640 original announcement of his running had been strangely disquieting. G24 0650 Neither the vibrant enthusiasm which bespeaks a people's intuitive G24 0660 sense of the fitness of things at climactic moments nor the vital argumentation G24 0670 betraying its sense that something significant has transpired G24 0680 was in evidence. Nothing testifies more clearly to that cleavage than G24 0690 the peculiar editorial page appearing in a July issue of , G24 0700 the issue which also carried the second announcement of the G24 0710 candidacy. The double editorial on two aspects of "The U& S& G24 0720 Spirit" was subtly calculated to suggest a moral sanction for gambles G24 0730 great as well as small, reflecting popular approval of this questionable G24 0740 attitude toward the highest office in the land. "The Moral G24 0750 Creed" and "The Will to Risk" live happily together, if we G24 0760 do not examine where the line is to be drawn. "I may possibly be a G24 0770 greater risk than is the normal person of my age", the President had G24 0780 said on February 29th of the election year, ignoring the fact that G24 0790 no one of his age had ever lived out another term. "My doctors assure G24 0800 me that this increased percentage of risk is not great". But by G24 0810 the time the risk was doubled, events had dismissed from his mind both G24 0820 increased percentages and a previously stated intention of considering G24 0830 carefully anything more serious than a bout of influenza. Only infrequently G24 0840 did the situation color his thinking. Ironically no president G24 0850 we have had would have regretted more than President Eisenhower the G24 0860 possibility to which his own words, in the press conference held at G24 0870 the beginning of August, testified: that unable as he was himself G24 0880 to say his running was best for the country, unconsciously he had placed G24 0890 his party before his nation. So it is that we relive his opening G24 0900 statement in the first television address with the dramatic immediacy G24 0910 of the present. No consideration of risk urges itself upon him G24 0920 now: for this is what the mind does with the ideas on which it has not G24 0930 properly focussed. Yet with a mind less shallow, if less sharp, than G24 0940 some of the fortune-happy syndicates which back him, he feels what G24 0950 he cannot formulate; and we watch him amid the overtones which suggest G24 0960 he could never in any conscience urge a risk upon the voters. Moving G24 0970 as he is into the phase of the campaign which demands conviction of G24 0980 him, he adopts a position that is morally indefensible. He ascribes G24 0990 to the mercy of God the peace which this personal matter- the assurance G24 1000 that he can physically sustain the burden of the office longer G24 1010 than any individual in the history of our nation has been able to do- G24 1020 has brought him. What is simply an opinion formed in defiance of the G24 1030 laws of human probability, whether or not it is later confirmed, has G24 1040 become by September of the election year "a firm conviction". G24 1050 As G24 1060 a means of silencing a discussion which ought to have taken place, the G24 1070 statement is an effective one: we sympathize with the universal confusion G24 1080 which gives rise to such convictions. But it is also the climax G24 1090 to one of the absorbing chapters in our current political history. G24 1100 In assigning to God the responsibility which he learned could G24 1110 not rest with his doctors, Eisenhower gave evidence of that weakening G24 1120 of the moral intuition which was to characterize his administration G24 1130 in the years to follow. In any other man this reassurance to the electorate G24 1140 would have caused us a profound moral shock. About this man we G24 1150 had to think twice. We knew that it was, as reassurance, the ironic G24 1160 fruit of a deeply moral nature. But the fact remains that even the unconscious G24 1170 acceptance of himself as a man of destiny divinely protected G24 1180 must be censored in any man who evades the responsibility for his major G24 1190 decisions, and thus for imposing his will on the people. And in the G24 1200 context of drifting personal utterances we have examined, there was G24 1210 occasional evidence of the origin of all such evasions. When the possibility G24 1220 that he had not given reconsideration to so weighty a decision G24 1230 seemed G24 1240 to disconcert his questioners, Mr& Eisenhower was known to G24 1250 make his characteristic statement to the press that he was not going G24 1260 to talk about the matter any more. Thinking had stopped; it was not G24 1270 to be resumed. The portrait that had developed, fragmentarily G24 1280 but consistently, was the portrait of a man to whom serious thinking G24 1290 is alien enough that the making of a decision inhibits, when it does not G24 1300 forestall, any ability to review the decision in the light of new evidence. G24 1310 This does not mean that the decision to run for office should G24 1320 inevitably have been revoked. Instead it means that the thinking in G24 1330 which decision issues has the power to determine the morality of the G24 1340 decision, as in this instance the pressure for renewed practical or legislative G24 1350 attention to the constitutional problems the decision had uncovered G24 1360 might have done. Drifting through a third illness, apparently G24 1370 without any provision for the handling of a major national emergency G24 1380 other than a talk with the vice-president, Eisenhower revealed the singularly G24 1390 static quality of his thinking. Despite three warnings, no G24 1400 sense of moral urgency impelled him to distinguish his situation, and G24 1410 thus his responsibilities, from Wilson's. ## By contrast, the G24 1420 energetic reaction of the leader to the full demands his decision imposes G24 1430 upon him strengthens the moral intuition and gives us the measure G24 1440 of the man. Only by means of an intensive preoccupation with the detailed G24 1450 considerations following from any decision can he ensure attention G24 1460 to the practical details to be dealt with if the implications of immorality G24 1470 in the major decision are effectively to be checked. In the G24 1480 incessant struggle with recalcitrant political fact he learns to focus G24 1490 the essence of a problem in the significant detail, and to articulate G24 1500 the distinctions which clarify the detail as significant, with what G24 1510 is sometimes astounding rapidity. Like Lincoln, he can distinguish G24 1520 his relation to God from the constitutional responsibilities a questionable G24 1530 decision exacts of him. Like Roosevelt, he can distinguish an G24 1540 attitude toward a Russian leader he may share with a host of Americans G24 1550 from the responsibilities diplomatic convention may impose upon him. G24 1560 He chooses to subordinate one to the other, sometimes reluctantly, G24 1570 accepting criticism for the lesser immoralities facts breed. The very G24 1580 nature of a choice so grounded in distinction and fact leads to the G24 1590 valid convictions which become force of will in the manifest leader. G24 1600 The capacity for making the distinctions of which diplomacy is compact, G24 1610 and the facility with language which can render them into validity G24 1620 in the eyes of other men are the leader's means for transforming the G24 1630 moral intuition into moral leadership. The making of distinctions, G24 1640 like the perception of the great distinctions made, is an inordinately G24 1650 difficult business. Lincoln's slow progress towards the several G24 1660 marking his achievement is even now unrecognizable as such, and loosely G24 1670 interpreted as the alternation of inconsistency with vision. But G24 1680 because it is the function of the mind to turn the one into the other G24 1690 by means of the capacities with which words endow it, we do not unwisely G24 1700 examine the type of distinction, in the sphere of politics, on which G24 1710 decisions hang. Only recently, and perhaps because a television debate G24 1720 can so effectively dramatize President Kennedy's extraordinary G24 1730 mastery of detail, have the abilities on which the capacity for making G24 1740 distinctions depend begun to be clearly discernible at the level of G24 1750 politics. G24 1760 In his recent evaluation of Kennedy's potentialities for G24 1770 leadership, Walter Lippmann has cited the "precision" of his mind, G24 1780 his "immense command" of factual detail, and his "instinct for G24 1790 the crucial point" as impressive in the extreme; and it is surely G24 1800 clear that the first of these is the result of the way in which the G24 1810 individual's command of language interacts with the other two. G25 0010 For this change is not a change from one positive position to another, G25 0020 but a change from order and truth to disorder and negation. The G25 0025 liberal-conservative G25 0030 division, we might observe in passing, is not of itself G25 0040 directly involved in a private interest conflict nor even in struggle G25 0050 between ruling groups. Rather it is rooted in a difference of response G25 0060 to the threat of social disintegration. The division is not between G25 0070 those who wish to preserve what they have and those who want change. G25 0080 Rather it is a division established by two absolutely different ways G25 0090 of thought with regard to man's life in society. These ways are G25 0100 absolutely irreconcilable because they offer two different recipes for G25 0110 man's redemption from chaos. The civilizational crisis, the G25 0120 third type of change raises the question "what are we to do"? G25 0130 on the most primitive level. For the answer cannot be derived from any G25 0140 socially cohesive element in the disrupting community. There is no G25 0150 socially existential answer to the question. For the truth formerly experienced G25 0160 by the community no longer has existential status in the community, G25 0170 nor does any answer elaborated by philosophers or theoriticians. G25 0180 In this phase of change, no idea has social acceptance and so none G25 0190 has ontological status in the community. An interregnum ensues in which G25 0200 not men but ideas compete for existence. If we examine the G25 0210 three types of change from the point of view of their internal structure G25 0220 we find an additional profound difference between the third and the G25 0230 first two, one that accounts for the notable difference between the G25 0240 responses they evoke. The first two types of change occur within the G25 0250 inward and immanent structure of the society. The first involves a simple G25 0260 shift of interests in the society. The second involves something G25 0270 deeper, but its characteristic form focuses on a shift in policy for G25 0280 the community, not in the truth on which the community rests. Thus in G25 0290 both types attention is focused on the community itself, and its phenomenological G25 0300 life. The third type, however, wrenches attention from G25 0310 the life of action and interests in the community and focuses it on the G25 0320 ground of being on which the community depends for its existence. Voegelin G25 0330 has analyzed this experience in the case of the stable, healthy G25 0340 community. There the community, faced with the need to formulate policy G25 0350 on the level of absolute justice, can find the answer to its problem G25 0360 in the absolute truth which it holds as partially experienced. This, G25 0370 however, cannot be done by a community whose very experience of truth G25 0380 is confused and incoherent: it has no absolute standard, and consequently G25 0390 cannot distinguish the absolute from the contingent. It has G25 0400 lost its ground of being and floats in a mist of appearances. Relativism G25 0410 and equality are its characteristic diseases. Precisely at the moment G25 0420 when it has lost its vision the mind of the community turns out G25 0430 from itself in a search for the ontological standard whereby it can measure G25 0440 itself. For paradigmatic history "breaks" rather than unfolds G25 0450 precisely when the movement is from order to disorder, and not from G25 0460 one order to a new order. The liberal-conservative split, to define G25 0470 it further, derives from a basic difference concerning the existential G25 0480 status of standard sought and about the spiritual experience that leads G25 0490 to its identification. When disruptive change has penetrated G25 0500 to the third level of social order, the process of disruption rapidly G25 0510 reaches a point of no return. Indeed, it is probable that this point G25 0520 is reached the moment the third level of change begins. At that point G25 0530 we reach the "closed" historical situation: the situation in G25 0540 which man is no longer free to return to a . At that G25 0550 point men become aware of the mystery of history called variously "fate", G25 0560 or "destiny", or "providence", and feel themselves G25 0570 caught helplessly in the writhing of a disrupted society. The reasons G25 0580 for this experience are rooted in the metaphysical characteristics of G25 0590 such a change. Of all forms of being, society, or community, G25 0610 has the greatest element of determinability. Its ontological status is G25 0620 itself most tenuous because apart from individual men, who are its "matter", G25 0630 tradition, the "form" of society exists only as a shared G25 0640 perception of truth. The ontological status of society thus is constituted G25 0650 by the psychological-intellectual-volitional status of society's G25 0660 members. The content of that psychological status determines, G25 0670 ultimately, the content of civilization. Those social, civilizational G25 0680 factors not rooted in the human spirit of the group, ultimately cease G25 0690 to exist. Civilization itself- tradition- falls out of existence G25 0700 when the human spirit itself becomes confused. Civilization is what G25 0710 man has made of himself. Its massive contours are rooted in the simple G25 0720 need of man, since he is always incomplete, to complete himself. G25 0730 It is not enough for man to be an ontological esse. He needs existential G25 0740 completion, he needs, that is, to move in the direction of completion. G25 0750 And the direction of that movement is determined by his perception G25 0760 of the truth about himself. He must, consequently, exist as a G25 0770 self-perceived substantive, developing agent, or he does not exist as G25 0780 man. Thus, it is no mystical intuition, but an analyzable conception G25 0790 to say that man and his tradition can "fall out of existence". This G25 0800 happens at the moment man loses the perception of moral substance G25 0810 in himself, of a nature that, in Maritain's words, is perceived as G25 0820 a "locus of intelligible necessities". An existentialist is a man G25 0830 who perceives himself only as "esse", as existence without substance. G25 0840 Thus human perception and human volition is the immanent G25 0850 cause of all social change and this most truly when the change reaches G25 0860 the civilizational level. Thus with regard to the loss of tradition, G25 0870 in the change from order to disorder the metaphysics of change works G25 0880 itself out as a disruption of the individual soul, a change in which man G25 0890 continues as an objective ontological existent, but no longer as a G25 0900 man. Further, change is a form of motion, it occurs as the act G25 0910 of a being in potency insofar as it is in potency and has not yet reached G25 0920 the terminus of the change. With regard to the change we are examining, G25 0930 the question is, at what point does the change become irreversible? G25 0940 A number of considerations suggest that this occurs early in G25 0950 the process. Change involves the displacement of form. This means that G25 0960 the inception of change itself can begin only when the factors conducive G25 0970 to change have already become more powerful than those anchoring G25 0980 the existent form in being. If the existent form is to be retained new G25 0990 factors that reinforce it must be introduced into the situation. In G25 1000 the case of social decay, form is displaced simply by the process of G25 1010 dissolution with no form at the terminus of the process. Now in the G25 1020 mere fact of the beginning of such displacement we have prima-facie evidence G25 1030 of the ontological weakness of the fading form. And when we consider G25 1040 the tenuous hold tradition has on existence, any weakening of that G25 1050 hold constitutes a crisis of existence. The retention of a tradition G25 1060 confronted with such a crisis necessitates the introduction of new G25 1070 spiritual forces into the situation. However, the crisis occurs precisely G25 1080 as a weakening of spiritual forces. It would seem, therefore, that G25 1090 in a civilizational crisis man cannot save himself. The emergence G25 1100 of the crisis itself would seem to constitute a warranty for the victory G25 1110 of disorder. And it would seem that history is a witness to this G25 1120 truth. As a further characterization of the liberal conservative G25 1130 split we may observe that it involves differences in the formula for G25 1140 escaping inevitabilities in history. These differences, in turn, derive G25 1150 from prior differences concerning the friendly or hostile character G25 1160 of change. #UNANALYZED RESPONSES# ANXIETY AND DEEP INSECURITY G25 1170 are the characteristic responses evoked by the crisis in tradition. G25 1180 To experience them, it is not necessary for a people to be actively G25 1190 aware of what is happening to it. The process of erosion need only G25 1200 undermine the tradition and a series of consequences begin unfolding G25 1210 within the individual, while in institutions a quiet but deep transformation G25 1220 of processes occurs. Within the individual the reaction has been G25 1230 called various names, all, however, pointing to the same basic experience. G25 1240 Weil identifies it as being "rootless", Guardini as being G25 1250 "placeless", Riesman as being "lonely". Others call it "alienation", G25 1260 and mean by that no simple economic experience (as Marx G25 1270 does) but a deep spiritual sense of dislocation. Within institutions G25 1280 there is a marked decline of the process of persuasion and the substitution G25 1290 of a force-fear process which masquerades as the earlier one G25 1300 of persuasion. We note the use of rhetoric as a weapon, the manipulation G25 1310 of the masses by propaganda, the "mobilization" of effort and G25 1320 resources. Within this context of spontaneous and unanalyzed G25 1330 responses to the experience of civilizational crisis, two basic organizations G25 1340 of response are observable: reaction and ideological progressivism. G25 1360 These responses are explicable in terms of characteristics inherent G25 1370 in the crisis. Both are predictably destined to fail. The G25 1380 response of reaction is dominated by a concern for what is vanishing. G25 1390 Its essence lies in its attempt to recover previous order through G25 1400 the repression of disruptive forces. To this end political authority G25 1410 is called upon to exercise its negative and coercive powers. The implicit G25 1420 assumption of this response is that history is reversible. Seemingly, G25 1430 order is perceived as a kind of subsistent entity now covered by G25 1440 adventitious accretions. The problem is to remove the accretions and G25 1450 thereby uncover the order that was always there. Such a response, of G25 1460 course, misses the point that in crisis order is going out of existence. G25 1470 Moreover its posture of stubborn but simple resistance is doomed G25 1480 to failure because of the metaphysical weakness of the existent form of G25 1490 order, once the activation of change has reached visible proportions. G25 1500 The most reaction can achieve is stasis, and a stasis that can be maintained G25 1510 only by the expenditure of an effort which ultimately exhausts G25 1520 itself. Despite the hopelessness of the response, it is explicable G25 1530 in terms of the crisis of tradition itself. Since a civilizational G25 1540 crisis involves also a crisis in private interests and in the ruling G25 1550 class, reaction is normally found among those who feel themselves G25 1560 to be among the ruling class. Their great error is to mingle the responses G25 1570 typical of each of the three types of change. Since civilizational G25 1580 change is the most difficult to perceive and analyze, it seldom is G25 1590 given adequate attention. And the anxiety it generates is misinterpreted G25 1600 as anxiety over private interest and threatened social status. G25 1610 The basic truth in the reactionary response is to be found in its G25 1620 realistic assumption of the primacy of the real over the ideational. G25 1630 But this truth is distorted by its extreme application: the assumption G25 1640 of the separate existence of tradition. The reactionary misses G25 1650 the point that tradition exists ontologically only in the form of G25 1655 psychological-intellectual G25 1660 relations. Reactionary theories, for this reason, G25 1670 usually assume some form of organismic theory. In its defensive G25 1680 formulations, the theory will attack conscious change on the grounds of G25 1690 the independent existence of the community. In its dynamic form, it G25 1700 visualizes the community as the embodiment of an ontological force- G25 1710 the race, for instance, which unfolds in history. In both cases the G25 1720 individual tends to be treated as an instrument of the organic reality. G25 1730 When the reactionary response is thus bolstered by an intellectual G25 1740 defense, the characteristics of that defense are explicable only G25 1750 in terms of the basic attitudes of unanalyzed reaction. Reaction is G25 1760 rooted in a perception of tradition as a whole. It is a total situation G25 1770 that is defended: the "good old days". There is no selectivity; G25 1780 even the questionable features of the past are defended. The point G25 1790 is that the reactionary, for whatever motive, perceives himself to G25 1800 have been part or a partner of something that extended beyond himself, G25 1810 something which, consequently, he was not able to accept or reject G25 1820 on the basis of subjective preference. The reactionary is confused about G25 1830 the existential status of a decaying tradition, but he does perceive G25 1840 the unity tradition had when it was healthy. G26 0010 All of which brings up another problem in the use of psychoanalytic G26 0020 insight in a literary work. Is the Oedipus complex, the clinical G26 0030 syndrome, material for a tragedy? If we remove ourselves for a moment G26 0040 from our time and our infatuation with mental disease, isn't there G26 0050 something absurd about a hero in a novel who is defeated by his infantile G26 0060 neurosis? I am not making a clinical judgment here, for such G26 0070 personal tragedies are real and are commonplace in the analyst's G26 0080 consulting room, but literature makes a different claim upon our sympathies G26 0090 than tragedy in life. A man in a novel who is defeated in his childhood G26 0100 and condemned by unconscious forces within him to tiredly repeat G26 0110 his earliest failure in love, only makes us a little weary of man; G26 0120 his tragedy seems unworthy and trivial. Now we can argue that G26 0130 the irresistible fate of Oedipus Rex was nothing more than the irresistible G26 0140 unconscious longings of Oedipus projected outward, but this G26 0150 externalization of unconscious conflict makes all the difference between G26 0160 a story and a clinical case history. We can also argue that the G26 0170 three brothers Karamazov and Smerdyakov were the external representatives G26 0180 of an internal conflict within one man, Dostoevsky, a conflict G26 0190 having to G26 0200 do with father-murder and the wish to possess the father's woman. But G26 0210 a novel in which one man Karamazov explored the divisions within G26 0220 his personality would scarcely merit publication in the . It is a mistake to look upon the Oedipus of G26 0240 Oedipus Complex as a literary descendant of Oedipus Rex. Whatever G26 0250 the psychological truth in the Oedipus myth, an Oedipus who is drawn G26 0260 to his fate by irresistible external forces can carry the symbol of G26 0270 humanity and its archaic crime, and the incest that is unknowing renews G26 0280 the mystery of the eternal dream of childhood and absorbs us in the G26 0290 secret. But a modern Oedipus who is doomed because he cannot oppose G26 0300 his own childhood is only pathetic, and for renouncing the mystery G26 0310 in favor of psychological truth he gives up the claim on our sympathies. G26 0320 I am suggesting that a case-history approach to the Oedipus G26 0330 complex is a blind alley for a storyteller. The best gifts of the novelist G26 0340 will be wasted on the reader who is insulated against any surprises G26 0350 the novelist may have in store for him. Incest is still a durable G26 0360 theme, but if it wants to get written about it will have to find ways G26 0370 to surprise the emotions, and there is no better way to do this than G26 0380 that of concealment and symbolic representation. And the best way to G26 0390 conceal and disguise the elements of an incest story is not to set out G26 0400 to write an incest story. Which brings to mind another Lawrence story G26 0410 and some interesting comparisons in the treatment of the Oedipal G26 0420 theme. "The Rocking Horse Winner" is also a story about G26 0430 a boy's love for his mother. If I now risk some comparisons with G26 0440 let it be clear that I am not comparing the two G26 0450 works or judging their merits; I am only singling out differences G26 0460 in treatment of a theme and the resultant effects. "The Rocking Horse G26 0470 Winner" is a fantasy with extraordinary power to disturb the G26 0480 reader- but we do not know why. It is the story of the hopeless love G26 0490 of a little boy for his cold and vain mother. There are ghostly scenes G26 0500 in which the little boy on his rocking horse rocks madly toward the G26 0510 climax that will magically give him the name of the winning horse. The G26 0520 child grows rich on his winnings and conspires with his uncle to make G26 0530 secret gifts of his money to his mother. The story ends in the child's G26 0540 illness and delirium brought on by the feverish compulsion to G26 0550 ride his horse to win for his mother. The child dies with his mourning G26 0560 mother at his bedside. I had read the story many times without G26 0570 asking myself why it affected me or caring why it did. But on one G26 0580 occasion when I encountered a similar fantasy in a little boy who was G26 0590 my patient I began to understand the uncanny effects of this story. G26 0600 It was, of course, a little boy's fantasy of winning his mother to G26 0610 himself, and replacing the father who could not give her the things she G26 0620 wanted- a classical oedipal fantasy if you like- but if it were G26 0630 only this the story would be banal. Why does the story affect us? How G26 0640 does the rocking exert its uncanny effect upon the reader? The G26 0650 rocking is actually felt in the story, a terrible and ominous rhythm that G26 0660 prophesies the tragedy. The rocking, I realized, is the single element G26 0670 in the story that carries the erotic message, the unspoken and G26 0680 unconscious undercurrent that would mar the innocence of a child's fantasy G26 0690 and disturb the effects of the work if it were made explicit. The G26 0700 rocking has the ambiguous function of keeping the erotic undercurrent G26 0710 silent and making it present; it conceals and yet is suggestive; G26 0720 a perfect symbol. And if we understand the rocking as an erotic symbol G26 0730 we can also see how well it serves as the symbol of impending tragedy. G26 0740 For this love of the boy for his mother is a hopeless and forbidden G26 0750 love, doomed by its nature. We are also struck by the fact G26 0760 that this story of a boy's love for his mother does not offend, while G26 0770 the incestuous love of the man, Paul Morel, sometimes repels. It's G26 0780 easy to see why. This love belongs to childhood; we accord it G26 0790 its place there, and in Lawrence's treatment we are given the innocent G26 0800 fantasy of a child, in fact, the form in which oedipal love is expressed G26 0810 in childhood. And when the child dies in Lawrence's story G26 0820 in a delirium that is somehow brought on by his mania to win and to make G26 0830 his mother rich, the manifest absurdity of such a disease and such G26 0840 a death does not enter into our thoughts at all. We have so completely G26 0850 entered the child's fantasy that his illness and his death are the G26 0860 plausible and the necessary conclusion. I am sure that none G26 0870 of the effects of this story were consciously employed by Lawrence to G26 0880 describe an oedipal fantasy in childhood. It is most probable that G26 0890 Freud and the Oedipus complex never entered his head in the writing G26 0900 of this story. He was simply writing a story that wanted to be told, G26 0910 and in the writing a childhood fantasy of his own emerged. He would not G26 0920 have cared why it emerged, he only wanted to capture a memory to play G26 0930 with it again in his imagination and somehow to fix and hold in the G26 0940 story the disturbing emotions that accompanied the fantasy. In G26 0950 our own time we have seen that the novelist's debt to psychoanalysis G26 0960 has increased but that the novel itself has not profited much from G26 0970 this marriage. Ortega's hope that modern psychology might yet bring G26 0980 forth a last flowering of the novel has only been partially fulfilled. G26 0990 The young writer seems intimidated by psychological knowledge; he G26 1000 has lost confidence in his own eyes and in the validity of his own psychological G26 1010 insights. He borrows the insights of psychology to improve G26 1020 his impaired vision but cannot bring to his work the distinctive vision G26 1030 that should be a novelist's own. He has been seduced by the marvels G26 1040 of the unconscious and has lost interest in studying the surfaces G26 1050 of character. If many of the characters in contemporary novels appear G26 1060 to be the bloodless relations of characters in a case history it is G26 1070 because the novelist is often forgetful today that those things that G26 1080 we call character manifest themselves in surface behavior, that the ego G26 1090 is still the executive agency of personality, and that all we know of G26 1100 personality must be discerned through the ego. The novelist who has G26 1110 been badly baptized in psychoanalysis often gives us the impression that G26 1120 since all men must have an Oedipus complex all men must have the G26 1130 same faces. #/2,.# I have argued that Oedipus of the Oedipus G26 1140 complex has a doubtful future as a tragic figure in literature. But a G26 1150 writer who has a taste for irony and who sees incest in all its modern G26 1160 dimensions can let his imagination work on the disturbing joke in the G26 1170 incest myth, the joke that strikes right at the center of man's humanness. G26 1180 Moral dread is seen as the other face of desire, and here psychoanalysis G26 1190 delivers to the writer a magnificent irony and a moral problem G26 1200 of great complexity. There is probably some significance G26 1210 in the fact that two of the best incest stories I have encountered G26 1220 in recent years are burlesques of the incest myth. The ancient types G26 1230 are reassembled in gloom and foreboding to be irresistibly drawn to their G26 1240 destinies, but the myth fails before the modern truth; the oracle G26 1250 speaks false and the dream speaks true. In both the farmer's tale G26 1260 in Ralph Ellison's and in Thomas Mann's , the incest hero rises above the myth by accepting G26 1280 the wish as motive; the heroic act is the casting off of pretense. G26 1290 Thomas Mann wrote in 1951. It was conceived G26 1300 as a leave-taking, a kind of melancholy gathering-in of the myths G26 1310 of the West, "". He chose a medieval legend of G26 1330 incest, Gregorius vom Stein, and freely borrowed and parodied other G26 1340 myths of the West, mixing themes, language, peoples and times in a master G26 1350 myth in which the old forms continually renew themselves, as in his G26 1360 previous treatment of Joseph. But is G26 1370 not simply a retelling of old stories for an old man's entertainment. G26 1380 Mann understood better than most men the incest comedy at the center G26 1390 of the myth and the psychological truth in which dread is shown as G26 1400 the other face as longing was for him just the kind of deep and complicated G26 1410 joke he liked to tell. And when he retold the legend of Gregorius G26 1420 he interpolated a modern version in which the medieval players speak G26 1430 contemporary thoughts in archaic language; while they move through G26 1440 the pageantry of the ancient incest myth and cover themselves through G26 1450 not-knowing, they reveal the unconscious motive in seeking each other G26 1460 and in the last scene make an extraordinary confession of guilt in the G26 1470 twentieth-century manner. Grigorss is the child of an incestuous G26 1480 union between a royal brother and sister, the twins Sibylla and G26 1490 Wiligis. He is born in secrecy after the death of his father and cast G26 1500 adrift soon after birth. The infant is discovered by a fisherman who G26 1510 brings him home to rear him. An ivory tablet in the infant's cask G26 1520 recounts the story of his sinful origins and is preserved for the child G26 1530 by the monks of a monastery in the fishing village. Grigorss, at G26 1540 seventeen, learns his story and goes forth as a knight to uncover his G26 1550 origins. His sailing vessel is guided by fate to the shores of his own G26 1560 country at a time when Sibylla's domain is overrun by the armies G26 1570 of one of her rejected suitors. Grigorss overcomes the suitor in battle, G26 1580 delivers the city from its oppressors and marries Sibylla who had G26 1590 fallen in love with the beautiful knight the moment she saw him. G26 1600 Sibylla is pregnant with their second child when she finds the ivory G26 1610 tablet concealed by her husband, and the identities of mother and son G26 1620 are revealed. Grigorss goes off to do penance on a rock for seventeen G26 1630 years. At the end of this period two pious Christians in Rome receive G26 1640 the revelation which leads them to seek the next Pope on the rock. G26 1650 Grigorss comes to Rome and becomes a great and beloved Pope. In G26 1660 the last pages of the book Sibylla comes to Rome to seek an audience G26 1670 with the great Pope and to give her confession. Mother and son recognize G26 1680 each other and, in Mann's version of this legend, make a remarkable G26 1690 confession of guilt to each other, the confession of unconscious G26 1700 motive and unconscious knowledge of their true identities from the G26 1710 time they had first set eyes on each other. G27 0010 In recollection he has said: "Natural or man-made objects kept coming G27 0020 into my head, but I would suppress them sternly". Moreover, G27 0030 he organized the movement of his forms, within his rigorously shaped space, G27 0040 into highly complex equilibriums; and used gradations of color G27 0050 value as well as sharply contrasting elementary colors. The worthy G27 0060 Mondrian, seeing these pictures, said in a tone of kindly reproof: G27 0070 "But you are really an artist of the naturalistic tradition"! G27 0080 Helion did not realize it at the time, but it was true. His G27 0090 "monumental" abstraction, made up of smooth, metallic "non-objects" G27 0100 acting upon each other with great tension, won Helion much G27 0110 acclaim during the 'thirties. The play of novel lighting effects also G27 0120 entered into these compositions, whose controlled power and varied G27 0130 activity made them well worth meditating. As Helion's work G27 0140 showed more and more nostalgia for the world of man and nature, the pure G27 0150 abstractionists expressed some disapproval; but Leger, Arp, Lipchitz G27 0160 and Alexander Calder, at the time, gave him their blessing. His G27 0170 canvases nowadays bore titles frankly declaring them to be "Figures G27 0180 in Space", or "Blue Figure", or "Pink Figure"; and G27 0190 they had (vaguely) heads and feet. Exhibited in shows in London in G27 0200 1935, and in New York the following year, the new, more elaborated G27 0210 abstracts were much favored in the circles of the modernists as three-dimentional G27 0220 dramas of great intellectual coherence. At this period G27 0230 the thirty-year old Helion was ranked "as one of the mature leaders G27 0240 of the modern movement", according to Herbert Read, "and in the G27 0250 direct line of descent from Cezanne, Seurat, Gris and Leger". In G27 0260 America, Meyer Schapiro observed that, unlike the Mondrian school, G27 0280 Helion "sought a return path to the fullness of nature within the G27 0290 framework of abstract art". It is notable that at this time G27 0300 he was writing with admiration of Cimabue's and Poussin's way G27 0310 of filling space. Abstract art was still the right path for him; but, G27 0315 he G27 0320 held, instead of continuing as an "art of reduction", it must grow, G27 0330 must make a place for the contributions of the Raphaels and Poussins G27 0340 as well as for those of the early cubists and Mondrian. Later G27 0350 Helion wrote of this phase: "For years I built for myself G27 0360 a subtle instrument of relationships- colors and forms without a name. G27 0370 I played on it my secret songs, unexplained, passionate and peaceful". G27 0380 But his own work was evolving further. The extreme limitations G27 0390 he sensed in all current abstract art made that seem to him increasingly G27 0400 arid and cold. He was engaged in constant experiments that G27 0410 searched for new directions. Where would it all lead? He himself G27 0420 did not know, as he said in 1935. But he was "afraid of the future- G27 0430 he would in fact welcome a way back to social integration, a functional G27 0440 art of some kind". During the 1920's the Abstractionists, G27 0450 the German Bauhaus group of industrial designers, and the new G27 0460 architects all had the dream of some well ordered utopia, or welfare G27 0470 state, in which their neat and logical constructions might find their G27 0480 proper place. But whereas the postwar American abstractionists seem G27 0490 to Helion to be determined to "escape" from the real world, or simply G27 0500 to rebel against it, the abstractions which he and his G27 0510 associates of the 1930's were painting embodied the hope of "improving" G27 0520 things. "We were possessed by visions of a new civilization G27 0530 to come, very pure and elevated", he has said, "in fact some ideal G27 0540 form of socialism such as we had dreamed of since the war of 1914-1918". G27 0550 Instead of this the 1930's witnessed a tragic economic G27 0560 depression, the rise of Fascist dictators in Europe, the wasting G27 0570 Civil War in Spain. Very much the political man, Helion felt himself G27 0580 deeply affected by the increasingly pessimistic atmosphere of France G27 0590 and all Europe, whose foundations seemed to him more and more shaky. G27 0600 In 1936 he decided to migrate to America. The Rooseveltian America G27 0610 was a haven of liberalism and progress and seemed to him to constitute G27 0620 the last best hope for civilization. Helion also hoped that G27 0630 America's mastery of technology and industrial efficiency would be G27 0640 accompanied by the production of new and beautiful art works. "I arrived G27 0650 in the United States with the idea of establishing myself there G27 0660 more or less permanently and finding inspiration for new compositions". G27 0670 In New York he was well received by what was then only G27 0680 a small brave band of non-figurative artists, including Alexander Calder, G27 0690 George K& L& Morris, De Kooning, Holty and a few others. G27 0700 After a year in a studio on Sheridan Square, having married an G27 0710 American girl who was a native of Virginia, Helion moved to a village G27 0720 in the Blue Ridge mountains, where he produced some of the most G27 0730 imposing of his abstract canvases. The darkening world scene, G27 0740 at the time of the Munich Pact, continued to trouble his mind even in G27 0750 his remote Virginia studio. "Fear possessed me, and the certainty G27 0760 of war", he has related. "I truly smelled blood, death, heaps of G27 0770 corpses everywhere". In haste he labored to finish some last abstract G27 0780 paintings: a three-panel frieze, with a flying figure and a fallen G27 0790 figure; a "Double-Figure", which went to the Chicago Art G27 0800 Institute, and is considered by him the most successful of his abstracts; G27 0810 and in early 1939, a "Fallen Figure" of very ominous character, G27 0820 which concluded his abstract phase. "I knew I was carrying G27 0830 on with abstraction to its very end- for me", he said of the two G27 0840 years' output in Virginia. With those paintings of big constructions G27 0850 crashing down, he felt he could stop. They were, in effect his last G27 0860 testament to non-objective art. He had taken out first papers G27 0870 for American citizenship; but after war came to Europe, he decided G27 0880 to return to France, arriving there in January, 1940. "I hated G27 0890 the war", he said, "but thought I ought to go because I was, perhaps, G27 0900 one of those who hadn't done enough to prevent it". ## G27 0910 In June, 1940, Sergeant Helion, with a company of reserve troops waiting G27 0920 to go into battle, was sketching the hills south of the Loire G27 0930 River, when the war suddenly rolled in upon him. Its first apparition G27 0940 was a long, gloomy column of refugees riding in farm wagons, or pushing G27 0950 prams. His company then carried out a confused retreating movement G27 0960 until it was surrounded by the Germans, a few days before France capitulated. G27 0970 After a sort of death march during four days without food, G27 0980 Helion and his comrades were shipped by cattle-car to a labor camp G27 0990 at an estate farm in East Germany. A year later they were removed to G27 1000 a Stalag in the harbor of Stettin. At the time of his capture Helion G27 1010 had on his person a sketchbook he had bought at Woolworth's in G27 1020 New York. When he was stripped, deloused and numbered by his guards, G27 1030 his much-thumbed sketchbook was seized and thrown on a pile of prisoners' G27 1040 goods to be confiscated. "It was then I knew that they were G27 1050 making war against Man, the individual within!- who questioned G27 1060 things when given orders". At Stettin the university-educated G27 1070 artist, who had studied German, was chosen to serve as interpreter G27 1080 and clerk in the office of the Stalag commander. In secret he also G27 1090 acted as a member of the prisoners' Central Committee, which plotted G27 1100 sabotage, planned a few escapes, and maintained a hidden control over G27 1110 the wretched French slave-laborers. In the Stalag, Helion G27 1120 came to know and love his comrades, most of them plain folk, who, in G27 1130 their extremity, showed true courage and ran great risks to help each G27 1140 other. How much they esteemed him is shown by the fact that their underground G27 1150 committee selected him as one of the few who would be helped G27 1160 to escape. In the prison camp's Black Market civilian clothes were G27 1170 quietly bought and forged papers were devised for him; during long G27 1180 weeks the plan for his flight was rehearsed. Every morning G27 1190 contingents of prisoners would be sent out to labor in nearby factories. G27 1200 One evening, while a volley-ball game was being played in the yard G27 1210 among the prisoners remaining there, a simulated melee was staged- G27 1220 just as the gates were opened to admit other prisoners returning from G27 1230 work. As Helion wrote afterward: " Their sentry followed G27 1240 **h Four hands were stretched toward me by my comrades behind me. Marquet G27 1250 held my briefcase; Finot held a wallet with my money and papers; G27 1260 Moineau and David held nothing but their fingers **h They felt G27 1270 rough and kind and warm. At this moment the volley-ball hit the ground. G27 1280 Duclos ran toward Desprez with fists raised. The guards all G27 1290 rushed up to intervene **h" Shedding his prison cloak, Helion G27 1300 shot through the gates, now clad in civilian garments and with the G27 1310 passport of a Flemish worker. Riding trains, hitching hikes on trucks G27 1320 across Germany, slipping through guarded frontiers with the help of G27 1330 secret guides, he eventually reached Vichy France, and, by the winter G27 1340 of 1943, was back in Virginia. He wrote: " To escape from G27 1350 a prison camp required a very special state of mind; not only loathing G27 1360 of captivity, but a faith, a hope that is even stronger. I left G27 1370 behind me brave men, whom captivity had robbed of all hope. They too G27 1380 loved their families, longed for their villages: yet lacked the faith G27 1390 that drove one to dare **h the fearful chance of escape". G27 1400 It was a time of revelations for him. Even the most rational of men, G27 1410 under great stress, may be transported by a new faith and behave like G27 1420 mystics. Helion knew that he owed his freedom as much to the self-sacrifice G27 1430 of his fellow-men in Arbeitskommando /13,, Stettin, as to G27 1435 his own fierce G27 1440 will and love of life. After that, he declared, "to return to G27 1450 freedom was to fall to one's knees before the real world and adore G27 1460 it". In prison he had been able to sketch nothing but figures from G27 1470 life, his guards, his companions in misery. Now all his desires centered G27 1480 on "rediscovering and singing of the prosaic and yet beautiful G27 1490 world of men and objects so long barred from me by a barbed wire fence". G27 1500 And, he added: "During the many months in prison camp, all G27 1510 abstract images vanished from my mind". Before leaving for America, G27 1520 he happened to see his old friend Jean Arp and confided to G27 1530 him his new resolutions. Arp protested: "But it is impossible! G27 1540 Everything in the way of representation has already been done by the G27 1550 old masters". Helion, however, clung to the belief that "in escaping G27 1560 from the Stalag I had also escaped from Abstraction". G27 1570 While convalescing in his Virginia home he wrote a book recording G27 1580 his prison experiences and escape, entitled: **h Published originally in (Helion's) English by Dutton G27 1600 + Co& of New York, in 1943, the book was received by the press G27 1610 as a work of astonishing literary power and one of the most realistic G27 1620 accounts of World War /2, from the French side. It was very widely G27 1630 read, too; and the author, who seemed the embodiment of France's G27 1640 rising spirit of resistance to her conquerors, was much complimented G27 1650 for his daring military action. But when he showed his new figurative G27 1660 pictures to his artist friends of the abstract camp, they paid him G27 1670 no compliments and drew long faces. Between 1944 and 1947 Helion G27 1680 had a series of one-man shows- at the Paul Rosenberg Gallery G27 1690 in New York and in Paris- of his new realistic pictures. They reincarnated G27 1700 the figures of human beings banished from his canvases since G27 1710 the 1920's. These new pictures focussed on the familiar and commonplace G27 1720 objects that he had heard the men in his prison camp talking G27 1730 about as the things they missed most, hence associated with the sense G27 1740 of lost freedom: the cafe at the corner, the newspaper kiosk, the girls G27 1750 in doorways and windows along the street, the golden-crusted French G27 1760 bread they lacked, the cigarettes denied them. One of the pictures G27 1770 was of a man with hat drawn over his face ceremoniously lighting a cigarette; G27 1780 others were of men doffing their hats to each other, carrying G27 1790 umbrellas with pomp, reading newspapers, or simply showing loaves of G27 1800 bread spread out. G28 0010 Important as was Mr& O'Donnell's essay, his thesis is G28 0020 so restricting as to deny Faulkner the stature which he obviously has. G28 0030 He and also Mr& Cowley and Mr& Warren have fallen to the temptation G28 0040 which besets many of us to read into our authors- Nathaniel G28 0050 Hawthorne, for example, and Herman Melville- protests against G28 0060 modernism, material progress, and science which are genuine protests of G28 0070 our own but may not have been theirs. Faulkner's total works today, G28 0080 and in fact those of his works which existed in 1946 when Mr& Cowley G28 0090 made his comment, or in 1939, when Mr& O'Donnell wrote his G28 0100 essay, reveal no such simple attitude toward the South. If he is a G28 0110 traditionalist, he is an eclectic traditionalist. If he condemns the G28 0120 recent or the present, he condemns the past with no less force. If he G28 0130 sees the heroic in a Sartoris or a Sutpen, he sees also- and he G28 0140 shows- the blind and the mean, and he sees the Compson family disintegrating G28 0150 from within. If the barn-burner's family produces a Flem G28 0160 Snopes, who personifies commercialism and materialism in hyperbolic G28 0170 crassness, the Compson family produces a Jason Compson /4,. Faulkner G28 0180 is a most untraditional traditionalist. Others writing on G28 0190 Faulkner have found the phrase "traditional moralist" either inadequate G28 0200 or misleading. Among them are Frederick J& Hoffman, William G28 0210 Van O'Connor, and Mrs& Olga Vickery. They have indicated G28 0220 the direction but they have not been explicit enough, I believe, in G28 0230 pointing out Faulkner's independence, his questioning if not indeed G28 0240 challenging the Southern tradition. Faulkner's is not the mind G28 0250 of the apologist which Mr& O'Donnell implies that it is. He is G28 0260 not one to remain more comfortably and unquestioningly within a body G28 0270 of social, cultural, or literary traditions than he was within the traditions- G28 0280 or possibly the regulations- governing his tenure in the G28 0290 post office at Oxford, Mississippi, thirty-five years ago. That G28 0300 is not to deny that he has been aware of traditions, of course, that G28 0310 he is steeped in them, in fact, or that he has dealt with them, in G28 0320 his books. It is to say rather, I believe, that he has brought to bear G28 0330 on the history, the traditions, and the lore of his region a critical, G28 0340 skeptical mind- the same mind which has made of him an inveterate G28 0350 experimenter in literary form and technique. He has employed from G28 0360 his section rich immediate materials which in a loose sense can be termed G28 0370 Southern. The fact that he has cast over those materials the light G28 0380 of a skeptical mind does not make him any the less Southern, I rather G28 0390 think, for the South has been no more solid than other regions except G28 0400 in the political and related areas where patronage and force and G28 0410 intimidation and fear may produce a surface uniformity. Some of us might G28 0420 be inclined to argue, in fact, that an independence of mind and action G28 0430 and an intolerance of regimentation, either mental or physical, G28 0440 are particularly Southern traits. There is no necessity, I suppose, G28 0450 to assert that Mr& Faulkner is Southern. It would not be G28 0460 easy to discover a more thoroughly Southern pedigree than that of his G28 0470 family. And, after all, he has lived comfortably at both Oxford, Mississippi, G28 0480 and Charlottesville, Virginia. The young William Faulkner G28 0490 in New Orleans in the 1920's impressed the novelist Hamilton G28 0500 Basso as obviously conscious of being a Southerner, and there is no G28 0510 evidence that since then he has ever considered himself any less so. G28 0520 Besides showing no inclination, apparently, to absent himself from his G28 0530 native region even for short periods, and in addition writing a shelf G28 0540 of books set in the region, he has handled in those books an astonishingly G28 0550 complete list of matters which have been important in the South G28 0560 during the past hundred years. It is more difficult with Faulkner G28 0570 than with most authors to say what is the extent and what is G28 0580 the source of his knowledge. His own testimony is that he has read very G28 0590 little in the history of the South, implying that what he knows of G28 0600 that history has come to him orally and that he knows the world around G28 0610 him primarily from his own unassisted observation. His denials of extensive G28 0620 reading notwithstanding, it is no doubt safe to assume that he G28 0630 has spent time schooling himself in Southern history and that he has G28 0640 gained some acquaintance with the chief literary authors who have lived G28 0650 in the South or have written about the South. To believe otherwise G28 0660 would be unrealistic. But in looking at Faulkner against G28 0670 his background in Mississippi and the South, it is important not to G28 0680 lose the broader perspective. His earliest work reflected heavy influences G28 0690 from English and continental writers. Evidence is plentiful that G28 0700 early G28 0710 and later also he has been indebted to the Gothic romancers, G28 0720 who deal in extravagant horror, to the symbolists writing at the end G28 0730 of the preceding century, and in particular to the stream-of-consciousness G28 0740 novelists, Henry James and James Joyce among them. His repeated G28 0750 experimentation with the techniques of fiction testifies to an independence G28 0760 of mind and an originality of approach, but it also shows him G28 0770 touching at many points the stream of literary development back of him. G28 0780 My intention, therefore, is not to say that Faulkner's awareness G28 0790 has been confined within the borders of the South, but rather that G28 0800 he has looked at his world as a Southerner and that presumably his outlook G28 0810 is Southern. The ingredients of Faulkner's novels and G28 0820 stories are by no means new with him, and most of the problems he takes G28 0830 up have had the attention of authors before him. A useful comment G28 0840 on his relation to his region may be made, I think, by noting briefly G28 0850 how in handling Southern materials and Southern problems he has deviated G28 0860 from the pattern set by other Southern authors while remaining G28 0870 faithful to the essential character of the region. The planter G28 0880 aristocracy has appeared in literature at least since John Pendleton G28 0890 Kennedy published in 1832 and in his genial portrait G28 0900 of Frank Meriwether presiding over his plantation dominion initiated G28 0910 the most persistent tradition of Southern literature. The thoroughgoing G28 0920 idealization of the planter society did not come, however, G28 0930 until after the Civil War when Southern writers were eager to defend G28 0940 a way of life which had been destroyed. As they looked with nostalgia G28 0950 to a society which had been swept away, they were probably no more G28 0960 than half-conscious that they painted in colors which had never existed. G28 0970 Their books found no less willing readers outside than inside the G28 0980 South, even while memories of the war were still sharp. The tradition G28 0990 reached its apex, perhaps, in the works of Thomas Nelson Page toward G28 1000 the end of the century, and reappeared undiminished as late as 1934 G28 1010 in the best-selling novel , by Stark Young. G28 1020 Although Faulkner was the heir in his own family to this tradition, G28 1030 he did not have Stark Young's inclination to romanticize and sentimentalize G28 1040 the planter society. The myth of the Southern plantation G28 1050 has had only a tangential relation with actuality, as Francis G28 1060 Pendleton Gaines showed forty years ago, and I suspect it has had a G28 1070 far narrower acceptance as something real than has generally been supposed. G28 1080 Faulkner has found it useful, but he has employed it with his G28 1090 habitual independence of mind and skeptical outlook. Without saying or G28 1100 seeming to say that in portraying the Sartoris and the Compson families G28 1110 Faulkner's chief concern is social criticism, we can say nevertheless G28 1120 that through those families he dramatizes his comment on the G28 1130 planter dynasties as they have existed since the decades before the Civil G28 1140 War. It may be that in this comment he has broken from the conventional G28 1150 pattern more violently than in any other regard, for the treatment G28 1160 in his books is far removed from even the genial irony of Ellen G28 1170 Glasgow, who was the only important novelist before him to challenge G28 1180 the conventional picture of planter society. Faulkner's low-class G28 1190 characters had but few counterparts in earlier Southern novels G28 1200 dealing with plantation life. They have an ancestry extending back, G28 1210 however, at least to 1728, when William Byrd described the Lubberlanders G28 1220 he encountered in the back country of Virginia and North Carolina. G28 1240 The chief literary antecedents of the Snopes clan appeared in the G28 1250 realistic, humorous writing which originated in the South and the G28 1260 Southwest in the three decades before the Civil War. These narratives G28 1270 of coarse action and crude language appeared first in local newspapers, G28 1280 as a rule, and later found their way between book covers, though G28 1290 rarely into the planters' libraries beside the morocco-bound volumes G28 1300 of Horace, Mr& Addison, Mr& Pope, and Sir Walter Scott. G28 1310 There is evidence to suggest, in fact, that many authors of the humorous G28 1320 sketches were prompted to write them- or to make them as indelicate G28 1330 as they are- by way of protesting against the artificial refinements G28 1340 which had come to dominate the polite letters of the South. William G28 1350 Gilmore Simms, sturdy realist that he was, pleaded for a natural G28 1355 robustness such as he G28 1360 found in his favorites the great Elizabethans, G28 1370 to vivify the pale writings being produced around him. Simms admired G28 1380 the raucous tales emanating from the backwoods, but he had himself social G28 1390 affiliations which would not allow him to approve them fully. Augustus G28 1400 Baldwin Longstreet, a preacher and a college and university president G28 1410 in four Southern states, published the earliest of these backwoods G28 1420 sketches and in the character Ransy Sniffle, in the accounts of G28 1430 sharp horse-trading and eye-gouging physical combat, and in the shockingly G28 1440 unliterary speech of his characters, he set an example followed G28 1450 by many after him. Others who wrote of low characters and low G28 1460 life included Thomas Bangs Thorpe, creator of the Big Bear of Arkansas G28 1470 and Tom Owen, the Bee-Hunter; Johnson Jones Hooper, whose G28 1480 character Simon Suggs bears a close kinship to Flem Snopes in G28 1490 both his willingness to take cruel advantage of all and sundry and the G28 1500 sharpness with which he habitually carried out his will; and George G28 1510 Washington Harris, whose Tennessee hillbilly character Sut Lovingood G28 1520 perpetrated more unmalicious mischief and more unintended pain G28 1530 than any other character in literature. It would be profitable, I believe, G28 1540 to read these realistic humorists alongside Faulkner's works, G28 1550 the thought being not that he necessarily read them and owed anything G28 1560 to them directly, but rather that they dealt a hundred years ago with G28 1570 a class of people and a type of life which have continued down to our G28 1580 time, to Faulkner's time. Such a comparison reminds us that in employing G28 1590 low characters in his works Faulkner is recording actuality G28 1600 in the South and moreover is following a long-established literary precedent. G28 1610 Such characters, with their low existence and often low morality, G28 1620 produce humorous effects in his novels and tales, as they did in G28 1630 the writing of Longstreet and Hooper and Harris, but it need not be G28 1640 added that he gives them far subtler and more intricate functions than G28 1650 they had in the earlier writers; nor is there need to add that among G28 1660 them are some of the most highly individualized and most successful G28 1670 of his characters. One of the early humorists already mentioned, G28 1680 Thomas Bangs Thorpe, can be used to illustrate another point G28 1690 where Faulkner touches authentic Southern materials and also earlier G28 1700 literary treatment of those materials. Thorpe came to Louisiana from G28 1710 the East as a young man prepared to find in the new country the setting G28 1720 of romantic adventure and idealized beauty. But Thorpe saw also G28 1730 the hardships of pioneer existence, the cultural poverty of the frontier G28 1740 settlements, and the slack morality which abounded in the new regions. G28 1750 As a consequence of the tensions thus produced in his thoughts and G28 1760 feelings, he wrote on the one hand sketches of idealized hunting trips G28 1770 and on the other an anecdote of the village of Hardscrabble, Arkansas, G28 1780 where no one had ever seen a piano; and he wrote also the masterpiece G28 1790 of frontier humor, "The Big Bear of Arkansas", in which G28 1800 earthy realism is placed alongside the exaggeration of the backwoods G28 1810 tall-tale and the awe with which man contemplates the grandeur and the G28 1820 mysteries of nature. G29 0010 SOME years ago Julian Huxley proposed to an audience made G29 0020 up of members of the British Association for the Advancement of G29 0030 Science that "man's supernormal or extra-sensory faculties are [now] G29 0040 in the same case as were his mathematical faculties during the ice G29 0050 age". As a Humanist, Dr& Huxley interests himself in the possibilities G29 0060 of human development, and one thing we can say about this G29 0070 suggestion, which comes from a leading zoologist, is that, so far as he G29 0080 is concerned, the scientific outlook places no rigid limitation upon G29 0090 the idea of future human evolution. This text from Dr& Huxley G29 0100 is sometimes used by enthusiasts to indicate that they have the permission G29 0110 of the scientists to press the case for a wonderful unfoldment G29 0120 of psychic powers in human beings. There may be a case of this sort, G29 0130 but it is not one we wish to argue, here. Even if people do, in a G29 0140 not far distant future, begin to read one another's minds, there will G29 0150 still be the question of whether what you find in another man's mind G29 0160 is especially worth reading- worth more, that is, than what you can G29 0170 read in good books. Even if men eventually find themselves able to G29 0180 look through walls and around corners, one may question whether this G29 0190 will help them to live better lives. There would be side-conclusions G29 0200 to be drawn, of course; such capacities are impressive evidence pointing G29 0210 to a conception of the human being which does not appear in the accounts G29 0220 of biologists and organic evolutionists; but the basic puzzles G29 0230 of existence would still be puzzling, and we should still have to work G29 0240 out the sort of problems we plan to discuss in this article. G29 0250 All we want from Dr& Huxley's statement is the feeling that this G29 0260 is an open world, in the view of the best scientific opinion, with G29 0270 practically no directional commitments as to what may happen next, and G29 0280 no important confinements with respect to what may be possible. G29 0290 It seems quite obvious that all the really difficult tasks of human G29 0300 beings arise from the fact that man is not one, but many. Each man, G29 0310 that is, is both one and many. He is a dreamer of the good society with G29 0320 a plan to put into effect, and he is an individual craftsman with G29 0330 something to make for himself and the people of his time. He is a parent G29 0340 with a child to nurture, here and now, and he is an educator who worries G29 0350 about the children half way round the world. He is a utopian with G29 0360 a stake in tomorrow and he is a vulnerable human made captive by the G29 0370 circumstances of today. He can sacrifice himself for tomorrow and G29 0380 he can sacrifice tomorrow for himself. He is a Craig's wife who agonizes G29 0390 about tobacco ash on the living room rug and he is a forgetful G29 0400 genius who goes boating with the town baker when dignitaries from the G29 0410 local university have come to call. He is the stern guardian of the status G29 0420 quo who has raised the utilitarian structures of the age, and he G29 0430 is the revolutionary poet with a gun in his hand who writes a tragic G29 0440 apologetic to posterity for the men he has killed. What will be G29 0450 the final symmetry of the good society? For what do the utopians G29 0460 labor? Here, on a desk, is a stack of pamphlets representing the efforts G29 0470 of some of the best men of the day to penetrate these questions. G29 0480 The pamphlets are about law, the corporation, forms of government, the G29 0490 idea of freedom, the defense of liberty, the various lethargies which G29 0500 overtake our major institutions, the gap between traditional social G29 0510 ideals and the working mechanisms that have been set in motion for their G29 0520 realization. The thing that is notable in all these discussions is G29 0530 the lack of ideological ardor. There is another kind of ardor, a quiet, G29 0540 sure devotion to the fundamental decencies of human life, but no G29 0550 angry utopian contentions. Actually, you could wish for some passion, G29 0560 now and then, but when you look around the world and see the little volcanos G29 0570 of current history which partisan social passions have wrought, G29 0580 you are glad that in these pamphlets there is at least some civilized G29 0590 calm. You could also say that in these pamphlets is a relieving G29 0600 quality of maturity. There is essential pleasantness in reading the G29 0610 writing of men who are not angry, who can contend without quarreling. G29 0620 This is the good kind of sophistication, and with all our problems G29 0630 and crises this kind of sophistication has flowered in the United States G29 0640 during recent years. A characteristic expression of such concern G29 0650 and inquiry is found in Joseph P& Lyford's introduction to a recent paperback study of the institutions G29 0670 of modern democratic society. Mr& Lyford gives voice to a temper G29 0680 that represents, we think, an achieved plateau of reflective thinking. G29 0690 After casting about for a way of describing this spirit, we decided G29 0700 that it would be better to use Mr& Lyford's introduction as G29 0710 an illustration. He begins: " At one time it seemed as if G29 0720 the Soviet Union had done us a favor by providing a striking example G29 0730 of how not to behave towards other peoples and other nations. As G29 0740 things turned out, however, we have not profited greatly from the lesson: G29 0750 instead of persistently following a national program of our own G29 0760 we have often been satisfied to be against whatever Soviet policy seemed G29 0770 to be at the moment. Such activity may or may not have irritated G29 0780 the Kremlin, but it has frequently condemned America to an unnatural G29 0790 defensiveness that has undermined our effort to give leadership to the G29 0800 free world. The defensiveness has been exaggerated by another G29 0810 bad habit, our tendency to rate the "goodness" or "badness" G29 0820 of other nations by the extent to which they applaud the slogans we circulate G29 0830 about ourselves. Since the slogans have little application to G29 0840 reality and are sanctimonious to boot, the applause is faint even in areas G29 0850 of the world where we should expect to find the greatest affection G29 0860 for free government. Shocked at the response to our proclamations, G29 0870 we grow more defensive, and worse, we lose our sense of humor and proportion. G29 0880 Mr& Nehru is subjected to stern lectures on neutralism by G29 0890 our Department of State, and an American President observes sourly G29 0900 that Sweden would be a little less neurotic if it were a little more G29 0910 capitalistic". One thing you can say about Mr& Lyford is G29 0920 that he does not suffer from any insecurity as an American. Those G29 0930 who are insecure fear to be candid in self-examination. Only the strong G29 0940 look squarely at weakness. The maturity in this point of view lies G29 0950 in its recognition that no basic problem is ever solved without being G29 0960 clearly understood. Mr& Lyford continues: " Even if the G29 0970 self portrait we distribute for popular consumption were accurate it G29 0980 would be dangerous to present it as a picture of the ideal society. We G29 0990 would be ignoring the special circumstances of other countries. The G29 1000 picture is the more treacherous when it misrepresents the facts of American G29 1010 life. The discrepancy between what we commonly profess and what G29 1020 we practice or tolerate is great, and it does not escape the notice G29 1030 of others. If our sincerity is granted, and it is granted, the discrepancy G29 1040 can only be explained by the fact that we have come to believe G29 1050 hearsay and legend about ourselves in preference to an understanding G29 1060 gained by earnest self-examination. What is more, the legends have become G29 1070 so sacrosanct that the very habit of self-examination or self-criticism G29 1080 smells of low treason, and men who practice it are defeatists and G29 1090 unpatriotic scoundrels. **h although we continue to pay our G29 1100 conversational devotions to "free private enterprise", "individual G29 1110 initiative", "the democratic way", "government of the people", G29 1120 "competition of the marketplace", etc&, we live rather comfortably G29 1130 in a society in which economic competition is diminishing in G29 1140 large areas, bureaucracy is corroding representative government, technology G29 1150 is weakening the citizen's confidence in his own power to make G29 1160 decisions, and the threat of war is driving him economically and physically G29 1170 into the ground". The interesting thing about Mr& G29 1180 Lyford's approach, and the approach of the contributors to (Oceana Publications, 1961) to the situation G29 1200 of American civilization, is that it is concerned with comprehending G29 1210 the psychological relationships which are having a decisive effect G29 1220 on American life. In an ideological argument, the participants tend G29 1230 to thump the table. They are determined to something. The G29 1240 new spirit, so well illustrated by Mr& Lyford's work, is wholly G29 1250 free of this anxiety. The problem is rather to find out what is actually G29 1260 happening, and this is especially difficult for the reason that "we G29 1270 are busily being defended from a knowledge of the present, sometimes G29 1280 by the very agencies- our educational system, our mass media, our G29 1290 statesmen- on which we have had to rely most heavily for understanding G29 1300 of ourselves". The Introduction continues: " We experience G29 1310 a vague uneasiness about events, a suspicion that our political G29 1320 and economic institutions, like the genie in the bottle, have escaped G29 1330 confinement and that we have lost the power to recall them. We feel G29 1340 uncomfortable at being bossed by a corporation or a union or a television G29 1350 set, but until we have some knowledge about these phenomena and G29 1360 what they are doing to us, we can hardly learn to control them. It does G29 1370 not appear that we will be delivered from our situation by articles G29 1380 on The National Purpose. G29 1390 is an attempt to explore some of the institutions which both reflect G29 1400 and determine the character of the free society today. The men who G29 1410 speculate on these institutions have, for the most part, come to at least G29 1420 one common conclusion: that many of the great enterprises and associations G29 1430 around which our democracy is formed are in themselves autocratic G29 1440 in nature, and possessed of power which can be used to frustrate G29 1450 the citizen who is trying to assert his individuality in the modern G29 1460 world". These institutions which Mr& Lyford names "agreeable G29 1470 autocracies"- where did they come from? Of one thing we G29 1480 can be sure: they were not sketched out by the revolutionary theorists G29 1490 of the eighteenth century who formulated the political principles G29 1500 and originally shaped the political institutions of what we term the "free G29 1510 society". No doubt there are historians who can explain to a G29 1520 great extent what happened to the plans and projects of the eighteenth G29 1530 century. Going back over this ground and analyzing the composition G29 1540 of forces which have created the present scene is one of the tasks undertaken G29 1550 by the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, in G29 1560 Santa Barbara. But however we come, finally, to explain and account G29 1570 for the present, the truth we are trying to expose, right now, is that G29 1580 the makers of constitutions and the designers of institutions find G29 1590 it difficult if not impossible to anticipate the behavior of the host G29 1600 of all their enterprises. The host is the flowing life of the human race. G29 1610 This life has its own currents and rhythms, its own multiple cycles G29 1620 and adaptations. On occasion it produces extraordinary novelties. G29 1630 Should Rousseau have been able to leave room in his social theory G29 1640 for the advent of television, atomic energy, and ~IBM machines? G29 1650 How would Thomas Jefferson feel after reading They tell us, sir, that we are free, because we have in one G29 1670 hand a ballot, and in the other a stock certificate. With these we G29 1680 shape our destiny and own private property, and that, sir, makes ours G29 1690 the best of all possible societies. The reality of the situation, however, G29 1700 is described by Mr& Lyford: " Many of us may even G29 1710 be secretly relieved at having a plausible excuse to delegate ancient G29 1720 civic responsibilities to a new bureaucracy of experts. Thus the member G29 1730 of an industrial union comes to regard his officers as business G29 1740 agents who may proceed without interference or recall; the stockholder G29 1750 delivers his proxy; and the citizen narrows his political participation G29 1760 to the mere act of voting- if he votes at all". G30 0010 Copernicus did not question it, Ptolemy could not. Given the conceptual G30 0020 context within which ancient thought thrived, how could anyone have G30 0030 questioned this principle? The reasons for this are partly observational, G30 0040 partly philosophical, and reinforced by other aesthetic and G30 0050 cultural factors. First, the observational reasons. obvious G30 0060 natural fact to ancient thinkers was the diurnal rotation of the G30 0070 heavens. Not only did constellations like Draco, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia G30 0080 spin circles around the pole, but stars which were not circumpolar G30 0090 rose and set at the same place on the horizon each night. Nor did G30 0100 a constellation's stars vary in brightness during the course of their G30 0110 nocturnal flights. The conclusion- the distances of the constellations G30 0120 did not vary and their paths were circular. Moreover, the sun's G30 0130 path over earth described a segment of a great circle; this was G30 0140 clear from the contour of the shadow traced by a gnomon before and after G30 0150 noon. As early as the /6,th century B&C& the earth G30 0160 was seen to be spherical. Ships disappear hull-first over the horizon; G30 0170 approaching shore their masts appeared first. Earth, being at G30 0180 the center of the universe, would have the same shape as the latter; G30 0190 so, e&g& did Aristotle argue, although this may not be an G30 0200 reason in favor of circularity. The discoid shapes of G30 0210 sun and moon were also felt to indicate the shape of celestial things. G30 0220 In light of all this, one would require reasons for G30 0230 saying that the paths of the heavenly bodies were other than circular. G30 0240 Why, for example, should the ancients have supposed the diurnal rotation G30 0250 of the heavens to be elliptical? Or oviform? Or angular? G30 0260 There were no reasons for such suppositions then. This, conjoined G30 0270 with the considerations above, made the circular motions of heavenly G30 0280 bodies appear an almost directly observed fact. Additional philosophical G30 0290 considerations, advanced notably by Aristotle, supported further G30 0300 the circularity principle. By distinguishing superlunary (celestial) G30 0310 and sublunary (terrestrial) existence, and reinforcing this with G30 0320 the four-element physics of Empedocles, Aristotle came to speak of G30 0330 the stars as perfect bodies, which moved in only a perfect way, viz& G30 0340 in a perfect circle. Now what is perfect motion? It must, G30 0350 apparently, be motion without termini. Because motion which begins and G30 0360 ends at discrete places would (e&g& for Aristotle) be incomplete. G30 0370 Circular motion, however, since it is eternal and perfectly continuous, G30 0380 lacks termini. It is never motion towards something. Only imcomplete, G30 0390 imperfect things move towards what they lack. Perfect, complete G30 0400 entities, if they move at all, do not move towards what they lack. G30 0410 They move only in accordance with what is in their natures. Thus, circular G30 0420 motion is itself one of the essential characteristics of completely G30 0430 perfect celestial existence. To return now to the four-element G30 0440 physics, a mixture of muddy, frothy water will, when standing in G30 0450 a jar, separate out with earth at the bottom, water on top, and the G30 0460 air on top of that. A candle alight in the air directs its flame and G30 0470 smoke upwards. This gives a clue to the cosmical order of elements. G30 0480 Thus earth has fallen to the center of the universe. It is covered (partly) G30 0490 with water, air is atop of that. Pure fire (the stars) is in G30 0500 the heavens. When combined with the metaphysical notion that pure forms G30 0510 of this universe are best appreciated when least embodied in a material G30 0520 substratum, it becomes clear that while earth will be dross on a G30 0530 scale of material-formal ratios, celestial bodies will be of a subtle, G30 0540 quickened, ethereal existence, in whose embodiment pure form will be G30 0550 the dominant component and matter will be absent or remain subsidiary. G30 0560 The stars constitute an order of existence different from what G30 0570 we encounter on earth. This is clear when one distinguishes the types G30 0580 of motion appropriate to both regions. A projectile shot up from earth G30 0590 returns rectlinearly to its 'natural' place of rest. But the G30 0600 natural condition for the heavenly bodies is neither rest, nor rectilinear G30 0610 motion. Being less encumbered by material embodiments they partake G30 0620 more of what is divine. Their motion will be eternal and perfect. G30 0630 Let us re-examine the publicized contrasts between Ptolemaic G30 0640 and Copernican astronomy. Bluntly, there never was a Ptolemaic G30 0650 of astronomy. Copernicus' achievement was to have G30 0660 systematic astronomy. The and the outline G30 0670 Ptolemy's conception of his own task as the provision of computational G30 0680 tables, independent calculating devices for the prediction G30 0690 of future planetary perturbations. Indeed, in the Halma edition of Theon's G30 0700 presentation of the there is a chart setting G30 0710 out (under six distinct headings) otherwise unrelated diagrams for describing G30 0720 the planetary motions. No attempt is made by Ptolemy to weld G30 0730 into a single scheme ( Aristotle), these independent predicting-machines. G30 0740 They all have this in common: the earth is situated G30 0750 near the center of the deferent. But that one should superimpose all G30 0760 these charts, run a pin through the common point, and then scale each G30 0770 planetary deferent larger and smaller (to keep the epicycles from 'bumping'), G30 0780 this is contrary to any intention Ptolemy ever expresses. G30 0790 He might even suppose the planets to move at infinity. Ptolemy's G30 0800 problem is to forecast where, against the inverted bowl of night, some G30 0810 particular light will be found at future times. His problem concerns G30 0820 longitudes, latitudes, and angular velocities. The distances of these G30 0830 points of light is a problem he cannot master, beyond crude conjectures G30 0840 as to the orderings of the planetary orbits viewed outward from earth. G30 0850 But none of this has prevented scientists, philosophers, and even G30 0860 historians of science, from speaking of the Ptolemaic in G30 0870 contrast to the Copernican. This is a mistake. It is engendered by G30 0880 confounding the Aristotelian cosmology in the with the G30 0890 geocentric astronomy. Ptolemy recurrently denies that he could G30 0900 ever planetary motion. This is what necessitates the nonsystematic G30 0910 character of his astronomy. So when textbooks, like that G30 0920 of Baker set out drawings of the 'Ptolemaic System', complete G30 0930 with earth in the center and the seven heavenly bodies epicyclically arranged G30 0940 on their several deferents, we have nothing but a misleading /20,th-century G30 0950 idea of what never existed historically. It is G30 0960 the chief merit in Copernicus' work that all his planetary calculations G30 0970 are . He cannot, e&g& compute the retrograde G30 0980 arc traveled by Mars, without also making suppositions about the G30 0990 earth's own motion. He cannot describe eclipses without entertaining G30 1000 some form of G30 1010 a three-body problem. In Ptolemaic terms, however, eclipses G30 1020 and retrograde motion were to be explained G30 1030 directly as possible resultants of epicyclical combinations. In a G30 1040 astronomy, like that of Copernicus, retrogradations become G30 1050 part of the conceptual structure of the system; they are no longer G30 1060 a puzzling aspect of intricately variable, local planetary motions. G30 1070 Another contrast stressed when discussing Ptolemaic vs& G30 1080 Copernican astronomy, turns on the idea of . It is often G30 1090 stated that Copernican astronomy is 'simpler' than Ptolemaic. G30 1100 Some even say that this is the reason for the ultimate acceptance of G30 1110 the former. Thus, Margenau remarks: "A large number of unrelated G30 1120 epicycles was needed to explain the observations, but otherwise the G30 1130 [Ptolemaic] system served well and with quantitative precision. Copernicus, G30 1140 by placing the sun at the center of the planetary universe, G30 1150 was able to reduce the number of epicycles from eighty-three to seventeen. G30 1160 Historical records indicate that Copernicus was unaware of the G30 1170 fundamental aspects of his so-called 'revolution', unaware perhaps G30 1180 of its historical importance, he rested content with having produced G30 1190 a scheme for prediction. As an illustration of the principle G30 1200 of simplicity the heliocentric discovery has a peculiar appeal because G30 1210 it allows simplicity to be arithmetized; it involves a reduction G30 1220 in the number of epicycles from eighty-three to seventeen". G30 1230 Without careful qualification this can be misleading. If in any one G30 1240 calculation Ptolemy had had to invoke 83 epicycles G30 1250 while Copernicus never required more than one third this number, then G30 1260 (in the sense obvious to Margenau) Ptolemaic astronomy would be simpler G30 1270 than Copernican. But no single planetary problem ever required G30 1280 of Ptolemy more than six epicycles at one time. This, of course, results G30 1290 from the non-systematic, 'cellular' character of Ptolemaic G30 1300 theory. Calculations within the Copernican framework always raised questions G30 1310 about planetary configurations. These could be met only by considering G30 1320 the dynamical elements of several planets at one time. This G30 1330 is more ambitious than Ptolemy is ever required to be when he faces G30 1340 his isolated problems. Thus, in no ordinary sense of 'simplicity' G30 1350 is the Ptolemaic theory simpler than the Copernican. The latter required G30 1360 juggling several elements simultaneously. This was not simpler G30 1370 but much more difficult than exercises within Ptolemy's astronomy. G30 1380 Analogously, anyone who argues that Einstein's theory of G30 1390 gravitation is simpler than Newton's, must say rather more to explain G30 1400 how it is that the latter is mastered by student-physicists, while G30 1410 the former can be managed (with difficulty) only by accomplished experts. G30 1420 In a sense, Einstein's theory simpler than Newton's, G30 1430 and there is a corresponding sense in which Copernicus' theory G30 1440 is simpler than Ptolemy's. But 'simplicity' here refers to G30 1450 . The number of primitive ideas in systematically-simple G30 1460 theories is reduced to a minimum. The axioms required to G30 1470 make the theoretical machinery operate are set out tersely and powerfully, G30 1480 so that all permissible operations within the theory can be traced G30 1490 rigorously back to these axioms, rules, and primitive notions. This G30 1500 characterizes Euclid's formulation of geometry, but not Ptolemy's G30 1510 astronomy. There are in the no rules for determining G30 1520 whether a new epicycle will be required for dealing with G30 1530 abberations in lunar, solar, or planetary behavior. The strongest G30 1540 appeal of the Copernican formulation consisted in just this: ideally, G30 1550 the justification for dealing with special problems in particular G30 1560 ways is completely set out in the basic 'rules' of the theory. The G30 1570 lower-level hypotheses are never 'ad hoc', never introduced just to sweep up within the theory some recalcitrant datum. G30 1590 Copernicus, to an extent unachieved by Ptolemy, approximated to G30 1600 Euclid's vision. is not just a collection of G30 1610 facts and techniques. It is an organized system of these things. Solving G30 1620 astronomical problems requires, for Copernicus, not a random search G30 1630 of unrelated tables, but a regular employment of the rules defining G30 1640 the entire discipline. Hence, noting the simplicity achieved G30 1650 in Copernicus' formulation does not provide reason for G30 1660 the acceptance of another reason beyond its G30 1670 systematic superiority. It provides exactly reason. G30 1680 1543 A&D& is often venerated as the birthday of the scientific G30 1690 revolution. It is really the funeral day of scholastic science. Granted, G30 1700 the cosmological, philosophical, and cultural reverberations G30 1710 initiated by the were felt with increasing violence G30 1720 during the 300 years to follow. But, considered within technical G30 1730 astronomy, a different pattern can be traced. In what does the G30 1740 dissatisfaction of Copernicus-the-astronomer consist? What in the G30 1750 draws his fire? Geocentricism No. The G30 1760 formal displacement of the geocentric principle far from being Copernicus' G30 1770 concern, was introduced only to resolve what seemed G30 1780 to him intolerable in orthodox astronomy, namely, the 'unphysical' G30 1790 triplication of centric reference-points: one center from which G30 1800 the planet's distances were calculated, another around which planetary G30 1810 velocities were computed, and still a third center (the earth) from G30 1820 which the observations originated. This arrangement was for Copernicus G30 1830 literally monstrous: "With [the Ptolemaists] it is as though G30 1840 an artist were to gather the hands, feet, head and other members G30 1850 for his images from divers models, each part excellently drawn, but not G30 1860 related to a single body; and since they in no way match each other, G30 1870 the result would be a monster rather than a man". Copernicus G30 1880 required a systematically integrated, physically intelligible astronomy. G30 1890 His objective was, essentially, to repair those aspects of orthodox G30 1900 astronomy responsible for its deficiencies in achieving these ends. G30 1910 That such deficiencies existed within Ptolemy's theory was not G30 1920 discovered by Copernicus. The critical, rigorous examinations G30 1930 of Nicholas of Cusa and Nicholas of Oresme provided the context G30 1940 (a late medieval context) for Nicholas Copernicus' own work. G30 1950 The latter looked backward upon inherited deficiencies. Without abandoning G30 1960 too much, Copernicus sought to make orthodox astronomy systematically G30 1970 and mechanically acceptable. He did not think himself to be G30 1980 firing the first shot of an intellectual revolution. G31 0010 Henrietta's feeling of identity with Sara Sullam was crowned by her G31 0020 discovery of the coincidence that Sara's epitaph in the Jewish G31 0030 cemetery in Venice referred to her as "the Sulamite". Into G31 0040 the texture of this tapestry of history and human drama Henrietta, G31 0050 as every artist delights to do, wove strands of her own intuitive insights G31 0060 into human nature and- G31 0065 especially in the remarkable story of the G31 0070 attraction and conflict between two so disparate and fervent characters G31 0080 as this pair- into the relations of men and women: "In their G31 0090 relations, she was the giver and he the receiver, nay the demander. His G31 0100 feeling always exacted sacrifices from her. **h One is so accustomed G31 0110 to think of men as the privileged who need but ask and receive, and G31 0120 women as submissive and yielding, that our sympathies are usually enlisted G31 0130 on the side of the man whose love is not returned, and we condemn G31 0140 the woman as a coquette **h. The very firmness of her convictions and G31 0150 logical clearness of her arguments captivated and stimulated him to G31 0160 make greater efforts; usually, this is most exasperating to men, who G31 0170 expect every woman to verify their preconceived notions concerning her G31 0180 sex, and when she does not, immediately condemn her as eccentric and G31 0190 unwomanly **h. She had the opportunity that few clever women can resist, G31 0200 of showing her superiority in argument over a man **h. Women themselves G31 0210 have come to look upon matters in the same light as the outside G31 0220 world, and scarcely find any wrong in submitting to the importunities G31 0230 of a stronger will, even when their affections are withheld **h. G31 0240 She was exposing herself to temptation which it is best to avoid where G31 0250 it can consistently be done. One who invites such trials of character G31 0260 is either foolhardy, overconfident or too simple and childlike in faith G31 0270 in mankind to see the danger. In any case but the last, such a course G31 0280 is sure to avenge itself upon the individual; the moral powers G31 0290 no more than the physical and mental, can bear overstraining. And, in G31 0300 the last case, a bitter disappointment but too often meets the confiding G31 0310 nature **h". Henrietta was discovering in the process of G31 0320 writing, as the born writer does, not merely a channel for the discharge G31 0330 of accumulated information but a stimulus to the development of the G31 0340 creative powers of observation, insight and intuition. Dr& G31 0350 Isaacs was so pleased with the quality of her biographical study of G31 0360 Sara Sullam that he considered submitting it to the Magazine G31 0370 or but he decided that its Jewish subject probably G31 0380 would not interest them and published it in G31 0390 "so our readers will be benefited instead". Under her father's G31 0400 influence it did not occur to Henrietta that she might write on subjects G31 0410 outside the Jewish field, but she did begin writing for other Anglo-Jewish G31 0420 papers and thus increased her output and her audience. And G31 0430 she wrote the libretto for an oratorio on the subject of Judas Maccabeus G31 0440 performed at the festival which came in December. G31 0450 By her eighteenth birthday her bent for writing was so evident that G31 0460 Papa and Mamma gave her a as a spur to her aspiration. G31 0470 Another source of intellectual stimulus was opened G31 0480 to her at that time by the founding of Johns Hopkins University within G31 0490 walking distance of home. It was established in a couple of buildings G31 0500 in the shopping district, with only a few professors, but all eminent G31 0510 men, and a few hundred eager students housed in nearby dwellings. G31 0520 In September '76 Thomas Huxley, Darwin's famous disciple, came G31 0530 from England to speak in a crowded auditorium at the formal opening G31 0540 of the University; and although it was a school for men only, it G31 0550 afforded Henrietta an opportunity to attend its public lectures. G31 0560 In the following year her father undertook to give a course in Hebrew G31 0570 theology to Johns Hopkins students, and this brought to the Szold G31 0580 house a group of bright young Jews who had come to Baltimore to G31 0590 study, and who enjoyed being fed and mothered by Mamma and entertained G31 0600 by Henrietta and Rachel, who played and sang for them in the upstairs G31 0610 sitting room on Sunday evenings. From Philadelphia came Cyrus G31 0615 Adler and Joseph G31 0620 Jastrow. Adler, Judge Sulzberger's nephew, came to study Assyriology. G31 0630 A smart, shrewd and ambitious young man, well connected, and with G31 0640 a knack for getting in the good graces of important people, he was G31 0650 bound to go far. Joseph Jastrow, the younger son of the distinguished G31 0660 rabbi, Marcus Jastrow, was a friendly, round-faced fellow with a G31 0670 little mustache, whose field was psychology, and who was also a punster G31 0680 and a jolly tease. His father was a good friend of Rabbi Szold, and G31 0690 Joe lived with the Szolds for a while. Both these youths, who greatly G31 0700 admired Henrietta, were somewhat younger than she, as were also G31 0710 the neighboring Friedenwald G31 0715 boys, who were then studying medicine; G31 0720 and bright though they all were, they could not possibly compete for G31 0730 her interest with Papa, whose mind- although he never tried to dazzle G31 0740 or patronize lesser lights with it- naturally eclipsed theirs and G31 0750 made them seem to her even younger than they were. Besides, Miss Henrietta- G31 0760 as she was generally known since she had put up her hair G31 0770 with a chignon in the back- had little time to spare them from her G31 0780 teaching and writing; so Cyrus Adler became interested in her friend G31 0790 Racie Friedenwald, and Joe Jastrow- the only young man who when G31 0800 he wrote had the temerity to address her as Henrietta, and signed G31 0810 himself Joe- fell in love with pretty sister Rachel. Henrietta, G31 0820 however, was at that time engaged in a lengthy correspondence with G31 0830 Joe's older and more serious brother, Morris, who was just about G31 0840 her own age and whom she had got to know well during trips to Philadelphia G31 0850 with Papa, when he substituted for Rabbi Jastrow at Rodeph G31 0860 Shalom Temple there during its Rabbi's absence in Europe. Young G31 0870 Morris, who, while attending the University of Pennsylvania, also G31 0880 taught and edited a paper, found time to write Henrietta twenty-page G31 0890 letters on everything that engaged his interest, from the acting of Sarah G31 0900 Bernhardt in Philadelphia to his reactions to the comments of G31 0910 "Sulamith" on the Jewish reform movement being promulgated by the G31 0920 Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. Unlike his younger brother, G31 0930 Joe, he never presumed to address her more familiarly than as "My G31 0940 dear friend", although he praised and envied the elegance and purity G31 0950 of her style. And when he complained of the lack of time for all G31 0960 he wanted to do, Henrietta advised him to rise at five in the morning G31 0970 as she and Papa did. One thing Papa had not taught Henrietta G31 0980 was how to handle a young man as high-spirited and opinionated as G31 0990 herself. She could not resist the opportunity "of showing her superiority G31 1000 in argument over a man" which she had remarked as one of the G31 1010 "feminine follies" of Sara Sullam; and in her forthright way, G31 1020 Henrietta, who in her story of Sara had indicated her own unwillingness G31 1030 "to think of men as the privileged" and "women as submissive G31 1040 and yielding", felt obliged to defend vigorously any statement of hers G31 1050 to which Morris Jastrow took the slightest exception- he objected G31 1060 to her stand on the Corbin affair, as well as on the radical reforms G31 1070 of Dr& Wise of Hebrew Union College- until once, in sheer G31 1080 desperation, he wrote that he had given up hope they would ever agree G31 1090 on anything. But that did not prevent him from writing more long letters, G31 1100 or from coming to spend his Christmas vacations with the hospitable, G31 1110 lively Szolds in their pleasant house on Lombard Street. #1880S: G31 1120 "LITTLE WOMEN"# "WE'VE GOT Father and Mother G31 1130 and each other **h" said Beth on the first page of Louisa Alcott's G31 1140 and, "I do think that families are the G31 1150 most beautiful things in all the world", burst out Jo some five hundred G31 1160 pages later in that popular story of the March family, which had G31 1170 first appeared when Henrietta was eight; and the Szold family, as G31 1180 it developed, bore a striking resemblance to the Marches. Mr& G31 1190 March, like Benjamin Szold, was a clergyman, although of an indeterminate G31 1200 denomination; and "Marmee" March, like Sophie Szold, G31 1210 was the competent manager of her brood of girls, of whom the Marches G31 1220 had only four to the Szolds' five. But the March girls had their G31 1230 counterparts in the Szold girls. Henrietta could easily identify G31 1240 herself with Jo March, although Jo was not the eldest sister. Neither G31 1250 was Henrietta hoydenish like Jo, who frankly wished she were a G31 1260 boy and had deliberately shortened her name, which, like Henrietta's, G31 1270 was the feminine form of a boy's name. But both were high-spirited G31 1280 and vivacious, both had tempers to control, both loved languages, G31 1290 especially English and German, both were good teachers and wrote for G31 1300 publication. Each was her mother's assistant and confidante; and G31 1310 each stood out conspicuously in the family picture. Bertha Szold G31 1320 was more like Meg, the eldest March girl, who "learned that a G31 1330 woman's happiest kingdom is home, her highest honor the art of ruling G31 1340 it, not as a queen, but a wise wife and mother". Bertha, blue-eyed G31 1350 like Mamma, was from the start her mother's daughter, destined for G31 1360 her mother's role in life. Sadie, like Beth March, suffered ill G31 1370 health- got rheumatic fever and had to be careful of her heart- G31 1380 but that never dampened her spirits. When her right hand was incapacitated G31 1390 by the rheumatism, Sadie learned to write with her left hand. She G31 1400 wrote gay plays about the girls for family entertainments, like "Oh, G31 1410 What Fun! A comedy in Three Acts", in which, under "Personages", G31 1420 Henrietta appeared as "A Schoolmarm", and Bertha, G31 1430 who was only a trifle less brilliant in high school than Henrietta G31 1440 had been, appeared as "". Sadie studied piano; played G31 1450 Chopin in the "Soiree Musicale of Mr& Guthrie's Pupils"; G31 1460 and she recited "Hector's Farewell to Andromache" most G31 1470 movingly, to the special delight of Rabbi Jastrow at his home in Germantown G31 1480 near Philadelphia, where the Szold girls took turns visiting G31 1490 between the visits of the Jastrow boys at the Szolds' in Baltimore. G31 1500 Adele, like Amy, the youngest of the Marches, was the rebellious, G31 1510 mischievous, rather calculating and ambitious one. For Rachel, G31 1520 conceded to be the prettiest of the Szold girls- and she did make G31 1530 a pretty picture sitting in the grape-arbor strumming her guitar and singing G31 1540 in her silvery tones- there was no particular March counterpart; G31 1550 but both groups were so closely knit that despite individual differences G31 1560 the family life in both cases was remarkably similar in atmosphere G31 1570 if not entirely in content- the one being definitely Jewish G31 1580 and the other vaguely Christian. The Szolds, like the Marches, G31 1590 enjoyed and loved living together, even in troubled times; and, G31 1600 as in the March home, any young man who called on the Szolds found G31 1610 himself confronted with a phalanx of femininity which made it rather difficult G31 1620 to direct his particular attention to any one of them. This G31 1630 included Mamma, jolly, generous, and pretty, with whom they all fell G31 1640 in love, just as Papa had first fallen in love with Mamma before G31 1650 he chose her; and when a young man like Morris Jastrow had enjoyed G31 1660 the Szold hospitality, he felt obliged to send his respects and G31 1670 his gifts not merely to Henrietta, in whom he was really interested, G31 1680 but to all the Szold girls and Mamma. And just as "Laurie" Lawrence G31 1690 was first attracted to bright Jo March, who found him immature G31 1700 by her high standards, and then had to content himself with her younger G31 1710 sister Amy, so Joe Jastrow, who had also been writing Henrietta G31 1720 before he came to Johns Hopkins, had to content himself with her G31 1730 younger sister, pretty Rachel. And like Jo March, who saw her sisters G31 1740 Meg and Amy involved in "lovering" before herself, Henrietta G31 1750 saw her sisters Rachel and Sadie drawn outside their family circle G31 1760 by the attraction of suitors, Rachel by Joe Jastrow, and Sadie by G31 1770 Max Lo^bl, a young businessman who would write her romantic descriptions G31 1780 of his trips by steamboat down the Mississippi. G32 0010 This time he was making no mistake. Olgivanna- in her country G32 0015 the G32 0020 nickname was a respectful form of address- was not only attractive but G32 0030 shrewd, durable, sensible, and smart. No wonder Wright was enchanted- G32 0040 no two better suited people ever met. Almost from that day, until G32 0050 his death, Olgivanna was to stay at his side; but the years that G32 0060 immediately followed were to be extraordinarily trying, both for Wright G32 0070 and his Montenegrin lady. It must be granted that the flouting G32 0080 of convention, no matter how well intentioned one may be, is sure G32 0090 to lead to trouble, or at least to the discomfort that goes with social G32 0100 disapproval. Even so, many of the things that happened to Wright G32 0110 and Olgivanna seem inordinately severe. Their afflictions centered G32 0120 on one maddening difficulty: Miriam held up the divorce proceedings G32 0130 that she herself had asked for. Reporters began to trail Miriam everywhere, G32 0140 and to encourage her to make appalling statements about Wright G32 0150 and his doings. Flocks of writs, attachments, and unpleasant legal G32 0160 papers of every sort began to fly through the air. The distracted Miriam G32 0170 would agree to a settlement through her legal representative, then G32 0180 change her mind and make another attack on Wright as a person. At G32 0190 last her lawyer, Arthur D& Cloud, gave up the case because she G32 0200 turned down three successive settlements he arranged. Cloud made an interesting G32 0210 statement in parting from his client: "I wanted to be G32 0220 a lawyer, and Mrs& Wright wanted me to be an avenging angel. So I G32 0230 got out. Mrs& Wright is without funds. The first thing to do is G32 0240 get her some money by a temporary but definite adjustment pending a final G32 0250 disposition of the case. But every time I suggested this to her, G32 0260 Mrs& Wright turned it down and demanded that I go out and punish G32 0270 Mr& Wright. I am an attorney, not an instrument of vengeance". G32 0280 Miriam Noel disregarded the free advice of her departing counselor, G32 0290 and appointed a heavy-faced young man named Harold Jackson to take G32 0300 his place. There were three years of this strange warfare; G32 0310 and during the unhappy time, Miriam often would charge that Wright and G32 0320 Olgivanna were misdemeanants against the public order of Wisconsin. G32 0330 Yet somehow, when officers were prodded into visiting Taliesin to G32 0340 execute the warrants, they would find neither Wright nor Olgivanna G32 0350 at home. This showed that common sense had not died out at the county G32 0360 and village level- though why the unhappy and obviously unbalanced G32 0370 woman was not restrained remains a puzzle. The misery of Miriam's G32 0380 bitterness can be felt today by anyone who studies the case- it was G32 0390 hopeless, agonizing, and destructive, with Miriam herself bearing the G32 0400 heaviest burden of shame and pain. To get an idea of the embarrassment G32 0410 and chagrin that was heaped upon Wright and Olgivanna, we G32 0420 should bear in mind that the raids were sometimes led by Miriam in person. G32 0430 One of the most distressing of these scenes occurred at Spring G32 0440 Green toward the end of the open warfare, on a beautiful day in June. G32 0450 At this time Miriam Noel appeared, urging on Constable Henry Pengally, G32 0460 whose name showed him to be a descendant of the Welsh settlers G32 0470 in the neighborhood. A troop of reporters brought up the rear. Miriam G32 0480 was stopped at the Taliesin gate, and William Weston, now the G32 0490 estate foreman, came out to parley. He said that Mr& Wright was G32 0500 not in, and so could not be arrested on something called a peace warrant G32 0510 that Miriam was waving in the air. Miriam now ordered Pengally to G32 0520 break down the gate, but he said he really couldn't go that far. At G32 0530 this point Mrs& Frances Cupply, one of Wright's handsome daughters G32 0540 by his first wife, came from the house and tried to calm Miriam G32 0550 as she tore down a NO VISITORS sign and smashed the glass pane G32 0560 on another sign with a rock. Miriam Noel Wright said, "Here G32 0570 I am at my own home, locked out so I must stand in the road"! G32 0580 Then she rounded on Weston and cried, "You always did Wright's G32 0590 dirty work! When I take over Taliesin, the first thing I'll G32 0600 do is fire you". "Madame Noel, I think you had better G32 0610 go", said Mrs& Cupply. "And I think had better G32 0620 leave", replied Miriam. Turning to the reporters, she asked, "Did G32 0630 you hear her? 'I think you had better leave'! And this G32 0640 is my own home". In the silence that followed, Miriam walked close G32 0650 to Mrs& Cupply, who drew back a step on her side of the gate. Then, G32 0660 with staring eyes and lips drawn thin, Miriam said to the young woman, G32 0670 "You are ugly- uglier than you used to be, and you were always G32 0680 very ugly. You are even uglier than Mr& Wright". The G32 0690 animosity expressed by such a scene had the penetrating quality of a G32 0700 natural force; and it gave Miriam Noel a fund of energy like that G32 0710 of a person inspired to complete some great and universal work of art. G32 0720 As if to make certain that Wright would be unable to pay any settlement G32 0730 at all, Miriam wrote to prospective clients denouncing him; she G32 0740 also went to Washington and appealed to Senator George William G32 0750 Norris of Nebraska, the Fighting Liberal, from whose office a sympathetic G32 0760 but cautious harrumphing was heard. Then, after overtures to G32 0770 accept a settlement and go through with a divorce, Miriam gave a ghastly G32 0780 echo of Mrs& Micawber by suddenly stating, "I will never leave G32 0790 Mr& Wright". Under this kind of pressure, it is not G32 0800 surprising that Wright would make sweeping statements to the newspapers. G32 0810 Miriam had not yet goaded him into mentioning her directly, but one G32 0820 can feel the generalized anger in Wright's remarks to reporters G32 0830 when he was asked, one morning on arrival in Chicago, what he thought G32 0840 of the city as a whole. First, Wright said, he was choked by the smoke, G32 0850 which fortunately kept him from seeing the dreadful town. But surely G32 0860 Michigan Avenue was handsome? "That isn't a boulevard, it's G32 0870 a racetrack"! cried Wright, showing that automobiles were considered G32 0880 to be a danger as early as the 1920's. "This is a horrible G32 0890 way to live", Wright went on. "You are being strangled by traffic". G32 0900 He was then asked for a solution of the difficulty, and began G32 0910 to talk trenchant sense, though private anguish showed through in the G32 0920 vehemence of his manner. "Take a gigantic knife and sweep it over G32 0930 the Loop", Wright said. "Cut off every building at the seventh G32 0940 floor. Spread everything out. You don't need concentration. If G32 0950 you cut down these horrible buildings you'll have no more traffic jams. G32 0960 You'll have trees again. You'll have some joy in the life of G32 0970 this city. After all, that's the job of the architect- to give G32 0975 the world a little joy". G32 0980 Little enough joy was afforded Wright G32 0990 in the spring of 1925, when another destructive fire broke out at Taliesin. G32 1000 The first news stories had it that this blaze was started by G32 1010 a bolt of lightning, as though Miriam could call down fire from heaven G32 1020 like a prophet of the Old Testament. A storm did take place that G32 1030 night, and fortunately enough, it included a cloudburst that helped put G32 1040 out the flames. Later accounts blamed defective wiring for starting G32 1050 the fire; at any rate, heat grew so intense in the main part of the G32 1060 house that it melted the window panes, and fused the K'ang-si pottery G32 1070 to cinders. Wright set his loss at $200,000, a figure perhaps justified G32 1080 by the unique character of the house that had been ruined, and G32 1090 the faultless taste that had gone into the selection of the prints and G32 1100 other things that were destroyed. In spite of the disaster, Wright G32 1110 completed during this period plans for the Lake Tahoe resort, in which G32 1120 he suggested the shapes of American Indian tepees- a project of G32 1130 great and appropriate charm, that came to nothing. Amid a shortage of G32 1140 profitable work, the memory of Albert Johnson's $20,000 stood out G32 1150 in lonely grandeur- the money had quickly melted away. A series of G32 1160 conferences with friends and bankers began about this time; and the G32 1170 question before these meetings was, here is a man of international reputation G32 1180 and proved earning power; how can he be financed so that he G32 1190 can find the work he ought to do? While this was under consideration, G32 1200 dauntless as ever Wright set about the building of Taliesin /3,. G32 1210 As he made plans for the new Taliesin, Wright also got on G32 1220 paper his conception of a cathedral of steel and glass to house a congregation G32 1230 of all faiths, and the idea for a planetarium with a sloping G32 1240 ramp. Years were to pass before these plans came off the paper, and G32 1250 Wright was justified in thinking, as the projects failed, that much G32 1260 of what he had to show his country and the world would never be seen except G32 1270 by visitors to Taliesin. And now there was some question as to G32 1280 his continued residence there. Billy Koch, who had once worked for G32 1290 Wright as a chauffeur, gave a deposition for Miriam's use that he G32 1300 had seen Olgivanna living at Taliesin. This might put Wright in such G32 1310 a bad light before a court that Miriam would be awarded Taliesin; G32 1320 nor was she moved by a letter from Wright pointing out that if he G32 1330 was not "compelled to spend money on useless lawyer's bills, useless G32 1340 hotel bills, and useless doctor's bills", he could more quickly G32 1350 provide Miriam with a suitable home either in Los Angeles or Paris, G32 1360 as she preferred. Miriam sniffed at this, and complained that Wright G32 1370 had said unkind things about her to reporters. His reply was, "Everything G32 1380 that has been printed derogatory to you, purporting to have G32 1390 come from me, was a betrayal, and nothing yet has been printed which G32 1400 I have sanctioned". What irritated Miriam was that Wright had told G32 1410 the papers about a reasonable offer he had made, which he considered G32 1420 she would accept "when she tires of publicity". From her California G32 1430 headquarters, Miriam fired back, "I shall never divorce Mr& G32 1440 Wright, to permit him to marry Olga Milanoff". Then Miriam G32 1450 varied the senseless psychological warfare by suddenly withdrawing G32 1460 a suit for separate maintenance that had been pending, and asking G32 1470 for divorce on the grounds of cruelty, with the understanding that Wright G32 1480 would not contest it. The Bank of Wisconsin sent a representative G32 1490 to the judge's chambers in Madison to give information on Wright's G32 1500 ability to meet the terms. He said that the architect might reasonably G32 1510 be expected to carry his financial burdens if all harrassment G32 1520 could be brought to an end, and that the bank would accept a mortgage G32 1530 on Taliesin to help bring this about. Miriam said that she must be G32 1540 assured that "that other woman, Olga, will not be in luxury while I G32 1550 am scraping along". This exhausted Wright's patience, and in consequence G32 1560 he talked freely to reporters in a Madison hotel suite. "Volstead G32 1570 laws, speed laws, divorce laws", he said, "as they now G32 1580 stand, demoralize the individual, make liars and law breakers of us in G32 1590 one way or another, and tend to make our experiment in democracy absurd. G32 1600 If Mrs& Wright doesn't accept the terms in the morning, I'll G32 1610 go either to Tokyo or to Holland, to do what I can. I realize, G32 1620 in taking this stand, just what it means to me and mine". Here Wright G32 1630 gave a slight sigh of weariness, and continued, "It means more G32 1640 long years lived across the social grain of the life of our people, G32 1650 making shift to live in the face of popular disrespect and misunderstanding G32 1660 as I best can for myself and those dependent upon me". Next G32 1670 day, word came that Miriam was not going through with the divorce; G32 1680 but Wright stayed in the United States. His mentioning of Japan and G32 1690 Holland had been merely the expression of wishful thinking. No matter G32 1700 what troubles might betide him, this most American of artists knew G32 1710 in his heart he could not function properly outside his native land. G32 1720 In a few weeks Miriam made another sortie at Taliesin, but G32 1730 was repulsed at the locked and guarded gates. G33 0010 More likely, you simply told yourself, as you handed us the book, that G33 0020 it mattered little what we incanted providing we underwent the discipline G33 0030 of incantation. For pride's sake, I will not say that G33 0040 the coy and leering vade mecum of those verses insinuated itself into G33 0050 my soul. Besides, that particular message does no more than weakly echo G33 0060 the roar in all fresh blood. But what you could not know, of course, G33 0070 was how smoothly the Victorian Fitzgerald was to lead into an American G33 0080 Fitzgerald of my own vintage under whose banner we adolescents G33 0090 were to come, if not of age, then into a bright, taut semblance of it. G33 0100 I do not suppose you ever heard of F& Scott Fitzgerald, living G33 0110 or dead, and moreover I do not suppose that, even if you had, his legend G33 0120 would have seemed to you to warrant more than a cluck of disapproval. G33 0130 Neither his appetites, his exacerbations, nor his despair were G33 0140 kin to yours. He might have been the man in the moon for all you could G33 0150 have understood him. But he was no man in the moon to me. Although G33 0160 his tender nights were not the ones I dreamed of, nor was it for yachts, G33 0170 sports cars, tall drinks, and swimming pools, nor yet for money or G33 0180 what money buys that I burned, I too was burning and watching myself G33 0190 burn. The flame was simply of a different kind. It was symbolized G33 0200 (at least for those of us who recognized ourselves in the image) by that G33 0210 self-consuming, elegiac candle of Edna St& Vincent Millay's, G33 0220 that candle which from the quatrain where she ensconced it became a G33 0230 beacon to us, but which in point of fact would have had to be as tall G33 0240 as a funeral taper to last even the evening, let alone the night. One G33 0250 should not, of course, pluck the head off a flower and expect its perfume G33 0260 to linger on. Yet this passion for passion, now that I look back G33 0270 on it with passion spent, seems somewhat overblown and operatic, though G33 0280 as a diva Miss Millay perfectly controlled her notes. Only what G33 0290 else was she singing but the old Song of Songs, that most ancient G33 0300 of tunes that nature plays with such unfailing response upon young nerves? G33 0310 Perhaps this is not so little. Perhaps the mere fact that by G33 0320 plucking on the nerves nature can awaken in the most ordinary of us, temporarily G33 0330 anyway, the sleeping poet, and in poets can discover their G33 0340 immortality, is the most remarkable of all the remarkable phenomena to G33 0350 which we can attest? One can see it as humiliating that an extra hormone G33 0360 casually fed into our chemistry may induce us to lay down our lives G33 0370 for a lover or a friend; one can take it as no more than another G33 0380 veil torn from the mystery of the soul. But it could also be looked G33 0390 at from the other end of the spectrum. One could see this chemical determinant G33 0400 as in itself a miracle. In any case, Miss Millay's sweet-throated G33 0410 bitterness, her variations on the theme that the world was G33 0420 not only well lost for love but even well lost for lost love, her constant G33 0430 and wonderfully tragic posture, so unlike that of Fitzgerald since G33 0440 it required no scenery or props, drew from the me that I was when G33 0450 I fell upon her verses an overwhelming yea. But all this, I G33 0460 am well aware, is the of love, and although I have always G33 0470 liked to think that it was to the and to that alone G33 0480 that I listened, I know well enough that it was not. If I am to speak G33 0490 the whole truth about my knowledge of love, I will have to stop G33 0500 trying to emulate the transcendant nightingale. There is another side G33 0510 of love, more nearly symbolized by the croak of the mating capercailzie, G33 0520 or better still perhaps by the mute antics of the slug. Whether G33 0530 you experienced the passion of desire I have, of course, no way G33 0540 of knowing, nor indeed have I wished with even the most fleeting fragment G33 0550 of a wish to know, for the fact that one constitutes by one's G33 0560 mere existence so to speak the proof of some sort of passion makes any G33 0570 speculation upon this part of one's parents' experience more immodest, G33 0580 more scandalizing, more deeply unwelcome than an obscenity from G33 0590 a stranger. I recoil from the very thought. At the same time, I am G33 0600 aware that my recoil could be interpreted by readers of the tea leaves G33 0610 at the bottom of my psyche as an incestuous sign, since theirs is a science G33 0620 of paradox: if one hates, they say it is because one loves; G33 0630 if one bullies, they say it is because one is afraid; if one shuns, G33 0640 they say it is because one desires; and according to them, whatever G33 0650 one fancies one feels, what one feels in fact is the opposite. Well, G33 0660 normally abnormal or normally normal, neurotic or merely fastidious (do G33 0670 the tea-leaf readers, by the way, allow psyches to have moral taste?), G33 0680 I have never wanted to know what you knew of passion. ## YOU G33 0690 PROBABLY WOULD NOT REMEMBER, SINCE YOU NEVER seemed to remember G33 0700 even G33 0710 the same moments as I, much less their intensity, one sunny midday on G33 0720 Fifth Avenue when you had set out with me for some final shopping G33 0730 less than a week before the wedding you staged for me with such reluctance G33 0740 at the Farm. I can see us now. We had been walking quite briskly, G33 0750 for despite your being so small and me so tall, your stride in those G33 0760 days could easily match mine. We had stopped before a shop window G33 0770 to assess its autumnal display, when you suddenly turned to me, looking G33 0780 up from beneath one of your wrong hats, and with your nervous "ahem"! G33 0790 said: "There are things I must tell you about this man you G33 0800 are marrying which he does not know himself". If you had screamed G33 0810 right there in the street where we stood, I could not have felt more G33 0820 fear. With scarcely a mumble of excuse, I fled. I fled, however, G33 0830 not from what might have been the natural fear of being unable to disguise G33 0840 from you that the things about my bridegroom- in the sense you G33 0850 meant the word "things"- which you had been galvanizing yourself G33 0860 to tell me as a painful part of your maternal duty were things which G33 0870 I had already insisted upon finding out for myself (despite, I may now G33 0880 say, the unspeakable awkwardness of making the discovery on principle, G33 0890 yes, on principle, and in cold blood) because I was resolved, as G33 0900 a modern woman, not to be a mollycoddle waiting for Life but to seize G33 0910 Life by the throat. I had developed too foolproof a facade to be afraid G33 0920 of self-betrayal. What I fled from was my fear of what, unwittingly, G33 0930 you might betray, without meaning to, about my father and yourself. G33 0940 But I can see from this latest trick of memory how much G33 0950 more arbitrary and influential it is than the will. While my memory G33 0960 holds with relentless tenacity, as I cannot too often stress, to my wrongs, G33 0970 when it comes to my shames, it gestures and jokes and toys with G33 0980 chronology like a prestidigitator in the hope of distracting me from G33 0990 them. Just as I was about to enlarge upon my discovery of the underside G33 1000 of the leaf of love, memory, displeased at being asked to yield its G33 1010 unsavory secrets, dashed ahead of me, calling back over its shoulder: G33 1020 "Skip it. Cut it out". But I will not skip it or cut it G33 1030 out. G33 1040 It is not my intention in this narrative to picture myself as a helpless G33 1050 victim moored to the rock of experience and left to the buffetings G33 1060 of chance. If to be innocent is to be helpless, then I had been- G33 1070 as are we all- helpless at the start. But the time came when I was G33 1080 no longer innocent and therefore no longer helpless. Helpless in that G33 1090 sense I can never be again. However, I confess my hope that I G33 1100 will be innocent again, not with a pristine, accidental innocence, but G33 1110 rather with an innocence achieved by the slow cutting away of the flesh G33 1120 to reach the bone. For innocence, of all the graces of the G33 1130 spirit, is I believe the one most to be prayed for. Although it is constantly G33 1140 made to look foolish (too simple to come in out of the rain, G33 1150 people say, who have found in the innocent an impediment), it does not G33 1160 mind looking foolish because it is not concerned with how it looks. G33 1170 It assumes that things are as they seem when they seem best, and when G33 1180 they seem worst it overlooks them. To innocence, a word given is a word G33 1190 that will be kept. Instinctively, innocence does unto others as it G33 1200 expects to be done by. But when these expectations are once too often G33 1210 ground into the dust, innocence can falter, since its strength is according G33 1220 to the strength of him who possesses it. The innocence of which G33 1230 I speak is, I know, not incorruptible. But I insist upon believing G33 1240 that even when it is lost, it may, like paradise, be regained. G33 1250 However, it was not of innocence in general that I was speaking, G33 1260 but of perhaps the frailest and surely the least important side of G33 1270 it which is innocence in romantic love. Here, if anywhere, it is not G33 1280 wholly incontrovertible. To you, for instance, the word innocence, in G33 1290 this connotation, probably retained its Biblical, or should I say G33 1300 technical sense, and therefore I suppose I must make myself quite clear G33 1310 by saying that I lost- or rather handed over- what you would G33 1320 have considered to be my innocence two weeks before I was legally entitled, G33 1330 and in fact by oath required, to hand it over along with what other G33 1340 goods and bads I had. But to me innocence is far less tangible. G33 1350 I had long since begun to lose my general innocence when I lost my G33 1360 trust in you, but this special innocence I lost before ever I loved, G33 1370 through my discovery that one could tremble with desire and even experience G33 1380 a flaming delight that had nothing, nothing whatever to do with G33 1390 friendship or liking, let alone with love. I knew this knowledge to G33 1400 be corrupting at the time I acquired it; today, these many years later, G33 1410 after all the temptations resisted or yielded to, the weasel satisfactions G33 1420 and the engulfing dissatisfactions since endured, I call it G33 1430 corrupting still. You, I could swear to it, remained innocent G33 1440 in this sense until the end. Yours, but not mine, was an age in which G33 1450 innocence was fostered and carefully- if not perhaps altogether G33 1460 innocently- preserved. You had grown up at a time when the most distinguishing G33 1470 mark of a lady was the writ plain across G33 1480 her face. Moreover, because of the particular blot on your family G33 1490 escutcheon through what may only have been one unbridled moment on your G33 1500 grandmother's part, and because you had the lean-to kitchen and trundle G33 1510 bed of your childhood to outgrow, what you obviously most desired G33 1520 with both your conscious and unconscious person, what you bent your G33 1530 whole will, sensibility, and intelligence upon, was to be a lady. Before G33 1540 being daughter, wife, or mother, before being cultured (a word now G33 1550 bereft both socially and politically of the sheen you children of frontiersmen G33 1560 bestowed on it), before being sorry for the poor, progressive G33 1570 about public health, and prettily if somewhat imprecisely humanitarian, G33 1580 indeed first and foremost, you were a lady. There was, of course, G33 1590 more to the portrait of a lady you carried in your mind's eye than G33 1600 the of her virtue. A lady, you made clear to me both G33 1610 by precept and example, never raised her voice or slumped in her chair, G33 1620 never failed in social tact (in heaven, for instance, would not mention G33 1630 St& John the Baptist's head), never pouted or withdrew or G33 1640 scandalized in company, never reminded others of her physical presence G33 1650 by unseemly sound or gesture, never indulged in public scenes or private G33 1660 confidences, never spoke of money save in terms of alleviating suffering, G33 1670 never gossiped or maligned, never stressed but always minimized G33 1680 the hopelessness of anything from sin to death itself. G34 0010 With each song he gave verbal footnotes. The songs Sandburg sang often G34 0020 reminded listeners of songs of a kindred character they knew entirely G34 0030 or in fragments. Often these listeners would refer Sandburg to persons G34 0040 who had similar ballads or ditties. In due time Sandburg was G34 0050 a walking thesaurus of American folk music. After he had finished G34 0060 the first two volumes of his , Sandburg went to work G34 0070 assembling a book of songs out of hobo and childhood days and from the G34 0080 memory of songs others had taught him. He rummaged, found composers G34 0090 and arrangers, collaborated on the main design and outline of harmonization G34 0100 with musicians, ballad singers, and musicologists. The G34 0110 result was a collection of 280 songs, ballads, ditties, brought together G34 0120 from all regions of America, more than one hundred never before published: G34 0130 . Each song or ditty was prefaced G34 0140 by an author's note which indicated the origin and meaning of the G34 0150 song as well as special interest the song had, musical arrangement, G34 0160 and most of the chorus and verses. The book, published in 1927, G34 0170 has been selling steadily ever since. As Sandburg said at the time: G34 0180 "It is as ancient as the medieval European ballads brought to G34 0190 the Appalachian Mountains, it is as modern as skyscrapers, the Volstead G34 0200 Act, and the latest oil well gusher". #SCHOPENHAUER NEVER LEARNED# G34 0210 Sandburg is in constant demand as an entertainer. Two things G34 0220 contribute to his popularity. First, Carl respects his audience and G34 0230 prepares his speeches carefully. Even when he is called upon for impromptu G34 0240 remarks, he has notes written on the back of handy envelopes. G34 0250 He has his own system of shorthand, devised by abbreviations: "humility" G34 0260 will be "humly", "with" will be "~w", and "that" G34 0270 will be "~tt". The second reason for his popularity G34 0280 is his complete spontaneity with the guitar. It is a mistake, however, G34 0290 to imagine that Sandburg uses the guitar as a prop. He is no dextrous-fingered G34 0300 college boy but rather a dedicated, humble, and bashful G34 0310 apostle of this instrument. At age seventy-four, he became what he G34 0320 shyly terms a "pupil" of Andres Segovia, the great guitarist of G34 0330 the Western world. It is not easy to become Segovia's pupil. G34 0340 One needs high talent. Segovia has written about Carl: G34 0350 "His fingers labor heavily on the strings and he asked for my help G34 0360 in disciplining them. I found that this precocious, grown-up boy of G34 0370 74 deserved to be taught. There has long existed a brotherly affection G34 0380 between us, thus I accepted him as my pupil. Just as in the case of G34 0390 every prodigy child, we must watch for the efficacy of my teaching to G34 0400 show up in the future- if he should master all the strenuous exercises G34 0410 I inflicted on him. To play the guitar as he aspires will G34 0420 devour his three-fold energy as a historian, a poet and a singer. One G34 0430 cause of Schopenhauer's pessimism was the fact that he failed to G34 0440 learn the guitar. I am certain that Carl Sandburg will not fall into G34 0450 the same sad philosophy. The heart of this great poet constantly bubbles G34 0460 forth a generous joy of life- with or without the guitar". G34 0470 The public's identification of Carl Sandburg and the guitar G34 0480 is no happenstance. Nor does Carl reject this identity. He G34 0490 is proud of having Segovia for a friend and dedicated a poem to him G34 0500 titled "The Guitar". Carl says it is the greatest poem G34 0510 ever written to the guitar because he has never heard of any other poem G34 0520 to that subtle instrument. "A portable companion always ready to G34 0530 go where you go- a small friend weighing less than a freshborn infant- G34 0540 to be shared with few or many- just two of you in sweet meditation". G34 0550 The photographer, G34 0560 Ira Rosenberg, tells an anecdote about the time he wanted to take a G34 0570 picture of Carl playing a guitar. Carl hadn't brought his along. Mr& G34 0580 Rosenberg suggested that they go out and find one. "Preferably", G34 0590 said Carl, "one battered and worn, such as might be found G34 0600 in a pawnshop". They went to the pawnshop of Joseph Miller G34 0610 of 1162 Sixth Avenue. "Mr& Miller was in the shop", G34 0620 the story related, "but was reluctant to have G34 0630 anybody's picture taken inside, because his business was too 'confidential' G34 0640 for pictures. "But after introductions he asked: G34 0650 'Carl Sandburg? Well can pose inside'. G34 0660 "He wanted Mr& Sandburg to pose with one of the guitars he had G34 0670 displayed behind glass in the center of his shop, but the poet eyed this G34 0680 somewhat distastefully. 'Kalamazoo guitars', he said, 'used G34 0690 by radio hillbilly singers'. "He chose one from Mr& Miller's G34 0700 window, a plain guitar with no fancy polish. While the picture G34 0710 was taken, Mr& Miller's disposition to be generous to Mr& G34 0720 Sandburg increased to the point where he advised, 'I won't even G34 0730 charge you the one dollar rental fee'". #A KNOWLEDGEABLE CELEBRITY# G34 0740 When someone in the audience rose and asked how does it feel to G34 0750 be a celebrity, Carl said, "A celebrity is a fellow who eats celery G34 0760 with celerity". This has always been Carl's attitude. G34 0770 Lloyd Lewis wrote that when he first knew Carl in 1916, Sandburg was G34 0780 making $27.50 a week writing features for the and eating G34 0790 sparse luncheons in one-arm restaurants. He walked home at night G34 0800 for two miles beyond the end of a suburban trolley. When fame G34 0810 came it changed Sandburg only slightly. Lewis remembered another newspaperman G34 0820 asking, "Carl, have your ideas changed any since you got G34 0830 all these comforts"? Carl thought the question over slowly G34 0840 and answered: "I know a starving man who is fed never remembers G34 0850 all the pangs of his starvation, I know that". That was all G34 0860 he said, Lewis reports. That was all he had to say. In answer G34 0870 to a query on what is fame ("Thoughts on G34 0880 Fame", October 23, 1960), Carl said: "Fame is a figment of a G34 0890 pigment. It comes and goes. It changes with every generation. There G34 0900 never were two fames alike. One fame is precious and luminous; another G34 0910 is a bubble of a bauble". #"AH, DID YOU ONCE SEE SHELLEY G34 0920 PLAIN"?# The impression you get from Carl Sandburg's home is G34 0930 one of laughter and happiness; and the laughter and the happiness are G34 0940 even more pronounced when no company is present. Carl has been G34 0950 married to Paula for fifty-three years, and he has not made a single G34 0960 major decision without careful consideration and thorough discussion G34 0970 with his wife. Through all these years, Mrs& Sandburg has pointedly G34 0980 avoided the limelight. She has shared her husband's greatness, G34 0990 but only within the confines of their home; it is a dedication which G34 1000 began the moment she met Carl. Mrs& Sandburg received a G34 1010 Phi Beta Kappa key from the University of Chicago and she was busy G34 1020 writing and teaching when she met Sandburg. "You are the 'Peoples' G34 1030 Poet'" was her appraisal in 1908, and she stopped teaching G34 1040 and writing to devote herself to the fulfillment of her husband's G34 1050 career. She has rarely been photographed with him and, except G34 1060 for Carl's seventy-fifth anniversary celebration in Chicago in 1953, G34 1070 she has not attended the dozens of banquets, functions, public appearances, G34 1080 and dinners honoring him- all of this upon her insistence. G34 1090 Even now I will not intrude upon her except to state a few bare facts. G34 1100 The only way to describe Paula Sandburg is to say she is G34 1110 beautiful in a Grecian sense. Her clothes, her hair, everything about G34 1120 her is both graceful and simple. She has small, broad, capable hands G34 1130 and an enormous energy. She is not only a trained mathematician G34 1140 and Classicist, but a good architect. She designed and supervised G34 1150 the building of the Harbert, Michigan, house, most of which was constructed G34 1160 by one local carpenter who carried the heavy beams singly upon G34 1170 his shoulder. As the Sandburg goat herd increased, she also designed G34 1180 the barn alterations to accommodate them. When erosion threatened G34 1190 the foundation of their home in Harbert, Paula Sandburg planted grapevines G34 1200 and arranged the snow fences which helped hold the sands away. G34 1210 She was born Lilian Steichen, her parents immigrants from G34 1220 Luxemburg. Her mother called her Paus'l, a Luxemburg endearment G34 1230 meaning "pussycat". Some of the children of the family could not G34 1240 pronounce this name and called her Paula, a soubriquet Carl liked so G34 1250 much she has been Paula ever since. But neither was Lilian G34 1260 her baptismal name. Her parents, pious Roman Catholics, christened G34 1270 her Mary Anne Elizabeth Magdalene Steichen. "My mother read a G34 1280 book right after I was born and there was a Lilian in the book she G34 1290 loved and I became Lilian- and eventually I became Paula". G34 1300 Lilian Steichen was an exceptional student. This family of Luxemburg G34 1310 immigrants, in fact, produced two exceptional children. Paula's G34 1320 older brother is Edward Steichen, a talented artist and, for the G34 1330 past half-century, one of the world's eminent photographers. (Two G34 1340 years ago the photography editor of magazine titled his article G34 1350 about Steichen, "The World's Greatest Photographer".) G34 1360 By the time Lilian had been graduated from public school, her G34 1370 parents were doing quite well. Her mother was a good manager and established G34 1380 a millinery business in Milwaukee. But her father was not enthusiastic G34 1390 about sending young Paula to high school. "This is no G34 1400 place for a young girl", he said. The parents compromised, however, G34 1410 on a convent school and Paula went to Ursuline Academy in London, G34 1420 Ontario. She was pious, too, once kneeling through the night G34 1430 from Holy Thursday to Good Friday, despite the protest of the nuns G34 1440 that this was too much for a young girl. She knelt out of reverence G34 1450 for having read the of St& Augustine. She G34 1460 read everything else she could get her hands on, including an article G34 1470 (she thinks it was in the ) by Mark Twain on G34 1480 "White Slavery". Paula was saddened about what was happening to G34 1490 little girls and vowed to kneel no more in Chapel. She had come to G34 1500 a decision. If there was ever a thought in her mind she might devote G34 1510 her life to religion, it was now dispelled. "I felt that I must devote G34 1520 myself to the 'outside' world". She passed the entrance G34 1530 examinations to the University of Illinois, but during the year G34 1540 at Urbana felt more important events transpired at the University G34 1550 of Chicago. "And besides, Thorstein Veblen was one of the G34 1560 Chicago professors". At the University of Chicago she studied G34 1570 Whitman and Shelley, and became a Socialist. Socialist leaders G34 1580 in Milwaukee recognized her worth, not only because of her dedication G34 1590 but because of her fluency in German, French, and Luxemburg. She G34 1600 once gave a German recitation before a convention of German-language G34 1610 teachers in Milwaukee. Carl and Paula met in Milwaukee G34 1620 in 1907 during Paula's Christmas holiday visit to her parents. Carl G34 1630 was still Charles A& Sandburg. He "legitimized" Paula for G34 1640 Lilian Steichen, and it was Paula who insisted on Carl for Charles. G34 1650 Victor Berger, the panjandrum of Wisconsin Socialism and G34 1660 member of Congress, had asked Paula Steichen to translate some of G34 1670 his German editorials into English. Carl, who was stationed in Appleton, G34 1680 Wisconsin, organizing for the Social Democrats, was in Berger's G34 1690 office and made it his business to escort Paula to the streetcar. G34 1700 She left the next day for her teaching job at Princeton, Illinois. G34 1710 (After graduation from the University of Chicago, Paula taught G34 1720 for two years in the normal school at Valley City, North Dakota, G34 1730 then two years at Princeton (Illinois) Township High School.) By G34 1740 the time the streetcar pulled away, he had fallen in love with Paula. G34 1750 A letter awaited her at Princeton. Paula says that even G34 1760 though Carl's letters usually began, "Dear Miss Steichen", there G34 1770 was an understanding from the beginning that they would become husband G34 1780 and wife. Paula generously lent me one of Carl's love G34 1790 letters, dated February 21, 1908, Hotel Athearn, Oshkosh, Wisconsin: G34 1800 "Dear Miss Steichen: It is a very good letter you G34 1810 send me- softens the intensity of this guerilla warfare I am carrying G34 1820 on up here. Never until in this work of ~S-~D organization G34 1830 have I realized and felt the attitude and experience of a . G35 0010 The United States is always ready to participate with the Soviet G35 0020 Union in serious discussion of these or any other subjects that G35 0030 may lead to peace with justice. Certainly it is not necessary G35 0040 to repeat that the United States has no intention of interfering in G35 0050 the internal affairs of any nation; by the same token, we reject any G35 0060 Soviet attempt to impose its system on us or other peoples by force G35 0070 or subversion. Now this concern for the freedom of other peoples G35 0080 is the intellectual and spiritual cement which has allied us with G35 0090 more than forty other nations in a common defense effort. Not for a G35 0100 moment do we forget that our own fate is firmly fastened to that of these G35 0110 countries; we will not act in any way which would jeopardize our G35 0120 solemn commitments to them. ## We and our friends are, of course, G35 0130 concerned with self-defense. Growing out of this concern is the realization G35 0140 that all people of the Free World have a great stake in the G35 0150 progress, in freedom, of the uncommitted and newly emerging nations. G35 0160 These peoples, desperately hoping to lift themselves to decent levels G35 0170 of living must not, by our neglect, be forced to seek help from, and G35 0180 finally become virtual satellites of, those who proclaim their hostility G35 0190 to freedom. But they must have technical and investment assistance. G35 0200 This is a problem to be solved not by America alone, but also G35 0210 by every nation cherishing the same ideals and in position to provide G35 0220 help. In recent years America's partners and friends in G35 0230 Western Europe and Japan have made great economic progress. G35 0240 The international economy of 1960 is markedly different from that of G35 0250 the early postwar years. No longer is the United States the only major G35 0260 industrial country capable of providing substantial amounts of the G35 0270 resources so urgently needed in the newly developed countries. G35 0280 To remain secure and prosperous themselves, wealthy nations must extend G35 0290 the kind of co-operation to the less fortunate members that will G35 0300 inspire hope, confidence, and progress. A rich nation can for a time, G35 0310 without noticeable damage to itself, pursue a course of self-indulgence, G35 0320 making its single goal the material ease and comfort of its own citizens- G35 0330 thus repudiating its own spiritual and material stake in a peaceful G35 0340 and prosperous society of nations. But the enmities it will incur, G35 0350 the isolation into which it will descend, and the internal moral G35 0360 and spiritual softness that will be engendered, will, in the long term, G35 0370 bring it to economic and political disaster. America did not G35 0380 become great through softness and self-indulgence. Her miraculous progress G35 0390 in material achievements flows from other qualities far more worthy G35 0400 and substantial: adherence to principles and methods consonant G35 0410 with our religious philosophy; a satisfaction in hard work; the readiness G35 0420 to sacrifice for worthwhile causes; the courage to meet every G35 0430 challenge; the intellectual honesty and capacity to recognize the G35 0440 true path of her own best interests. To us and to every nation G35 0450 of the Free World, rich or poor, these qualities are necessary today G35 0460 as never before if we are to march together to greater security, prosperity G35 0470 and peace. I believe that the industrial countries are G35 0480 ready to participate actively in supplementing the efforts of the developing G35 0490 nations to achieve progress. The immediate need for G35 0500 this kind of co-operation is underscored by the strain in this nation's G35 0510 international balance of payments. Our surplus from foreign business G35 0520 transactions has in recent years fallen substantially short of the G35 0530 expenditures we make abroad to maintain our military establishments overseas, G35 0540 to finance private investment, and to provide assistance to the G35 0550 less developed nations. In 1959 our deficit in balance of payments G35 0560 approached four billion dollars. Continuing deficits of anything G35 0570 like this magnitude would, over time, impair our own economic growth G35 0580 and check the forward progress of the Free World. We must G35 0590 meet this situation by promoting a rising volume of exports and world G35 0600 trade. Further, we must induce all industrialized nations of the Free G35 0610 World to work together to help lift the scourge of poverty from less G35 0620 fortunate. This co-operation in this matter will provide both for G35 0630 the necessary sharing of this burden and in bringing about still further G35 0640 increases in mutually profitable trade. New Nations, and G35 0650 others struggling with the problems of development, will progress only- G35 0660 regardless of any outside help- if they demonstrate faith in their G35 0670 own destiny and use their own resources to fulfill it. Moreover, G35 0680 progress in a national transformation can be only gradually earned; G35 0690 there is no easy and quick way to follow from the oxcart to the jet plane. G35 0700 But, just as we drew on Europe for assistance in our earlier years, G35 0710 so now do these new and emerging nations that do have this faith G35 0720 and determination deserve help. Respecting their need, one of G35 0730 the major focal points of our concern is the South-Asian region. G35 0735 Here, G35 0740 in two nations alone, are almost five hundred million people, all working, G35 0750 and working hard, to raise their standards, and in doing so, to G35 0760 make of themselves a strong bulwark against the spread of an ideology G35 0770 that would destroy liberty. I cannot express to you the depth G35 0780 of my conviction that, in our own and free world interest, we must co-operate G35 0790 with others to help these people achieve their legitimate ambitions, G35 0800 as expressed in their different multi-year plans. Through the G35 0810 World Bank and other instrumentalities, as well as through individual G35 0820 action by every nation in position to help, we must squarely face G35 0830 this titanic challenge. I shall continue to urge the American G35 0840 people, in the interests of their own security, prosperity and peace, G35 0850 to make sure that their own part of this great project be amply and G35 0860 cheerfully supported. Free world decisions in this matter may spell the G35 0870 difference between world disaster and world progress in freedom. G35 0880 Other countries, some of which I visited last month, have similar G35 0890 needs. A common meeting ground is desirable for those nations G35 0900 which are prepared to assist in the development effort. During the G35 0910 past year I have discussed this matter with the leaders of several Western G35 0920 nations. Because of its wealth of experience, the Organization G35 0930 for European Economic Cooperation could help with the initial G35 0940 studies needed. The goal is to enlist all available economic resources G35 0950 in the industrialized Free World, especially private investment G35 0960 capital. By extending this help, we hope to make possible the G35 0970 enthusiastic enrollment of these nations under freedom's banner. G35 0980 No more startling contrast to a system of sullen satellites could be G35 0990 imagined. If we grasp this opportunity to build an age of productive G35 1000 partnership between the less fortunate nations and those that have G35 1010 already achieved a high state of economic advancement, we will make G35 1020 brighter the outlook for a world order based upon security and freedom. G35 1030 Otherwise, the outlook could be dark indeed. We face, indeed, what G35 1040 may be a turning point in history, and we must act decisively and wisely. G35 1050 ## As a nation we can successfully pursue these objectives G35 1060 only from a position of broadly based strength. No matter how G35 1070 earnest is our quest for guaranteed peace, we must maintain a high degree G35 1080 of military effectiveness at the same time we are engaged in negotiating G35 1090 the issue of arms reduction. Until tangible and mutually enforceable G35 1100 arms reduction measures are worked out we will not weaken the G35 1110 means of defending our institutions. America possesses an enormous G35 1120 defense power. It is my studied conviction that no nation will ever G35 1130 risk general war against us unless we should become so foolish as G35 1140 to neglect the defense forces we now so powerfully support. It is world-wide G35 1150 knowledge that any power which might be tempted today to attack G35 1160 the United States by surprise, even though we might sustain great G35 1170 losses, would itself promptly suffer a terrible destruction. But I once G35 1180 again assure all peoples and all nations that the United States, G35 1190 except in defense, will never turn loose this destructive power. G35 1200 During the past year, our long-range striking power, unmatched today G35 1210 in manned bombers, has taken on new strength as the Atlas intercontinental G35 1220 ballistic missile has entered the operational inventory. In G35 1230 fourteen recent test launchings, at ranges of five thousand miles, G35 1240 has been striking on an average within two miles of the target. G35 1250 This is less than the length of a jet runway- well within the circle G35 1255 of destruction. G35 1260 Incidentally, there was an firing last G35 1270 night. From all reports so far received, its performance conformed to G35 1280 the high standards I have just described. Such performance is a great G35 1290 tribute to American scientists and engineers, who in the past five G35 1300 years have had to telescope time and technology to develop these long-range G35 1310 ballistic missiles, where America had none before. This G35 1320 year, moreover, growing numbers of nuclear powered submarines will G35 1330 enter our active forces, some to be armed with Polaris missiles. These G35 1340 remarkable ships and weapons, ranging the oceans, will be capable of G35 1350 accurate fire on targets virtually anywhere on earth. To meet G35 1360 situations of less than general nuclear war, we continue to maintain G35 1370 our carrier forces, our many service units abroad, our always ready G35 1380 Army strategic forces and Marine Corps divisions, and the civilian G35 1390 components. The continuing modernization of these forces is a costly G35 1400 but necessary process. It is scheduled to go forward at a rate which G35 1410 will steadily add to our strength. The deployment of a portion G35 1420 of these forces beyond our shores, on land and sea, is persuasive demonstration G35 1430 of our determination to stand shoulder-to-shoulder with our G35 1450 allies for collective security. Moreover, I have directed that steps G35 1460 be taken to program on a longer range basis our military assistance to G35 1470 these allies. This is necessary for a sounder collective defense system. G35 1480 Next I refer to our program in space exploration, which G35 1490 is often mistakenly supposed to be an integral part of defense research G35 1500 and development. We note that, first, America has already G35 1510 made G35 1520 great contributions in the past two years to the world's fund of G35 1530 knowledge of astrophysics and space science. These discoveries are of G35 1540 present interest chiefly to the scientific community; but they are G35 1550 important foundation stones for more extensive exploration of outer space G35 1560 for the ultimate benefit of all mankind. Second, our military G35 1570 missile program, going forward so successfully, does not suffer from G35 1580 our present lack of very large rocket engines, which are necessary G35 1590 in distant space exploration. I am assured by experts that the thrust G35 1600 of our present missiles is fully adequate for defense requirements. G35 1610 Third, the United States is pressing forward in the development G35 1620 of large rocket engines to place vehicles of many tons into space G35 1630 for exploration purposes. Fourth, in the meantime, it is necessary G35 1640 to remember that we have only begun to probe the environment immediately G35 1650 surrounding the earth. Using launch systems presently available, G35 1660 we are developing satellites to scout the world's weather; satellite G35 1670 relay stations to facilitate and extend communications over the G35 1680 globe; for navigation aids to give accurate bearings to ships and G35 1690 aircraft; and for perfecting instruments to collect and transmit the G35 1700 data we seek. Fifth, we have just completed a year's experience G35 1710 with our new space law. I believe it deficient in certain particulars. G35 1720 Suggested improvements will be submitted to the Congress shortly. G35 1730 ## The accomplishment of the many tasks I have alluded to requires G35 1740 the continuous strengthening of the spiritual, intellectual, G35 1745 and G35 1750 economic sinews of American life. The steady purpose of our society G35 1760 is to assure justice, before God, for every individual. We must be G35 1770 ever alert that freedom does not wither through the careless amassing G35 1780 of restrictive controls or the lack of courage to deal boldly with the G35 1790 issues of the day. A year ago, when I met with you, the nation G35 1800 was emerging from an economic downturn, even though the signs of resurgent G35 1810 prosperity were not then sufficiently convincing to the doubtful. G35 1820 Today our surging strength is apparent to everyone. 1960 promises G35 1830 to be the most prosperous year in our history. Yet we continue G35 1840 to be afflicted by nagging disorders. Among current problems that G35 1850 require solutions, participated in by citizens as well as government, G35 1860 are: the need to protect the public interest in situations of G35 1870 prolonged labor-management stalemate; the persistent refusal G35 1880 to come to grips with a critical problem in one sector of American agriculture; G35 1890 the continuing threat of inflation, together with G35 1900 the persisting tendency toward fiscal irresponsibility; in certain G35 1910 instances the denial to some of our citizens of equal protection G35 1920 of the law. G36 0010 The group, upon the issuance of its first press release on December G36 0020 21, 1957, designated itself a "Committee of Investigation". G36 0030 In the course of its inquiry, it took testimony from only seven witnesses. G36 0040 It heard Bang-Jensen twice and his lawyer, Adolf A& Berle, G36 0050 Jr&, once. Its second press release was on January 15, G36 0060 1958, and it recommended that the secret papers be destroyed. It also G36 0070 implied that Paul Bang-Jensen had been irresponsible. On G36 0080 January 18, Ernest Gross conducted a press conference at the U&N& G36 0090 lasting an hour. Here, he openly attacked Bang-Jensen and referred G36 0100 to his "aberrant conduct". This conference was held despite G36 0110 Stavropoulos' assurance to Adolf Berle, who was leaving the same G36 0120 day for Puerto Rico, that nothing would be done until his return on G36 0130 January 22, except that the Secretary General would probably order G36 0140 the list destroyed. On January 24 Paul Bang-Jensen, accompanied G36 0150 by Adolf Berle, was met by Dragoslav Protitch and Colonel G36 0160 Frank Begley, former Police Chief of Farmington, Conn&, and now G36 0170 head of U&N& special police. The four, bundled in overcoats, G36 0180 mounted to the wind-swept roof of the U&N& There, G36 0190 Begley lit a fire in a wire basket, and Bang-Jensen dropped four G36 0200 sealed envelopes into the flames. In one of these he said were notes G36 0210 on the identities of the eighty-one refugees. The method of destroying G36 0220 the evidence embarrassed Paul Bang-Jensen. He knew it would G36 0230 be implied that it was done in this way at his insistence. He was G36 0240 right, and Peter Marshall could not help but recall Andrew Cordier's G36 0250 words on the subject, "Well, it seemed as good a place as any G36 0260 to do the job". The Gross group had been formed for the express G36 0270 purpose of advising the Secretary General. Hammarskjold's supposed G36 0280 desire to seek outside legal advice in the guise of Ernest Gross G36 0290 is illusion, at best. Gross's being "outside" the U&N& G36 0300 applied only to a physical state, not an objective one. But by the G36 0310 time the papers were finally disposed of, the group had informed the G36 0320 world of its purpose, its recommendations, and its belief that Paul G36 0330 Bang-Jensen was not of sound mind. Shortly the group would issue G36 0340 its report to the Secretary General, recommending Paul Bang-Jensen's G36 0350 dismissal from the United Nations. The contents of this G36 0360 195-page document would become known to many before it would become known G36 0370 to the man it was written about. ## "Until this Hungarian G36 0380 Committee matter came up, Bang-Jensen was a fine and devoted individual. G36 0390 I had known him for some years, when I was a delegate and before, G36 0400 and this manner had never been his". Ernest A& Gross G36 0410 leaned back in his chair and told Peter Marshall how Secretary General G36 0420 Dag Hammarskjold had, on December 4,1957, called him in as a G36 0430 private lawyer to review Bang-Jensen's conduct "relating to his G36 0440 association with the Special Committee on the problem of Hungary". G36 0450 The result was the "Gross Report", prepared by Gross, as chairman, G36 0460 with the assistance of two U&N& Under Secretaries, Constantin G36 0470 Stavropoulos and Philippe de Seynes. "Yes", Gross G36 0480 went on, "Bang-Jensen was an up-and-coming young man. He had G36 0490 always done well. Never well known, but he had done his work competently G36 0500 **h". Gross had received Marshall courteously and they G36 0510 were discussing the case. "You know", the lawyer said, "it's G36 0520 difficult to talk like this about a man who can't answer back". G36 0530 Gross was behind a clean-top desk, only a manila folder before G36 0540 him. Marshall sat in one of the several leather chairs. Outside the G36 0550 office windows, twenty-four stories above Wall Street, a light rain G36 0560 was falling. "Mr& Gross, your report says that 'our G36 0570 function is investigative and advisory and does not in any way derogate G36 0580 from or prejudice Mr& Bang-Jensen's rights as a staff member'. G36 0590 You know, Bang-Jensen characterized your Committee as having prejudged G36 0600 his case". Gross swung his swivel chair. "Well, G36 0610 how could that have been? I don't consider that he was prejudged. G36 0620 We were given a job and we carried it out, and later, his case was taken G36 0630 up by the Disciplinary Committee **h. "We have nothing G36 0640 to hide under a bushel. We did our job, Mr& Stavropoulos and Mr& G36 0650 de Seynes and myself, taking evidence from a number of people". G36 0660 "What did you think about his mental state"? "I G36 0670 think our report sums up our finding", Gross answered. "Don't G36 0680 forget, here was a man who had been accusing his colleagues for almost G36 0690 a year of willfully attempting to present an incorrect report **h. G36 0700 "This was not merely alleging errors, but was carried out G36 0710 by day-after-day allegations in memos, written charges of serious consequence G36 0720 **h. "This is a distressing thing. Supposing you or G36 0730 I were being accused in this manner, and yet we were doing our level G36 0740 best to carry on our work. No organization can carry on like that. G36 0750 "I've been in government and I can tell some pretty hairy G36 0755 stories G36 0760 about personnel difficulties, so I know what a problem he was". G36 0770 "What I'd like you to comment on is the criticism leveled G36 0780 at your Committee". "What do you mean"? G36 0790 "For instance, regarding the fact that the Gross Committee issued G36 0800 two interim announcements to the press during its investigation. You G36 0810 know Bang-Jensen was told the Committee was 'to convey its views, G36 0820 suggestions and recommendations to the Secretary General'. In his G36 0830 own words, Bang-Jensen 'took it for granted that the Group would G36 0840 report to the Secretary General privately and not in public'. He G36 0850 claimed that the release of the preliminary findings was 'prejudicial G36 0860 to his position'". Gross bristled. For an instant he G36 0870 glared speechless at Marshall. "Listen", he said. "I thought G36 0880 the entire report was going to be confidential from beginning to end. G36 0890 But you know Bang-Jensen launched an active campaign against us in G36 0900 the press. It was getting so that we, the Committee, were being tried. G36 0910 You can find it in the papers". "Well, as a matter of G36 0920 fact, I've looked through back-issue files of New York papers for G36 0930 December, 1957, and haven't found a great deal"- Gross G36 0940 shot another look at Marshall. "It wasn't necessarily all here G36 0950 in New York. Don't forget the foreign press". "Then G36 0960 what about the second interim public announcement? This cited Bang-Jensen's G36 0970 'aberrant conduct'". "The reason for that G36 0980 report was to settle the matter of the list. As far as I'm concerned, G36 0990 it was a separate matter from the general Committee study of Bang-Jensen's G36 1000 conduct. The January fifteen report recommended that G36 1010 Bang-Jensen be instructed to burn the list- the papers- in the presence G36 1020 of a U&N& Security Officer". "How about your G36 1030 press conference three days later- what was the reason for that? G36 1040 Bang-Jensen said you told correspondents that you had checked in advance G36 1050 to make sure the term 'aberrant conduct' was not libelous. G36 1060 He claimed you made other slanderous allegations". Gross paused G36 1070 and repeated himself. "The entire object of the press conference G36 1080 was to clarify the problem of the list, since many in the press were G36 1090 querying the U&N& about it. What was the list? I don't know. G36 1100 Bang-Jensen never explained what the documents or papers were that G36 1110 he had in his possession. "It was foolish of him to keep G36 1120 them, whatever they were. He could have been blackmailed, or his family G36 1130 might have been threatened. Of course the matter caught the public's G36 1140 attention. We attempted to conclude this, and did so by having G36 1150 the papers burned. Hammerskjold didn't like the way it was G36 1160 carried out. It was a sort of Go^tterda^mmerung affair. Hammarskjold G36 1170 believes the U&N& is an organization that settles matters G36 1180 in a procedural way **h". Peter Marshall reflected. If Hammarskjold G36 1190 had not wanted the list disposed of in this manner, and if G36 1200 Bang-Jensen had not wanted it- who had ordered it? "Mr& G36 1210 Gross, concerning the formation of your Committee, there's the G36 1220 fact that you have been a legal adviser to the U&N& in the past; G36 1230 as I understand it, Mr& Hammarskjold wanted advice. G36 1240 Could you comment on that"? "I've served as a counsel G36 1250 for the U&N& for some years, specializing particularly in real G36 1260 estate matters or other problems that the regular U&N& legal G36 1270 staff might not be equipped to handle. Mr& Stavropoulos is the U&N& G36 1280 legal chief and a very good man, but he is not fully versed on G36 1290 some technical points of American law". "What did you think G36 1300 about Bang-Jensen's contention of errors and omissions in the G36 1310 Hungarian report"? Marshall asked. "Those"! Gross G36 1320 answered. "Why, Mick Shann went over and over the report with Alsing G36 1330 Andersen, trying to check them out. Even after the incident between G36 1340 Bang-Jensen and Shann in the Delegates' Lounge **h and this G36 1350 was not the way the presented it". Gross G36 1360 reached in his desk and pulled out two newspaper clippings. One G36 1370 was an article on the U&N& by Alice Widener from the . The other was by Chesly Manley in the . Gross pointed to the Manley story. "I G36 1400 know Ches, he's a friend of mine. He probably didn't mean to write G36 1410 it this way, or maybe he did. There wasn't any 'violent argument' G36 1420 between Bang-Jensen and Shann, as the puts it. That G36 1430 implies that Shann was on the enemy side. You see what I mean? G36 1440 How it's phrased there- the word 'violent'. "The G36 1450 case was that Bang-Jensen came up to Shann claiming he had found further G36 1460 errors in the report. 'I've found errors and I want you to G36 1470 look them over'. So once again Shann had to argue with him about G36 1480 this. But it wasn't a violent discussion. And after all this, Shann G36 1490 went over all that Bang-Jensen had brought up". (Shann's G36 1500 own report, Peter Marshall reflected, describes the encounter as G36 1510 "immoderate". Bang-Jensen was in "hysterical condition".) G36 1520 Gross stopped briefly, then went on. "Shann was responsible G36 1530 for the report. He has felt terrible about all this. It was a good G36 1540 report, he did all he could to make it a good report. When I speak G36 1550 of how Shann felt, I know well. Don't forget, I am an old member G36 1560 of the club, a former delegate. I think you are being unfair to take G36 1570 these things up now. "You know, this hits in many areas. It G36 1580 appeals to those who were frustrated in the outcome of the Hungarian G36 1590 situation. Don't forget, the U&N& did no more than the United G36 1600 States did **h it takes a great deal of sophisticated thought to G36 1610 get the impact of this fact". #CHAPTER 22# FROM THE HOME G36 1620 of his friend, Henrik Kauffmann, in Washington, D&C&, Paul G36 1630 Bang-Jensen sent a telegram dated December 9, 1957, to Ernest Gross. G36 1640 It said in part: "**h the matters to be considered are G36 1650 obviously of a grave character, and I therefore respectfully request G36 1660 that the hearing be postponed for two weeks in order that I might make G36 1670 adequate preparation". Ernest Gross replied the next day, G36 1680 putting the suspended diplomat's fears to rest. "This reveals some G36 1690 misunderstanding on your part. The group conducting the review is G36 1700 not holding formal hearings. It wished to pursue, in the course of this G36 1710 review, questions arising from the body of material already in its G36 1720 possession **h". It sounded like a fair enough invitation, G36 1730 Peter Marshall reflected, and Bang-Jensen must have thought so too, G36 1740 because on the thirteenth, he met the group of three on the thirty-sixth G36 1750 floor of the U&N&. There, Ernest Gross further assured him: G36 1760 "We were requested by the Secretary General, as I understand G36 1770 it, to discuss with you such matters as appear to us to be relevant, G36 1780 and we are not of course either a formal group or a committee G36 1790 in the sense of being guided by any rules or regulations of the Secretariat. G36 1800 . Peter Marshall G36 1820 noted that Bang-Jensen had later referred to his two interviews with G36 1830 the Gross group as "unfortunate experiences", and after his second G36 1840 meeting on the sixteenth the Dane refused to attend further hearings G36 1850 without legal counsel. Marshall pondered the reason for this, and G36 1860 pondered too the replacement of one member of the three-man group. G36 1870 J& A& C& Robertson, after serving Gross one week, left G36 1880 for England. G37 0010 Fortunately the hole was found at last and plugged. Another week passed G37 0020 and even the missionaries were enjoying the voyage. The sickness G37 0030 was gone and, after all, the two young couples were on their honeymoon. G37 0040 The only lasting difficulty was the food. In spite of Pickering G37 0050 Dodge's explicit instructions regarding variation of meals, the G37 0060 food did not seem the same as at home. "Everything tasted differently G37 0070 from what it does on land and those things I was most fond of at G37 0080 home, I loathed the most here", Ann noted. At last they concluded G37 0090 that the heavy, full feeling in their stomachs was due to lack of exercise. G37 0100 Walking was the remedy, they decided, but a deck full of chicken G37 0110 coops and pigpens was hardly suitable. Skipping was the alternative. G37 0120 A rope was found and, like children in school, the missionaries G37 0130 skipped for hours at a time. Finally, tiring of so monotonous a form G37 0140 of exercise, they decided to dance instead. It was much more fun, reminding G37 0150 the girls of their old carefree days in the Hasseltine frolics G37 0160 room at Bradford. The weather turned warmer and with it came better G37 0170 appetites, although Harriet was still a little off-color. She could G37 0180 not face coffee or tea without milk, and was always craving types of G37 0190 food that were not available aboard a sailing ship. By now she was sure G37 0200 she was going to have a baby, deciding it would be born in India G37 0210 or Burma that November. She was more excited than frightened at the G37 0220 prospect of having her first child in a foreign land. The crew G37 0230 of the never failed to amaze Ann, who during her stay G37 0240 in Salem must frequently have overheard strong sailorly language. She G37 0250 wrote in her journal, "I have not heard the least profane language G37 0260 since I have been on board the vessel. This is very uncommon". G37 0270 She was now enjoying the voyage very much. Even the first wave G37 0280 of homesickness had passed, although there were moments when Captain G37 0290 Heard pointed out on his compass the direction of Bradford that she G37 0300 felt a little twinge at her heart. As for Adoniram, she found him G37 0310 to be "the kindest" of husbands. On Sundays, with the permission G37 0320 of Captain Heard, who usually attended with two of his officers, G37 0330 services were held in the double cabin. Sometimes a ship would be G37 0340 sighted and the pass so close that people could easily G37 0350 be seen on the distant deck. Captain Heard did not communicate with G37 0360 any strange vessels because of the possibility of war between the United G37 0370 States and Britain. As warmer temperatures were encountered Ann G37 0380 and Harriet were introduced to the pleasures of bathing daily in salt G37 0390 water. When May came the had already crossed G37 0400 the Equator. They were sailing round the Cape of Good Hope; the G37 0410 weather had turned wet and cold. At this time Harriet wrote in a letter G37 0420 which after their finally landing in India was sent to her mother: G37 0430 "I care not how soon we reach Calcutta, and are placed G37 0440 in a still room, with a bowl of milk and a loaf of Indian bread. I G37 0450 can hardly think of this simple fare without exclaiming, oh, what a luxury. G37 0460 I have been so weary of the excessive rocking of the vessel, and G37 0470 the almost intolerable smell after the rain, that I have done little G37 0480 more than lounge on the bed for several days. But I have been blest G37 0490 with excellent spirits, and to-day have been running about the deck, G37 0500 and in our room for , as well as ever". G37 0510 While studying at the seminary in Andover, Adoniram had been working G37 0520 on a New Testament translation from the original Greek. He G37 0530 had brought it along to continue during the voyage. There was one particular G37 0540 word that troubled his conscience. This was the Greek word most G37 0550 often translated as "baptism". Born a Congregationalist, G37 0560 he had been baptized as a tiny baby in the usual manner by having G37 0570 a few drops of water sprinkled on his head, yet nowhere in the whole of G37 0580 the New Testament could he find a description of anybody being baptized G37 0590 by sprinkling. John the Baptist used total immersion in the River G37 0600 Jordan for believers; even Christ was baptized by this method. G37 0605 The more Adoniram G37 0610 looked at the Greek word for baptism, the more unhappy G37 0620 he became over its true meaning. As was only natural he G37 0630 confided his searchings to Ann, conceding ruefully that it certainly G37 0635 looked as if their own G37 0640 Congregationalists were wrong and the Baptists right. G37 0650 Ann was very troubled. By this time she had learned that G37 0660 it was futile to argue with her young husband, yet the uncomfortable G37 0670 fact remained: the American Congregationalists were sending them as G37 0680 missionaries to the Far East and paying their salaries. What would G37 0690 happen if Adoniram "changed horses in midstream"? Baptists and G37 0700 Congregationalists in New England were on friendly terms. How embarrassing G37 0710 it would be if the newly appointed Congregationalist missionaries G37 0730 should suddenly switch their own beliefs in order to embrace Baptist G37 0740 teachings! "If you become a Baptist, I will not", G37 0750 Ann informed her husband, but sweeping her threat aside Adoniram G37 0760 continued to search for an answer to the personal dilemma in which he G37 0770 found himself. By early June they were a hundred miles off the G37 0780 coast of Ceylon, by which time all four missionaries were hardened G37 0790 seafarers. Even Harriet could boldly write, "I know not how it is; G37 0800 but I hear the thunder roll; see the lightning flash; and the G37 0810 waves threatening to swallow up the vessel; and yet remain unmoved". G37 0820 Ann thrilled to the sight of a delicate butterfly and two G37 0830 strange tropical birds. Land was near, and on June 12, one hundred G37 0840 and fourteen days after leaving America, they actually saw, twenty miles G37 0850 away, the coast of Orissa. Captain Heard gave orders for G37 0860 the ship to be anchored in the Bay of Bengal until he could obtain G37 0870 the services of a reputable pilot to steer her through the shallow waters. G37 0880 Sometimes ships waited for days for such a man, but Captain G37 0890 Heard was lucky. Next day a ship arrived with an English pilot, G37 0900 his leadsman, an English youth, and the first Hindu the Judsons and G37 0910 Newells had ever seen. A little man with a "a dark copper color" G37 0920 skin, he was wearing "calico trousers and a white cotton short gown". G37 0930 Ann was plainly disappointed in his appearance. "He looks G37 0940 as feminine as you can imagine", she decided. The pilot possessed G37 0950 excellent skill at his calling; all day long the G37 0960 slowly made her way through the difficult passages. Alas, to Ann's G37 0970 consternation, his language while thus employed left much to be desired. G37 0980 He swore so loudly at the top of his voice, that she didn't get G37 0990 any sleep all the next night. Next morning the was G37 1000 out of the treacherous Bay. Relieved of the major part of his responsibility G37 1010 for the safety of the ship, the pilot's oaths became fewer. G37 1020 Slowly she moved up the Hooghli River, a mouth of the mighty Ganges, G37 1030 toward Calcutta. Ann was entranced with the view, as G37 1040 were her husband and friends. Running across the deck, which was empty G37 1050 now that the livestock had been killed and eaten, they sniffed the spice-laden G37 1060 breezes that came from the shore, each pointing out new and G37 1070 exciting wonders to the other. Out came the journal and in it G37 1080 went Ann's own description of the scene: "On each side G37 1090 of the Hoogli, where we are now sailing, are the Hindoo cottages, as G37 1100 thick together as the houses in our seaports. They are very small, G37 1110 and in the form of haystacks, without either chimney or windows. They G37 1120 are situated in the midst of trees, which hang over them, and appear G37 1130 truly romantick. The grass and fields of rice are perfectly green, and G37 1140 herds of cattle are everywhere feeding on the banks of the river, and G37 1150 the natives are scattered about differently employed. Some are fishing, G37 1160 some driving the team, and many are sitting indolently on the banks G37 1170 of the river. The pagodas we have passed are much larger than the G37 1180 houses". Harriet was just as delighted. Where were the hardships G37 1190 she had expected? She was certain now that it would be no harder G37 1200 to bear her child here in such pleasant surroundings than at home G37 1210 in the big white house in Haverhill. With childlike innocence she wrote G37 1220 of the Indians as "walking with fruit and umbrellas in their hands, G37 1230 with the tawny children around them **h. This is the most delightful G37 1240 I have ever had", she decided. The Indians G37 1250 who came aboard ship to collect the mail also interested her greatly, G37 1260 even if she was suitably shocked, according to the customs of the society G37 1270 in which she had been reared, to find them "naked, except a piece G37 1280 of cotton cloth wrapped around their middle". At last they G37 1290 saw Calcutta, largest city of Bengal and the destination. G37 1300 Founded August 24, 1690 by Job Charnock of the East India G37 1310 Company, and commonly called "The City of Palaces", it seemed G37 1320 a vast and elegant place to Ann Hasseltine Judson. Solid brick G37 1330 buildings painted dazzling white, large domes and tall, picturesque palms G37 1340 stretched as far as the eye could see, while the wharves and harbor G37 1350 were filled with tall-masted sailing ships. The noise stunned her. G37 1360 Crowds flocked through the waterfront streets chattering loudly in their G37 1370 strange-sounding Bengali tongue. Harriet's mouth watered G37 1380 with anticipation when after months of dreaming she sat down at last G37 1390 to her much-craved milk and fresh bread. Ann, pleased to see her friend G37 1400 happy, was intrigued by the new fruits a friend of Captain Heard G37 1410 had sent on board for their enjoyment. Cautiously she sampled her first G37 1420 pineapple and another fruit whose taste she likened to that of "a G37 1430 rich pear". Though she did not then know its name, this strange new G37 1440 fruit was a banana. #SIX# The first act of Adoniram and Samuel G37 1450 on reaching Calcutta was to report at the police station, a necessity G37 1460 when landing in East India Company territory. On the way they G37 1470 tried to discover all they could about Burma, and they were disturbed G37 1480 to find that Michael Symes's book had not presented an altogether G37 1490 true picture. He had failed to realize that the Burmese were not really G37 1500 treating him as the important visitor he considered himself. They G37 1510 were in fact quietly laughing at him, for their King wished to have G37 1520 nothing to do with the Western world. When Captain John Gibault G37 1530 of Salem had visited Burma in 1793 his ship, the , had been G37 1540 promptly commandeered and taken by her captors up the Irrawaddy River. G37 1550 Although after much trouble he did manage to get it back, he discovered G37 1560 there was no trade to be had. All Captain Gibault took back G37 1570 to Salem were a few items for the town's East India Museum. A G37 1580 year later another Salem ship returned from Burma with a cargo of gum G37 1590 lacquer which nobody wanted to buy. After that Salem ships decided G37 1600 to bypass unfriendly Burma. The Burmese appeared to have little G37 1610 knowledge of British power or any idea of trade. They despised G37 1620 foreigners. Cruel Burmese governors could, on the slightest whim, take G37 1630 a man's life. As for missionaries, even if they succeeded in getting G37 1640 into the country they probably would not be allowed to preach the G37 1650 Christian faith to the Burmans. Unspeakable tortures or even execution G37 1660 might well be their fate. "Go back to America or any G37 1670 other place", well-meaning friends of Captain Heard advised them, G37 1680 "but put thoughts of going to Burma out of your heads". Somewhat G37 1690 daunted, the two American missionaries reached the police station G37 1700 where they were questioned by a most unfriendly clerk. When he discovered G37 1710 they had received from the Company's Court of Directors G37 1720 no permission to live in India, coupled with the fact that they were G37 1730 Americans who had been sent to Asia to convert "the heathen", he G37 1740 became more belligerent than ever. They explained that they G37 1750 desired only to stop in India until a ship traveling on to Burma could G37 1760 be found. G38 0010 She describes, first, the imaginary reaction of a foreigner puzzled by G38 0020 this "unseasonable exultation"; he is answered by a confused, G38 0030 honest Englishman. The reasons for the Whig joy on this occasion are G38 0040 found to be their expectation of regaining control of the government, G38 0050 their delight at the prospect of a new war, their hopes of having the G38 0060 Tories hanged, and so on. As for the author of the G38 0070 Mrs& Manley sarcastically deplores that the sole defense of the G38 0080 Protestant cause should be left to " and G38 0090 their Associates, with the Apostles of Coffee-House". G38 0100 Another controversy typical of the war between the G38 0110 and the centered on Robert (later Viscount) G38 0120 Molesworth, a Whig leader in Ireland and a member of the Irish G38 0130 Privy Council. On December 21, the day that the Irish House G38 0140 of Commons petitioned for removal of Sir Constantine Phipps, their G38 0150 Tory Lord Chancellor, Molesworth reportedly made this remark on the G38 0160 defense of Phipps by Convocation: "They that have turned the G38 0170 world upside down, are come hither also". Upon complaints from the G38 0180 Lower House of Convocation to the House of Lords, he was removed G38 0190 from the Privy Council, his remark having been represented as a blasphemous G38 0200 affront to the clergy. Steele, who had earlier praised Molesworth G38 0210 in No& 189, now defended him in G38 0220 No& 46, depicting his removal as a setback to the Constitution. On G38 0230 the other hand, Molesworth was naturally assailed in the Tory press. G38 0240 Swift, in the Dublin edition of indicated his feelings by including Molesworth, G38 0260 along with Toland, Tindal, and Collins, in the group of those G38 0270 who, like Burnet, are engaged in attacking all Convocations of the clergy. G38 0280 In the same way he coupled Molesworth and Wharton in a letter G38 0290 to Archbishop King, and he had earlier described him as "the worst G38 0300 of them" in some "Observations" on the Irish Privy Council G38 0310 submitted to Oxford. A month later, in he used Steele's defense of Molesworth as evidence of G38 0330 his disrespect for the clergy, calling Steele's position an affront G38 0340 to the "whole Convocation of ". On this issue, then, G38 0350 as on so many in these months, Steele and Swift took rigidly opposed G38 0360 points of view. In the early months of 1714, the battle G38 0370 between Swift and Steele over the issue of the Succession entered its G38 0380 major phase. The preliminaries ended with the publication of Steele's G38 0390 on January 19, and from that point on the fight proceeded G38 0400 at a rapid pace. In answer to Swift produced G38 0410 his most extensive and bitter G38 0420 attack on his old friend. By this time, as we shall see, the Tories G38 0430 were already planning to "punish" Steele for his political writing G38 0440 by expelling him from the House of Commons. Despite his defense G38 0450 of himself in the final paper of the and in his speech G38 0460 before the House, their efforts were successful. Steele lost his G38 0470 seat in Parliament, and his personal quarrel with Swift, by now a public G38 0480 issue, thus reached its climax. Of all the Whig tracts G38 0490 written in support of the Succession, is perhaps the G38 0500 most significant. Certainly it is the most pretentious and elaborate. G38 0510 Hanoverian agents assisted in promoting circulation, said to have reached G38 0520 40,000, and if one may judge by the reaction of Swift and other G38 0530 government writers, the work must have had considerable impact. Steele's G38 0540 main business here is to arouse public opinion to the immediate G38 0550 danger of a Stuart Restoration. To this end, the first and longest G38 0560 section of the tract cites all the laws enacted since the Revolution G38 0570 to defend England against the "Arbitrary Power of a Popish Prince". G38 0580 In his comment on these laws Steele sounds all the usual notes G38 0590 of current Whig propaganda, ranging from a criticism of the Tory G38 0600 peace to an attack on the dismissal of Marlborough; but his principal G38 0610 theme is that the intrigues of the Tories, "our Popish or Jacobite G38 0620 Party", pose an immediate threat to Church and State. Like G38 0630 Burnet, he deplores the indifference of the people in the face of the G38 0640 crisis. Treasonable books striking at the Hanoverian Succession, G38 0650 he complains, are allowed to pass unnoticed. In this connection, Swift, G38 0660 too, is drawn in for attack: "The Author of the Conduct of G38 0670 the Allies has dared to drop Insinuations about altering the Succession". G38 0680 In his effort to stir the public from its lethargy, Steele G38 0690 goes so far as to list Catholic atrocities of the sort to be expected G38 0700 in the event of a Stuart Restoration, and, with rousing rhetoric, he G38 0710 asserts that the only preservation from these "Terrours" is to G38 0715 be G38 0720 found in the laws he has so tediously cited. "It is no time", he G38 0730 writes, "to talk with Hints and Innuendos, but openly and honestly G38 0740 to profess our Sentiments before our Enemies have compleated and put G38 0750 their Designs in Execution against us". Steele apparently G38 0760 professed his sentiments in this book too openly and honestly for his G38 0770 own good, since the government was soon to use it as evidence against G38 0780 him in his trial before the House. In the final issues of the G38 0790 which ended just as the new session of Parliament began, G38 0800 he provided his enemies with still more ammunition. For example, No& G38 0810 56 printed the patent giving the Electoral Prince the title of Duke G38 0820 of Cambridge. In a few months the Duke was to be the center of G38 0830 a controversy of some significance on the touchy question of the Protestant G38 0840 Succession. At the order of the Dowager Electress, the Hanoverian G38 0850 agents, supported by the Whig leaders, demanded that a writ G38 0860 of summons be issued which would call the Duke to England to sit in G38 0870 Parliament, thus further insuring the Succession by establishing a Hanoverian G38 0880 Prince in England before the Queen's death. Anne was G38 0890 furious, and Bolingbroke advised that the request be refused. Oxford, G38 0900 realizing that the law required the issuance of the writ, took the opposite G38 0910 view, for which the Queen never forgave him. Accordingly the G38 0920 request was granted, but the Elector himself, who had not been consulted G38 0930 by his mother, rejected the proposal and recalled his agent Schu^tz, G38 0940 whose impolitic handling of the affair had caused the Hanoverian G38 0950 interest to suffer and had made Oxford's dismissal more likely G38 0960 than ever. Steele in this paper is indicating his sympathy for such a G38 0970 plan. A few days after this appeared, Defoe reported G38 0980 to Oxford that Steele was expected to move in Parliament that the G38 0990 Duke be called over; Defoe then commented, "If they Could Draw G38 1000 that young Gentleman into Their Measures They would show themselves G38 1010 quickly, for they are not asham'd to Say They want Onely a head G38 1020 to Make a beginning". The final issue of the G38 1030 No& 57 for February 15, ran to some length and was printed G38 1040 as a separate pamphlet, entitled . Steele's purpose is to present a general G38 1060 defense of his political writing and a resume of the themes which G38 1070 had occupied him in the but there is much here also G38 1080 which bears directly on his personal quarrel with Swift. Thus he complains, G38 1090 with considerable justice, that the Tory writers have resorted G38 1100 to libel instead of answering his arguments. His birth, education, G38 1110 and fortune, he says, have all been ridiculed simply because he has G38 1120 spoken with the freedom of an Englishman, and he assures the reader that G38 1130 "whoever talks with me, is speaking to a Gentleman born". As G38 1140 notable examples of this abuse, he quotes passages from the G38 1150 "that Destroyer of all things", and which he here attributes to Swift. Though put in rather G38 1170 maudlin terms, Steele's defense of himself has a reasonable basis. G38 1180 His point is simply that the Tories have showered him with personal G38 1190 satire, despite the fact that as a private subject he has a right G38 1200 to speak on political matters without affronting the prerogative of G38 1210 the Sovereign. He claims, too, that his political convictions are simply G38 1220 those which are called "Revolution Principles" and which are G38 1230 accepted by moderate men in both parties. The final section G38 1240 of this pamphlet is of special interest in a consideration of Steele's G38 1250 relations with Swift. It purports to be a letter from Steele to G38 1260 a friend at court, who, in Miss Blanchard's opinion, could only be G38 1270 meant as Swift. Steele first answers briefly the charges which his G38 1280 "dear old Friend" has made about his pamphlet on Dunkirk and G38 1290 his G38 1300 . Then he launches into an attack on the Tory ministers, G38 1310 whom he calls the "New Converts"; by this term he means to ridicule G38 1320 their professions of acting in the interest of the Church despite G38 1330 their own education and manner of life- a gibe, in other words, G38 1340 at the "Presbyterianism" in Harley's family and at Bolingbroke's G38 1350 reputed impiety. The Tory leaders, he insinuates, are cynically G38 1360 using the Church as a political "By-word" to increase party friction G38 1370 and keep themselves in power. This is the principal point made G38 1380 in this final section of No& 57, and it caps Steele's G38 1390 efforts in his other writing of these months to counteract the G38 1400 notion of the Tories as a "Church Party" supported by the body G38 1410 of the clergy. Next, Steele turns his attention to the "Courtier" G38 1420 he is addressing. He explains that there are sometimes honorable G38 1430 courtiers, but that too often a man who succeeds at court does not G38 1440 hesitate to sacrifice his Sovereign and nation to his own avarice G38 1450 and ambition. Such, he implies, is the case with his friend, who is not G38 1460 really a new convert himself but merely a favorer of new converts. G38 1470 If "Jack the Courtier" is really to be taken as Swift, the following G38 1480 remark is obviously Steele's comment on Swift's change of G38 1490 parties and its effect on their friendship: "I assure you, dear G38 1500 when I first found out such an Allay in you, as makes you G38 1510 of so malleable a Constitution, that you may be worked into any Form G38 1520 an Artificer pleases, I foresaw I should not enjoy your Favour much G38 1530 longer". He closes his "letter" by demanding that Dunkirk G38 1540 be demolished, that the Pretender be forced to move farther away from G38 1550 the coast of England, and that the Queen and the House of Hanover G38 1560 come to a better understanding. The last point was soon to be included G38 1570 in the "seditious" remarks used against him in Parliament. G38 1580 The during Steele's trial a month later, printed G38 1590 an answer from the "courtier" addressed to "R& S&" at G38 1600 Button's coffee-house. He reviews Steele's entrance into politics G38 1610 and finds that his present difficulties are due to his habit of attributing G38 1620 to his own abilities and talents achievements which more properly G38 1630 should be credited to the indulgence of his friends. Once more, G38 1640 in other words, Steele is said to be indebted to Swift for his "wit"; G38 1650 this was the form in which their private feud most often appeared G38 1660 in the Tory press, especially the . In it may be noted, Swift himself contemptuously G38 1680 dismissed Steele's reference to his friend at court: "I G38 1690 suppose by the Style of and the like, it must be some G38 1700 Body of his own Level; among whom, his Party have indeed G38 1710 more than I could wish". On February 16, G38 1720 Steele took his seat in Parliament. By now he was undergoing a fresh G38 1730 torrent of abuse from Tory papers and pamphlets, and action was being G38 1740 taken to effect his punishment by expulsion from Parliament. On the G38 1750 very day that the parliamentary session began, another "Infamous G38 1760 Libel" appeared, entitled . It is G38 1780 filled with the usual personal abuse of Steele, especially of his physical G38 1790 appearance; in the opening paragraph, too, Steele is accused G38 1800 of extreme egotism, of giving "himself the preference to all the learned, G38 1810 his contemporaries, from Dr& Sw-ft himself, even down to G38 1820 Poet Cr-spe of the Customhouse". G39 0010 When Harold Arlen returned to California in the winter of 1944, it G39 0020 was to take up again a collaboration with Johnny Mercer, begun some G39 0030 years before. The film they did after his return was an inconsequential G39 0040 bit of nothing titled a satire on the Sinatra G39 0050 bobby-soxer craze. The twist lay in using Bing Crosby's voice G39 0060 on the sound track while leading man Eddie Bracken mouthed the G39 0070 words. If nothing else, at least two good songs came out of the project, G39 0080 "Out of This World" and "June Comes Around Every Year". G39 0090 Though they would produce some very memorable and lasting G39 0100 songs, Arlen and Mercer were not given strong material to work on. G39 0110 Their first collaboration came close. Early in 1941 they were assigned G39 0120 to a script titled . It purported to be a reasonably G39 0130 serious attempt at a treatment of jazz musicians, their aims, their G39 0140 problems- the tug-of-war between the "pure" and the "commercial"- G39 0150 and seemed a promising vehicle, for the two men shared a G39 0160 common interest in jazz. Johnny Mercer practically grew up with G39 0170 the sound of jazz and the blues in his ears. He was born in Savannah, G39 0180 Georgia, in 1909. His father, George A& Mercer, was descended G39 0190 from an honored Southern family that could trace its ancestry back G39 0200 to one Hugh Mercer, who had emigrated from Scotland in 1747. G39 0210 The lyricist's father was a lawyer who had branched out into G39 0220 real estate. His second wife, Lillian, was the mother of John H& G39 0230 Mercer. By the age of six young Johnny indicated that he had the G39 0240 call. One day he followed the Irish Jasper Greens, the town band, G39 0250 to a picnic and spent the entire day listening, while his family spent G39 0260 the day looking. The disappearance caused his family to assign a full-time G39 0270 maid to keeping an eye on the boy. But one afternoon Mrs& G39 0280 Mercer met her; both were obviously on the way to the Mercer home. G39 0290 The mother inquired, "Where's Johnny, and why did you leave him"? G39 0300 "There was nothing else I could do", the maid answered, G39 0310 satisfied with a rather vague explanation. But Mrs& Mercer demanded G39 0320 more. The maid then told her, "Because he fired me". With G39 0330 her son evidencing so strong a musical bent his mother could do little G39 0340 else but get him started on the study of music- though she waited G39 0350 until he was ten- beginning with the piano and following that with G39 0360 the trumpet. Young Mercer showed a remarkable lack of aptitude for G39 0370 both instruments. Still, he did like music making and even sang in G39 0380 the chapel choir of the Woodberry Forest School, near Orange, Virginia, G39 0390 where he sounded fine but did not matriculate too well. G39 0400 When he was fifteen John H& Mercer turned out his first song, a G39 0410 jazzy little thing he called "Sister Susie, Strut Your G39 0420 Stuff". G39 0430 If his scholarship and formal musicianship were not all they might have G39 0440 been, Mercer demonstrated at an early age that he was gifted with G39 0450 a remarkable ear for rhythm and dialect. From his playmates in Savannah, G39 0460 Mercer had picked up, along with a soft Southern dialect, traces G39 0470 also of the Gullah dialects of Africa. Such speech differences G39 0480 made him acutely aware of the richness and expressivness of language. G39 0490 During the summers, while he was still in school, Mercer worked G39 0500 for his father's firm as a messenger boy. It generally took well G39 0510 into the autumn for the firm to recover from the summer's help. "We'd G39 0520 give him things to deliver, letters, checks, deeds and things G39 0530 like that", remembers his half-brother Walter, still in the real estate G39 0540 business in Savannah, "and learn days later that he'd absent-mindedly G39 0550 stuffed them into his pocket. There they stayed". G39 0560 This rather detached attitude toward life's encumbrances has seemed G39 0570 to be the dominant trait in Mercer's personality ever since. It G39 0580 is, however, a disarming disguise, or perhaps a shield, for not only has G39 0590 Mercer proved himself to be one of the few great lyricists over the G39 0600 years, but also one who can function remarkably under pressure. He G39 0610 has also enjoyed a successful career as an entertainer (his records have G39 0620 sold in the millions) and is a sharp businessman. He has also G39 0630 an extraordinary conscience. In 1927 his father's business collapsed, G39 0640 and, rather than go bankrupt, Mercer senior turned his firm over G39 0650 to a bank for liquidation. He died before he could completely pay off G39 0660 his debts. Some years later the bank handling the Mercer liquidation G39 0670 received a check for $300,000, enough to clear up the debt. The check G39 0680 had been mailed from Chicago, the envelope bore no return address, G39 0690 and the check was not signed. "That's Johnny", sighed G39 0700 the bank president, "the best-hearted boy in the world, but absent-minded". G39 0710 But Mercer's explanation was simple: "I made out G39 0720 the check and carried it around a few days unsigned- in case I lost G39 0730 it". When he remembered that he might have not signed the check, G39 0740 Mercer made out another for the same amount, instructing the bank to G39 0750 destroy the other- especially if he had happened to have absent-mindedly G39 0760 signed both of them. When the family business failed, Mercer G39 0770 left school and on his mother's urging- for she hoped that he G39 0780 would become an actor- he joined a local little theater group. When G39 0790 the troupe traveled to New York to participate in a one-act-play competition- G39 0800 and won- Mercer, instead of returning with the rest of G39 0810 the company in triumph, remained in New York. He had talked one other G39 0820 member of the group to stay with him, but that friend had tired of G39 0830 not eating regularly and returned to Savannah. But Mercer hung on, G39 0840 living, after a fashion, in a Greenwich Village fourth-flight walk-up. G39 0850 "The place had no sink or washbasin, only a bathtub", his mother G39 0860 discovered when she visited him. "Johnny insisted on cooking a G39 0870 chicken dinner in my honor- he's always been a good cook- and I'll G39 0880 never forget him cleaning the chicken in the tub". A story, G39 0890 no doubt apocryphal, for Mercer himself denies it, has him sporting G39 0900 a monacle in those Village days. Though merely clear glass, it G39 0910 was a distinctive trade mark for an aspiring actor who hoped to imprint G39 0920 himself upon the memories of producers. One day in a bar, so the legend G39 0930 goes, someone put a beer stein with too much force on the monacle G39 0940 and broke it. The innocent malfeasant, filled with that supreme sense G39 0950 of honor found in bars, insisted upon replacing the destroyed monacle- G39 0960 and did, over the protests of the former owner- with a square monacle. G39 0970 Mercer is supposed to have refused it with, "Anyone who wears G39 0980 a square monacle must be affected"! Everett Miller, then G39 0990 assistant director for the , a Theatre Guild G39 1000 production, needed a lyricist for a song he had written; he just G39 1010 happened not to need any actor at the moment, however. For him Mercer G39 1020 produced the lyric to "Out of Breath Scared to Death of You", G39 1030 introduced in that most successful of all the , by Sterling G39 1040 Holloway. This 1930 edition also had songs in it by Vernon Duke G39 1050 and Ira Gershwin, by E& Y& Harburg and Duke, and by Harry G39 1060 Myers. Entrance into such stellar song writing company encouraged G39 1070 the burgeoning song writer to take a wife, Elizabeth Meehan, a dancer G39 1080 in the . The Mercers took up residence in Brooklyn, G39 1090 and Mercer found a regular job in Wall Street "misplacing stocks G39 1100 and bonds". When he heard that Paul Whiteman was looking G39 1110 for singers to replace the Rhythm Boys, Mercer applied and got the G39 1120 job, "not for my voice, I'm sure, but because I could write songs G39 1130 and material generally". While with the Whiteman band Mercer met G39 1140 Jerry Arlen. He had yet to meet Harold Arlen, for although they G39 1150 had "collaborated" on "Satan's Li'l Lamb", Mercer and G39 1160 Harburg had worked from a lead sheet the composer had furnished them. G39 1170 The lyric, Mercer remembers, was tailored to fit the unusual melody. G39 1180 Mercer's Whiteman association brought him into contact G39 1190 with G39 1200 Hoagy Carmichael, whose "Snowball" Mercer relyriced as "Lazybones", G39 1210 in which form it became a hit and marked the real beginning G39 1220 of Mercer's song-writing career. After leaving Whiteman, Mercer G39 1230 joined the Benny Goodman band as a vocalist. With the help of Ziggy G39 1240 Elman, also in the band, he transformed a traditional Jewish melody G39 1250 into a popular song, "And the Angels Sing". The countrywide G39 1260 success of "Lazybones" and "And the Angels Sing" could only G39 1270 lead to Hollywood, where, besides Harold Arlen, Mercer collaborated G39 1280 with Harry Warren, Jimmy Van Heusen, Richard Whiting, Walter G39 1290 Donaldson, Jerome Kern, and Arthur Schwartz. Mercer has also G39 1300 written both music and lyrics for several songs. He may be the only G39 1310 song writer ever to have collaborated with a secretary of the U& S& G39 1320 Treasury; he collaborated on a song with William Hartman Woodin, G39 1330 who was Secretary of the Treasury, 1932-33. When Johnny G39 1340 Mercer and Harold Arlen began their collaboration in 1940, Mercer, G39 1350 like Arlen, had several substantial film songs to his credit, among G39 1360 them "Hooray for Hollywood", "Ride, Tenderfoot, Ride", G39 1370 "Have You Got Any Castles, Baby?", and "Too Marvelous G39 1380 for Words" (all with Richard Whiting); with Harry Warren he G39 1390 did "The Girl Friend of the Whirling Dervish", "Jeepers Creepers", G39 1400 and "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby". Mercer's G39 1410 lyrics are characterized by an unerring ear for rhythmic nuances, G39 1420 a puckish sense of humor expressed in language with a colloquial flair. G39 1430 Though versatile and capable of turning out a ballad lyric with G39 1440 the best of them, Mercer's forte is a highly polished quasi-folk wit. G39 1450 His casual, dreamlike working methods, often as not , G39 1460 were an abrupt change from Harburg's, so that Arlen had G39 1470 to adjust again to another approach to collaboration. There were times G39 1480 that he worked with both lyricists simultaneously. Speaking G39 1490 of his work with Johnny Mercer, Arlen says, "Our working habits G39 1500 were strange. After we got a script and the spots for the songs were G39 1510 blocked out, we'd get together for an hour or so every day. While Johnny G39 1520 made himself comfortable on the couch, I'd play the tunes for G39 1530 him. He has a wonderfully retentive memory. After I would finish G39 1540 playing the songs, he'd just go away without a comment. I wouldn't G39 1550 hear from him for a couple of weeks, then he'd come around with the G39 1560 completed lyric". Arlen is one of the few (possibly the only) G39 1570 composer Mercer has been able to work with so closely, for they held G39 1580 their meetings in Arlen's study. "Some guys bothered me", G39 1590 Mercer has said. "I couldn't write with them in the same room with G39 1600 me, but I could with Harold. He is probably our most original composer; G39 1610 he often uses very odd rhythms, which makes it difficult, and G39 1620 challenging, for the lyric writer". While Arlen and Mercer G39 1630 collaborated on , Mercer worked also with Arthur G39 1640 Schwartz on another film, . Arlen, too, worked on G39 1650 other projects at the same time with old friend Ted Koehler. Besides G39 1660 doing a single song, "When the Sun Comes Out", they worked on G39 1670 the ambitious , for voices and piano, as well G39 1680 as songs for films. The is in a sense G39 1690 an extension of the Cotton Club songs in that it is a collection G39 1700 of Negro songs, not for a night club, but for the concert stage. The G39 1710 work had its beginning in 1938 with an eight-bar musical strain to which G39 1720 Koehler set the words "There'll be no more work/ There'll G39 1725 be no G39 1730 more worry", matching the spiritual feeling of the jot. This grew G39 1740 into the song "Big Time Comin'". By September 1940 the suite G39 1750 had developed into a collection of six songs, "four spirituals, a G39 1760 dream, and a lullaby". The Negro composer Hall Johnson studied G39 1770 the and said of it, "Of all the many G39 1780 songs written by white composers and employing what claims to be a Negroid G39 1790 idiom in both words and music, these six songs by Harold Arlen G39 1800 and Ted Koehler easily stand far out above the rest. Thoroughly G39 1810 modern in treatment, they are at the same time, full of simple sincerity G39 1820 which invariably characterizes genuine Negro folk-music and are by G39 1830 no means to be confused with the average 'Broadway Spirituals' G39 1840 which depend for their racial flavor upon sundry allusions to the 'Amen G39 1850 Corner', 'judgement day', 'Gabriel's horn', and a G39 1860 frustrated devil- with a few random 'Hallelujahs' thrown in for G39 1870 good measure. G40 0010 I feel obliged to describe this cubbyhole. It had a single porcelain G40 0020 stall and but one cabinet for the chairing of the bards. It was G40 0030 here that the terror-stricken Dennis Moon played an unrehearsed role G40 0040 during the children's party. A much larger room, adjacent to the G40 0050 lavatory, served as a passageway to and from the skimpy toilet. That G40 0060 unused room was large enough for- well, say an elephant could get G40 0070 into it **h and, as a matter of fact, an elephant **h Something G40 0080 occurred on the morning of the children's party which may G40 0090 illustrate the kind of trouble our restricted toilet facilities caused G40 0100 us. It so happened that sports writer Arthur Robinson got out of the G40 0110 hospital that morning after promising his doctor that he would be back G40 0115 in G40 0120 an hour or two to continue his convalescence. Arthur Robinson traveled G40 0130 with the baseball clubs as staff correspondent for the . G40 0140 He was ghost writer for Babe Ruth, whose main talent for literary G40 0150 composition was the signing of his autograph. Robbie was a war veteran G40 0160 with battle-shattered knees. He arrived on crutches at the G40 0170 Newspaper Club with one of his great pals, Oliver Herford, artist, G40 0180 author, and foe of stupidity. Mr& Herford's appearance was that G40 0190 of a frustrated gnome. He seemed timid (), wore nose glasses G40 0200 from which a black ribbon dangled, and was no bigger than a jockey. G40 0210 Robinson asked Herford to escort him to the club's lavatory before G40 0220 they sat down for a highball and a game of cards. In the jakes, G40 0230 after Robbie and his crutches were properly stowed, Mr& Herford G40 0240 went to the adjoining facility. He had barely assumed his stance there G40 0250 when a fat fellow charged through the doorway. Without any regard for G40 0260 rest-room protocol, the hulking stranger almost knocked Herford off G40 0270 his pins. The artist-author said nothing, but stood to one side. He G40 0280 waited a long time. Nothing was said, nothing accomplished. The unrelieved G40 0290 stranger eventually turned away from the place of his- shall G40 0300 we dare say his Waterloo?- to go to the door. Mr& Herford G40 0310 touched the fat man's arm. "Pardon me, sir. May I say that G40 0320 you have just demonstrated the truth of an old proverb- the younger G40 0330 Pliny's, if memory serves me- which, translated freely from the G40 0340 archaic Latin, says, 'The more haste, the less peed'". G40 0350 Governor Alfred E& Smith was the official host at the children's G40 0360 party. United States Senator Royal S& Copeland was wearing G40 0370 the robes of Santa Claus and a great white beard; the Honorable G40 0380 Robert Wagner, Sr&, at that time a justice of the New York Supreme G40 0390 Court, was on the reception committee. I was in charge of the G40 0400 arrangements- which were soon enough disarranged. I had had G40 0410 difficulties from the very first day. When, in my enthusiasm, I proposed G40 0420 the party, my city editor (who disliked the club and many of its G40 0430 members) tried to block my participation in the gala event. Even earlier G40 0440 than that he had resented the fact that I had been chosen to edit G40 0450 the club's . City editor Victor Watson of the G40 0460 New York was a man of brooding suspicions and mysterious G40 0470 shifts of mood. Mr& Hearst's telegraphic code word for Victor G40 0480 Watson was "fatboy". The staff saw in him the qualities of a G40 0490 Don Cossack, hence, as mentioned before, his nickname "the Hetman". G40 0500 The Hetman's physical aspects were not those of a savage G40 0510 rider of the steppes. Indeed, he looked more like a well-fleshed G40 0520 lay brother of the Hospice of St& Bernard. Nor were his manners G40 0530 barbaric. He had a purring voice and poker player's immobility of features G40 0540 which somehow conveyed the feeling that he knew where all the G40 0550 bodies were buried. He was the son of a Scottish father and an American G40 0560 Jewish mother, long widowed, with whom he lived in a comfortable G40 0570 home in Flushing. He had worked in the newspaper business since he G40 0580 was nineteen years old, always for the Hearst service. From the very G40 0590 first he regarded himself as Mr& Hearst's disciple, defender, and G40 0600 afterward his prime minister, self-ordained. It was said that G40 0610 the Hetman plotted to take over the entire Hearst newspaper empire G40 0620 one day by means of various coups: the destruction of editors who G40 0630 tried to halt his course, the unfrocking of publishers whose mistakes G40 0640 of judgment might be magnified in secret reports to Mr& Hearst. Whatever G40 0650 the Hetman's ambitions, his colleagues were kept ill at ease. G40 0660 Among the outstanding members of the Hearst cabinet whom he successfully G40 0670 opposed for a time were the great Arthur Brisbane, Bradford G40 0680 Merrill, S&S& Carvalho, and Colonel Van Hamm. He also disliked G40 0690 Runyon, for no good reason other than the fact that the Demon's G40 0700 talent was so marked as to put him well beyond the Hetman's say-so G40 0710 or his supervision. Runyon, for his part, had a contemptuous G40 0720 regard for Mr& Watson. "He's a wrong-o", said Runyon, G40 0730 "and I wouldn't trust him as far as I could throw the Statue of G40 0740 Liberty". Arthur "Bugs" Baer wrote to me just recently, G40 0750 "Vic wanted to die in harness, with his head towards the wagon. G40 0760 He supported his mother and his brother, who afterwards committed G40 0770 suicide. Watson told me that his brother always sent roses to his mother, G40 0780 blossoms bought with Vic's allowance to him. 'And would you G40 0790 believe it', Vic added, 'she likes him better than she does me. G40 0800 Why'"? About the only time the Hetman seemed excited G40 0805 was G40 0810 when one of his own pet ideas was born. Then he would get to his feet, G40 0820 as though rising in honor of his own remarkable powers, and say almost G40 0830 invariably, "Gentlemen, this is an amazing story! It's bigger G40 0840 than the Armistice". Some of the Hetman's "ideas" G40 0850 were dream-ridden, vaguely imparted, and at times preposterous. One G40 0860 day he assigned me to lay bare a "plot" by the Duponts to supply G40 0870 munitions to a wholly fictitious revolution he said was about to occur G40 0880 in Cuba. He said that his information was so secret that he would G40 0890 not be able to confide in me the origin of his pipeline tip. "I G40 0900 can tell you this much", he said. It's bigger than the Armistice". G40 0910 I worked for a day on this plainly ridiculous assignment G40 0920 and consulted several of my own well-informed sources. Then I spent G40 0930 the next two days at the baseball park and at Jack Doyle's pool G40 0940 parlors. When I returned to make my report, the Hetman did not remember G40 0950 having sent me on the secret mission. He was busy, he said, in G40 0960 having someone submit to a monkey-gland operation. And I was to go G40 0970 to work on that odd matter. I shall tell of it later on. The G40 0980 Hetman had a strong liking for a story, any story which was to be had G40 0990 by means of much sleuthing or by roundabout methods. Most of my stories G40 1000 were obtained by simply seeking out the person who could give me G40 1010 the facts, and not as a rule by playing clever tricks. One day G40 1020 I tired of following the Hetman's advice of "shadowing" and G40 1030 of the "ring-around-the-rosie" approach to a report that Enrico Caruso G40 1040 had pinched a lady's hip while visiting the Central Park monkey G40 1050 house. I explained my state of mind to artist Winsor McCay and G40 1060 to "Bugs" Baer. Mr& Baer obtained a supply of crepe hair and G40 1070 spirit-gum from an actor at the Friars. We fashioned beards, put G40 1080 them on, and reported to the Hetman at the city desk. Mr& G40 1090 Baer had an auburn beard, like Longfellow's. Mr& McCay had on G40 1100 a sort of Emperor Maximilian beard and mustache. As for myself, I G40 1110 had on an enormous black "muff". This, together with a derby hat G40 1120 and horn-rim eyeglasses, gave me the appearance of a Russian nihilist. G40 1130 "We are ready for your next mysterious assignment", said G40 1140 Mr& Baer to the Hetman. "Where to, sir"? Mr& Watson G40 1150 did not have much humor in his make-up, but he managed a mirthless G40 1160 smile. Just then a reporter telephoned in from the Bronx to give G40 1170 the rewrite desk an account of a murder. The Hetman told me to take G40 1180 the story over the phone and to write it. While I was sitting at one G40 1190 of the rewrite telephones with my derby and my great beard, Arthur G40 1200 Brisbane whizzed in with some editorial copy in his hand. He paused G40 1210 for a moment to look at me, then went on to the city desk to deliver G40 1220 his "Today" column. I thought it expedient to take off my G40 1230 derby, my glasses, and the beard; and also to change telephones. I G40 1240 managed to do this by the time the great A&B& returned to the place G40 1250 where he last had seen the fierce nihilist. He stood there staring G40 1260 with disbelief at the vacant desk. Then he wrinkled his huge brow G40 1270 and went slowly out of the room. He had a somewhat goggle-eyed expression. G40 1280 He had been "seeing things". The Hetman's G40 1285 "ideas" G40 1290 for news stories or editorial campaigns were by no means always fruitless G40 1300 or lacking in merit. He campaigned successfully for the riddance G40 1310 of "Death Avenue" and also brought about the ending of pollution G40 1320 of metropolitan beaches by sewage. He exposed the bucket-shop racket G40 1330 with the able assistance of two excellent reporters, Nat Ferber G40 1340 and Carl Helm. In the conduct of these and many other campaigns, the G40 1350 Hetman proved to be a much abler journalist than his critics allowed. G40 1360 It seems to me now, in a long backward glance, that many of G40 1370 the Hetman's conceits and odd actions- together with his grim posture G40 1380 when brandishing the hatchet in the name of Mr& Hearst- were G40 1390 keyed with the tragedy which was to close over him one day. Alone, G40 1400 rejected on every hand, divorced, and in financial trouble, he leaped G40 1410 from an eleventh-floor window of the Abbey Hotel in 1937. One G40 1420 finds it difficult to pass censure on the lonely figure who waited G40 1430 for days for a saving word from his zealously served idol, W&R& G40 1440 Hearst. That word was withheld when the need of it seemed the measure G40 1450 of his despair. The unfinished note, written in pencil upon the back G40 1460 of a used envelope, and addressed to the coroner, makes one wonder G40 1470 about many things: "God forgive me for everything. G40 1480 **h" Much to Damon Runyon's amazement, as well as my own, G40 1490 I got along splendidly with the Hetman; that is, until I became G40 1500 an editor, hence, in his eyes, a rival. Not long after Colonel Van G40 1510 Hamm had foisted me on the Watson staff I received a salary raise G40 1520 and a contract on the Hetman's recommendation. During the next years G40 1530 he gave me the second of the five contracts I would sign with the G40 1540 Hearst Service. It was a somewhat unusual thing for a reporter to G40 1550 have a contract in those days before the epidemic of syndicated columnists. G40 1560 I would like to believe that my ability warranted this advancement. G40 1570 Somehow I think that Watson paid more attention to me than he G40 1580 otherwise might have because his foe, Colonel Van Hamm, wouldn't G40 1590 touch me with a ten-foot blue pencil. I remember one day when G40 1600 Mr& Hearst (and I never knew why liked me, either) sent the G40 1610 Hetman a telegram: "Please find some more reporters like that G40 1620 young man from Denver". Watson showed this wire to Colonel Van Hamm. G40 1630 The colonel grunted, then made a remark which might be construed G40 1640 in either of two ways. "Don't bother to look any further. We already G40 1650 the only one of its kind". The Hetman did have G40 1660 friends, but they were mostly outside the newspaper profession. Sergeant G40 1670 Mike Donaldson, Congressional Medal of Honor soldier, was G40 1680 one of them. Dr& Menas S& Gregory was another. I used to go G40 1690 with Watson to call on the eminent neurologist at his apartment, to sit G40 1700 among the doctor's excellent collection of statues, paintings, and G40 1710 books and drink Oriental coffee while Watson seemed to thaw out and G40 1720 become almost affable. There was one time, however, when his G40 1730 face clouded and he suddenly blurted, "Why did my brother commit G40 1740 suicide"? I cannot remember Dr& Gregory's reply, if, G40 1750 indeed, he made one. G41 0010 If she were not at home, Mama would see to it that a fresh white rose G41 0020 was there. Sometimes, Mrs& Coolidge would close herself in the G41 0030 Green Suite on the second floor, and play the piano she had brought G41 0040 to the White House. Mama knew she was playing her son's favorite G41 0050 pieces and feeling close to him, and did not disturb her. All G41 0060 the rest of the days in the White House would be shadowed by the tragic G41 0070 loss, even though the President tried harder than ever to make his G41 0080 little dry jokes and to tease the people around him. A little G41 0090 boy came to give the President his personal condolences, and the President G41 0100 gave word that any little boy who wanted to see him was to be G41 0110 shown in. Backstairs, the maids cried a little over that, and the standing G41 0120 invitation was not mentioned to Mrs& Coolidge. The G41 0130 President was even more generous with the First Lady than he had been G41 0140 before the tragedy. He would bring her boxes of candy and other presents G41 0150 to coax a smile to her lips. He brought her shawls. Dresses G41 0160 were short in the days of Mrs& Coolidge, and Spanish shawls G41 0170 were thrown over them. He got her dozens of them. One shawl was so G41 0180 tremendous that she could not wear it, so she draped it over the banister G41 0190 on the second floor, and it hung over the stairway. The President G41 0200 used to look at it with a ghost of a smile. Mrs& Coolidge G41 0210 spent more time in her bedroom among her doll collection. She kept G41 0220 the dolls on the Lincoln bed. At night, when Mama would turn back the G41 0230 covers, she would have to take all the dolls off the bed and place G41 0240 them elsewhere for the night. Mama always felt that the collection symbolized G41 0250 Mrs& Coolidge's wish for a little girl. Among the G41 0260 dolls was one that meant very much to the First Lady, who would pick G41 0270 it up and look at it often. It had a tiny envelope tied to its wrist. G41 0280 An accompanying sympathetic letter explained that inside the envelope G41 0290 was a name for Mrs& Coolidge's first granddaughter. Mama G41 0300 knew this doll was meant to help Mrs& Coolidge overcome her grief G41 0310 by turning her eyes to the future. The name inside the envelope was "Cynthia". G41 0320 The Coolidges' life, after the death of their G41 0330 son, was quieter than ever. John was away at school most of the time. G41 0340 Mrs& Coolidge would knit, and the President would sit reading, G41 0350 or playing with the many pets around them. Now and then, the G41 0360 President would call for "Little Jack, Master of the Hounds", G41 0370 which was his nickname for a messenger who had worked in the White House G41 0380 since Teddy Roosevelt's administration, and discuss the welfare G41 0390 of some one of the animals. It was part of Little Jack's work G41 0400 to look after the dogs. One White House dog was immortalized G41 0410 in a painting. That was Rob Roy, who posed with Mrs& Coolidge G41 0420 for the portrait by Howard Chandler Christy. To get him to pose, G41 0430 Mrs& Coolidge would feed him candy, so he enjoyed the portrait sessions G41 0440 as well as she did. I would like to straighten out a misconception G41 0450 about the dress Mrs& Coolidge is wearing in this painting. G41 0460 It is not the same dress as the one on her manikin in the Smithsonian. G41 0470 People think the dress in the picture was lengthened by an artist G41 0480 much later on. This is not true. The dress in the painting is a G41 0490 bright red, with rhinestones forming a spray on the right side. There G41 0500 is a long train flowing from the shoulders. Mrs& Coolidge G41 0510 gave Mama this dress for me, and I wore it many times. I still have G41 0520 the dress, and I hope to give it to the Smithsonian Institution G41 0530 as a memento, or, as I more fondly hope, to present it to a museum containing G41 0540 articles showing the daily lives of the Presidents- if I G41 0550 can get it organized. But to get back to the Coolidge household, G41 0560 Mrs& Coolidge so obviously loved dogs, that the public sent her G41 0570 more dogs- Calamity Jane, Timmy, and Blackberry. The last two G41 0580 were a red and a black chow. Rob Roy remained boss of all the dogs. G41 0590 He showed them what to do, and taught them how to keep the maids around G41 0600 the White House in a state of terror. The dogs would run G41 0610 through the halls after him like a burst of bullets, and all the maids G41 0620 would run for cover. Mama didn't know what to do- whether to tell G41 0630 on Rob Roy or not- since she had the ear of Mrs& Coolidge G41 0640 more than the other maids. But she was afraid the First Lady would G41 0650 not understand, because Rob Roy was a perfect angel with the First G41 0660 Family. Every day, when the President took his nap, Rob Roy G41 0670 would stretch out on the window seat near him, like a perfect gentleman, G41 0680 and stare thoughtfully out the window, or he would take a little G41 0690 nap himself. He would not make a sound until the President had wakened G41 0700 and left for the office; then he would bark to let everyone know G41 0710 the coast was clear. His signal was for the other dogs to come running, G41 0720 but it was also the signal for Mama and the other maids to watch G41 0730 out. Rob Roy was self-appointed to accompany the President to G41 0740 his office every morning. Rob Roy was well aware of the importance G41 0750 of this mission, and he would walk in front of the President, looking G41 0760 neither to the right nor to the left. At dinner, lunch, or breakfast, G41 0770 the President would call out, "Supper"!- he called G41 0780 all meals supper- after the butler had announced the meal. All the G41 0790 dogs would dash to get on the elevator with the President and go to G41 0800 the dining room. They would all lie around on the rug during the meal, G41 0810 a very pretty sight as Rob Roy, Prudence, and Calamity Jane were G41 0820 all snow-white. When Prudence and Blackberry were too young G41 0830 to be trusted in the dining room, they were tied to the radiator with G41 0840 their leashes, and they would cry. Mama tried to talk to them and keep G41 0850 them quiet while she tidied up the sitting room before the First G41 0860 Family returned. Finally, Mama did mention to Mrs& Coolidge G41 0870 that she felt sorry for the little dogs, and then Mrs& Coolidge G41 0880 decided to leave the radio on for them while she was gone, even though G41 0890 her husband disapproved of the waste of electricity. Mama was G41 0900 now the first maid to Mrs& Coolidge, because Catherine, the previous G41 0910 first maid, had become ill and died. Mrs& Coolidge chose Mama G41 0920 in her place. It was a high mark for Mama. Every First G41 0930 Family seems to have one couple upon whom it relies for true friendship. G41 0940 For the Coolidges, it was Mr& and Mrs& Frank W& Stearns G41 0950 of Boston, Massachusetts, owners of a large department store. They G41 0960 seemed to be at the White House half the time. The butlers were G41 0970 amused because when the Stearns were there, the President would say G41 0980 grace at breakfast. If the Stearns were not there, grace would be omitted. G41 0990 Speaking of breakfast, the President inaugurated a new G41 1000 custom- that of conducting business at the breakfast table. The word G41 1010 was that this too was part of an economy move on his part. A new bill G41 1020 had been passed under Harding that designated the Government, rather G41 1030 than the President, as the tab-lifter for official meals. So the G41 1040 President would make a hearty breakfast official by inviting Government G41 1050 officials to attend. He caused a lot of talk when he also G41 1060 chose the breakfast hour to have the barber come in and trim his hair G41 1070 while he ate. Mama said that if Presidents were supposed to be colorful, G41 1080 Mr& Coolidge certainly made a good president. He knew exactly G41 1090 how to be colorful! The favorite guest of the house, as G41 1100 far as the staff was concerned, was Mr& Wrigley, the chewing gum king. G41 1110 The White House had chewing gum until it could chew no more, and G41 1120 every Christmas, Mr& Wrigley sent the President a check for $100, G41 1130 to be divided among all the help. You can imagine that he got pretty G41 1140 good service. Another good friend of the Coolidges' was G41 1150 George B& Harvey, who was the Ambassador to Great Britain from G41 1160 1921 to 1923. He had been a friend of the Hardings, and continued G41 1170 to be invited by the Coolidges. The first royalty whom Mama G41 1180 ever waited on in the White House was Queen Marie of Rumania, G41 1190 who came to a State dinner given in her honor on October 21, 1926. G41 1200 She was not an overnight guest in the White House, but Mr& Ike G41 1210 Hoover, the chief usher, had Mama check her fur coat when she came G41 1220 in, and take care of her needs. Mama said she was one of the prettiest G41 1230 ladies she had ever seen. Mama was very patriotic, and one of G41 1240 the duties she was proudest of was repairing the edges of the flag that G41 1250 flew above the White House. Actually, two flags were used at the G41 1260 mansion- a small one on rainy days, and a big one on bright days. G41 1270 The wool would become frazzled around the edges from blowing in the wind, G41 1280 and Mama would mend it. She would often go up on the roof to see G41 1290 the attendant take down the flag in the evening. She used to tell me, G41 1300 "When I stand there and look at the flag blowing this way and that G41 1310 way, I have the wonderful, safe feeling that Americans are protected G41 1320 no matter which way the wind blows". Even when Mrs& G41 1330 Coolidge was in mourning for her son, she reached out to help other people G41 1340 in trouble. One person she helped was my brother. Mama had told G41 1350 her how Emmett's lungs had been affected when he was gassed in the G41 1360 war. He was in and out of Mount Alto Hospital for veterans any number G41 1370 of times. Taking a personal interest, she had the doctor G41 1380 assigned to the White House, Dr& James Coupal, look Emmett over. G41 1390 As a result, he was sent to a hospital in Arizona until his health G41 1400 improved enough for him to come back to Washington to work in the G41 1410 Government service. But again, there was danger that his lungs would G41 1420 suffer in the muggy Washington weather, and he had to return to the G41 1430 dry climate of the West to live and work. When Mrs& Coolidge G41 1440 was in mourning, she did not wear black. She wore grey every day, G41 1450 and white every evening. Mama knew that she was out of mourning when G41 1460 she finally wore bright colors. The President helped her a lot by selecting G41 1470 some lovely colored dresses to get her started. She opened the G41 1480 boxes with a tear in her eye and a sad smile on her face. On G41 1490 the social side, the chore Mama had at the formal receptions at the G41 1500 White House thrilled her the most. It was her job to stand at the G41 1510 foot of the stairs, and, just as the First Lady stepped off the last G41 1520 tread, Mama would straighten out her long train before she marched to G41 1530 the Blue Room to greet her guests with the President. Mama would G41 1540 enjoy the sight of the famous guests as much as anyone, and would note G41 1560 a gown here and there to tell me about that night. One night, G41 1570 Mama came home practically in a state of shock. She had stood at the G41 1580 bottom of the stairs, as usual, when Mrs& Coolidge came down, in G41 1590 the same dress that is now in the Smithsonian, to greet her guests. G41 1600 Mama stooped down to fix the train, but there was no train there! She G41 1610 reached and reached around the dress, but there was nothing there. G41 1620 She looked up and saw that, without knowing it, Mrs& Coolidge was G41 1630 holding it aloft. Mrs& Coolidge looked down, saw Mama's horrified G41 1640 expression and quickly let the whole thing fall to the floor. Mama G41 1650 swirled the train in place, and not a step was lost. The Coolidges G41 1660 did not always live at the White House during the Presidency. G42 0010 Impressive as this enumeration is, it barely hints at the diverse G42 0020 perceptions of Jews, collectively or individually, that have been G42 0030 attested by their Gentile environment. It is reasonable to affirm G42 0040 two propositions: . G42 0060 In the arena of power Jews have at one time or another been somebody's G42 0070 ally; they have observed correct neutrality; they have been G42 0080 someone's enemy. In the market place Jews have in fact under various G42 0090 circumstances been valued customers and suppliers, or clannish monopolists G42 0100 and cutthroat competitors. And so on through the roles referred G42 0110 to in the previous paragraph. Diversity of perception, yes; diversity G42 0120 of fact, yes. But the two do not invariably or even G42 0130 typically coincide. The "conventional" image of a particular time G42 0140 and place is not necessarily congruent with the image of the facts as G42 0150 established over the years by scholarly and scientific research. Conventional G42 0160 images of Jews have this in common with all perceptions of G42 0170 a configuration in which one feature is held constant: images can be G42 0180 both true and false. The genuinely interesting question, then, G42 0190 becomes: What factors determine the degree of realism or distortion G42 0200 in conventional images of Jews? The working test of "the facts" G42 0210 must always be the best available description obtainable from scholars G42 0220 and scientists who have applied their methods of investigation G42 0230 to relevant situations. Granted, such "functional" images are subject G42 0240 to human error; they are self-correcting in the sense that they G42 0250 are subject to disciplined procedures that check and recheck against G42 0260 error. In accounting for realism or distortion two sets of factors G42 0270 can be usefully distinguished: current intelligence; predispositions G42 0280 regarding intelligence. General Grant may have been the victim G42 0290 of false information in the instance reported in this book; if so, G42 0300 he would not be the first or last commanding officer who has succumbed G42 0310 to bad information and dubious estimates of the future. But General G42 0320 Grant may have been self-victimized. He may have entered the situation G42 0330 with predispositions that prepared him to act uncritically in the G42 0340 press of affairs. Predispositions, in turn, fall conveniently G42 0360 into two categories for purposes of analysis. To some extent predispositions G42 0370 are shaped by exposure to group environments. In some measure G42 0380 they depend upon the structure of individual personality. The anti-Semitism G42 0390 of Hitler owed something to his exposure to the ideology of G42 0400 Lueger's politically successful Christian socialist movement in Vienna. G42 0410 But millions of human beings were exposed to Lueger's propaganda G42 0420 and record. After allowing for group exposures, it is apparent G42 0430 that other factors must be considered if we are to comprehend fanaticism. G42 0440 These are personality factors; they include harmonies and conflicts G42 0450 within the whole man, and mechanisms whereby inner components are G42 0460 more or less smoothly met. Modern psychiatric knowledge provides us G42 0470 with many keys to unlock the significance of behavior of the kind. G42 0480 The foregoing factors are pertinent to the analysis of perceptual G42 0490 images and the broad conditions under which they achieve realism or G42 0500 fall short of it. Undoubtedly one merit of the vast panorama of Gentile G42 0510 conceptions of the Jew unfolded in the present anthology is that G42 0520 it provides a formidable body of material that invites critical examination G42 0530 in terms of reality. Many selections are themselves convincing G42 0540 contributions to this appraisal. Undoubtedly, however, the significance G42 0550 of the volume is greater than the foregoing paragraphs suggest. G42 0560 Speaking as a non-Jew I believe that its primary contribution is G42 0570 in the realm of future policy. Since we can neither undo nor redo the G42 0580 past, we are limited to the events of today and tomorrow. In this G42 0590 domain the simple fact of coexistence in the same local, national, and G42 0600 world community is enough to guarantee that we cannot refrain from having G42 0610 some effect, large or small, upon Gentile-Jewish relations. What G42 0620 shall these effects be? I am deliberately raising the policy G42 0630 problems involved in Gentile-Jewish relations. Comprehensive examination G42 0640 of any policy question calls for the performance of the intellectual G42 0650 tasks inseparable from any problem-solving method. The tasks G42 0660 are briefly indicated by these questions: What are my goals in Gentile-Jewish G42 0670 relations? What are the historical trends in this country G42 0680 and abroad in the extent to which these goals are effectively realized? G42 0690 What factors condition the degree of realization at various G42 0700 times and places? What is the probable course of future developments? G42 0710 What policies if adopted and applied in various circumstances will G42 0720 increase the likelihood that future events will coincide with desired G42 0730 events and do so at least cost in terms of all human values? G42 0740 It is beyond the province of this epilogue to cover policy questions G42 0750 of such depth and range. The discussion is therefore limited to a G42 0760 suggested procedure for realizing at least some of the potential importance G42 0770 of this volume for future policy. As a groundwork for the proposal G42 0780 I give some attention to the first task enumerated above, the clarification G42 0790 of goal. My reply is that I associate myself with G42 0800 all those who affirm that Gentile-Jewish relations should contribute G42 0810 to the theory and practice of human dignity. The basic goal finds partial G42 0820 expression in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a statement G42 0830 initiated and endorsed by individuals and organizations of many G42 0840 religious and philosophical traditions. Within this frame of G42 0850 reference policies appropriate to claims advanced in the name of the G42 0860 Jews depend upon which Jewish identity is involved, as well as upon G42 0870 the nature of the claim, the characteristics of the claimant, the justifications G42 0880 proposed, and the predispositions of the community decision G42 0890 makers who are called upon to act. If Jews are identified as a religious G42 0900 body in a controversy that comes before a national or international G42 0910 tribunal, it is obviously compatible with the goal of human dignity G42 0920 to protect freedom of worship. When decision makers act within this G42 0930 frame they determine whether a claim put forward in the name of religion G42 0940 is to be accepted by the larger community as appropriate to religion. G42 0950 Since the recognition of Israel as a nation state, claims are made G42 0960 in many cases which identify the claimant as a member of the new body G42 0970 politic. Community decision makers must make up their minds whether G42 0980 a claim is acceptable to the larger community in terms of prevailing G42 0990 expectations regarding members of nation states. In free countries G42 1000 many controversies involve self-styled Jews who use the symbol in asserting G42 1010 a vaguely "cultural" rather than religious or political identity. G42 1020 The decision maker who acts for the community as a whole must G42 1030 decide whether the objectives pursued and the methods used are appropriate G42 1040 to public policy regarding cultural groups. We know that G42 1050 much is made of the multiplicity and ambiguity of the identities that G42 1060 cluster around the key symbol of the Jew. Many public and private controversies G42 1070 will undoubtedly continue to reflect these confusions in G42 1080 the mind and usage of Gentile and Jew. However, in the context of legal G42 1090 and civic policy, these controversies are less than novel. They G42 1100 involve similar uncertainties regarding the multiple identities of any G42 1110 number of non-Jewish groups. So far as the existing body of formal G42 1120 principle and procedure is concerned, categorical novelties are not G42 1130 to be anticipated in Jewish-Gentile relationships; claims are properly G42 1140 disposed of according to norms common to all parties. It G42 1150 is not implied that formal principles and procedures are so firmly entrenched G42 1160 within the public order of the world community or even of free G42 1170 commonwealths that they will control in all circumstances involving Jews G42 1180 and Gentiles during coming years. Social process is always anchored G42 1190 in past predisposition; but it is perennially restructured in situations G42 1200 where anchors are dragged or lost. In conformance with the G42 1210 maximization principle we affirm that Gentile-Jewish relations will G42 1220 be harmonious or inharmonious to the degree that one relation or the G42 1230 other is expected by the active participants to yield the greatest net G42 1240 advantage, taking all value outcomes and effects into consideration. G42 1250 It is not difficult to anticipate circumstances in which negative tensions G42 1260 will cumulate; for instance, imagine the situation if Israel G42 1270 ever joins an enemy coalition. The formal position of Americans who G42 1280 identify themselves with one or more of the several identities of the G42 1290 Jewish symbol is already clear; the future weight of informal factors G42 1300 cannot be so easily assessed. When we consider the disorganized G42 1310 state of the world community, and the legacy of predispositions adversely G42 1320 directed against all who are identified as Jews, it is obvious G42 1330 that the struggle for the minds and muscles of men needs to be prosecuted G42 1340 with increasing vigor and skill. During moments of intense crisis G42 1350 the responsibility of political leaders is overwhelming. But their G42 1360 freedom of policy is limited by the pattern of predisposition with which G42 1370 they and the people around them enter the crisis. At such critical G42 1380 moments predispositions favorable to human dignity most obviously "pay G42 1390 off". By the same test predispositions destructive of human personality G42 1400 exercise their most sinister impact, with the result that men G42 1410 of good will are often trapped and nullified. Among measures G42 1420 in anticipation of crisis are plans to inject into the turmoil as assistants G42 1430 of key decision makers qualified persons who are cognizant of G42 1440 the corrosive effect of crisis upon personal relationships and are also G42 1450 able to raise calm and realistic voices when overburdened leaders near G42 1460 the limit of self-control. We are learning how to do these things G42 1470 in some of the vast organized structures of modern society; the process G42 1480 can be accelerated. A truism is that the time to prepare G42 1490 for the worst is when times are best. During intercrisis periods the G42 1500 educational facilities of the community have the possibility of remolding G42 1510 the perspectives and altering the behavior of vast numbers of human G42 1520 beings of every age and condition. As more men and women are made capable G42 1530 of living up to the challenge of decency the chances are improved G42 1540 that the pattern of predisposition prevailing in positions of strength G42 1550 in future crises can be favorably affected. Now an abiding G42 1560 difficulty of paragraphs like the foregoing is that they appear to preach; G42 1570 and in contemporary society we often complain of too much reaffirmation G42 1580 of the goodness of the good. In any case I do not intend to G42 1590 let the present occasion pass without dealing more directly with the G42 1600 problem of implementing good intentions. I assume that the number of G42 1610 readers of this anthology who regard themselves as morally perfect is G42 1620 small, and that most readers are willing to consider procedures by which G42 1630 they may gain more insight into themselves and better understanding G42 1640 of others. Properly used, the present book is an excellent instrument G42 1650 of enlightenment. Let us not confuse the issue by labeling G42 1660 the objective or the method "psychoanalytic", for this is a well established G42 1670 term of art for the specific ideas and procedures initiated G42 1680 by Sigmund Freud and his followers for the study and treatment of disordered G42 1690 personalities. The traditional method proceeds by the technique G42 1700 of free association, punctuated by interpretations proposed by the G42 1710 psychoanalytic interviewer. What we have in mind does have G42 1720 something in common with the goals of psychoanalysis and with the methods G42 1730 by which they are sought. For what we propose, however, a psychoanalyst G42 1740 is not necessary, even though one aim is to enable the reader to G42 1750 get beneath his own defenses- his defenses of himself to himself. G42 1760 For this purpose a degree of intellectual and emotional involvement is G42 1770 necessary; but involvement needs to be accompanied by a special frame G42 1780 of mind. The relatively long and often colorful selections G42 1790 in this anthology enable the reader to become genuinely absorbed in G42 1800 what is said, whether he responds with anger or applause. But simple G42 1810 involvement is not enough; self-discovery calls for an open, permissive, G42 1820 inquiring posture of self-observation. The symposium provides G42 1830 an opportunity to confront the self with specific statements which G42 1840 were made at particular times by identifiable communicators who were G42 1850 addressing definite audiences- and throughout several hundred pages G42 1860 everyone is talking about the same key symbol of identification. G42 1870 An advantage of being exposed to such specificity about an important G42 1880 and recurring feature of social reality is that it can be taken advantage G42 1890 of by the reader to examine covert as well as overt resonances G42 1900 within himself, resonances triggered by explicit symbols clustering around G42 1910 the central figure of the Jew. G43 0010 Two facets of this aspect of the literary process have special G43 0020 significance for our time. One, a reservation on the point I have just G43 0030 made, is the phenomenon of pseudo-thinking, pseudo-feeling, and pseudo-willing, G43 0040 which Fromm discussed in . G43 0050 In essence this involves grounding one's thought and emotion in the G43 0060 values and experience of others, rather than in one's own values G43 0070 and experience. There is a risk that instead of teaching a person how G43 0080 to be himself, G43 0090 reading fiction and drama may teach him how to be somebody G43 0100 else. Clearly what the person brings to the reading is important. G43 0110 Moreover, if the critic instructs his audience in to see in G43 0120 a work, he is contributing to this pseudo-thinking; if he instructs G43 0130 them in to evaluate a work, he is helping them to achieve their G43 0140 own identity. The second timely part of this sketch of literature G43 0150 and the search for identity has to do with the difference between G43 0160 good and enduring literary works and the ephemeral mass culture products G43 0170 of today. In the range and variety of characters who, in their G43 0180 literary lives, get along all right with life styles one never imagined G43 0190 possible, there is an implicit lesson in differentiation. The reader, G43 0200 observing this process, might ask "why not be different"? and G43 0210 find in the answer a license to be a variant of the human species. G43 0220 The observer of television or other products for a mass audience has G43 0230 only a permit to be, like the models he sees, even more like everybody G43 0240 else. And this, I think, holds for values as well as life styles. G43 0250 One would need to test this proposition carefully; after all, the large G43 0260 (and probably unreliable) literature on the G43 0270 "most unforgettable character I ever met" deals with village grocers, G43 0280 country doctors, favorite if illiterate aunts, and so forth. Scientists G43 0290 often turn out to be idiosyncratic, too. But still, the proposition G43 0300 is worth examination. It is possible that the study G43 0310 of literature affects the conscience, the morality, the sensitivity to G43 0320 some code of "right" and "wrong". I do not know that this is G43 0330 true; both Flu^gel and Ranyard West deal with the development G43 0340 and nature of conscience, as do such theologians as Niebuhr and Buber. G43 0350 It forms the core of many, perhaps most, problems of psychotherapy. G43 0360 I am not aware of great attention by any of these authors or by the G43 0370 psychotherapeutic profession to the role of literary study in the development G43 0380 of conscience- most of their attention is to a pre-literate G43 0390 period of life, or, for the theologians of course, to the influence G43 0400 of religion. Still, it would be surprising if what one reads did G43 0410 not contribute to one's ideas of right and wrong; certainly the G43 0420 awakened alarm over the comic books and the continuous concern over prurient G43 0430 literature indicate some peripheral aspects of this influence. G43 0440 Probably the most important thing to focus on is not the development G43 0450 of conscience, which may well be almost beyond the reach of literature, G43 0460 but the contents of conscience, the code which is imparted to the developed G43 0470 or immature conscience available. This is in large part a code G43 0480 of behavior and a glossary of values: what is it that people do and G43 0490 should do and how one should regard it. In a small way this is illustrated G43 0500 by the nineteenth-century novelist who argued for the powerful G43 0510 influence of literature as a teacher of society and who illustrated G43 0520 this with the way a girl learned to meet her lover, how to behave, how G43 0530 to think about this new experience, how to exercise restraint. G43 0540 Literature may be said to give people a sense of purpose, dedication, G43 0550 mission, significance. This, no doubt, is part of what Gilbert Seldes G43 0560 implies when he says of the arts, "They give form and meaning G43 0570 to life which might otherwise seem shapeless and without sense". Men G43 0580 seem almost universally to want a sense of function, that is, a feeling G43 0590 that their existence makes a difference to someone, living or unborn, G43 0600 close and immediate or generalized. Feeling useless seems generally G43 0610 to be an unpleasant sensation. A need so deeply planted, asking G43 0620 for direction, so to speak, is likely to be gratified by the vivid examples G43 0630 and heroic proportions of literature. The terms "renewal" G43 0640 and "refreshed", which often come up in aesthetic discussion, seem G43 0650 partly to derive their import from the "renewal" of purpose and G43 0660 a "refreshed" sense of significance a person may receive from poetry, G43 0670 drama, and fiction. The notion of "inspiration" is somehow cognate G43 0680 to this feeling. How literature does this, or for whom, is certainly G43 0690 not clear, but the content, form, and language of the "message", G43 0700 as well as the source, would all play differentiated parts in giving G43 0710 and molding a sense of purpose. One of the most salient features G43 0720 of literary value has been deemed to be its influence upon and G43 0730 organization of emotion. Let us differentiate a few of these ideas. The G43 0740 Aristotelian notion of catharsis, the purging of emotion, is a persistent G43 0750 and viable one. The idea here is one of but this G43 0760 must stand in opposition to a second view, Plato's notion of the G43 0770 of emotion. A third idea is that artistic literature serves G43 0780 to giving a sense of serenity and G43 0790 calm to individuals. This is given some expression in Beardsley's G43 0800 notion of harmony and the resolution of indecision. A fourth view is G43 0810 the transformation of emotion, as in Housman's fine phrase on the G43 0820 arts: they "transform and beautify our inner nature". It is possible G43 0830 that the idea of of emotion is a fifth idea. F&S&C& G43 0840 Northrop, in his discussion of the "Functions and Future G43 0850 of Poetry", suggests this: "One of the things which makes G43 0860 our lives drab and empty and which leaves us, at the end of the day, G43 0870 fatigued and deflated spiritually is the pressure of the taxing, practical, G43 0880 utilitarian concern of common-sense objects. If art is to release G43 0890 us from these postulated things [things we must think symbolically G43 0900 about] and bring us back to the ineffable beauty and richness of the G43 0910 aesthetic component of reality in its immediacy, it must sever its connection G43 0920 with these common sense entities". I take the central meaning G43 0930 here to be the contrast between the drab empty quality of life without G43 0940 literature and a life enriched by it. Richards' view of the aesthetic G43 0950 experience might constitute a sixth variety: for him it constitutes, G43 0960 in part, the . A sketch of G43 0970 the emotional value of the study of literature would have to take account G43 0980 of all of these. But there is one in particular which, it seems G43 0990 to me, deserves special attention. In the wide range of experiences G43 1000 common to our earth-bound race none is more difficult to manage, more G43 1010 troublesome, and more enduring in its effects than the control of love G43 1020 and hate. The study of literature contributes to this control in a curious G43 1030 way. William Wimsatt and Cleanth Brooks, it seems to me, have G43 1040 a penetrating insight into the way in which this control is effected: G43 1050 "For if we say poetry is to talk of beauty and love (and yet not G43 1060 aim at exciting erotic emotion or even an emotion of Platonic esteem) G43 1070 and if it is to talk of anger and murder (and yet not aim at arousing G43 1080 anger and indignation)- then it may be that the poetic way of dealing G43 1090 with these emotions will not be any kind of intensification, compounding, G43 1100 or magnification, or any direct assault upon the affections G43 1110 at all. Something indirect, mixed, reconciling, tensional might well G43 1120 be the strategem, the devious technique by which a poet indulged in all G43 1130 kinds of talk about love and anger and even in something like "expressions" G43 1140 of these emotions, without aiming at their incitement or G43 1150 even uttering anything that essentially involves their incitement". G43 1160 The rehearsal through literature of emotional life under controlled conditions G43 1170 may be a most valuable human experience. Here I do not mean G43 1180 catharsis, the discharge of emotion. I mean something more like Freud's G43 1190 concept of the utility of "play" to a small child: he plays G43 1200 "house" or "doctor" or "fireman" as a way of mastering G43 1210 slightly frightening experiences, reliving them imaginatively until they G43 1220 are under control. There is a second feature of the influences G43 1230 of literature, good literature, on emotional life which may have G43 1240 some special value for our time. In B& M& Spinley's portrayal G43 1250 of the underprivileged and undereducated youth of London, a salient G43 1260 finding was the inability to postpone gratification, a need to satisfy G43 1270 impulses immediately without the pleasure of anticipation or of savoring G43 1280 the experience. Perhaps it is only an analogy, but one of the most G43 1290 obvious differences between cheap fiction and fiction of an enduring G43 1300 quality is the development of a theme or story with leisure and anticipation. G43 1310 Anyone who has watched children develop a taste for literature G43 1320 will understand what I mean. It is at least possible that the capacity G43 1330 to postpone gratification is developed as well as expressed in G43 1340 a continuous and guided exposure to great literature. In any G43 1350 inquiry into the way in which great literature affects the emotions, particularly G43 1360 with respect to the sense of harmony, or relief of tension, G43 1370 or sense of "a transformed inner nature" which may occur, a most G43 1380 careful exploration of the particular feature of the experience which G43 1390 produces the effect would be required. In the calm which follows the G43 1400 reading of a poem, for example, is the effect produced by the enforced G43 1410 quiet, by the musical quality of words and rhythm, by the sentiments G43 1420 or sense of the poem, by the associations with earlier readings, if it G43 1430 is familiar, by the boost to the self-esteem for the semi-literate, G43 1435 by G43 1440 the diversion of attention, by the sense of security in a legitimized G43 1450 withdrawal, by a kind license for some variety of fantasy life regarded G43 1460 as forbidden, or by half-conscious ideas about the magical power of G43 1470 words? These are, if the research is done with subtlety and skill, G43 1480 researchable topics, but the research is missing. One of the G43 1490 most frequent views of the value of literature is the education of sensibility G43 1500 that it is thought to provide. Sensibility is a vague word, G43 1510 covering an area of meaning rather than any precise talent, quality, G43 1520 or skill. Among other things it means perception, discrimination, sensitivity G43 1530 to subtle differences. Both the extent to which this is true G43 1540 and the limits of the field of perceptual skill involved should be acknowledged. G43 1550 Its truth is illustrated by the skill, sensitivity, and general G43 1560 expertise of the English professor with whom one attends the theatre. G43 1570 The limits are suggested by an imaginary experiment: contrast G43 1580 the perceptual skill of English professors with that of their colleagues G43 1590 in discriminating among motor cars, political candidates, or female G43 1600 beauty. Along these lines, the particular point that sensitivity G43 1610 in literature leads to sensitivity in human relations would require more G43 1620 proof than I have seen. In a symposium and general exploration of G43 1630 the field of the G43 1640 discussion does not touch upon this aspect of the subject, with one G43 1650 possible exception; Solomon Asch shows the transcultural stability G43 1660 of metaphors based on sensation (hot, sweet, bitter, etc&) dealing G43 1670 with personal qualities of human beings and events. But to go from here G43 1680 to the belief that those more sensitive to metaphor and language will G43 1690 also be more sensitive to personal differences is too great an inferential G43 1700 leap. I would say, too, that the study of literature G43 1710 tends to give a person what I shall call . I use this term G43 1720 to mean three things: a search for the human significance of an event G43 1730 or state of affairs, a tendency to look at wholes rather than parts, G43 1740 and a tendency to respond to these events and wholes with feeling. It G43 1750 is the obverse of triviality, shallowness, emotional anaesthesia. I G43 1760 think these attributes cluster, but I have no evidence. In fact, I G43 1770 can only say this seems to me to follow from a wide, continuous, and G43 1780 properly guided exposure to literary art. G44 0010 THE late R& G& Collingwood, a philosopher whose work G44 0020 has proved helpful to many students of literature, once wrote "We G44 0030 are all, though many of us are snobbish enough to wish to deny it, in G44 0040 far closer sympathy with the art of the music-hall and picture-palace G44 0050 than with Chaucer and Cimabue, or even Shakespeare and Titian. By G44 0060 an effort of historical sympathy we can cast our minds back into the G44 0070 art of a remote past or an alien present, and enjoy the carvings of G44 0080 cavemen and Japanese colour-prints; but the possibility of this G44 0090 effort G44 0100 is bound up with that development of historical thought which is the G44 0110 greatest achievement of our civilization in the last two centuries, G44 0120 and it is utterly impossible to people in whom this development has not G44 0130 taken place. The natural and primary aesthetic attitude is to enjoy G44 0140 contemporary art, to despise and dislike the art of the recent past, G44 0150 and wholly to ignore everything else". One might argue that G44 0160 the ultimate purpose of literary scholarship is to correct this spontaneous G44 0170 provincialism that is likely to obscure the horizons of the general G44 0180 public, of the newspaper critic, and of the creative artist himself. G44 0190 There results a study of literature freed from the tyranny of the G44 0200 contemporary. Such study may take many forms. The study of ideas in G44 0210 literature is one of these. Of course, it goes without saying that no G44 0220 student of ideas can justifiably ignore the contemporary scene. He will G44 0230 frequently return to it. The continuities, contrasts, and similarities G44 0240 discernible when past and present are surveyed together are inexhaustible G44 0250 and the one is often understood through the other. When G44 0260 we assert the value of such study, we find ourselves committed to G44 0270 an important assumption. Most students of literature, whether they call G44 0280 themselves scholars or critics, are ready to argue that it is possible G44 0290 to understand literary works as well as to enjoy them. Many will G44 0300 add that we may find our enjoyment heightened by our understanding. This G44 0310 understanding, of course, may in its turn take many forms and some G44 0320 of these- especially those most interesting to the student of comparative G44 0330 literature- are essentially historical. But the historian of G44 0340 literature need not confine his attention to biography or to stylistic G44 0350 questions of form, "texture", or technique. He may also consider G44 0360 ideas. It is true that this distinction between style and idea often G44 0370 approaches the arbitrary since in the end we must admit that style and G44 0380 content frequently influence or interpenetrate one another and sometimes G44 0390 appear as expressions of the same insight. But, in general, we G44 0400 may argue that the student can direct the primary emphasis of his attention G44 0410 toward one or the other. At this point a working definition G44 0420 of is in order, although our first definition will have to G44 0430 be qualified somewhat as we proceed. The term refers to our G44 0440 more reflective or thoughtful consciousness as opposed to the immediacies G44 0450 of sensuous or emotional experience. It is through such reflection G44 0460 that literature approaches philosophy. An idea, let us say, may be G44 0470 roughtly defined as a theme or topic with which our reflection may G44 0475 be concerned. In this essay, we are, G44 0480 along with most historians, interested G44 0490 in the more general or more inclusive ideas, that are so to speak G44 0500 "writ large" in history of literature where they recur continually. G44 0510 Outstanding among these is the idea of human nature itself, including G44 0520 the many definitions that have been advanced over the centuries; G44 0530 also secondary notions such as the perfectibility of man, the depravity G44 0540 of man, and the dignity of man. One might, indeed, argue that the G44 0550 history of ideas, in so far as it includes the literatures, must center G44 0560 on characterizations of human nature and that the great periods of G44 0570 literary achievement may be distinguished from one another by reference G44 0580 to the images of human nature that they succeed in fashioning. G44 0590 We need not, to be sure, expect to find such ideas in every piece of G44 0600 literature. An idea, of the sort that we have in mind, although of G44 0610 necessity readily available to imagination, is more general in connotation G44 0620 than most poetic or literary images, especially those appearing in G44 0630 lyric poems that seek to capture a moment of personal experience. Thus G44 0640 Burns's "" and Hopkins' G44 0650 "" although clearly intelligible in content, hardly present G44 0670 ideas of the sort with which we are here concerned. On the other hand, G44 0680 Arnold's "", G44 0690 taken in its context, certainly does so. Understanding a work G44 0700 of art involves recognition of the ideas that it reflects or embodies. G44 0710 Thus the student of literature may sometimes find it helpful to classify G44 0720 a poem or an essay as being in idea or in ideal content or subject G44 0730 matter typical or atypical of its period. Again, he may discover embodied G44 0740 within its texture a theme or idea that has been presented elsewhere G44 0750 and at other times in various ways. Our understanding will very G44 0760 probably require both these commentaries. Very likely it will also include G44 0770 a recognition that the work we are reading reflects or "belongs G44 0780 to" some way of thought labelled as a "school" or an "-~ism", G44 0790 i&e& a complex or "syndrome" of ideas occurring together G44 0800 with sufficient prominence to warrant identification. Thus ideas like G44 0810 "grace", "salvation", and "providence" cluster together G44 0820 in traditional Christianity. Usually the work studied offers us a special G44 0830 or even an individualized rendering or treatment of the ideas in G44 0840 question, so that the student finds it necessary to distinguish carefully G44 0850 between the several expressions of an "-~ism" or mode of thought. G44 0860 Accordingly we may speak of the Platonism peculiar to Shelley's G44 0870 poems or the type of Stoicism present in Henley's "Invictus", G44 0880 and we may find that describing such Platonism or such Stoicism G44 0890 and contrasting each with other expressions of the same attitude or G44 0900 mode of thought is a difficult and challenging enterprise. After all, G44 0910 Shelley is no "orthodox" or Hellenic Platonist, and even his G44 0920 "romantic" Platonism can be distinguished from that of his contemporaries. G44 0930 Again, Henley's attitude of defiance which colors his ideal G44 0940 of self-mastery is far from characteristic of a Stoic thinker like G44 0950 Marcus Aurelius, whose gentle acquiescence is almost Christian, G44 0960 comparable to the patience expressed in Milton's sonnet on his own G44 0970 blindness. In recent years, we have come increasingly to recognize G44 0980 that ideas have a history and that not the least important chapters G44 0990 of this history have to do with thematic or conceptual aspects of literature G44 1000 and the arts, although these aspects should be studied in conjunction G44 1010 with the history of philosophy, of religion, and of the sciences. G44 1020 When these fields are surveyed together, important patterns of G44 1030 relationship emerge indicating a vast community of reciprocal influence, G44 1040 a continuity of thought and expression including many traditions, primarily G44 1050 literary, religious, and philosophical, but frequently including G44 1060 contact with the fine arts and even, to some extent, with science. G44 1070 Here we may observe that at least one modern philosophy of history G44 1080 is built on the assumption that ideas are the primary objectives G44 1090 of the historian's research. Let us quote once more from R& G& G44 1100 Collingwood: "History is properly concerned with the actions G44 1110 of human beings **h Regarded from the outside, an action is an event G44 1120 or series of events occurring in the physical world; regarded from the G44 1130 inside, it is the carrying into action of a certain thought **h The G44 1140 historian's business is to penetrate to the inside of the actions G44 1150 with which he is dealing and reconstruct or rather rethink the thoughts G44 1160 which constituted them. It is a characteristic of thoughts that **h G44 1170 in re-thinking them we come, , to understand why they were G44 1180 thought". Such an understanding, although it must seek to be sympathetic, G44 1190 is not a matter of intuition. "History has this in common G44 1200 with every other science: that the historian is not allowed to claim G44 1210 any single piece of knowledge, except where he can justify his claim G44 1220 by exhibiting to himself in the first place, and secondly to any one G44 1230 else who is both able and willing to follow his demonstration, the grounds G44 1240 upon which it is based. This is what was meant, above, by describing G44 1250 history as inferential. The knowledge in virtue of which a man G44 1260 is an historian is a knowledge of what the evidence at his disposal proves G44 1270 about certain events". It is obvious that the historian who seeks G44 1280 to recapture the ideas that have motivated human behavior throughout G44 1290 a given period will find the art and literature of that age one of G44 1300 his central and major concerns, by no means a mere supplement or adjunct G44 1310 of significant historical research. The student of ideas and G44 1320 their place in history will always be concerned with the patterns of G44 1330 transition, which are at the same time patterns of transformation, whereby G44 1340 ideas pass from one area of activity to another. Let us survey G44 1350 for a moment the development of modern thought- turning our attention G44 1360 from the Reformation toward the revolutionary and romantic movements G44 1370 that follow and dwelling finally on more recent decades. We may thus G44 1380 trace the notion of individual autonomy from its manifestation in religious G44 1390 practice and theological reflection through practical politics G44 1400 and political theory into literature and the arts. Finally we may note G44 1410 that the idea appears in educational theory where its influence is G44 1420 at present widespread. No one will deny that such broad developments G44 1430 and transitions are of great intrinsic interest and the study of ideas G44 1440 in literature would be woefully incomplete without frequent reference G44 1450 to them. Still, we must remember that we cannot construct and justify G44 1460 generalizations of this sort unless we are ready to consider many special G44 1470 instances of influence moving between such areas as theology, philosophy, G44 1480 political thought, and literature. The actual moments of contact G44 1490 are vitally important. These moments are historical events in the G44 1500 lives of individual authors with which the student of comparative literature G44 1510 must be frequently concerned. Perhaps the most powerful G44 1520 and most frequently recurring literary influence on the Western world G44 1530 has been that of the Old and New Testament. Certainly one of G44 1540 the most important comments that can be made upon the spiritual and cultural G44 1550 life of any period of Western civilization during the past sixteen G44 1560 or seventeen centuries has to do with the way in which its leaders G44 1570 have read and interpreted the Bible. This reading and the comments G44 1580 that it evoked constitute the influence. A contrast of the scripture G44 1590 reading of, let us say, St& Augustine, John Bunyan, and Thomas G44 1600 Jefferson, all three of whom found in such study a real source of enlightenment, G44 1610 can tell us a great deal about these three men and the age G44 1620 that each represented and helped bring to conscious expression. In G44 1630 much the same way, we recognize the importance of Shakespeare's familarity G44 1640 with Plutarch and Montaigne, of Shelley's study of Plato's G44 1650 dialogues, and of Coleridge's enthusiastic plundering of the writings G44 1660 of many philosophers and theologians from Plato to Schelling G44 1670 and William Godwin, through which so many abstract ideas were brought G44 1680 to the attention of English men of letters. We may also recognize G44 1690 cases in which the poets have influenced the philosophers and G44 1700 even indirectly the scientists. English philosopher Samuel Alexander's G44 1710 debt to Wordsworth and Meredith is a recent interesting example, G44 1720 as also A& N& Whitehead's understanding of the English romantics, G44 1730 chiefly Shelley and Wordsworth. Hegel's profound admiration G44 1740 for the insights of the Greek tragedians indicates a broad channel G44 1750 of classical influence upon nineteenth-century philosophy. Again the G44 1760 student of evolutionary biology will find a fascinating, if to our minds G44 1770 grotesque, anticipation of the theory of chance variations and the G44 1780 natural elimination of the unfit in Lucretius, who in turn seems to G44 1790 have borrowed the concept from the philosopher Empedocles. Here G44 1800 an important caveat is in order. We must avoid the notion, suggested G44 1810 to some people by examples such as those just mentioned, that ideas G44 1820 are "units" in some way comparable to coins or counters that can G44 1830 be passed intact from one group of people to another or even, for that G44 1840 matter, from one individual to another. G45 0010 "Suppose you take Mr& Hearst's morning at G45 0020 $10,000 a year", Brisbane proposed. "You could come down to the G45 0030 office once a day, look over a few exchanges, dictate an editorial, G45 0040 and then have the remainder of your time for your more serious literary G45 0050 labors. If within one year you can make a success out of the , G45 0060 you can practically name your own salary thereafter. Of course, G45 0070 if you don't make the a success, Hearst will have G45 0080 no further use for you". The blue-eyed Watson decided that G45 0090 he would dislike living in New York, and the deal fell through. Hearst's G45 0100 luck was even poorer when he had a chat with Franklin K& G45 0110 Lane, a prominent California journalist and reform politician, whom G45 0120 he asked for his support. Lane was still burning because he had narrowly G45 0130 missed election as governor of California in 1902 and laid his defeat G45 0140 to the antagonism of Hearst's San Francisco . Hearst G45 0150 disclaimed blame for this, but the conversation, according to Lane, G45 0160 ended on a tart note. "Mr& Lane", Hearst said, "if G45 0170 you ever wish anything that I can do, all you will have to do will G45 0180 be to send me a telegram asking, and it will be done". "Mr& G45 0190 Hearst", Lane replied as he left, "if you ever get a telegram G45 0200 from me asking you to do anything, you can put the telegram down G45 0210 as a forgery". Hearst took a brief respite to hurry home to G45 0220 New York to become a father. On April 10, 1904, his first child was G45 0230 born, a son named George after the late Senator. Hearst saw his wife G45 0240 and child, sent a joyful message to his mother in California, and G45 0250 soon returned to Washington, where on April 22, for the first time, G45 0260 he opened his mouth in Congress. This was not before the House G45 0270 but before the Judiciary Committee, where he asked for action on G45 0280 one of his pet bills, that calling for an investigation of the coal-railroad G45 0290 monopoly. Attorney Shearn had worked on this for two years and G45 0300 had succeeded in getting a report supporting his stand from the United G45 0310 States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. Hearst G45 0320 had spent more than $60,000 of his own money in the probe, but still G45 0330 Attorney General Knox was quiescent. Six of the railroads G45 0340 carrying coal to tidewater from the Pennsylvania fields, Hearst said, G45 0350 not only had illegal agreements with coal operators but owned outright G45 0360 at least eleven mines. They had watered their stock at immense G45 0370 profit, then had raised the price of coal fifty cents a ton, netting themselves G45 0380 another $20,000,000 in annual profit. "The Attorney G45 0390 General has been brooding over that evidence like an old hen on a G45 0400 doorknob for eighteen months", Hearst said. "He has not acted in G45 0410 any way, and won't let anyone take it away from him **h What I want G45 0420 is to have this evidence come before Congress and if the Attorney G45 0430 General does not report it, as I am very sure he won't, as he has G45 0440 refused to do anything of the kind, I then wish that a committee of G45 0450 seven Representatives be appointed with power to take the evidence G45 0455 **h". G45 0460 The Congressman tried hard, but failed. This was the very G45 0470 sort of legislation that Roosevelt himself had in mind. There can G45 0480 be little doubt that there was a conspiracy in Washington, overt or G45 0490 implied, to block anything Hearst wanted, even if it was something good. G45 0500 Hatred tied his hands in Congress. Roosevelt and others considered G45 0510 him partly responsible for the murder of McKinley. They were repelled G45 0520 by his noisy newspapers, his personal publicity, his presumptuous G45 0540 campaign for the Presidential nomination, and by the swelling cloud G45 0550 of rumor about his moral lapses. He might get votes from his constituents, G45 0560 but he would never get a helping hand in Congress. He was the G45 0570 House pariah. Even the regular Democrats disowned him. Inherently G45 0580 incapable of cooperating with others, he ran his own show regardless G45 0590 of how many party-line Democratic toes he stepped on. He was a political G45 0600 maverick, a reformer with his own program, determined to bulldoze G45 0610 it through or to blazon the infamy of those who balked him. He showed G45 0620 little interest in measures put forward by the regular Democrats. G45 0630 He sought to run Congress as he ran his New York or G45 0640 , a scheme veteran legislators resisted. For a freshman Congressman G45 0650 to read political lessons to graybeard Democrats was poor G45 0660 policy for one who needed to make friends. He soon quarreled with all G45 0670 the party leaders in the House, and came to be regarded with detestation G45 0680 by regular Democrats as a professional radical leading a small G45 0690 pack of obedient terriers whose constant snapping was demoralizing to G45 0700 party discipline. To old-line Democrats, the Hearst Presidential G45 0710 boom, now in full cry, was the joke of the new century. Yet no G45 0720 leader had come to the fore who seemed likely to give the puissant T& G45 0730 R& a semblance of a race. There was talk of dragging old ex-President G45 0740 Cleveland out of retirement for another try. Some preferred G45 0750 Judge Alton B& Parker of New York. There was a host of dark G45 0760 horses. The sneers at Hearst changed to concern when it was seen that G45 0770 he had strong support in many parts of the country. Platoons of Hearst G45 0780 agents were traveling from state to state in a surprisingly successful G45 0790 search for delegates at the coming convention, and there were charges G45 0800 that money was doing a large part of the persuading. Just when G45 0810 it was needed for the campaign, Hearst Paper No& 8, the Boston , G45 0820 began publication. A Bay State supporter said, "Mr& G45 0830 Hearst's fight has been helped along greatly by the starting of G45 0840 his paper in Boston". His candidacy affected his journalism somewhat. G45 0850 He ordered his editors to tone down on sensationalism and to refrain G45 0860 from using such words as "seduction", "rape", "abortion", G45 0870 "criminal assault" and "born out of wedlock". In G45 0880 a story headed, "HEARST OFFERS CASH", the Republican New York G45 0890 spread the money rumor, quoting an unnamed "Hearst G45 0900 supporter" as saying: "The argument that is cutting most G45 0910 ice is that Hearst is the only candidate who is fighting the trusts G45 0920 fearlessly and who would use all the powers of government to disrupt G45 0930 them if he were elected. The Hearst men say that if Hearst is nominated, G45 0940 he and his immediate friends will contribute to the Democratic G45 0950 National Committee the sum of $1,500,000. This, it is urged, would G45 0960 relieve the national committee from the necessity of appealing to the G45 0970 trust magnates. The alternative to this is that if a conservative candidate G45 0980 is nominated the national committee will have to appeal to the G45 0990 trusts for their campaign funds, and in doing this will incur obligations G45 1000 which would make a Democratic victory absolutely fruitless **h. G45 1010 the average Democratic politician, especially in the country districts, G45 1020 is hungry for the spoils of office. It has been a long time since G45 1030 he has seen any campaign money, and when the proposition is laid down G45 1040 to him as the friends of Mr& Hearst are laying it down these days G45 1050 he is quite likely to get aboard the Hearst bandwagon". If G45 1060 anything, the conservative Democrats were more opposed to Hearst than G45 1070 the Republicans. In his own state of New York, the two Democratic G45 1080 bellwethers, State Leader Hill and Tammany Boss Murphy, were G45 1090 saying nothing openly against Hearst but industriously boosting their G45 1100 own favorites, Murphy being for Cleveland and Hill for Parker. They G45 1110 had lost twice with the radical Bryan, and were having no part of G45 1120 Hearst, whom they considered more radical than Bryan. But his increasing G45 1130 strength in the West looked menacing. It caused Henry Watterson G45 1140 to sound a blast in his Louisville G45 1160 "**h Does any sane Democrat believe that Mr& Hearst, a person G45 1170 unknown even to his constituency and his colleagues, without a word G45 1175 or G45 1180 act in the public life of his country, past or present, that can be G45 1190 shown to be his to commend him, could by any possibility be elected President G45 1200 of the United States? But there is a Hearst G45 1205 barrel **h" G45 1210 More splenetic was Senator Edward Carmack of Tennessee, G45 1220 a Parker man. "**h the nomination of Hearst would compass the ruin G45 1230 of the party", Carmack said. "It would be a disgrace, and, as I G45 1240 have already said to the people of Tennessee, if Hearst is nominated, G45 1250 we may as well pen a dispatch, and send it back from the field of G45 1260 battle: 'All is lost, including our honor'". A lone G45 1270 pro-Hearst voice from New York City was that of William Devery, G45 1280 who had been expelled as a Tammany leader but still claimed strong influence G45 1290 in his own district. "I understand [Hearst] is a candidate G45 1300 for Presidential honors", Devery said without cracking a smile. G45 1310 "There's nothing like buildin' from the bottom up. If he's G45 1320 going to the St& Louis convention as a delegate we ought to know it. G45 1330 He's got a lot of friends, and he ought to come along and let us G45 1340 know if he wants our help". Hearst won the Iowa state convention, G45 1350 but ran into a bitter battle in Indiana before losing to Parker, G45 1360 drawing an angry statement from Indiana's John W& Kern: G45 1370 "We are menaced for the first time in the history of the Republic G45 1380 by the open and unblushing effort of a multi-millionaire to purchase G45 1390 the Presidential nomination. Our state has been overrun with a G45 1400 gang of paid agents and retainers **h As for the paid Hessians from G45 1410 other states, we are here to instruct the Indiana Democracy in their G45 1420 duty, I have nothing but contempt **h The Hearst dollar mark is all G45 1425 over them **h" G45 1430 The talk of a Hearst "barrel" was increasing. G45 1440 Another Indiana observer later commented, "Perhaps we shall G45 1450 never know how much was spent [by Hearst], but if as much money G45 1460 was expended elsewhere as in Indiana a liberal fortune was squandered". G45 1470 In his fight for the Illinois and Indiana delegations, G45 1480 Hearst made several trips to Chicago to confer with Andrew Lawrence, G45 1490 the former San Francisco man who was now his Chicago G45 1500 kingpin, and once to meet with Bryan. On one visit he stopped at G45 1510 the office of the , where he was known surreptitiously as G45 1520 "the Great White Chief", and for the first time met his managing G45 1530 editor, fat Moses Koenigsberg. Koenigsberg never did learn what G45 1540 Hearst wanted, for the latter shook hands and moved toward the door. G45 1550 "Never mind, thank you", he said. "I must hurry to catch G45 1560 my train". Another editor pointed despairingly at a bundle G45 1570 of letters that had accumulated for him, saying, "But Mr& Hearst, G45 1580 what shall I do with this correspondence"? "I'll G45 1590 show you", Hearst replied, grinning. He took the stack of mail and G45 1600 tossed it into the waste basket. "Don't bother. Every letter answers G45 1610 itself in a couple of weeks". #/2,. THE HEARST "BARREL"# G45 1620 HEARST hopped into a private railroad car with Max Ihmsen G45 1630 and made an arduous personal canvass for delegates in the western and G45 1640 southern states, always wearing a frock coat, listening intently to local G45 1650 politicians, and generally making a good impression. He laughed G45 1660 at a story that he planned to bolt the party if he was not nominated. G45 1670 "I should, of course", he said, "like any other man, be G45 1680 honored and gratified should the Democrats see fit to nominate me. But G45 1690 I do not have to be bribed by office to be a Democrat. I have supported G45 1700 the Democratic party in the last five campaigns. I supported G45 1710 Cleveland three times and Bryan twice. I intend to support the nominee G45 1720 of the party at St& Louis, whoever he may be". The G45 1730 Hearst press followed the Chief's progress at the various state conventions G45 1740 with its usual admiring attention, stressing the "enthusiasm" G45 1750 and "loyalty" he inspired. This was historic in its way, for G45 1760 it marked the first time an American Presidential aspirant had advertised G45 1770 his own virtues in his own string of newspapers spanning the land. G45 1780 Yet his editors did not abandon their sense of story value. G45 1790 When Nan Patterson, a stunning and money-minded chorus girl who G45 1800 had appeared in a road show, rode down Broadway in a hansom G45 1810 cab with her married lover, Frank Young, she stopped the cab to G45 1820 disclose that Young had been shot dead, tearfully insisting that he G45 1830 had shot himself although experts said he could not have done so. G46 0010 Trevelyan's Liberalism was above all a liberalism of the spirit, a G46 0020 deep feeling of communion with men fighting for country and for liberty. G46 0030 His passion and enthusiasm convey the courage and high adventure G46 0040 of Garibaldi's exploits and give the reader a unique sense of participation G46 0050 in the events described. The three volumes brought to G46 0060 the fore a characteristic of Trevelyan's prose which remained conspicuous G46 0070 through his later works- a genius for describing military action G46 0080 with clarity and with authority. The confused rambling of guerrilla G46 0090 warfare, such as most of Garibaldi's campaigns were, was brought G46 0100 to life by Trevelyan's pen in some of the best passages in the books. G46 0110 His personal familiarity with the scenes of action undoubtedly contributed G46 0120 much to the final result, but familiarity alone would not have G46 0130 been enough without other qualities. Military knowledge, love of G46 0140 detail, and a sure feeling for the portrayal of action were the added G46 0150 ingredients. But the Garibaldi volumes were more than a romantic G46 0160 story. Trevelyan contributed considerable new knowledge of the issues G46 0170 connected with his subject. The outstanding example was in , where he made use of unpublished papers of G46 0190 Lord John Russell and English consular materials to reveal the motives G46 0200 which led the British government to permit Garibaldi to cross G46 0210 the Straits of Messina. In looking back over the volumes, it G46 0220 is possible to find errors of interpretation, some of which were not G46 0230 so evident at the time of writing. Thus Trevelyan repeats the story G46 0240 which pictured Victor Emmanuel as refusing to abandon the famous G46 0250 at the insistence of General Radetzky. Later research has G46 0260 shown this part of the legend of the to be false. G46 0270 Trevelyan accepts Italian nationalism with little analysis, he is G46 0280 unduly critical of papal and French policy, and he is more than generous G46 0290 in assessing British policy. But fifty years later the trilogy still G46 0300 maintains a firm place in the list of standard works on the unification G46 0310 of Italy, a position cautiously prophesied by the reviewers at G46 0320 the time of publication. Trevelyan's , his last major volume on an Italian theme, G46 0340 was written in a minor key. Published in 1923, it did not gain the popular G46 0350 acclaim of the Garibaldi volumes, probably because Trevelyan G46 0360 felt less at home with Manin, the bourgeois lawyer, than with Garibaldi, G46 0370 the filibuster. The complexities of Venetian politics eluded him, G46 0380 but the story of the revolution itself is told in restrained measures, G46 0390 with no superfluous passages and only an occasional overemphasis of G46 0400 the part played by its leading figure. If it is not one of his best G46 0410 books, it can only be considered unsatisfactory when compared with his G46 0420 own . Already Trevelyan had begun to parallel G46 0430 his nineteenth-century Italian studies with several works on English G46 0440 figures of the same period. First appeared G46 0450 and seven years later . Of G46 0460 the two, the life of Bright is incomparably the better biography. Trevelyan G46 0470 centers too exclusively on Bright, is insufficiently appreciative G46 0480 of the views of Bright's opponents and critics, and makes light G46 0490 of the genuine difficulties faced by Peel. Yet he is right when he G46 0500 claims in his autobiography that he drew the real features of the man, G46 0510 his tender and selfless motives and his rugged fearless strength. In G46 0520 the story of Bright and the Corn Law agitation, the Crimean War, G46 0530 the American Civil War, and the franchise struggle Trevelyan reflects G46 0540 something of the moral power which enabled this independent man G46 0550 to exercise so immense an influence over his fellow countrymen for so G46 0560 long. Because Bright's speeches were so much a part of him, there G46 0570 are long and numerous quotations, which, far from making the biography G46 0580 diffuse, help to give us the feel of the man. Associated in a sense G46 0590 with the Manchester School through his mother's family, Trevelyan G46 0600 conveys in this biography something of its moral conviction and drive. G46 0610 Nineteenth-century virtues, however, seem somehow to have gone out G46 0620 of fashion and the Bright book has never been particularly popular. G46 0630 The biography of Lord Grey is strictly speaking not a biography G46 0640 at all. It is a Whig history of the "Tory reaction" which preceded G46 0650 the Reform Bill of 1832, and it uses the figure of Grey to G46 0660 give some unity to the narrative. The volume is a piece of passionate G46 0670 special pleading, written with the heat- and often with the wisdom, G46 0680 it must be said- of a Liberal damning the shortsightedness of politicians G46 0690 from 1782 to 1832. Characteristically, Trevelyan enjoyed writing G46 0700 the work. The theme of glorious summer coming after a long winter G46 0710 of discontent and repression was, he has told us, congenial to his artistic G46 0720 sense. And Grey's Northumberland background was close to G46 0730 Trevelyan's own. But his concentration on personalities and his categorical G46 0740 assessment of their actions fail to convey the political complexities G46 0750 of a long generation harassed by world-wide war and confronted G46 0760 with the problem of adjustment to an unprecedented industrial and social G46 0770 transformation. Some historians have found his point of view not G46 0780 to their taste, others have complained that he makes the Tory tradition G46 0790 appear "contemptible rather than intelligible", while a sympathetic G46 0800 critic has remarked that the "intricate interplay of social dynamics G46 0810 and political activity of which, at times, politicians are the G46 0820 ignorant marionettes is not a field for the exercise of his talents". G46 0830 The Liberal-Radical heritage which informs all of Trevelyan's G46 0840 interpretations of history here seems clearly to have distorted the issues G46 0850 and oversimplified the period. For once his touch deserted him. G46 0860 Research in the period of Grey and Bright led naturally to G46 0870 a more ambitious work. is a textbook G46 0880 designed "to give the sense of continuous growth, to show how G46 0890 economic led to social, and social to political change, how the political G46 0900 events reacted on the economic and social, and how new thoughts and G46 0910 new ideals accompanied or directed the whole complicated process". G46 0920 The plan is admirably fulfilled for the period up to 1832. More temperately G46 0930 than in the study of Grey and despite his Liberal bias, Trevelyan G46 0940 vividly sketches the England of pre-French Revolution days, G46 0950 portrays the stresses and strains of the revolutionary period in rich G46 0960 colors, and brings developments leading to the Reform Bill into sharp G46 0970 and clear focus. His technique is genuinely masterful. By what one G46 0980 reader called a "series of dissolving views", he merges one period G46 0990 into another and gives a sense of continuous growth. But after G46 1000 1832, the narrative tends to lose its balanced, many-sided quality G46 1010 and to become a medley of topics, often unconnected by any single thread. G46 1020 Economic analysis was never Trevelyan's strong point and the G46 1030 England of the industrial transformation cries out for economic analysis. G46 1040 Yet after 1832, the interrelations of economic and social and political G46 1050 affairs become blurred and the narrative becomes largely a conventional G46 1060 political account. Finally, the period after 1870 receives G46 1070 little attention and that quite superficial. Yet became the of beginning students of G46 1090 history, went through edition after edition, and continues to be reprinted G46 1100 up to the very present. Its success is a tribute, above all, to G46 1110 Trevelyan's brilliance as a literary stylist. In 1924 Trevelyan G46 1120 traveled to the United States, where he delivered the Lowell G46 1130 lectures at Harvard University. These lectures formed the nucleus of G46 1140 a general survey of English development which took form afterward as G46 1150 a . In short order, the general history became G46 1160 his most popular work and has remained, aside from his later , the work most widely favored by the public. The G46 1180 has often been compared with Green's . Like Green, Trevelyan aimed to write a history not G46 1200 of "English kings or English conquests", but of the English people. G46 1210 The result was fortunate. The takes too much for G46 1220 granted to serve as a text for other than English schoolboys, and like G46 1230 it deteriorates badly as it goes G46 1240 beyond 1870. Trevelyan's excursions into contemporary history were G46 1250 rarely happy ones. But as a stimulating, provocative interpretation G46 1260 of the broad sweep of English development it is incomparable. Living G46 1270 pictures of the early boroughs, country life in Tudor and Stuart G46 1280 times, the impact of the industrial revolution compete with sensitive G46 1290 surveys of language and literature, the common law, parliamentary development. G46 1300 The strength of the is also its weakness. Trevelyan G46 1310 is militantly sure of the superiority of English institutions and G46 1320 character over those of other peoples. His G46 1330 nationalism was not a new characteristic, but its self-consciousness, G46 1340 even its self-satisfaction, is more obvious in a book that stretches G46 1350 over the long reach of English history. And yet the elements which G46 1360 capture his liberal and humanistic imagination are those which make the G46 1370 English story worth telling and worth remembering. Tolerance and G46 1380 compromise, social justice and civil liberty, are today too often in short G46 1390 supply for one to be overly critical of Trevelyan's emphasis on G46 1400 their central place in the English tradition. Like most major works G46 1410 of synthesis, the is informed by the positive G46 1420 views of a first-class mind, and this is surely a major work. G46 1430 Four years after the publication of the , the G46 1440 first volume of Trevelyan's Queen Anne trilogy appeared. By now G46 1450 he had become Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge G46 1460 and had been honored by the award of the Order of Merit. His academic G46 1470 duties had little evident effect on his prolific pen. G46 1480 was followed in rapid succession by and by , the G46 1500 three forming together a detailed picture of . G46 1510 Like his volume on Wycliffe, the work was accompanied by the G46 1520 publication of a selected group of documents, in this case illustrative G46 1530 of the history of Queen Anne's reign down to 1707. Trevelyan G46 1540 was at least in part attracted to the period by an almost unconscious G46 1550 desire to take up the story where Macaulay's G46 1560 had broken off. In addition, he believed in the "dramatic G46 1570 unity and separateness of the period from 1702-14, lying between the Stuart G46 1580 and Hanoverian eras with a special ethos of its own". He saw G46 1590 the age as one in which Britain "settled her free constitution" G46 1600 and attained her modern place in the world. To most observers, there G46 1610 is little doubt that he placed an artificial strait jacket of unity upon G46 1620 the years of Anne's reign which in reality existed only in the G46 1625 pages G46 1630 of his history. Of the three volumes, is easily G46 1640 the best. In four opening chapters reminiscent of Macaulay's famous G46 1650 third chapter, Trevelyan surveys the state of England at the opening G46 1660 of the eighteenth century. His delightful picture of society and G46 1670 institutions is filled with warm detail that brings the period vividly G46 1680 to life. He tends to underestimate- or perhaps to view charitably- G46 1690 the brutality and the violence of the age, so that there is an idyllic G46 1700 quality in these pages which hazes over some of its sharp reality. G46 1710 Yet as an evocation of time past, there are few such successful G46 1715 portraits G46 1720 in English historical literature. Once the scene is set, Trevelyan G46 1730 skilfully builds up the tense story until it reaches its climax G46 1740 in the dramatic victory of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy at Blenheim. G46 1760 The account of the battle is, next to his descriptions of Garibaldi's G46 1770 campaigns, Trevelyan's outstanding military narrative. The G46 1780 scene is etched in sharp detail, the military problems brilliantly G46 1790 explained, and the excitement and importance of the battle made evident. G46 1800 If only for this modest masterpiece of military history, G46 1810 is likely to be read and reread long after newer interpretations G46 1820 have perhaps altered our picture of the Marlborough wars. has fewer high spots than G46 1840 and much less of its dramatic unity. Yet in several chapters G46 1850 on Scotland in the eighteenth century, Trevelyan copes persuasively G46 1860 with the tangled confusion of Scottish politics against a vivid background G46 1870 of Scottish religion, customs, and traditions. G47 0010 I stood on a table, surrounded by hundreds of expectant young G47 0020 faces. Questions came to me from all sides about my world citizenship G47 0030 activities. After making a short statement about human rights, and the G47 0040 freedom to travel, I told them I would be going to the Kehl bridge G47 0050 the next morning in order to cross the Rhine into Germany. G47 0060 "May we come with you"? called out a dozen young voices. G47 0070 "Well, I might not get that far", I told them, "as actually G47 0080 I have no papers to enter Germany and, as a matter of fact, no permit G47 0090 to return to France once I leave". That was all they needed. G47 0100 They would champion me. We would all meet at ten o'clock at G47 0110 the Kehl bridge, five miles from Strasbourg, and march triumphantly G47 0120 across into Germany. There was only one hitch: the small town G47 0130 of Kehl, on the other side of the Rhine, was still under French G47 0140 jurisdiction. The real Franco-German frontier was beyond the town's G47 0150 limits. In fact, all persons were permitted to cross the Rhine into G47 0160 Kehl, there being no sentry posted on the west side of the river. G47 0170 That evening, as I learned later, the students, enjoying that G47 0180 spontaneous immodesty in action known only to university students, surged G47 0190 out onto the streets of Strasbourg, overturning empty streetcars, G47 0200 marking up store fronts, and shouting imprudently, "Garry Davis G47 0210 to power"! As I got off the trolley at Kehl bridge the G47 0220 next morning, I was met by what looked like 5,000 students, some of whom G47 0230 were carrying sticks apparently for the coming "battle" with the G47 0240 police. Alarmed by this display of weapons, I looked toward the bridge G47 0250 and there saw, stretched across the near side, a cordon of policemen, G47 0260 their bicycles forming a roadblock before which stood several French G47 0270 officers in uniform and a small waspish man in a brown derby. G47 0280 "Listen please", I called to the students in French. "I G47 0290 thank you most heartily for being here. This is full evidence of your G47 0300 support for my principles. These principles, however, will not be served G47 0310 by violence in any form. If they are right, they will prevail of G47 0320 and by themselves. I ask you all to support me in this. If one finger G47 0330 is raised against the authorities, all our moral power will vanish. G47 0340 Your self-control in this respect will be the only witness to your G47 0350 understanding of what I am saying. I have full confidence in you. Now, G47 0360 let's go". I marched up to the waiting officials, the students G47 0370 massed behind me. As usual, the press photographers were on hand. G47 0380 The waspish man stopped me three paces from the bicycle barricade, G47 0390 and asked me in French if I had papers to leave France. I replied G47 0400 in the affirmative, taking out my recently acquired , on which was stamped a permission to leave Fran G47 0420 e. He examined it carefully, handed it back and said, ", G47 0430 you may leave France". I took one step **h eastward. G47 0440 One of the uniformed officers stepped in my way, demanding to know G47 0450 whether I had permission to enter Germany. "No, I have G47 0460 no permission to enter Germany", I told him. ", G47 0470 you may go no farther", he said imperiously. "Is this then G47 0480 the frontier"? I asked him. "Yes". At this, G47 0490 the students let out a yell, knowing full well the actual frontier was G47 0500 beyond the town of Kehl. "But I have no permission to re-enter G47 0510 France, and I have just left", I told him. "I must then G47 0520 be standing on the line between France and Germany". The G47 0530 waspish man stepped forward. "Line? Line? But there is no line G47 0540 between France and Germany, that is, no actual **h I mean G47 0550 **h" "No line"? I asked. "But if there is no line, G47 0560 how can there be two countries? You have just given me permission G47 0570 to leave France, which I did. I have witnesses. And as you know, G47 0580 I have no permission to re-enter France once out. Now I learn I G47 0590 cannot G47 0600 enter Germany. Obviously I'm stuck on the line between the two G47 0610 countries". The students were laughing uproariously at this G47 0620 piece of logic, and even the policemen were trying hard not to smile. G47 0630 "", the Interior Ministry man coaxed, "you G47 0640 may come back to Strasbourg, now, if you wish". "Oh? Then G47 0650 will you give me a visa to re-enter France"? "Visa? G47 0660 But there is no question of a visa. You are still in France". G47 0670 "Ah, then please tell me where the frontier is because this G47 0680 gentleman here"- I indicated the French occupation officer- "informs G47 0690 me that Germany is just on the other side of him". G47 0700 The Interior man looked uneasily at his French compatriot. From the G47 0710 crowd were coming cries of "He's right"! "There must be G47 0720 a line"! and "Bravo, Garry, continue"! Seeing their G47 0730 hesitation, I said, "Well, until I have permission to enter Germany, G47 0740 or a visa to re-enter France, I shall be obliged to remain here G47 0750 **h on the line between two countries", whereupon I moved to the G47 0760 side of the road, parked my backpack against the small guardhouse on G47 0770 the sidewalk, sat down, took out my typewriter, and began typing the G47 0780 above conversation. The reporters were questioning the Interior G47 0790 man and the French officer, both of whom remained noncommittal as G47 0800 to what action, if any, would be taken in my regard. Finally they G47 0810 went G47 0820 off to file their stories, after the photographers had taken pictures G47 0830 of my latest vigil. The students crowded around asking questions, slapping G47 0840 me on the back, and generally being friendly. "But what G47 0850 will you do this evening, Mr& Davis"? asked a young mustached G47 0860 Frenchman. "It will be very cold". "I don't know", G47 0870 I told him, "except that I will be here". "I shall G47 0880 see about getting you a tent", he said. "I have a small sports shop G47 0890 in Strasbourg". That would be a great help, I told him, G47 0900 thanking him for his thoughtfulness. A special guard was posted at G47 0910 my end of the bridge to make sure I didn't cross, the ludicrousness G47 0920 of the situation being revealed fully in that everyone else- men, G47 0930 women, and children, dogs, cats, horses, cars, trucks, baby carriages- G47 0940 could cross Kehl bridge into Kehl without surveillance. The G47 0950 day passed eventfully enough, with a constant stream of visitors, some G47 0960 stopping only to say hello, others getting into serious conversations, G47 0970 such as one Andre Fuchs, a free-lance journalist from Strasbourg G47 0980 who wrote an article for the in highly sympathetic G47 0990 terms. Some students from the University returned around six G47 1000 with a large pot containing enough hot soup to last me a week. A volunteer G47 1010 food brigade had been arranged, they told me, which would supply G47 1020 me with the necessities as long as I remained at the bridge. A little G47 1030 later, the sports shop man returned with a small pup tent. One of G47 1040 the girl students, sitting by while I ate the thick soup, asked me if G47 1050 I had a sleeping bag. When I informed her that I didn't, she said G47 1060 she would borrow her brother's and bring it to me later that evening. G47 1070 "You do not know me", she said in good English, "but G47 1080 my mother was your governess in Philadelphia when you were a child". G47 1090 Her name was Esther Peter. I was delighted to make that personal G47 1100 contact in such trying and unusual circumstances. The Peter family G47 1110 proved wonderful and helpful friends in the following days, Mrs& G47 1120 Peter, little Esther, and Raoul, who generously lent me his sleeping G47 1130 bag for my "Watch on the Rhine". Sighting a line from G47 1140 the bridge to a small field directly to the side, I pitched the tent G47 1150 that evening on the stateless "line", digging a small trench around G47 1160 it as best I could with a toy spade donated by a neighborhood child. G47 1170 The wind from the Rhine was damp and chill, necessitating a fire G47 1180 for warmth. After scouring around a bit in the open area, I came across G47 1190 what proved to be tar-soaked logs which crackled and burned brightly, G47 1200 giving off vast rolls of smoke into the ashen sky. Each evening G47 1210 the students appeared with the soup kettle and several , Esther usually being among them. I had advised friends to G47 1230 write me to "No Man's Land, Pont Kehl, Between Strasbourg and G47 1240 Kehl, France-Germany". Sure enough, mail began trickling in, G47 1250 delivered by a talkative, highly amused French postman who informed me G47 1260 there had been quite a debate at the post office as to whether that G47 1270 address would be recognized. On Christmas Eve, students brought G47 1280 out two small Christmas trees which I placed on either side of the G47 1290 tent. As the field on which my tent was pitched was a favorite natural G47 1300 playground for the kids of the neighborhood, I had made many friends G47 1310 among them, taking part in their after-school games and trying desperately G47 1320 to translate Grimm's Fairy Tales into an understandable G47 1330 French as we gathered around the fire in front of the tent. To my great G47 1340 surprise and delight, when they saw the two trees they went rushing G47 1350 off, returning shortly with decorations from their own trees. G47 1360 It was a merry if somewhat soggy Christmas for me that year. ## G47 1370 In the mail were invitations to speak at the universities of Cologne, G47 1380 Heidelberg, and Baden-Baden. Twenty thousand world citizens at G47 1390 Stuttgart had signed a petition inviting me to visit their town. When G47 1400 Dr& Adenauer was approached by a world citizen delegation to find G47 1410 out his disposition of my case, he gave them his personal approval G47 1420 of my entry, saying that all men advocating peace should be welcomed into G47 1430 Germany. The special guard, however, was still posted on Kehl bridge. G47 1440 As it began raining at around eight o'clock on December G47 1450 26th, I retired into my tent early, somewhat tired and discouraged, G47 1455 my body reacting sluggishly G47 1460 because of the continued exposure. No matter G47 1470 how large the fire, I couldn't seem to shake off the chill that G47 1480 day. "Oh, Mr& Davis, are you there"? a voice drifted G47 1490 in to me above the patter of the rain shortly after I had fallen G47 1500 into a fitful sleep. "Who is it"? "We're from G47 1510 the Council of Europe, British delegation. May we have a word with G47 1520 you"? "I'm sorry. I've had a trying day and I just G47 1530 can't make it out again", I told them. I heard nothing G47 1540 more. Later I learned that Sir Hugh Dalton had expressed a desire G47 1550 to see me, hence their trip to "No Man's Land". On G47 1560 the evening of December 27th, Esther noticed my pallid look and rasping G47 1570 voice. She entreated me to see a doctor, and when I refused, brought G47 1580 one out to see me. He advised immediate hospitalization. I wouldn't G47 1590 hear of it because it meant giving up the "line", though I G47 1600 realized I was in poor shape physically. Esther, mistaking my hesitation, G47 1610 assured me that the hospital expense would be taken care of by G47 1620 a leading merchant in Strasbourg whom she had already approached. G47 1630 "No, it's not that", I told her. "You see, once I relinquish G47 1640 the position I've already established here, I couldn't regain G47 1650 it without sacrificing the logic of it". At that moment, G47 1660 up walked a tall young man with glasses who announced himself as a G47 1670 world citizen from Basel, Switzerland. Without preliminaries, Esther G47 1680 asked him, "If you are a world citizen, will you take Garry Davis' G47 1690 place in his tent while he goes to the hospital"? "But G47 1700 of course, with pleasure", he replied. Esther looked at G47 1710 me. I looked from her to him. "What is your name"? I G47 1720 asked him. "Jean Babel". "Shake", I said. "You G47 1730 have just enlisted for the 'Rhine Campaign'". Esther G47 1740 jumped up, ran to him and gave him a little hug. "I am G47 1750 so happy. Now come, Garry, we must go quickly. There is a police car G47 1760 outside. Maybe they will take us". Such were the incongruities G47 1770 of the situation that the very police assigned to check up on me G47 1780 were drafted into driving me to the Strasbourg Hospital while World G47 1790 Citizen Jean Babel waved adieu from the "Line"! G48 0010 He remembered every detail of his pre-assault movements but nothing of G48 0020 the final, desperate rush to come to grips with the enemy. When the G48 0030 victory cheer went up this officer found himself still mounted, with G48 0035 his G48 0040 horse pressed broadside against Cleburne's log parapet in a tangled G48 0050 group of infantrymen. His hat was gone, the tears were streaming G48 0060 from his eyes. He never knew how he got there. Six climactic minutes G48 0070 in an individual's life left no memory. Eight hundred and sixty-five G48 0080 Rebels surrendered within their works and a thousand more were G48 0090 captured or surrendered themselves that night and the next day. Eight G48 0100 field guns were captured in position. Seven battle flags and fourteen G48 0110 officers' swords were sent to Thomas' headquarters. It was G48 0120 the only sizable assault upon infantry and artillery behind breastworks G48 0130 successfully made by either side during the Atlanta campaign. The G48 0140 Fourteenth Regiment of Ohio Volunteers lost one-third of its numbers G48 0150 within a few minutes, among them being several men whose time of service G48 0160 had expired but who had volunteered to advance with their regiment. G48 0170 The Thirty-eighth Regiment of Ohio Volunteers, one of the regiments G48 0180 in Thomas' First Division during Buell's command, suffered G48 0190 its greatest loss of the war in this action. A popular belief G48 0200 grew up after the war that the only time during the Civil War that G48 0210 Thomas ever put his horse to a gallop was when he went to hurry up G48 0220 Stanley for this assault. Sherman was responsible for the story when G48 0230 he said in his memoirs that this was the only time he could recall G48 0240 seeing Thomas ride so fast. While Thomas' injured back led him to G48 0250 restrain his mount from its most violent gait he moved quickly enough G48 0260 when he had to. It is not in the record, but he must have galloped his G48 0270 horse at Peach Tree Creek when he brought up Ward's guns to save G48 0280 Newton's crumbling line. While the final combat of the G48 0290 campaign was being worked out at Jonesborough, Thomas, on Sherman's G48 0300 instructions, ordered Slocum, now commanding the Twentieth Corps, G48 0310 to make an effort to occupy Atlanta if he could do so without exposing G48 0320 his bridgehead to a counterattack. The dispatch must have been sent G48 0330 after sundown on September 1. Slocum made his reconnaissanace the G48 0340 next morning, found the town empty, accepted the surrender of the mayor G48 0350 and occupied the city a little before noon. On the morning G48 0360 of September 2 the Fourth Corps and the Armies of the Tennessee and G48 0370 the Ohio followed the line of Hardee's retreat. About noon they G48 0380 came up with the enemy two miles from Lovejoy's Station and deployed. G48 0390 The Fourth Corps assaulted and carried a small portion of the G48 0400 enemy works but could not hold possession of the gain for want of cooperation G48 0410 from the balance of the line. That night a note written in G48 0420 Slocum's hand and dated from inside the captured city came to Sherman G48 0430 stating that the Twentieth Corps was in possession of Atlanta. G48 0440 Before making the news public Sherman sent an officer with the note G48 0450 to Thomas. In a short time the officer returned and Thomas followed G48 0460 on his heels. The cautious Thomas re-examined the note and then, making G48 0470 up his mind that it was genuine, snapped his fingers, whistled and G48 0480 almost danced in his exuberance. The next day Sherman issued G48 0490 his orders ending the campaign and pulled his armies back to Atlanta. G48 0500 The measure of combat efficiency in an indecisive campaign is a matter G48 0510 of personal choice. Sherman laid great store by place captures. G48 0520 Hood refused to notice anything except captured guns and colors. By G48 0530 both standards Thomas had the right to be proud. Thomas thanked G48 0540 his men for their tenacity of purpose, unmurmuring endurance, cheerful G48 0550 obedience, brilliant heroism and high qualities in battle. G48 0560 Sherman felt that his own part in the campaign was skillful and well G48 0570 executed but that the slowness of a part of his army robbed him of the G48 0580 larger fruits of victory. He supposed the military world would approve G48 0590 of his accomplishment. Whatever the military world thought, G48 0600 the political world approved it wholeheartedly. For some time, despondency G48 0610 in some Northern quarters had been displayed in two ways- an G48 0620 eagerness for peace and a dissatisfaction with Lincoln. Proposals G48 0630 were in the air for a year's armistice. Lincoln was sure that he would G48 0640 not be re-elected. In the midst of this gloom, at 10:05 P&M& G48 0650 on September 2, Slocum's telegram to Stanton, "General Sherman G48 0660 has taken Atlanta", shattered the talk of a negotiated peace G48 0670 and boosted Lincoln into the White House. To the Republicans no G48 0675 victory G48 0680 could have been more complete. Official congratulations G48 0690 showered upon Sherman and his army. Lincoln mentioned their distinguished G48 0700 ability, courage and perseverance. He felt that this campaign would G48 0710 be famous in the annals of war. Grant called it prompt, skillful G48 0720 and brilliant. Halleck described it as the most brilliant of the war. G48 0730 Actually the Atlanta campaign was a military failure. Next G48 0740 best to destroying an army is to deprive it of its freedom of action. G48 0750 Sherman had accomplished this much of his job and then inexplicably G48 0760 nullified it by his thirty-mile retreat from Lovejoy's to Atlanta. G48 0770 But, so far as its territorial objectives were concerned, the campaign G48 0780 was successful. Within the narrow frame of military tactics, too, G48 0790 the experts agree that the campaign was brilliant. In seventeen weeks G48 0800 the military front was driven southward more than 100 miles. There G48 0810 was a battle on an average of once every three weeks. The skirmishing G48 0820 was almost constant. In the summary of the principal events of the campaign G48 0830 compiled from the official records there are only ten days which G48 0840 show no fighting. The casualties in the Army of the Cumberland were G48 0850 22,807, while for all three armies they were 37,081. Men were killed G48 0860 in their camps, at their meals and in their sleep. Rifle fire often G48 0870 kept the opposing gunners from manning their pieces. Modern warfare G48 0880 was born in this campaign- periscopes, camouflage, booby traps, land G48 0890 mines, extended order, trench raids, foxholes, armored cars, night G48 0900 attacks, flares, sharpshooters in trees, interlaced vines and treetops, G48 0910 which were the forerunners of barbed wire, trip wires to thwart a cavalry G48 0920 charge, which presaged the mine trap, and the general use of anesthetics. G48 0930 The use of map coordinates was begun when the senior officers G48 0940 began to select tactical points by designating a spot as "near the G48 0950 letter ~o in the word mountain". A few weeks later the maps were G48 0960 being divided into squares and a position was described as being "about G48 0970 lots 239, 247 and 272 with pickets forward as far as 196". This G48 0980 system was dependent upon identical maps and Thomas supplied them G48 0985 from a mobile lithograph press. G48 0990 Orders of the day began to specify the G48 1000 standard map for the movement. Sherman proved that a railway G48 1010 base could be movable and the most brilliant feature of the Atlanta G48 1020 campaign was the rapid repair of the tracks. To the Rebels it seemed G48 1030 as if Sherman carried tunnels and bridges in his pockets. The whistle G48 1040 of Sherman's locomotives often drowned out the rattle of the skirmish G48 1050 fire. As always, the ranks worked out new and better tactics, but G48 1060 there was brilliance in the way the field commands adopted these methods G48 1070 and in the way the army commanders incorporated them into their G48 1080 military thinking. The fossilized, formalized, precedent-based thinking G48 1090 of the legendary military brain was not evident in Sherman's armies. G48 1100 Sherman could never be accused of sticking too long with the old. G48 1110 One of Sherman's most serious shortcomings, however, was G48 1120 his mistrust of his cavalry. He never saw that it was a complement to G48 1130 his infantry and not a substitute for it. Then, in some way, this lack G48 1140 of faith in the cavalry became mixed up in his mind with the dragging G48 1150 effect of wagon trains and was hardened into a prejudice. A horse G48 1160 needed twenty pounds of food a day but the infantryman got along with G48 1170 two pounds. The horseman required eleven times more than the footman. G48 1180 So Sherman tried a compromise. He would ship by rail five pounds per G48 1190 day per animal and the other fifteen pounds that were needed could G48 1200 be picked up off the country. It failed to work. Already debilitated G48 1210 by the Chattanooga starvation, the quality of Sherman's horseflesh G48 1220 ran downhill as the campaign progressed. Every recorded request by G48 1230 Thomas for a delay in a flank movement or an advance was to gain time G48 1235 to take care G48 1240 of his horses. Well led, properly organized cavalry, G48 1250 in its complementary role to infantry, had four functions. First, G48 1260 it could locate the enemy infantry, learn what they were doing, and hold G48 1270 them until the heavy foot columns could come up and take over. Second, G48 1280 it could screen its own infantry from the sight of the enemy. Third, G48 1290 it could threaten at all times, and destroy when possible, the enemy G48 1300 communications. It could reach key tactical points faster than infantry G48 1310 and destroy them or hold them as the case might be for the foot G48 1320 soldier. Its climactic role was to pursue and demoralize a defeated G48 1330 enemy but this chance never came in the Atlanta campaign. Thomas tried G48 1340 hard to have his cavalry ready for the test it was to meet, but his G48 1350 plans were wrecked when it was forced into a campaign without optimum G48 1360 mobility and with its commander stripped from it. Sherman knew G48 1370 the uses of cavalry as well as Thomas but he imagined a moving base G48 1380 with infantry wings instead of cavalry wings. His conception proved G48 1390 workable but slower and it enabled his enemy to make clean, deft, well G48 1400 organized retreats with small materiel losses. Sherman insisted that G48 1410 cavalry could not successfully break up hostile railways, yet Garrard's G48 1420 Covington raid and Rousseau's Opelika raid cut two-thirds G48 1430 of the rail lines he had to break and Sherman lived in mortal fear of G48 1440 what Forrest might do to his communications. When McPherson G48 1450 pushed blindly through Snake Creek Gap in a potentially decisive G48 1460 movement, the only cavalry in his van was the Ninth Illinois Mounted G48 1470 Infantry, totally inadequate for its role. It stumbled on infantry G48 1480 where no infantry should have been and McPherson's aggressive impulse G48 1490 faded out, overwhelmed by fears of the unknown. A proper cavalry G48 1500 command in his front would have developed the fact that he had run into G48 1510 one division of Polk's Army of the Mississippi moving up from G48 1520 the direction of Mobile to join Johnston at Dalton. From the night G48 1530 of August 30 to the morning of September 2 there was no Union cavalry G48 1540 east of the Macon railway to disclose to Sherman that he was missing G48 1550 the greatest opportunity of his career. A great part of the time, G48 1560 Thomas' infantry never knew the location of the enemy line. At such G48 1570 times Thomas wondered when and where a counterattack would strike G48 1580 him. It was the hard way to fight a war but Thomas did it without making G48 1590 any disastrous mistakes. Heat during the Atlanta campaign, G48 1600 coupled with unsuitable clothing, caused individual irritation that G48 1610 was compounded by a lack of opportunity to bathe and shift into clean G48 1620 clothing. To relieve the itch and sweat galls, the men got into the G48 1630 water whenever they could and since each sizable stream was generally G48 1640 the dividing line between the armies the pickets declared a private G48 1650 truce while the men went swimming. Johnston believed that Sherman put G48 1660 his naked engineers into the swimming parties to locate the various G48 1670 fords. Lieutenant Colonel James P& Brownlow, who commanded the G48 1680 First Brigade of Thomas' First Cavalry Division, was ordered across G48 1690 one of these fords. The water was deep and Brownlow took his troopers G48 1700 across naked- except for guns, cartridge boxes and hats. They G48 1710 kicked their horses through the deep water with their bare heels, drove G48 1730 the Rebels out of their rifle pits and captured four men. Most of G48 1740 the Rebels got away since they could make better time through the stiff G48 1750 brush than their naked pursuers. Rank was becoming an explosive G48 1760 issue in all three of Sherman's armies. Merited recommendations G48 1770 from army commanders were passed over in favor of political appointees G48 1780 from civil life. G49 0010 In one of the very few letters in which he ever complained of G49 0020 Meynell, Thompson told Patmore of his distress at having had to leave G49 0030 London before this new friendship had developed further: " G49 0040 That was a very absurd and annoying situation in which I was placed G49 0045 by G49 0050 W& M&'s curious methods of handling me. He never let me know G49 0060 that my visit was about to terminate until the actual morning I was G49 0070 to leave for Lymington. The result was that I found myself in the G49 0080 ridiculous position of having made a formal engagement by letter for G49 0090 the next week, only two days before my departure from London. Luckily G49 0100 both women knew my position and if anyone suffered in their opinion G49 0110 it was not I". It need hardly be remarked that Thompson was not G49 0120 generally known for his scrupulosity about keeping his social engagements, G49 0130 which makes his irritation in this letter all the more significant. G49 0140 When Thompson and her daughter began a correspondence which G49 0150 included fervent verses from Pantasaph, Mrs& King felt a proper G49 0160 Victorian alarm. Some, she knew, looked upon Thompson almost as a G49 0170 saint, G49 0180 but others read in "The Hound of Heaven" what they took to G49 0190 be the confessions of a great sinner, who, like Oscar Wilde, had- G49 0200 as one pious writer later put it- thrown himself "on the swelling G49 0210 wave of every passion". Consequently, on October 31, 1896, G49 0220 Mrs& King wrote to Thompson, quite against her daughter's wishes, G49 0230 asking him not to "recommence a correspondence which I believe G49 0240 has been dropped for some weeks". Katherine was staying at a convent, G49 0250 and her mother felt that, as Thompson himself seems to have suggested, G49 0260 she might eventually stay there. This prospect did not please Mrs& G49 0270 King any more than did the possibility that her daughter might G49 0280 marry a Bohemian, but she used it to suggest to Thompson that, G49 0290 "It G49 0300 is not in her nature to love you". For his part, Thompson G49 0310 had explained in a previous letter that there would be nothing but an G49 0320 honorable friendship between Katie and himself. At no time does he G49 0330 seem to have proposed marriage, and Mrs& King was evidently torn between G49 0340 a concern for her daughter's emotions and the desire to believe G49 0350 that the friendship might be continued without harm to her reputation. G49 0360 In any case, she told Thompson that she saw no reason why he might G49 0370 not see Katie again, "now that this frank explanation has been made G49 0380 + no one can misunderstand". She ended her letter with the assurance G49 0390 that she considered his friendship for her daughter and herself G49 0400 to be an honor, from which she could not part "without still more pain". G49 0410 After Thompson came to London to live, he received a G49 0420 letter from Katie, which was dated February 8, 1897. She regretted G49 0430 what she described as the "unwarrantable + unnecessary" check to their G49 0440 friendship and said that she felt that they understood one another G49 0450 perfectly. This letter concluded with an invitation: " I G49 0460 am a great deal at the little children's Hospital. Mr& Meynell G49 0470 knows the way. I know you are very busy now, you are writing a great G49 0480 deal + your book is coming out, isn't it? but if you are able + care G49 0490 to come, you know how glad I shall be. Ever yours sincerely, G49 0500 Katherine Douglas King" The invitation was accepted and G49 0510 other letters followed, in which she spoke of her concern for his health G49 0520 and her delight in seeing him so much at home among the crippled G49 0530 children she served. It is difficult to say what Thompson expected G49 0540 would come of their relationship, which had begun so soon after his emotions G49 0550 had been stirred by Maggie Brien, but when Katie wrote on April G49 0560 11, 1900, to tell him that she was to be married to the Rev& Godfrey G49 0570 Burr, the vicar of Rushall in Staffordshire, the news evidently G49 0580 helped to deepen his discouragement over the failure of his hopes G49 0590 for a new volume of verse. In a letter to Meynell, which was written G49 0600 in June, less than a month before Katie's wedding, he was highly G49 0610 melodramatic in his despair and once again announced his intention of G49 0620 returning to the life of the streets: " A week in arrears, G49 0630 and without means to pay, I must go, it is the only right thing. **h G49 0640 Perhaps Mrs& Meynell would do me the undeserved kindness to keep G49 0650 my own copy of the first edition of my first book, with all its mementos G49 0660 of her and the dear ones. **h Last, not least, there are some poems G49 0670 which K& King sent me (addressed to herself) when I was preparing G49 0680 a fresh volume, asking me to include them. The terrible blow of G49 0690 the New Year put an end to that project. I wish you would return them G49 0700 to her. I have not the heart. **h I never had the courage to look G49 0710 at them, when my projected volume became hopeless, fearing they were G49 0720 poor, until now when I was obliged to do so. **h O my genius, young G49 0730 and you would swear,- when I wrote them; and now! G49 0740 What has it all come to? All chance of fulfilling my destiny is G49 0750 over. **h I want you to be grandfather to these orphaned poems, dear G49 0760 father-brother, now I am gone; and launch them on the world when their G49 0770 time comes. For them a box will be lodgment enough. **h Katie cannot G49 0780 mind your seeing them now; since my silence must have ended when G49 0790 I gave the purposed volume to you. **h I ask you to do me the last G49 0800 favour of reading them by 8 to-morrow evening, about which time I shall G49 0810 come to say my sad good-bye. If you don't think much of them, tell G49 0820 me the wholesome truth. If otherwise, you will give me a pleasure. G49 0830 O Wilfrid! it is strange; but this- yes, step I G49 0840 am about to take **h is lightened with an inundating joy by the new-found G49 0850 hope that here, in these poems, is treasure- or at least some G49 0860 measure of beauty, which I did not know of". **h Thompson, of G49 0870 course, G49 0880 was persuaded not to take the <"terrible> step"; Meynell once G49 0890 again paid his debts and it was Katie, rather than Thompson, whose G49 0900 life was soon ended, for she died in childbirth in April, 1901, in G49 0910 the first year of her marriage. The "orphaned poems" mentioned G49 0920 in the letter to Meynell comprised a group of five sonnets, which G49 0930 were published in the 1913 edition of Thompson's works under the G49 0940 heading "Ad Amicam", plus certain other completed pieces and rough G49 0950 drafts gathered together in one of the familiar exercise books. The G49 0960 publication of Father Connolly's has made G49 0970 more of the group available in print so that a general picture of G49 0980 what it contained can now be had without difficulty. Some of the poems G49 0990 express a mood of joy in a newly discovered love; others suggest its G49 1000 coming loss or describe the poet's feelings when he learns of a final G49 1010 separation. The somewhat Petrarchan love story which these G49 1020 poems suggest cannot obscure the fact that undoubtedly they have more G49 1030 than a little of autobiographical sincerity. When they were first G49 1040 written, there was evidently no thought of their being published, and G49 1050 those which refer to the writer's love for Mrs& Meynell particularly G49 1060 have the ring of truth. In "My Song's Young Virgin Date", G49 1070 for example, Thompson wrote: "Yea, she that had my song's G49 1080 young virgin date Not now, alas, that noble singular she, I nobler G49 1090 hold, though marred from her once state, Than others in their best integrity. G49 1100 My own stern hand has rent the ancient bond, And thereof shall G49 1110 the ending not have end: But not for me, that loved her, to be G49 1120 fond Lightly to please me with a newer friend. Then hold it more than G49 1130 bravest-feathered song, That I affirm to thee, with heart of pride, G49 1140 I knew not what did to a friend belong Till I stood up, true friend, G49 1150 by thy true side; Whose absence dearer comfort is, by far, Than G49 1160 presences of other women are"! Taking into account Thompson's G49 1170 capacity for self-dramatization and the possibility of a wish G49 1180 to identify his own life with the misfortunes of other poets who had known G49 1190 unhappy loves, there can be no doubt about his genuine emotion for G49 1200 Katie King. That she was affected by his protestations seems obvious, G49 1210 but since she was evidently a sensible young woman- as well as G49 1220 an outgoing and sympathetic type- it would seem that for her the word G49 1230 had a far less intense emotional significance than that G49 1240 which Thompson gave it. From the outset, she must have realized that G49 1250 marriage with him was out of the question, and although she was displeased G49 1260 by the "unwarrantable" interference, it seems probable that G49 1270 she did agree with her mother's suggestion that the poet was "perhaps" G49 1280 a man "most fitted to live + die solitary, + in the love G49 1290 only of the Highest Lover". The poems which were addressed G49 1300 to her, while they are far more restrained than those of "Love in G49 1310 Dian's Lap", show no great technical advance over those of the "Narrow G49 1320 Vessel" group and are, if anything, somewhat more labored. G49 1330 Their interest remains chiefly biographical, for they throw some light G49 1340 on the utter despair which overtook Thompson in the spring and early G49 1350 summer of 1900. Whether or not Danchin is correct in suggesting G49 1360 that Thompson's resumption of the opium habit also dates from G49 1370 this period is, of course, a matter of conjecture. Reid simply states, G49 1380 without offering any supporting evidence, that "after he returned G49 1390 to London, he resumed his draughts of laudanum, and continued this G49 1400 right up to his death". There is every reason to recognize that in G49 1410 the very last years of his life, as we shall see, Thompson did take G49 1420 the drug in carefully rationed doses to ease the pains of his illness, G49 1430 but the exact date at which this began has never been determined. If, G49 1440 as Reid says, "nearly all his poetry was produced when he was not G49 1450 taking opium", there may be some reason to doubt that he was under G49 1460 its influence in the period from 1896 to 1900 when he was writing the G49 1470 poems to Katie King and making plans for another book of verse. In G49 1480 any event, the critical productivity of that time is abundant proof that G49 1490 if he was taking laudanum, it was never in command of him to the extent G49 1500 that it had been during his vagrant years. Meynell's remedy G49 1510 for Thompson's despondent mood was typically practical. He simply G49 1520 found more work for him to do, and the articles and reviews continued G49 1530 without an evident break. #@ /3, @# As a reviewer, Thompson G49 1540 generally displayed a judicious attitude. That he read some G49 1550 of the books assigned to him with a studied carefulness is evident from G49 1560 his notes, which are often so full that they provide an unquestionable G49 1570 basis for the identification of reviews that were printed without G49 1580 his signature. On the basis of this careful reading, Thompson frequently G49 1590 gave a clear, complete, and interesting description of a prose work G49 1600 or chose effective quotations to illustrate his discussions of poetry. G49 1610 He was seldom an unmethodical critic, and his reviews generally G49 1620 followed a systematic pattern: a description of what the work G49 1630 contained, a treatment of the things that had especially interested him G49 1640 in it, and, wherever possible, a balancing of whatever artistic merits G49 1650 and faults he might have found. It was, of course, in this G49 1655 drawing G49 1660 of the balance sheet of judgment that he most clearly displayed his desire G49 1670 to do full justice to an author. Reviewing Davidson's for example, Thompson found G49 1690 that G49 1700 there was "too much metrical dialectic". Poetry, he said, must be G49 1710 "dogmatic": it must not stoop to argue like a "K&C& in G49 1720 cloth-of-gold". Yet Davidson impressed him as a poet capable of "sustained G49 1730 power, passion, or beauty", and he cited specific passages G49 1740 to illustrate not only these qualities but Davidson's command of G49 1750 imagery as well. Similarly, he wrote that Laurence Housman had a "too G49 1760 deliberate manner" as well as a lack of "inevitable felicity G49 1770 in diction". But he admired Housman's "subtle intellectuality" G49 1780 and delighted in the inversion by which Divine Love becomes the most G49 1790 "fatal" allurement in "Love the Tempter". Of course, G49 1800 there were books about which nothing good could be said. Understanding, G49 1810 as he did, the difficulty of the art of poetry, and believing G49 1820 that the "only technical criticism worth having in poetry is that of G49 1830 poets", he felt obliged to insist upon his duty to be hard to please G49 1840 when it came to the review of a book of verse. G50 0010 As he had done on his first Imperial sortie a year and a half G50 0020 before, Lewis trekked southeast through Red Russia to Kamieniec. G50 0030 Thence he pushed farther south than he had ever been before into Podolia G50 0040 and Nogay Tartary or the Yedisan. There, along the east bank G50 0050 of the Southern Bug, opposite the hamlet of Zhitzhakli a few miles G50 0060 north of the Black Sea, he arrived at General Headquarters of the G50 0070 Russian Army. By June 19, 1788, he had presented himself to its Commander G50 0080 in Chief, the Governor of the Southern Provinces, the Director G50 0090 of the War College- The Prince. ## Catherine's first G50 0100 war against the Grand Turk had ended in 1774 with a peace treaty G50 0110 quite favorable to her. By 1783 her legions had managed to annex the G50 0120 Crimea amid scenes of wanton cruelty and now, in this second combat with G50 0130 the Crescent, were aiming at suzerainty over all of the Black Sea's G50 0140 northern shoreline. Through most of 1787 operations on G50 0150 both sides had been lackadaisical; those of 1788 were going to prove G50 0160 decisive, though many of their details are obscure. To consolidate what G50 0170 her Navy had won, the Czarina was fortunate that, for the first G50 0180 time in Russian history, her land forces enjoyed absolute unity of command G50 0190 under her favorite Giaour. Potemkin was directing this conflict G50 0200 on three fronts: in the Caucasus; along the Danube and among the G50 0210 Carpathians, in alliance with the Emperor Joseph's armies; and G50 0220 in the misty marshlands and shallow coastal waters of Nogay Tartary G50 0230 and Taurida, including the Crimean peninsula. Here the war would G50 0240 flame to its focus, and here Lewis Littlepage had come. Potemkin's G50 0260 Army of Ekaterinoslav, totaling, it was claimed, 40,000 regular G50 0270 troops and 6,000 irregulars of the Cossack Corps, had invested G50 0280 Islam's principal stronghold on the north shore of the Black Sea, G50 0290 the fortress town of Oczakov, and was preparing to test the Turk by G50 0300 land and sea. During a sojourn of slightly more than three months Chamberlain G50 0310 Littlepage sould see action on both elements. As his G50 0320 second in command The Prince had Marshal Repnin, one-time Ambassador G50 0330 to Poland. Repnin, who had a rather narrow face, longish nose, G50 0340 high forehead, and arching brows, looked like a quizzical Mephistopheles. G50 0350 Some people thought he lacked both ability and character, but G50 0360 most G50 0370 agreed that he was noble in appearance and, for a Russian, humane. G50 0380 The Marshal came to know Littlepage quite well. At General Headquarters G50 0390 the newcomer in turn got to know others. There was the Neapolitan, G50 0400 Ribas, a capable conniver whose father had been a blacksmith G50 0410 but who had fawned his way up the ladder of Catherine's and Potemkin's G50 0420 favor till he was now a brigadier (and would one day be the daggerman G50 0430 designated to do in Czar Paul /1,, after traveling all the G50 0440 way G50 0450 to Naples to procure just the right stiletto). Then there were G50 0460 the distinguished foreign volunteers. Representing the Emperor were G50 0470 the Prince de Ligne, still as impetuous as a youth of twenty; and G50 0480 General the Count Pallavicini, founder of the Austrian branch of G50 0490 that celebrated Italian house, a courtier Littlepage could have met G50 0500 at Madrid in December, 1780. From Milan came the young Chevalier G50 0510 de Litta, an officer in the service of Malta. Out of Saxony rode G50 0520 the Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, one of the Czarina's cousins and G50 0530 a lieutenant general in her armies, a frank, sensitive, popular soldier G50 0540 whose kindnesses Littlepage would "always recall with the sincerest G50 0550 gratitude". Though Catherine was vexed at the number of G50 0560 French officers streaming to the Turkish standard, there were several G50 0570 under her own, such as the Prince de Nassau; the energetic Parisian, G50 0580 Roger de Damas, three year's Littlepage's junior, to whom G50 0590 Nassau had taken a liking; and the artillerist, Colonel Prevost, G50 0600 whom the Count de Segur had persuaded to lend his technical skills G50 0610 to Nassau. England contributed a young subaltern named Newton and G50 0620 the naval architect Samuel Bentham, brother to the economist, who far G50 0630 his colonel's commission was proving a godsend to the Russian fleet. G50 0640 From America were the Messrs& Littlepage and Jones. G50 0650 Lewis had expected to report at once to Jones's and Nassau's naval G50 0660 command post. On arrival at headquarters he had, however- in King G50 0670 Stanislas' words to Glayre- "found such favor with ~Pe G50 0680 Potemkin that he made him his aide-de-camp and up to now does not want G50 0690 him to go join Paul Jones **h". So of course he stayed put. Having G50 0700 done so, he began to experience all the frustrations of others who G50 0710 attempted to get along with Serenissimus and do a job at the same G50 0720 time. The Prince's perceptions were quick and his energy monstrous, G50 0730 but these qualities were sapped by an Oriental lethargy and G50 0740 a policy of letting nothing interfere with personal passions. At headquarters- G50 0750 sufficiently far from the firing line to make you forget occasionally G50 0760 that you were in a war- Lewis found that the Commander G50 0770 in Chief's only desk was his knees (and his only comb, his fingers). G50 0780 An entire theater had been set up for his diversion, with a 200-man G50 0790 Italian orchestra under the well-known Sarti. In the great one's G50 0800 personal quarters, a portable house, almost every evening saw an elegant G50 0810 banquet or reception. Lewis could let his eye caress The Prince's G50 0820 divan, covered with a rose-pink and silver Turkish cloth, or admire G50 0830 the lovely tapis, interwoven with gold, that spread across the floor. G50 0840 Filigreed perfume boxes exuded the aromas of Araby. Around the G50 0850 billiard tables were always at least a couple of dozen beribboned generals. G50 0860 At dinner the courses were carried in by tall cuirassiers in red G50 0870 capes and black fur caps topped with tufts of feathers, marching in G50 0880 pairs like guards from a stage tragedy. Among the visitors arriving G50 0890 every now and then there were, of course, women. For if Serenissimus G50 0900 made the sign of the Cross with his right hand, and meant it, G50 0910 with his left he beckoned lewdly to any lady who happened to catch his G50 0920 eye. Usually Lewis would find at headquarters one or more of The G50 0930 Prince's various nieces. Right now he found Sophie de Witt, G50 0940 that magnificent young matron he had spotted at Kamieniec fours years G50 0950 ago. The Prince took her with him on every tour around the area, G50 0960 and it was rumored he was utilizing her knowledge of Constantinople G50 0970 as part of his espionage network. One evening he passed around the banquet G50 0980 table a crystal cup full of diamonds, requesting every female guest G50 0990 to select one as a souvenir. When a lady chanced to soil a pair of G50 1000 evening slippers, Brigadier Bauer was dispatched to Paris for replacements. G50 1010 But if The Prince fancied women and was fascinated G50 1020 by foreigners, he could be haughtiness personified to his subordinates. G50 1030 He had collared one of his generals in public. His coat trimmed G50 1040 in sable, diamond stars of the Orders of Saints Andrew or George agleam, G50 1050 he was often prone to sit sulkily, eye downcast, in a Scheherazade G50 1060 trance. When this happened, everything stopped. As Littlepage G50 1070 noted: "A complete picture of Prince Potemkin may be had in his G50 1080 1788 operations. He stays inactive for half the summer in front of Oczakov, G50 1090 a quite second-rate spot, begins to besiege it only G50 1100 during the autumn rains, and finally carries it in G50 1110 the heart of winter. There's a man who never goes by the ordinary road G50 1120 but still arrives at his goal, who gratuitously gets himself into G50 1130 difficulty in order to get out of it with eclat, in a word a man who creates G50 1140 monsters for himself in order to appear a in destroying G50 1150 them". To help him do so The Prince had conferred control G50 1160 of his land forces on a soldier who was different from him in almost G50 1170 every respect save one: both were eccentrics of the purest ray G50 1180 serene. Alexander Vasilievitch Suvorov, now in his fifty-ninth G50 1190 year (ten years Potemkin's senior), was a thin, worn-faced person G50 1200 of less than medium height who looked like a professor of botany. He G50 1210 had a small mouth with deep furrows on either side, a large flat nose, G50 1220 and penetrating blue eyes. His gray hair was thin, his face beginning G50 1230 to attract a swarm of wrinkles. He was ugly. But Suvorov's face G50 1240 was also a theater of vivacity, and his tough, stooping little frame G50 1250 was briskness embodied. Like all Russians he was an emotional man, G50 1260 and in him the emotions warred. Kind by nature, he never refused charity G50 1270 to a beggar or help to anyone who asked him for it (as Lewis would G50 1280 one day discover). But he was perpetually engaged in a battle to G50 1290 command his own temper. When Littlepage was introduced, if the G50 1300 General behaved as usual, the newcomer faced a staccato salvo of queries: G50 1310 origin? age? mission? current status? Woe betide the G50 1320 interviewee if he answered vaguely. Suvorov's contempt for don't-know's G50 1330 was proverbial; better to give an asinine answer than none G50 1340 at all. Despising luxuries of any sort for a soldier, he slept on a G50 1350 pile of hay with his cloak as blanket. He rose at 4:00 A&M& the G50 1360 year round and G50 1370 was apt to stride through camp crowing like a cock to wake G50 1380 his men. His breakfast was tea; his dinner fell anywhere from nine G50 1390 to noon; his supper was nothing. He hadn't worn a watch or carried G50 1400 pocket money for years because he disliked both, but highest among G50 1410 his hates were looking glasses: he had snatched one from an officer's G50 1420 grasp and smashed it to smithereens. He kept several pet birds G50 1430 and liked cats well enough that if one crept by, he would mew at it in G50 1440 friendly fashion. Passing dogs were greeted with a cordial bark. G50 1450 Yet General Suvorov- who had never forgotten hearing his adored G50 1460 Czarina declare that all truly great men had oddities- was mad G50 1470 only north, northwest. He had come to learn that a reputation for peculiarity G50 1480 allowed mere field officers a certain leeway at Court; in G50 1490 camp he knew it won you the affection of your men. He had accordingly G50 1500 cultivated eccentricity to the point of second nature. Underneath, he G50 1510 remained one of the best-educated Russians of his day. He dabbled G50 1520 in verse, could get along well among most of the European languages, G50 1530 and was fluent in French and German. He had also mastered the Cossack G50 1540 tongue. For those little men with the short whiskers, shaven G50 1550 polls, and top knots Suvorov reserved a special esteem. Potemkin- G50 1560 as King Stanislas knew, and presently informed Littlepage- looked G50 1570 on the Cossacks as geopolitical tools. To Serenissimus such tribes G50 1580 as the Cossacks of the Don or those ex-bandits the Zaporogian G50 1585 Cossacks G50 1590 (in whose islands along the lower Dnieper the Polish novelist G50 1600 Sienkiewicz would one day place ) were just G50 1610 elements for enforced resettlement in, say, Bessarabia, where, as G50 1620 "the faithful of the Black Sea borders", he could use their presence G50 1630 as baragining points in the Czarina's territorial claims against G50 1640 Turkey. Suvorov saw in these scimitar-wielding skirmishers not demographic G50 1650 units but military men of a high potential. He knew how to G50 1660 channel their exuberant disorderliness so as to transform them from mere G50 1665 plunderers into A-1 guerrilla G50 1670 fighters. He always kept a few on his G50 1680 personal staff. He often donned their tribal costumes, such as the G50 1690 one featuring a tall, black sheepskin hat from the top of which dangled G50 1700 a little red bag ornamented by a chain of worsted lace and tassels; G50 1710 broad red stripes down the trouser leg; broader leather belt round G50 1720 the waist, holding cartridges and light sabre. Suvorov played parent G50 1730 not just to his Cossacks but to all his troops. It was probably at G50 1740 this period that Littlepage got his first good look at the ordinary G50 1750 Russian soldier. These illiterate boors conscripted from villages G50 1760 all across the Czarina's empire had, Suvorov may have told Lewis, G50 1770 just two things a commander could count on: physical fitness and G50 1780 personal courage. When their levies came shambling into camp, they G50 1790 were all elbows, hair, and beard. They emerged as interchangeable cogs G50 1800 in a faulty but formidable machine: shaved nearly naked, hair queued, G50 1810 greatcoated, jackbooted, and best of all- in the opinion of the G50 1820 British professional, Major Semple-Lisle- "their minds are not G50 1830 estranged from the paths of obedience by those smatterings of knowledge G50 1840 which only serve to lead to insubordination and mutiny". G51 0010 Mando, pleading her cause, must have said that Dr& Brown was the G51 0020 most distinguished physician in the United States of America, for G51 0030 our man poured out his symptoms and drew a madly waving line indicating G51 0040 the irregularity of his pulse. "He's got high blood pressure, too, G51 0050 and bum kidneys", the doctor said to me. "Transparent look, waxy G51 0060 skin- could well be uremia". He looked disapprovingly at an ash G51 0070 tray piled high with cigarette stubs, shook his head, and moved his G51 0080 hand back and forth in a strong negative gesture. The little official G51 0090 hung his head in shame. Seeing this, his colleague at the next desk G51 0100 gave a short, contemptuous laugh, pushed forward his own ash tray, innocent G51 0110 of a single butt, thumped his chest to show his excellent condition, G51 0120 and looked proud. The doctor gravely nodded approval. G51 0130 At this moment Mando came hurrying up to announce that the problem G51 0140 was solved and all Norton had to do was to sign a sheaf of papers. We G51 0150 went out of the office and down the hall to a window where documents G51 0160 and more officials awaited us, the rest of the office personnel hot G51 0170 upon our heels. By this time word had got around that an American doctor G51 0180 was on the premises. One fellow who had liver spots held out his G51 0190 hands to the great healer. It was funny but it was also touching. "You G51 0200 know", Norton said to me later, "I am thinking of setting G51 0210 up the Klinico Brownapopolus. I might not make any money but I'd G51 0220 sure have patients". After luncheon we took advantage of G51 0230 the siesta period to try to get in touch with a few people to whom our G51 0240 dear friend Deppy had written. Deppy is Despina Messinesi, a long-time G51 0250 member of the staff who, although born in Boston, was G51 0255 born there G51 0260 of Greek parents. Several years of her life have been spent in G51 0270 the homeland, and she had written to friends to alert them of our coming. G51 0280 "All you have to do, Ilka dear, is to phone on your arrival. G51 0290 They are longing to see you". The wear and tear of life have taught G51 0300 me that very few friends of mutual friends long to see foreign strangers, G51 0310 but I planned on being the soul of tact, of giving them plenty G51 0320 of outs was there the tiniest implication that their cups were already G51 0330 running over without us. My diplomacy was needless. Greek phone service G51 0340 is worse than French, so that it was to be some little time before G51 0350 contact of any sort was established. In the late afternoon G51 0360 Mando came back to fetch us, and we drove to the Acropolis. We stopped G51 0370 first at the amphitheater that lies at the foot of the height crowned G51 0380 by the Parthenon. The curving benches are broken, chipped, tumbled, G51 0390 but still in place, as are the marble chairs, the seats of honor G51 0400 for the legislators. The carved statues of the frieze against the low G51 0420 wall are for the most part headless, but their exquisitely graceful nude G51 0430 and draped torsos and the kneeling Atlantes are well preserved in G51 0440 their perfect proportion. Having completed our camera work, we G51 0450 started our climb. I suppose the same emotion holds, if to a lesser G51 0460 degree, with any famous monument. Will it live up to its reputation? G51 0470 The weight of fame and history is formidable, and dreary steel engravings G51 0480 in schoolbooks do little to quicken interest and imagination. Uh G51 0490 huh, we think, looking at them, so that's the Parthenon. And then G51 0500 perhaps one day we get to Athens. We are here! We've come a G51 0510 long way and spent a lot of money. It had better be good. Don't worry G51 0520 about the Acropolis. It is awe-inspiring. Probably every visitor G51 0530 has a favorite time for his first sight of it. We saw it frequently G51 0540 afterward, but our suggestion for the very first encounter is near sunset. G51 0550 The light at that time is a benediction. The serene, majestic G51 0560 columns of the Parthenon, tawny in color against the pure deep blue sky, G51 0570 frame incredible vistas. All we wanted to do was to stand very quietly G51 0580 and look and look and look. More than twenty-four hundred G51 0590 years old, bruised, battered, worn and partially destroyed, combining G51 0600 to an astounding degree solidity and grace, it still stands, incomparable G51 0610 testimony to man's aspiration. In 1687 the Turks, who had been G51 0620 in control of the city since the fifteenth century, with a truly shattering G51 0630 lack of prudence used the Parthenon as a powder magazine. It G51 0640 was hit by a shell fired by the bombarding Venetian army and the great G51 0650 central portion of the temple was blown to smithereens. Nearby G51 0660 is the temple of Athena. The architectural feature, the caryatides G51 0670 upholding the portico, famous around the world as the Porch of the G51 0680 Maidens, was referred to airily by Mando as the Girls' Place. G51 0690 Another beautiful building is the Propylaea, the entrance gate of the G51 0700 Acropolis. My other nugget of art and architectural knowledge- G51 0710 besides remembering that it was Ghiberti who designed the doors G51 0720 of the baptistery in Florence- is the three styles of Greek columns. G51 0730 For some happy reason Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian have always G51 0740 stuck in my mind. Furthermore I can identify each design. It remained, G51 0750 however, for Mando to teach me that Doric symbolized strength, G51 0760 Ionic wisdom, and Corinthian beauty, the three pillars of the ancient G51 0770 world. The columns of the Parthenon are fluted Doric. Another G51 0780 classic sight that gave us considerable pleasure was the evzone sentry, G51 0790 in his ballet skirt with great pompons on his shoes, who was patrolling G51 0800 up and down in front of the palace. Gun on shoulder, he would G51 0810 march smartly for a few yards, bring his heels together with a click, G51 0820 make a brisk pirouette, skirts flaring, and march back to his point G51 0830 of departure. We did not dare speak to so exalted a being, but Norton G51 0840 aimed his camera and shot him, so to speak, on the rise, the split second G51 0850 between the halt and the turn. The evening of our first G51 0860 day we drove with Christopher and Judy Sakellariadis, who were friends G51 0870 and patients of Norton, to dine at a restaurant on the shores of G51 0880 the Aegean. On the way out Mr& Sakellariadis detoured up a special G51 0890 hill from which one may obtain a matchless view of the Acropolis lighted G51 0900 by night. The great spectacle was a source of rancor, and G51 0910 Son et Lumiere, which the French were trying to promote with the G51 0920 Athenians, G51 0930 was the reason. These performances were being staged at historical G51 0940 monuments throughout Europe. By a combination of music, lighting G51 0950 effects, and narration, famous events that have transpired in G51 0955 these G51 0960 locations are evoked and re-created for large audiences usually to G51 0970 considerable acclaim. The Acropolis had been scheduled for the treatment G51 0980 too, but apparently it was to take place at the time of the full G51 0990 moon when the Athenians themselves, out of respect for the natural beauty G51 1000 of the occasion, were wont to forgo their own usual nocturnal illumination. G51 1010 Athenian society was split into two factions, the Philistines G51 1020 and the Artists. The Artists contended that the Philistines, G51 1030 gross of soul, were all for having Son et Lumiere, since the G51 1040 French were footing the bill and the attraction, wherever it had been G51 1050 done, had proven popular. This was the crassest kind of materialism G51 1060 and they, the Artists, would have no truck with it. The Acropolis G51 1070 was unique in the world and if that imcomparable work flooded by moonlight G51 1080 wasn't enough for both natives and tourists, then they were quite G51 1085 simply barbarians G51 1090 and the hell with them. It was very stimulating. G51 1100 The restaurant to which the Sakellariadises took us on this night G51 1110 of controversy was the Asteria, on Asteria beach. This is a public G51 1120 bathing beach, easily accessible by tramway from the center of Athens. G51 1130 Office workers frequently go out there to lunch and swim during G51 1140 the siesta period, which, during the summer, lasts from two until five G51 1150 in the afternoon, when shops and offices are again open for business. G51 1160 They close sometime after eight. Nine o'clock is the rush hour, G51 1170 when the busses are jammed, and by nine-thirty the restaurants are beginning G51 1180 to fill. Bedtime is late, for the balmy evenings are delightful G51 1190 and everyone wants to linger under the stars. The sand is fine G51 1200 and pleasant, the cabanas are clean, and the parasols, green, raspberry, G51 1210 and butter yellow, are very gay. Although open to the general G51 1220 public it is not overcrowded; the atmosphere is that of an attractive G51 1230 private beach club at home. We went there a couple of times to swim G51 1240 and enjoyed ourselves thoroughly. This agreeable state of affairs is G51 1250 explicable, I think, on two counts. One is Greece is not yet suffering G51 1260 from overpopulation. The public may still find pleasure in public G51 1270 places. The other is that the charge for cabanas and parasols, though G51 1280 modest from an American point of view, still is a little high for G51 1290 many Athenians. We were struck by the notable absence of banana skins G51 1300 and beer cans, but just so that we wouldn't go overboard on Greek G51 1310 refinement, perfection was side-stepped by a couple of braying portable G51 1320 radios. Greek boys and girls also go for rock-and-roll, and the stations G51 1330 most tuned to are those carrying United States overseas programs. G51 1340 A good deal of English was spoken on the beach, most educated Greeks G51 1350 learn it in childhood, and there were also American wives and G51 1360 children of our overseas servicemen. For a delightful drive out G51 1370 of Athens I should recommend Sounion, at the end of the Attic Peninsula. G51 1380 The road, a comparatively new one, is very good, winding along G51 1390 inlets, coves, and bays of deep and brilliant blue. I suppose the G51 1400 day will inevitably come when the area will be encrusted with developments, G51 1410 but at present it is deserted and seductive. Three beneficial G51 1420 hurdles to progress are the lack of water, electricity, and telephones. G51 1430 At Sounion there is a group of beautiful columns, the ruins G51 1440 of a temple to Poseidon, of particular interest at that time, as active G51 1450 reconstruction was in progress. Gaunt scaffoldings adjoined the ruins, G51 1460 and on the ground segments of columns two and a half to three feet G51 1470 in thickness were being fitted with sections cunningly chiseled to G51 1480 match exactly the fluting and proportion of the original. Later they G51 1490 would be hoisted into place. There is a mediocre restaurant at G51 1500 Sounion and I fed a thin little Grecian cat and gave it two saucers G51 1510 of water- there was no milk- which it lapped up as though it were G51 1520 nectar. I think its thirst had never been assuaged before. Norton G51 1530 and I dined one night in a sea-food restaurant in Piraeus right G51 1540 on the water's edge. To enter it, you go down five or six steps G51 1550 from the road. Across the road is the kitchen, and waiters bearing great G51 1560 trays of dishes dodge traffic as nimbly as their French colleagues G51 1570 at the restaurant in the Place du Tertre in Paris. This restaurant, G51 1580 too, had a cat, a dusty, thin little creature. How G51 1590 a cat be thin in a fish restaurant? But this one was. When offered G51 1600 a morsel it glanced right and left and winced, obviously frightened G51 1610 and expecting a kick, but too hungry not to snatch the tidbit. Greece G51 1620 was one of the highlights of our trip, but beginning in Greece and continuing G51 1630 around the world throughout Southeast Asia the treatment of G51 1640 animals was horrifying, ranging from callous indifference to active G51 1650 cruelty. This of course was not true of the educated and sophisticated G51 1660 people we met, who loved their pets, but kindness is not a basic human G51 1670 instinct. We met some charming Athenians, and among them our G51 1680 chauffeur Panyotis ranked high. His English was limited, and the G51 1690 little he knew he found irritating. A particularly galling phrase was G51 1700 "O&K&, Panyotis, we have time at our disposal". This he G51 1710 claimed was the favorite refrain of the English. They would be lolling G51 1720 under a tree sipping Ouzo, relishing the leisurely life, assuring G51 1730 him that the day was yet young. G52 0010 "Let him become honest, and they discard him.- But let him be ready G52 0020 to invent whatever falsehood- to assail whatever character- and G52 0030 to prostitute his paper to whatever ends- and they hug him to their G52 0040 heart. In proportion to the degradation of his moral worth, is the G52 0050 increase of his worth to them". To exonerate the legislature G52 0060 and thereby extricate himself from a sticky situation, Pike took another G52 0070 course and made it appear that the legislature had been bilked. He G52 0080 claimed in his attacks that Woodruff, with scurrilous underhandedness, G52 0090 had deliberately written an ambiguous bid that had so confused the G52 0100 honest members of the legislature that they had awarded him the contract G52 0110 without knowing what they were doing. The charge was so farfetched G52 0120 that Woodruff paid little attention to it, and answered Pike G52 0130 in a rather bored way, wearily declaring that a "new hand" was G52 0140 pumping the bellows of the Crittenden organ, and concluding: "In G52 0150 a controversy with an adversary so utterly destitute of moral principles, G52 0160 even a triumph would entitle the victor to no laurels. The game G52 0170 is not worth the ammunition it would cost. We therefore leave the writer G52 0180 to the enjoyment of the unenvied reputation which the personal abuse G52 0190 he has heaped on us will entitle him to from the low and vulgar herd G52 0200 to which he belongs". Despite Woodruff's continuing refusal G52 0210 to debate with Pike through the columns of his newspaper, Pike G52 0220 did not let up his attack for a moment. Over the months he became a G52 0230 political gadfly with an incessant barrage of satirical poems ridiculing G52 0240 Woodruff, the "Casca" letters belittling Woodruff, and long G52 0250 analytical articles vilifying Woodruff. So persistent were these attacks G52 0260 that in March of the following year, Woodruff was finally moved G52 0270 to action, and Pike was to learn his first lesson in frontier politics, G52 0280 the subtle art of diversion. To attack Pike directly would G52 0290 gain Woodruff little, for as a penniless newcomer Pike had nothing G52 0300 to lose. By this time Woodruff had accurately measured Pike as a G52 0310 man of great personal pride, a man who would fly into a towering rage G52 0320 if his integrity were questioned, and who would be anxious to avenge himself. G52 0330 Pike's honor would now come under attack, but not by Woodruff G52 0340 himself. The charges would be made in the by an anonymous G52 0350 correspondent, and Pike would be so busy trying to track down the G52 0360 illusive character assassin that he would forget about harassing Woodruff. G52 0370 The strategy worked perfectly. Pike was stunned by the G52 0380 first blast against his character, which was published in the March G52 0390 4th issue of the under the name "Vale". The anonymous G52 0400 correspondent did not resort to innuendoes. He called Pike a thief. G52 0410 He said Pike had stolen mules from Harris during the Santa Fe G52 0420 expedition; he accused Pike of continuing his sticky-fingered career G52 0430 in Arkansas with the theft of some otter skins in Van Buren. The G52 0440 charges caught Pike off balance, coming as they did from an unexpected G52 0450 quarter. Outraged, he used the of March 7th for a G52 0460 denial, sending immediately to Santa Fe and Van Buren for documents G52 0470 to vindicate himself, and demanding that Woodruff reveal the name G52 0480 of this perfidious slanderer who disguised himself under a pastoral pseudonym. G52 0490 Woodruff said nothing, and Pike, frustrated, stormed G52 0500 throughout Little Rock in an unsuccessful search for "Vale", G52 0505 asking G52 0510 his friends to keep their ears open. Finally he learned through G52 0520 the grapevine that the culprit might be one James W& Robinson in G52 0530 Pope County. Without further inquiry, Pike jumped to the conclusion G52 0540 that Robinson was guilty, and, following the honorable route that G52 0550 would G52 0560 eventually lead to the dueling ground, sent a message to Robinson G52 0570 through his friends, demanding that he either confirm or deny his complicity. G52 0580 Robinson did neither. To Pike, silence was tantamount to an G52 0590 admission of guilt, and he determined to get Robinson onto the dueling G52 0600 ground at all costs. On April 11th he wrote an open letter in the G52 0610 , making it known "to the world that Jas& W& Robinson G52 0620 a base LIAR and a SLANDERER". G52 0630 If Robinson was a liar and a slanderer, he was also G52 0640 a very canny gentleman, for nothing that Pike could do would pry so G52 0650 much as a single word out of him. Preoccupied with his own defense and G52 0660 his attempts to get Robinson to fight, Pike lessened his attacks G52 0670 on Woodruff, and finally stopped them altogether. And Pike never did G52 0680 find out if Robinson was really responsible for the "Vale" letter. G52 0690 Woodruff's strategy had been immensely successful. It G52 0700 took Pike a long time to realize what Woodruff had done, and it had G52 0710 a profound effect on him. Once he learned a lesson, he never forgot it. G52 0720 In the next few months of comparative silence, Pike waited patiently G52 0730 until conditions were perfect for a new attack, and then, displaying G52 0740 a remarkable grasp of the subtleties of political infighting, gained G52 0750 from his first bout with Woodruff, he used these changed conditions G52 0760 to excellent advantage. Shortly after the "Vale" incident, G52 0770 a rift began to develop between William Woodruff and Governor Pope. G52 0780 One-armed, gruff, frugally honest, Governor Pope had been the G52 0790 ideal man to assume office in Arkansas after the disgraceful antics of G52 0800 political bosses like Crittenden, and he ruled the state with an iron G52 0810 fist, tolerating no nonsense. Woodruff had supported him all the way, G52 0820 both as a chief executive and as a man. Besides being political allies, G52 0830 they were also friends. This warm relationship came to an abrupt G52 0840 end in June of 1834 when the National Congress appropriated $3,000 G52 0850 for compiling and printing the laws of Arkansas Territory, and, G52 0860 taking note of the recent wave of corruption in the legislature, left G52 0870 it to the governor to award the contract. Woodruff wanted this G52 0880 political windfall very badly, and everyone assumed that he would get G52 0890 it because he was a close friend of the governor and his stanchest supporter. G52 0900 After all, Woodruff owned a competent printing plant and was G52 0910 the logical man for the job. But because the governor was determined G52 0920 that friendship should not influence him one way or the other, he looked G52 0930 for a printer with a knowledge of the law (which Woodruff did not G52 0940 have), and awarded the contract to a lawyer named John Steele who G52 0950 had started a newspaper in Helena the year before. Woodruff was G52 0960 furious. Considering the governor's act a personal rebuff, he aired G52 0970 his feelings in the on August 26, 1834: "We think G52 0980 the governor treated us rather shabbily, to say the least of it. **h G52 0990 It is but justice to Mr& Steele for us to add that, in the above G52 1000 remarks, nothing is intended to his disparagement, either as a lawyer G52 1010 or as a printer. He got a good fat job and we congratulate him on his G52 1020 good luck. We hope that he will execute it in a manner that will entitle G52 1030 him to credit". As summer cooled into fall and winter, G52 1040 even so the relationship between the two men continued to grow colder G52 1050 by the day, and by December of 1834 it was icy. It was at this point G52 1060 that Pike decided to capitalize on the bad feelings between the two G52 1070 men. The eventual prize in this new battle was the public printing contract G52 1080 that Woodruff still held. From his first bout with the G52 1090 canny Woodruff, Pike had learned that it was better not to attack him G52 1100 directly, so, harping on the theme that the cost of printing was too G52 1110 high, he condemned the governor for permitting such a state of affairs G52 1120 to exist. To document his charge, Pike set up two parallel columns G52 1130 in the showing the price charged by the and G52 1140 the considerably lower price for which the work could be done elsewhere. G52 1150 Then he called on the governor to explain why. The governor G52 1160 was not used to having his integrity questioned, and he promptly G52 1170 passed the charges on to Woodruff, demanding that Woodruff answer them. G52 1180 If Woodruff could not furnish a strong explanation, the governor G52 1190 insisted that he lower his prices in accord with the scale printed in G52 1200 the . Woodruff was now impaled on the horns of a dilemma. G52 1210 As a proud man, his prestige would suffer if he let Pike dictate G52 1220 to him through the governor's office, but to lower his prices would G52 1230 be tantamount to an admission that they had been too high in the first G52 1240 place. As a consequence, he did neither. Very angry at Woodruff, G52 1250 the governor used his personal influence to have the printing contract G52 1260 withdrawn from the and awarded to the lowest bidder, which, G52 1270 by a strange coincidence, happened to be Pike's . G52 1280 And, for the moment at least, the governor now found himself allied with G52 1290 the head of the Crittenden faction he had formerly opposed, and Pike G52 1300 was credited with a clear triumph over Woodruff. But in G52 1310 the G52 1320 confused atmosphere of frontier politics, alliances were as quickly G52 1330 broken as they were formed, and as Pike came to favor with the governor G52 1340 of the Territory, the governor fell out of favor with the President G52 1350 of the United States. On January 28, 1835, Andrew Jackson removed G52 1360 Pope from office and elevated Territorial Secretary William G52 1370 S& Fulton to the position. Fulton was a very close friend of Jackson, G52 1380 and had been his private secretary for a number of years in the G52 1390 old days. As a stanch party man and a rabid Democrat, he had little G52 1400 tolerance for Whigs like Pike, and Pike lost any immediate personal G52 1410 advantage his victory over Woodruff might have gained him. #2# G52 1420 As Pike proved himself adept in the political arena, he also became G52 1430 a social lion in the village of Little Rock, where he served as a symbol G52 1440 of the culture that the ladies of the town were striving so eagerly G52 1450 to cultivate. After all, Pike was an established poet and his work G52 1460 had been published in the respectable periodicals of that center of G52 1470 American culture, Boston. His accomplishments, and the fact that he G52 1480 was resident, did much to offset the unkind words travelers used to G52 1490 describe Little Rock after a visit there. For some reason, none of G52 1500 them were impressed with the territorial capital. The internationally G52 1510 known sportsman and traveler Friedrich Gersta^cker was typical of G52 1520 its detractors in the mid-thirties. "Little Rock is a vile, detestable G52 1530 place **h". he wrote. "Little Rock is, without any flattery, G52 1540 one of the dullest towns in the United States and I would not have G52 1550 remained two hours in the place, if I had not met with some good friends G52 1560 who made me forget its dreariness". Pike enjoyed his G52 1570 new social position tremendously, and cultivated in himself those traits G52 1580 necessary to its preservation. He was especially popular with women, G52 1590 for, like the romantic poetry he wrote, he was personally gracious, G52 1600 gallant, and chivalrous. He again began to play the violin, and tucking G52 1610 the instrument beneath his chin, performed soulful and romantic airs G52 1620 to match the expressions on the faces of the lovely women who gathered G52 1630 to hear him. His artistic accomplishments guaranteed him entry into G52 1640 any social gathering. He composed songs and set them to music and G52 1650 sang them in a soft, melodious voice, and when his audience had had enough G52 1660 of music he would discourse on politics or tell stories of his western G52 1670 adventures guaranteed to excite the emotions of men and women alike. G52 1690 The bulk of his early reputation, however, came not from G52 1700 his poetry or his music, but from his excellence as an orator. By 1834 G52 1710 the art of oratory had reached a very high level in the United States G52 1720 as a literary form. The orator of this period, in order to earn a G52 1730 reputation, had to pay close attention to the formal composition of his G52 1740 speech, judging how it would appear in print as well as the effect G52 1750 it would have on the audience that heard it. Very soon after his G52 1760 arrival in Little Rock, Pike had joined one of the most influential G52 1770 organizations in town, the Little Rock Debating Society, and it G52 1780 was with this group that he made his debut as an orator, being invited G52 1790 to deliver the annual Fourth of July address the club sponsored every G52 1800 year. G53 0010 SAMUEL GORTON, founder of Warwick, was styled by the historian G53 0020 Samuel Greene Arnold "one of the most remarkable men who ever lived". G53 0030 A biographer called him "the premature John the Baptist of G53 0040 New England Transcendentalism". The historian Charles Francis G53 0050 Adams called him "a crude and half-crazy thinker". His contemporaries G53 0060 in Massachusetts called him an arch-heretic, a beast, a miscreant, G53 0070 a proud and pestilent seducer, a prodigious minter of exorbitant G53 0080 novelties. Edward Rawson, secretary of the colony of Massachusetts G53 0090 Bay, described him as "a man whose spirit was stark drunk with blasphemies G53 0100 and insolence, a corrupter of the truth, a disturber of the peace G53 0110 wherever he comes". Nathaniel Morton stated he "was deeply leavened G53 0120 with blasphemous and familistical opinions". He was thrown G53 0130 out, more or less, from Boston, Plymouth, Pocasset, Newport, and Providence. G53 0140 On the other hand, Dr& Ezra Styles recorded the G53 0150 following testimony of John Angell, the last disciple of Gorton: G53 0160 " He said Gorton was a holy man; wept day and night for G53 0170 the sins and blindness of the world **h had a long walk through the trees G53 0180 and woods by his house, where he constantly walked morning and evening, G53 0190 and even in the depths of the night, alone by himself, for contemplation G53 0200 and the enjoyment of the dispensation of light. He was universally G53 0210 beloved by his neighbours, and the Indians, who esteemed him, G53 0220 not only as a friend, but one high in communion with God in Heaven". G53 0230 Gorton sometimes signed himself "a professor of the mysteries of G53 0240 Christ". There is plenty more to recommend Gorton, the facts G53 0250 of whose life are given in G53 0260 by Adelos Gorton. He fought like a fiend for the helpless and G53 0270 oppressed, worked for the abolition of slavery, helped the Quakers G53 0280 and Indians, and worked against the prosecution of witches. He defied G53 0290 the Boston hierarchy, and after they sent a small army to get him G53 0300 he befuddled the court, including John Cotton, with one of the most G53 0310 complicated religious discourses ever heard. Samuel Gorton was G53 0320 born at Gorton, England, near the present city of Manchester, about G53 0330 1592. Although he did not attend any celebrated schools or universities, G53 0340 he was a master of Greek and Hebrew and could read the Bible G53 0350 in the original. He worked as a "clothier" in London, but was greatly G53 0360 concerned with religion. Gorton left England, he said, G53 0370 "to enjoy libertie of conscience in respect to faith towards God, G53 0380 and for no other end". With his wife and three or more children he G53 0390 arrived in Boston in March, 1637, and soon found it was no place for G53 0400 anyone looking for liberty of conscience. Roger Williams had recently G53 0410 been thrown out, and Anne Hutchinson and her Antinomians were slugging G53 0420 it out with the powers-that-be. Gorton and his family moved to G53 0430 Plymouth. Soon he was in trouble there, for defending a woman G53 0440 who was accused of smiling in church. She was Ellen Aldridge, a widow G53 0450 of good repute who was employed by Gorton's wife and lived with G53 0460 the family. The report was: " It had been whispered privately G53 0470 that she had smiled in the congregation, and the Governor Prence G53 0480 sent to knoe her business, and command, after punishment as the bench G53 0490 see fit, her departure and also anyone who brought her "to the place G53 0500 from which she came"". Gorton said they were preparing to deport G53 0510 her as a vagabond, and to escape the shame she fled to the woods for G53 0520 several days, returning at night. He advised the poor woman not to G53 0530 appear in court as what she was charged with was not in violation of G53 0540 law. Gorton appeared for her, however, and what he told the magistrates G53 0550 must have been plenty, for he was charged with deluding the court, G53 0560 fined, and told to leave the colony within fourteen days. He left in G53 0570 a storm for Pocasset, December 4, 1638. His wife was in delicate health G53 0580 and nursing an infant with measles. The unconquerable Mrs& G53 0590 Hutchinson was residing at Pocasset, after having been excommunicated G53 0600 by the Boston church and thrown out of the colony. One can imagine G53 0610 that with her and Gorton there it was no place for anyone with G53 0620 weak nerves. William Coddington, who was running the colony, felt constrained G53 0630 to move seven miles south where, with others- as mentioned G53 0640 above- he founded Newport. When, in March, 1640, the two towns G53 0650 were united under Coddington, Gorton claimed the union was irregular G53 0660 and illegally constituted and that it had never been sanctioned by the G53 0670 majority of freeholders. Then he became involved in a ruckus G53 0680 remarkably similar to the one in Plymouth. A cow owned by an old woman G53 0690 trespassed on Gorton's land. While driving the cow back home the G53 0700 woman was assaulted by a servant maid of Gorton. The old woman complained G53 0710 to the deputy governor, who ordered the servant brought before G53 0720 the court. Gorton reverted to his Plymouth tactics, refused to let G53 0730 her go, and appeared himself before the Portsmouth grand jury. During G53 0740 the trial he told off the jury, called them "Just Asses" and G53 0750 called a freeman "a saucy boy and Jack-an-Apes". He was jailed G53 0760 and banished. Gorton then moved to Providence and soon put the G53 0770 town in a turmoil. He held that no group of colonists could set up G53 0780 or maintain a government without royal sanction. Since Rhode Island G53 0790 at that time did not have such sanction, his opinion was not popular. G53 0800 Roger Williams wrote his friend Winthrop as follows: " Master G53 0810 Gorton, having foully abused high and low at Aquidneck is now G53 0820 bewitching and bemaddening poor Providence, both with his unclean and G53 0830 foul censures of all the ministers of this country (for which myself G53 0840 have in Christ's name withstood him), and also denying all visible G53 0850 and external ordinances in depth of Familism: almost all suck in G53 0860 his poison, as at first they did at Aquidneck. Some few and myself withstand G53 0870 his inhabitation and town privileges, without confession and G53 0880 reformation of his uncivil and inhuman practices at Portsmouth; yet G53 0890 the tide is too strong against us, and I fear (if the framer of hearts G53 0900 help not) it will force me to little Patience, a little isle next G53 0910 to your Prudence". Williams also stated: "Our peace was like G53 0920 the peace of a man who hath the tertian ague". Providence finally G53 0930 managed to get Gorton out of the town, and he and some friends G53 0940 bought land at Pawtuxet on the west side of Narragansett Bay, five G53 0950 miles south but still within the jurisdiction of the Providence colony. G53 0960 This town should not be confused with Pawtucket, just north of Providence, G53 0970 or Pawcatuck, Connecticut, on the Pawcatuck River, opposite G53 0980 Westerly, Rhode Island. Up to now, Gorton had been looking G53 0990 for trouble, and now that he was trying to get away from it, trouble G53 1000 started looking for him. Upon intelligence that the formidable G53 1010 agitator was to favor them with his presence, the benighted inhabitants G53 1020 of Pawtuxet, alas, gave their allegiance to Massachusetts and asked G53 1030 that colony to expel the newcomers. As it was the custom of that alert G53 1040 colony to take over the property of persons asking for protection, G53 1050 this was an act roughly equivalent to throwing open the door to a pack G53 1060 of wolves and saying "Come and get it". Gorton and company, G53 1070 however, promptly bought land from Miantonomi a few miles south G53 1080 of Pawtuxet, extending from the present Gaspee Point south to Warwick G53 1090 Neck and twenty miles inland. The settlement was called Shawomet. G53 1100 It was not within the jurisdiction of anybody or anything, including G53 1110 Providence and Massachusetts. If Gorton wanted peace and quiet G53 1120 for his complicated meditations this is where he should have had it. Instead G53 1130 of that he was engulfed by bedlam. Pomham and Soconoco, G53 1140 a couple of minor sachems (of something less than exalted character) G53 1150 under Miantonomi, declared that they had never assented to the sale G53 1160 of land to Gorton and had never received anything for it. Following G53 1170 the glorious lead of the heroes of Pawtuxet, they also submitted themselves G53 1180 to the protection of Massachusetts. One historical authority G53 1190 presents laborious and circuitous testimony tending to arouse suspicion G53 1200 that Massachusetts was behind the clouds settling down on the embattled G53 1210 Gorton. However, the General Court at Boston ordered G53 1220 the purchasers of Shawomet to appear before them to answer the sachems' G53 1230 claim. The purchasers rejected the order in two letters written G53 1240 in vigorous terms. Then Massachusetts switched to its standard tactics. G53 1250 It pointed out twenty-six instances of blasphemy in the letters, G53 1260 and ordered the writers to submit or force of arms would be used. The G53 1270 next week, forty soldiers were sent to get the miscreants. The latter G53 1280 tried to arbitrate through a delegation from Providence, which offer G53 1290 was declined by the invaders. The Commissioners at Boston wrote G53 1300 the victims to see their misdeeds and repent or they should "look upon G53 1310 them as men prepared for slaughter". At Shawomet, women G53 1320 and children fled in terror across the Bay. The men fortified a blockhouse G53 1330 and got ready to fight, but meanwhile appealed to the King and G53 1340 again tried to arbitrate. Gorton evidently still had plenty to learn G53 1350 about Massachusetts, but he was learning fast. Governor Winthrop wrote: G53 1360 " You may do well to take notice, that besides the title G53 1370 to land between the English and the Indians there, there are twelve G53 1380 of the English that have subscribed their names to horrible and detestable G53 1390 blasphemies, who are rather to be judged as blasphemous than G53 1400 they should delude us by winning time under pretence of arbitration". G53 1410 The attack started on October 2, 1643, and the Gortonists held G53 1420 out for a day and a night. The attackers sent for more soldiers, and G53 1430 the defenders, to save bloodshed, surrendered under the promise that G53 1440 they would be treated as neighbors. Promptly their livestock was taken G53 1450 and according to Gorton the soldiers were ordered to knock down anyone G53 1460 who should utter a word of insolence, and run through anyone who G53 1470 might step out of line. When the captives arrived in Boston, G53 1480 "the chaplain [of their captors] went to prayers in the open streets, G53 1490 that the people might take notice what they had done in a holy manner, G53 1500 and in the name of the Lord". Gorton and ten of his friends G53 1510 were thrown in jail. On Sunday they refused to attend church. G53 1520 The magistrates were determined to compel them. The prisoners agreed, G53 1530 provided they might speak after the sermon, which was permitted. Here G53 1540 was Gorton's chance to indulge in something at which he was supreme. G53 1550 The Boston elders were great at befuddling the opposition with G53 1560 torrents of ecclesiastical obscurities, but Gorton was better. Reverend G53 1570 Cotton preached to them about Demetrius and the shrines of Ephesus. G53 1580 Gorton replied with blasts that scandalized the congregation. G53 1590 At the trial which took place later, the Pomham matter was completely G53 1600 omitted. The Gortonists were charged with blasphemy and tried G53 1610 for their lives. Four ecclesiastical questions were presented by the G53 1620 General Court to Gorton: "_1._ Whether the Fathers, who G53 1630 died before Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, were justified and G53 1640 saved only by the blood which hee shed, and the death which hee suffered G53 1650 after his incarnation? _2._ Whether the only price of our G53 1660 redemption were not the death of Christ on the cross, with the rest G53 1670 of his sufferings and obediences, in the time of his life here, after G53 1680 hee was born of the Virgin Mary? _3._ Who was the God whom hee G53 1690 thinke we serve? _4._ What hee means when hee saith, wee worship G53 1700 the starre of our God Remphan, Chion, Moloch"? Gorton G53 1710 answered in writing. All of the elders except three voted for death, G53 1720 but a majority of the deputies refused to sanction the sentence. G53 1730 Seven of the prisoners were sentenced to be confined in irons for as G53 1740 long as it pleased the court, set to work and, if they broke jail or proclaimed G53 1750 heresy, to be executed if convicted. The three others got off G53 1760 easier. The convicts were put in chains, paraded before the congregation G53 1770 at the Reverend Cotton's lecture as an example, and sent to G53 1780 prisons in various towns, where they languished all winter, chains included. G54 0010 When Fred wheeled him back into his room, the big one looking out on G54 0020 the back porch, and put him to bed, Papa told him he was very tired G54 0030 but that he had enjoyed greatly the trip downtown. "I've been cooped G54 0040 up so long", he added. Getting out again, seeing old friends, G54 0050 had given his spirits a lift. That night after supper I went G54 0060 back over to 48 Spruce Street- Ralph and I at that time were living G54 0070 at 168 Chestnut- and Ralph went with me. Papa was still elated G54 0080 over his afternoon visit downtown. "Baby, I saw a lot of old friends G54 0090 I hadn't seen in a long time", he told me, his eyes bright. G54 0100 "It was mighty good for the old man to get out again". The G54 0110 next day he seemed to be in fairly good shape and still in excellent G54 0120 spirits. But a few days after Fred's return he began hemorrhaging G54 0130 and that was the beginning of early and complete disintegration. It G54 0140 began in the morning, and very quickly the hemorrhage was a massive one. G54 0150 We got Dr& Glenn to him as quickly as we could, and we wired G54 0160 Tom of Papa's desperate condition. The hemorrhage was in the prostate G54 0170 region; Dr& Glenn saw at once what had happened. "He G54 0180 has lost much blood", he said. "It'll take a lot to replace G54 0190 it". "Dr& Glenn, I've got a lot of blood", Fred G54 0200 spoke up, "plenty of it. Let me give Papa blood". The doctor G54 0210 agreed, but explained that it would be necessary first to check Fred's G54 0220 blood to ascertain whether or not it was of the same type as G54 0230 Papa's. To give a patient the wrong type of blood, said the doctor, G54 0240 would likely kill him. That was in the days before blood banks, G54 0250 of course, and transfusions had to be given directly from donor to G54 0260 patient. One had to find a donor, and usually very quickly, whose blood G54 0270 corresponded with the patient's. And then it took considerably G54 0280 longer to make preparations for giving transfusions. They had to take G54 0290 blood samples to the laboratory to test them, for one thing, and there G54 0300 was much required preliminary procedure. They made the tests G54 0310 and came to Fred; by now it was perhaps two days or longer after Papa G54 0320 had begun hemorrhaging. "Fred, your blood matches your G54 0330 father's, all right", Dr& Glenn said. "But we aren't going G54 0340 to let you give him any". "But why in the name of God can't G54 0350 I give my father blood"? Fred demanded. "Why can't I, G54 0360 Doctor"? "Because, Fred, it could do him no good. It's G54 0370 too late now. He's past helping. He's as good as gone". G54 0380 And in a few minutes Papa was dead. It was well past midnight. G54 0390 Papa had left us about the same hour of the night that Ben had passed G54 0400 on. The date was June 20, 1922. "W& O& Wolfe, G54 0410 prominent business man and pioneer resident of this section, died shortly G54 0420 after midnight Tuesday at his home 48 Spruce Street", the Asheville G54 0430 of Wednesday, June 21, announced. "Mr& Wolfe G54 0440 had been in declining health for many years and death was not unexpected". G54 0450 A biographical sketch followed. Funeral services were G54 0460 held Thursday afternoon at four o'clock at the home. Beloved Dr& G54 0470 R& F& Campbell, our First Presbyterian Church pastor, was G54 0480 in charge. The burial was out in Riverside Cemetery. All about him G54 0490 stood tombstones his own sensitive great hands had fashioned. G54 0500 A few years before his death Papa had agreed with Mama to make a G54 0510 joint will with her in which it would be provided that in the event of G54 0520 the G54 0530 death of either of them an accounting would be made to their children G54 0540 whereby each child would receive a bequest of $5000 cash. At his death G54 0550 Fred and Ralph, my husband, were named executors of the estate under G54 0560 the terms of the will. Fred and Ralph qualified as executors G54 0570 and paid off what debts were currently due, and they were all current, G54 0580 since Papa was never one to allow bills to go unpaid. The bills G54 0590 were principally for hospitalization and doctors' fees during the G54 0600 last years of his life, and when he died he owed in the main only current G54 0610 doctor's bills. After they had paid all his debts and the funeral G54 0620 costs, Ralph and Fred had some fourteen thousand dollars, as I remember, G54 0630 with which to pay the bequests. This, manifestly, would not G54 0640 provide $5000 to each of the surviving five children. So what G54 0650 Fred and Ralph did was to attempt to prorate the money fairly by taking G54 0660 into account what each of the five had received, if anything, from G54 0670 the estate before Papa's death. Consequently, Fred and Tom, the G54 0680 two who had been provided college educations, signed statements to the G54 0690 effect that each had received his bequest in full, and Effie and I G54 0700 were each allotted $5000. Frank had been given about half his legacy G54 0710 to use in a business venture before Papa's death; he was given the G54 0720 difference between that amount and $5000. Tom had received four years G54 0730 of education at the University of North Carolina and two at Harvard, G54 0740 and Fred had been in and out of Georgia Tech and Carneigie G54 0750 Tech and part of the time had been a self-help student. So, because G54 0760 he had received less than Tom, it was felt proper that Fred should receive G54 0770 the few hundred dollars that remained. And that's how Papa's G54 0780 estate was divided. Papa, I should emphasize, had been an G54 0790 invalid the last several years of his life; his hospital and doctor G54 0800 bills had been large and his income had been cut until he was receiving G54 0805 little except G54 0810 small rentals on some properties he still owned. Had G54 0820 he been able to escape this long siege of invalidism, I'm convinced, G54 0830 Papa would have left a sizable estate. But he had succeeded well, G54 0835 we agreed. G54 0840 He had left us a legacy far more valuable than houses and lands G54 0850 and stocks and bonds. For years Papa and Mama had been large G54 0860 taxpayers. I recall that several years their taxes exceeded $800. G54 0870 In those years of lower property valuations and lower tax rates, that G54 0880 payment represented ownership of much property. "Merciful God, G54 0890 Julia"! I have known Papa to exclaim on getting his tax bill, G54 0900 "we're going to the dogs"! But he never expected to G54 0910 do that. And he didn't, by a long shot! #35.# In the spring G54 0920 of his second year at Harvard, Tom had been offered a job at Northwestern G54 0930 University as an instructor in the English Department. But G54 0940 he had delayed accepting this job, and as he was leaving to come home G54 0950 to Papa in response to our telegram, he dropped a postcard to Miss G54 0960 McCrady, head of the Harvard Appointment Office, asking her please G54 0970 to write Northwestern authorities and explain the circumstances. G54 0980 Actually Tom had been postponing giving them an answer, I'm G54 0990 confident, because he did not want to go out there to teach. In fact, G54 1000 he didn't want to teach anywhere. He wanted to go back to Harvard G54 1010 for another year of playwriting. But Papa's death had further complicated G54 1020 the financing of Tom's hoped-for third year, and for the G54 1030 weeks following it Tom did not know whether his return to Harvard could G54 1040 be arranged. But things were worked out in the family and G54 1050 late in August he wrote Miss McCrady an explanatory letter in which G54 1060 he told her that matters at home had been in an unsettled condition G54 1070 after Papa's death and he had not known whether he would stay at home G54 1080 with Mama, accept the Northwestern job, or return to Harvard. But G54 1090 he was happy to tell her that his finances were now in such condition G54 1100 that he could go back to Harvard for a third year with Professor G54 1110 Baker. And that's what he did. That third year he wrote plays G54 1120 with a fury. I believe there are seventeen short plays by Tom now G54 1130 housed in the Houghton Library at Harvard; I think I'm right G54 1140 in that figure. That fall he submitted to Professor Baker the first G54 1150 acts and outlines of the following acts of several plays, six of them, G54 1160 according to some of his associates, and he also worked on a play G54 1170 that he first called , the material for which he had collected G54 1180 during the summer at home. Later this play would be called . In the spring, it must have been, he began G54 1200 working on the play that he called , which later would G54 1210 be . That spring was selected G54 1220 for production by the 47 Workshop and it was staged in the middle G54 1230 of May. It ran two nights, and though it was generally praised, there G54 1240 was considerable criticism of its length. It ran until past one o'clock. G54 1250 That was Tom's weakness; it was demonstrated, many critics G54 1260 would later point out, in the length of his novels. In this play G54 1270 there were so many characters and so much detail. Tom never knew how G54 1290 to condense, to boil down. He was always concerned with life, and he G54 1300 tried to picture it whole; he wanted nothing compressed, tight. He G54 1310 was a big man, and he wanted nothing little, squeezed; he despised parsimony, G54 1320 and particularly of words. In this play there were some thirty G54 1330 or more named characters and I don't know how many more unnamed. G54 1340 In describing it to Professor Baker after it had been chosen for G54 1350 production, he defended his great array of characters by declaring that G54 1360 he had included that many not because "I didn't know how to save G54 1370 paint", but because the play required them. And he threatened someday G54 1380 to write a play "with fifty, eighty, a hundred people- a whole G54 1390 town, a whole race, a whole epoch". He said he would do it, though G54 1400 probably nobody would produce it, for his own "soul's ease and G54 1410 comfort". That summer Tom attended the summer session at Harvard, G54 1420 but he did not ask Mama to send him back in the fall. Instead, G54 1430 he went down to New York and submitted G54 1440 to the Theatre Guild, which had asked him to let them have a look at G54 1450 it after Professor Baker had recommended it highly. He hung around G54 1460 New York, waiting to hear whether they would accept it for production G54 1470 and in that time came down to Asheville and also paid a short visit G54 1480 to Chapel Hill, where with almost childish delight he visited old G54 1490 friends and favorite campus spots. On returning to New York he had G54 1500 a job for several weeks; it was visiting University of North Carolina G54 1510 alumni in New York to ask them for contributions to the Graham G54 1520 Memorial Building fund. The Graham Memorial would be the campus G54 1530 student union honoring the late and much beloved Edward Kidder Graham, G54 1540 who had been president when Tom entered the university. Well, G54 1550 the Theatre Guild kept that play, and kept it, and finally in G54 1560 December they turned it down. But they would reconsider it, they assured G54 1570 him, if he would rewrite it. Tom told me about it, how one evening G54 1580 he went over to see the Theatre Guild man. This man, Tom said, G54 1590 had the play shut up in his desk, I believe, and when Tom sat down, G54 1600 he pulled it out and apologetically told Tom that they wouldn't be G54 1610 able to use it. Tom said he almost burst into tears, he was so G54 1620 disappointed and put out. The man, Tom said, explained that it was G54 1630 not only too long and detailed but that as it stood it wasn't the sort G54 1640 of thing the public wanted. The public, Tom said the man told him, G54 1650 wanted realism, and his play wasn't that. It was fantastic writing, G54 1660 beautiful writing, the man declared, but the public, he insisted, G54 1670 wanted realism. Tom was not willing to revise the play according G54 1680 to the plan the man suggested. Such a revision, he said, would ruin G54 1690 it, would change his whole conception of the play as well as the treatment. G54 1700 He thought about it and he told the man he just couldn't do G54 1710 it over in accordance with the suggestions he had made. G55 0010 ## It was not until we had returned to the city to live, while I G55 0020 was still at Brown and Sharpe's, that I felt the full impact of G55 0030 evangelical Christianity. I came under the spell of a younger group G55 0040 in the church led by the pastor's older son. The spirit of this group G55 0050 was that we were- and are- living in a world doomed to eternal G55 0060 punishment, but that God through Jesus Christ has provided a way of G55 0070 escape for those who confess their sins and accept salvation. G55 0080 There are millions who accept this doctrine, but few indeed are those G55 0090 who accept it so truly that the fate of humanity lies as a weight on G55 0100 their souls night and day. This group in Park Place Church was made G55 0110 up of the earnest few. I was drawn deeper and deeper into these concerns G55 0120 and responsibilities. I engaged more and more in religious activities. G55 0130 Besides Church and Sunday School I went to out-of-door meetings G55 0140 on the sidewalk at the church door. I went to an afternoon service G55 0150 at the ~YMCA. I went to the Christian Endeavor Society G55 0160 and to the evening service of the church. Much of this lacked the active G55 0170 support of the pastor. The young people were self-energizing, and G55 0180 I was energized. Once or twice my father asked me if I wasn't overdoing G55 0190 a bit in my churchgoing. Meanwhile I myself was not yet G55 0200 saved. At least I had been unable to lay hold on the experience of G55 0210 conversion. Try as I might to confess my sins and accept salvation, G55 0220 no answer came to me from heaven. Finally, after years, I gave up. G55 0230 The basic difficulty, I suppose, was in my ultimate inability G55 0240 to feel a burden of sin from which I sought relief. I was familiar G55 0250 with , which I read as literature. No load G55 0260 of sin had been laid on my shoulders, nor did earnest effort enable G55 0270 me to become conscious of one. There is, of course, the doctrine G55 0280 of original sin, which asserts that each of us as individuals partakes G55 0290 of the guilt of our first ancestor. In the rhyming catechism this G55 0300 doctrine is worded thus: "In Adam's fall We sin-ned all". G55 0310 This doctrine was repugnant to my moral sense. I did not feel G55 0320 it presumptuous to expect that the Creator would be at least as just G55 0330 as the most righteous of His creatures; and the doctrine of original G55 0340 sin is compounded of injustice. Some of these thoughts- not G55 0350 all of them- have taken organized form in later years. The actual G55 0360 impelling force which severed me from evangelical effort was of another G55 0370 sort. I became disgusted at being so preoccupied with the state of G55 0380 my own miserable soul. I found myself becoming one of that group of G55 0390 people who, in Carlyle's words, "are forever gazing into their own G55 0400 navels, anxiously asking 'Am I right, am I wrong'"? I bethought G55 0410 me of the Lord's Prayer, and these words came to mind: G55 0420 "Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven". G55 0430 They have remained on the opened page of my mind in all the years G55 0440 which since have passed. From that time to this my religious concern G55 0450 is that I might give effective help to the bringing in of God's kingdom G55 0460 on earth. I do not claim to be free from sin, or from the G55 0470 need for repentance and forgiveness. In my experience the assurance G55 0480 of forgiveness comes only when I have confessed to the wronged one and G55 0490 have made as full reparation as I can devise. ## There was one G55 0500 further step in my religious progress. This was taken after I came G55 0510 to live in Springfield, and it was made under the guidance of the Reverend G55 0520 Raymond Beardslee, a young preacher who came to the Congregational G55 0530 Church there at about the same time that I moved from New York. G55 0540 His father was a professor at Hartford Theological Seminary, G55 0550 and from him he acquired a conviction, which he passed along to me, that G55 0560 there is in the universe of persons a moral law, the law of love, G55 0570 which is a natural law in the same sense as is the physical law. G55 0580 It is most important that we recognize the law of love as being unbreakable G55 0590 in all personal relationships, whether individually, socially G55 0600 or as between whole nations of people. If obeyed, the law brings order G55 0610 and satisfaction. If disobeyed, the result is turmoil and chaos. G55 0620 As we observe moral law and physical law they appear as being inevitable. G55 0630 We can conceive of no alternatives. Their basis seems deeper G55 0640 than mere authority. They are not true because scientists or prophets G55 0650 say they are true. It is not the authority of God Himself which G55 0660 makes them true. Because God is what He is, the laws of the universe, G55 0670 material and spiritual, are what they are. Deity and Law are one G55 0680 and inseparable. With this conviction, the partition between G55 0690 the sacred and the secular disappears. One's daily work becomes sacred, G55 0700 since it is performed in the field of influence of the moral law, G55 0710 dealing as it does with people as well as with matter and energy. G55 0720 In his book Albert Schweitzer faces G55 0730 the moral problems which arise when moral law is recognized in business G55 0740 life, for example. His defines "possessions as the G55 0750 property of the community, of which the individual is sovereign steward. G55 0760 One serves society by conducting a business from which a certain G55 0770 number of employees draw their means of subsistence; another by giving G55 0780 away his property in order to help his fellow man. Each will decide G55 0790 on his own course somewhere between these two extreme cases according G55 0800 to the sense of responsibility which is determined for him by the particular G55 0810 circumstances of his own life. No one is to judge others". G55 0820 He is uncompromising in assigning guilt to the man who finds G55 0830 it necessary to inflict or permit injury to one individual or group for G55 0840 the sake of a larger good. For this decision a man must take personal G55 0850 responsibility. Says he, "I may never imagine that in the struggle G55 0860 between personal and supra-personal responsibility it is possible G55 0870 to make a compromise between the ethical and the purposive in the shape G55 0880 of a relative ethic; or to let the ethical be superseded by the purposive. G55 0890 On the contrary it is my duty to make my own decision as between G55 0900 the two". Schweitzer seems, in fact, to acquire for himself G55 0910 a burden of sin, not bequeathed by Adam, but accumulated in the G55 0920 inevitable judgments which life requires of him as between greater and G55 0930 lesser responsibilities. This viewpoint I find interesting, but it G55 0940 has never weighed on my soul. Perhaps it should have. My own experience G55 0950 has followed simpler lines. An uncompromising belief in the G55 0960 moral law has the advantage of making religion natural, even as physical G55 0970 law is natural. Neither the engineer nor the ordinary citizen feels G55 0980 any self-consciousness in obeying the laws of matter and energy, G55 0990 nor can he achieve a sense of self-righteousness in such obedience. To G55 1000 obey the moral law is just ordinary common sense, applied to a neglected G55 1010 field. Religion thus becomes integrated with life. This G55 1020 truth that the moral law is natural has other important corollaries. One G55 1030 of them is that it gives meaning and purpose to life. In seeking G55 1040 for such meaning and purpose, Albert Schweitzer seized upon the concept G55 1050 of the "sacredness of life". It is puzzling to the occidental G55 1060 mind (to mine at least) to assign "sacredness" to animal, insect, G55 1070 and plant life. These lives are in themselves outside of the moral order G55 1080 and are unburdened with moral responsibility. There is indeed a G55 1090 moral responsibility on man himself, for his own soul's sake, to respect G55 1100 lower life and to avoid the infliction of suffering, but this viewpoint G55 1110 Schweitzer rejects. So far as "sacredness" inheres G55 1120 in any aspect of creation it seems to me to be found in human personality, G55 1130 whether in Lambarene, Africa, or in Washington, D&C&. One G55 1140 cannot read the records of scientists, officials and travelers who G55 1150 have penetrated to the minds of the most savage races without realizing G55 1160 that each individual met with is a . Read, for instance, G55 1165 in G55 1170 Malcolm MacDonald's of Segura and her wise G55 1180 father Tomonggong Koh, and her final adjustment to encroaching civilization. G55 1190 Above all read in Jens Bjerre's G55 1200 how the old man of the Wailbri tribe (not cannibals) in central Australia G55 1210 gave to the white man his choicest possession, while the tears G55 1220 streamed down his face. The Australian aborigine is the conventional G55 1230 exemplar of degraded humanity; yet here was a depth of sensibility G55 1240 which is lacking in a considerable portion of the beneficiaries of our G55 1250 civilization. Persons, whether white, black, brown or yellow, G55 1260 are a concern of God. Respect for personality is a privilege and a G55 1270 duty for us as brothers. Such is the field for exercising our G55 1280 reverence. As to our action, let us align ourselves with the purpose G55 1290 expressed by Jesus in the Lord's Prayer: "Thy kingdom come, G55 1300 Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven". With the knowledge G55 1310 that the kingdom comes by obedience to the moral law in our relations G55 1320 with all people, we have a firm intellectual grasp on both the means G55 1330 and the ends of our lives. This intellectual approach to spiritual G55 1340 life suited me well, because I was never content to lead a divided G55 1350 life. As I have said, words from Tennyson remain ever in my memory: G55 1360 "That mind and soul, according well, May make one music as G55 1370 before". Let us now give some thought to the soul. When the G55 1380 young biologist, Dr& Ballard, began to show interest in our daughter G55 1390 Elizabeth, this induced a corresponding interest, on our part, in G55 1400 him. I asked one day what he was doing. He told me that he had a big G55 1410 newt and a little newt and that he was transplanting a big eye of the G55 1420 big newt onto the little newt and a little eye of the little newt onto G55 1430 the big newt. He was then noting that the big eye on the little newt G55 1440 hung back until the little eye had grown up to it, while the little G55 1450 eye on the big newt grew rapidly until it was as big as the other. Then G55 1460 I asked, "What does that teach you"? Said he, "It teaches G55 1470 me to wonder". This was a profound statement. In the face G55 1480 of the unfolding universe, our ultimate attitude is that of wonder. G55 1490 Wonder is indeed the intellectual gateway to the spiritual world. G55 1500 Gone are the days when, in the nineteenth century, scientists thought G55 1510 that they were close to the attainment of complete knowledge of G55 1520 the physical universe. For them only a little more needed to be learned, G55 1530 and then all physical knowledge could be neatly sorted, packaged G55 1540 and put in the inventory to be drawn on for the solution of any human G55 1550 problem. This complacency was blown to bits by the relativity G55 1560 of Einstein, the revelation of the complex anatomy of the atom and the G55 1570 discovery of the expanding universe. None of these discoveries were G55 1580 neatly rounded off bits of knowledge. Each faded out into the unexplored G55 1590 areas of the future. It is as if we, in our center of human G55 1600 observation, from time to time penetrate more deeply into the unknown. G55 1610 As our radius of penetration, ~R, increases, the area of new G55 1620 knowledge G55 1630 increases by **f, and the total of human knowledge becomes measured G55 1640 in terms of **f. Wonder grows. It is endless. There are G55 1650 some people, intelligent people, who seem to be untouched by the sea G55 1660 of wonder in which we are immersed and in which we spend our lives. One G55 1670 such is Abraham Meyer, the writer of a recent book, . This is a straightforward denial of the spiritual world and G55 1690 a vigorous defense of pure materialism. His inability to wonder vitiates G55 1700 his argument. The subject of immortality brings to mind a G55 1710 vivid incident which took place in 1929 at Montreux in Switzerland. G56 0010 Criticism is as old as literary art and we can set the stage for G56 0020 our study of three moderns if we see how certain critics in the past G56 0030 have dealt with the ethical aspects of literature. I have chosen five G56 0040 contrasting pairs, ten men in all, and they are arranged in roughly G56 0050 chronological order. Such a list must naturally be selective, and the G56 0060 treatment of each man is brief, for I am interested only in their general G56 0070 ideas on the moral measure of literature. Altogether, the list G56 0080 will give us considerable variety in attitudes and some typical ones, G56 0090 for these critics range all the way from censors to those who consider G56 0100 art above ethics, all the way from Plato to Poe. And most of the G56 0110 great periods are represented, because we will compare Plato and Aristotle G56 0120 from the golden age of Greece; Stephen Gosson and Sir Philip G56 0130 Sidney from renaissance England; Dr& Johnson and William G56 0140 Hazlitt of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in England; G56 0150 and James Russell Lowell and Edgar Allan Poe of nineteenth G56 0160 century American letters. #PLATO AND ARISTOTLE# Plato and Aristotle G56 0170 agree on some vital literary issues. They both measure literature G56 0180 by moral standards, and in their political writings both allow for G56 0190 censorship, but the differences between them are also significant. While G56 0200 Aristotle censors literature only for the young, Plato would banish G56 0210 all poets from his ideal state. Even more important, in his G56 0220 Aristotle differs somewhat from Plato when he moves in the G56 0230 direction of treating literature as a unique thing, separate and apart G56 0240 from its causes and its effects. All through G56 0250 Plato attends to the way art relates to the general life and ultimately G56 0260 to a good life for his citizens. In short, he is constantly concerned G56 0270 with the ethical effects. When he discusses the subject matter G56 0280 of poetry, he asks what moral effect the scenes will have. When he G56 0290 turns briefly to literary style, in the Third Book, he again looks to G56 0300 the effect on the audience. He explains that his citizens must not G56 0310 be corrupted by any of the misrepresentations of the gods or heroes that G56 0320 one finds in much poetry, and he observes that all "these pantomimic G56 0330 gentlemen" will be sent to another state. Only those story tellers G56 0340 will remain who can "imitate the style of the virtuous". G56 0350 Plato is, at times, just as suspicious of the poets themselves as he G56 0360 is of their work. When he discusses tyrants in the Eighth Book of G56 0370 he pictures the poets as willing to praise the worst G56 0380 rulers. But the most fundamental objection he has to poets appears G56 0390 in the Tenth Book, and it is derived from his doctrine of ideal forms. G56 0400 In Plato's mind there is an irresolvable conflict between the G56 0410 poet and the philosopher, because the poet imitates only particular objects G56 0420 and is incapable of rising to the first level of abstraction, much G56 0430 less the highest level of ideal forms. True reality, of course, is G56 0440 the ideal, and the poet knows nothing of this; only the philosopher G56 0450 knows the truth. Poets, moreover, dwell on human passions. And G56 0460 with this point about the passions, we encounter Plato's dualism. G56 0470 The same sort of thinking plays so large a part in both Babbitt and G56 0480 More, that we must examine it in some detail. Plato feels that man G56 0490 has two competing aspects, his rational faculty and his irrational. G56 0500 We can be virtuous only if we control our lower natures, the passions G56 0510 in this case, and strengthen our rational side; and poetry, with all G56 0520 its emphasis on the passions, encourages the audience to give way to G56 0530 emotion. For this reason, then, poetry tends to weaken the power of G56 0540 control, the reason, because it tempts one to indulge his passions, and G56 0550 even the best of men, he maintains, may be corrupted by this subtle G56 0560 influence. Plato's attitude toward poetry has always been something G56 0570 of an enigma, because he is so completely sensitive to its charm. G56 0580 His whole objection, indeed, seems to rise out of a deep conviction G56 0590 that the poets have great power to influence, but Plato seldom G56 0600 pays any attention to what might be called the poem itself. He is, G56 0610 rather, concerned with the effect on society and he wants the poets G56 0620 to join his fight for justice. He wants them to use their great power G56 0630 to strengthen man's rational side, to teach virtue, and to encourage G56 0640 religion. While Plato finally allows a few acceptable hymns G56 0650 to the gods and famous men, still he clearly leaves the way open for G56 0660 further discussion of the issue. He even calls upon the poets to defend G56 0670 the Muse and to show that poetry may contribute to virtue. He says: G56 0675 " We G56 0680 may further grant to those of her [Poetry's] defenders G56 0690 who are lovers of poetry and yet not poets, the permission to G56 0700 speak in prose on her behalf: let them show not only that she is pleasant G56 0710 but also useful to States and to human life, and we will listen G56 0720 in a kindly spirit; for if this can be proved we shall surely be the G56 0730 gainers- I mean, if there is a use in poetry as well as a delight". G56 0740 When we turn to Aristotle's ideas on the moral measure G56 0750 of literature, it is at once apparent that he is at times equally concerned G56 0760 about the influence of the art. In the ideal state, for instance, G56 0770 he argues that the young citizens should hear only the most carefully G56 0780 selected tales and stories. For this reason, he would banish indecent G56 0790 pictures and speeches from the stage; and the young people should G56 0800 not even be permitted to see comedies till they are old enough to G56 0810 drink strong wine and sit at the public tables. By the time they reach G56 0820 that age, however, Aristotle no longer worries about the evil influence G56 0830 of comedies. In Aristotle's analysis of tragedy in the G56 0840 we find an attempt to isolate the art, to consider only G56 0850 those things proper to it, to discover how it differs from other arts, G56 0860 and to deal with the effects peculiar to it. He assures us, early G56 0870 in the that all art is "imitation" and that all imitation G56 0880 gives pleasure, but he distinguishes between art in general and G56 0890 poetic art on the basis of the means, manner, and the objects of the G56 0900 imitation. Once the poetic arts are separated from the other forms, G56 0910 he lays down his famous definition of tragedy, which sets up standards G56 0920 and so lends direction to the remainder of the work. A tragedy, by G56 0930 his definition, is an imitation of an action that is serious, of a certain G56 0940 magnitude, and complete in itself. It should have a dramatic form G56 0950 with pleasing language, and it should portray incidents which so arouse G56 0960 pity and fear that it purges these emotions in the audience. Any G56 0970 tragedy, he maintains, has six elements: plot, character, and thought G56 0980 (the objects of imitation), diction and melody (the means of imitation), G56 0990 and spectacle (the manner of imitation). Throughout the rest of G56 1000 the Aristotle continues to discuss the characteristics G56 1005 of these six G56 1010 parts and their interrelationship, and he refers frequently to the G56 1020 standards suggested by his definition of tragedy. Aristotle's G56 1030 method in the then, does suggest that we should isolate G56 1040 the work. The Chicago contingent of modern critics follow Aristotle G56 1050 so far in this direction that it is hard to see how they can compare G56 1060 one poem with another for the purpose of evaluation. But there are, G56 1070 however, several features of Aristotle's approach which open the G56 1080 way for the moral measure of literature. For one thing, Aristotle mentions G56 1090 that plays may corrupt the audience. In addition, his definition G56 1100 of a tragedy invites our attention, because a serious and important G56 1110 action may very well be one that tests the moral fiber of the author G56 1120 or of the characters. And there is one other point in the poetics that G56 1130 invites moral evaluation: Aristotle's notion that the distinctive G56 1140 function of tragedy is to purge one's emotions by arousing pity G56 1150 and fear. He rejects certain plots because they do not contribute to G56 1160 that end. The point is that an ethical critic, with an assist from Freud, G56 1170 can seize on this theory to argue that tragedy provides us with G56 1180 a harmless outlet for our hostile urges. In his study G56 1190 Joseph Wood Krutch takes this line when he says that what Aristotle G56 1200 really means by his theory of catharsis is that our evil passions G56 1210 may be so purged by the dramatic ritual that it is "less likely G56 1220 that we shall indulge them through our own acts". In Krutch's view, G56 1230 this is one way to show how literature may be moral in effect without G56 1240 employing the explicit methods of a moralist. And we can add that G56 1250 Krutch's interpretation of purgation is also one answer to Plato's G56 1260 fear that poetry will encourage our passions. If Krutch is correct, G56 1270 tragedy may have quite the opposite effect. It may allay our passions G56 1280 and so restore the rule of reason. Or in more Freudian terms, G56 1290 the experience may serve to sublimate our destructive urges and strengthen G56 1300 the ego and superego. #GOSSON AND SIDNEY# The second half of G56 1310 the sixteenth century in England was the setting for a violent and long G56 1320 controversy over the moral quality of renaissance literature, especially G56 1330 the drama. No one suggested that the ethical effects of the art G56 1340 were irrelevant. Both sides agreed that the theater must stand a moral G56 1350 test, but they could not agree on whether the poets were a good or G56 1360 a bad influence. Both sides claimed that Plato and Aristotle supported G56 1370 their cause. Those who wanted to close the theaters, for example, G56 1380 pointed to Plato's and those who wished to keep them G56 1390 open called on the Plato of the to testify in their behalf. G56 1400 The most famous document that comes out of this dispute is perhaps G56 1410 Sir Philip Sidney's published G56 1420 in 1595. Many students of literature know that classical defense. G56 1430 What is not so well known, however, and what is quite important for G56 1440 understanding the issues of this early quarrel, is the kind of attack G56 1450 on literature that Sidney was answering. For this reason, then I want G56 1460 to describe, first, two examples of the puritanical attacks: Stephen G56 1470 Gosson's 1579, and his later published in 1582. Second, we will see how Sidney G56 1490 answered the charges, for while Sidney's essay was not specifically G56 1500 a reply to Gosson, his arguments do support the new theater. G56 1510 According to William Ringler's study, the theater G56 1520 business in London had become a thriving enterprise by 1577, and, G56 1530 in the opinion of many, a thoroughly bad business. Aroused by what G56 1540 they considered an evil influence, some members of the clergy, joined G56 1550 by city authorities, merchants, and master craftsmen, began the attack G56 1560 on the plays and the actors for what they called "the abuses of the G56 1570 art", but by 1582 some of them began to denounce the whole idea of G56 1580 acting. Although this kind of wholesale objection came at first from G56 1590 some men who were not technically Puritans, still, once the Puritans G56 1600 gained power, they climaxed the affair by passing the infamous ordinance G56 1610 of 1642 which decreed that all "public stage-plays shall cease G56 1620 and be forborne". With that act of Parliament the opponents of the G56 1630 stage won the day, and for more than two decades after that England G56 1640 had no legitimate public drama. In the early days of this controversy G56 1650 over the theater one of the interested parties, Stephen Gosson, G56 1660 published a little tract in which he objected mildly to the abuses G56 1670 of art, rather than the art itself. But his opposition hardened and G56 1680 by 1579, in he was ready to banish all "players". G56 1690 He advises women to beware "of those places which in sorrows G56 1700 cheere you and beguile you in mirth". He does not really approve G56 1710 of levity and laughter, but sex is the deadly sin. He warns that G56 1720 a single glance can lead us into temptation, for "Looking eies have G56 1730 lyking hartes, and lyking hartes may burne in lust". G57 0010 But it would not be very satisfactory to leave our conclusions G57 0020 at the point just reached. fortunately, it is possible to be somewhat G57 0030 more concrete and factual in diagnosing the involvement of values in G57 0040 education. For this purpose we now draw upon data from sociological and G57 0050 psychological studies of students in American colleges and universities, G57 0060 and particularly from the Cornell Values Studies. In the latter G57 0065 research program, G57 0070 information is available for 2,758 Cornell students G57 0080 surveyed in 1950 and for 1,571 students surveyed in 1952. Of the G57 0090 latter sample, 944 persons had been studied two years earlier; hence G57 0100 in attitudes and values can be analyzed for identical individuals G57 0110 at two points in time. In addition, the 1952 study collected G57 0120 comparable data from 4,585 students at ten other colleges and universities G57 0130 scattered across the country: Dartmouth, Harvard, Yale, Wesleyan, G57 0140 North Carolina, Fisk, Texas, University of California at G57 0150 Los Angeles, Wayne, and Michigan. We find, in the first G57 0160 place, that , G57 0170 positively evaluate the job their own institution is doing, do not G57 0180 accept most of the criticisms levelled against higher education in the G57 0190 public prints, and, on the whole, approve of the way their university G57 0200 deals with value-problems and value inculcation. It is not our impression G57 0210 that these evaluations are naively uncritical resultants of blissful G57 0220 ignorance; rather, the generality of these students find their G57 0230 university experience congenial to their own sense of values. . Other conceivable goals, G57 0270 such as character-education and social adjustment, are of secondary G57 0280 importance to them. . Even G57 0300 in such technical curricula as engineering, the senior is much more G57 0310 likely than the freshman to choose, as an ideal, liberal education over G57 0320 specific vocational preparation. In the university milieu of scholarship G57 0330 and research, of social diversity, of new ideas and varied and G57 0340 wide-ranging interests, "socialization" into a campus culture apparently G57 0350 means heightened appreciation of the idea of a liberal education G57 0360 in the arts and sciences. Students' of ideal G57 0370 educational goals . There is a clear G57 0380 relationship between their educational evaluations and their basic G57 0390 pattern of general values. The selective and directional qualities of G57 0400 basic value-orientations are clearly evident in these data: the G57 0410 "success-oriented" G57 0420 students choose vocational preparation, the "other-directed" G57 0430 choose goals of social adjustment ("getting along with G57 0440 people"), the "intellectuals" choose a liberal arts emphasis. G57 0450 The same patterned consistency shows itself in occupational choices. G57 0460 There is . And, contrary to many popular assertions, the . Our students want occupations G57 0510 that permit them to use their talents and training, to be creative G57 0520 and original, to work with and to help other people. They also want G57 0530 money, prestige, and security. But they are in these regards; they set - G57 0550 few aspire to millions of dollars or to "imperial" power and G57 0560 glory. Within the fixed frame of these aspirations, they can afford G57 0570 to place a high value on the expressive and people-oriented aspects of G57 0580 occupation and to minimize the instrumental-reward values of power, G57 0590 prestige, and wealth. Occupational choices are also useful- G57 0600 and interesting- in bringing out clearly that values do not constitute G57 0610 the only component in goals and aspirations. For there is also the G57 0620 "face of reality" in the form of the individual's perceptions G57 0625 of G57 0630 his own abilities and interests, of the objective possibilities open G57 0640 to him, of the familial and other social pressures to which he is exposed. G57 0650 We find "reluctant recruits" whose values are not in line with G57 0660 their expected occupation's characteristics. Students develop occupational G57 0670 images- not always accurate or detailed- and they try to G57 0680 fit their values to the presumed characteristics of the imagined occupation. G57 0690 The purely cognitive or informational problems are often acute. G57 0700 Furthermore, many reluctant recruits are yielding to social demands, G57 0710 or compromising in the face of their own limitations of opportunity, G57 0720 or of ability and performance. Thus, many a creativity-oriented aspirant G57 0730 for a career in architecture, drama, or journalism, resigns himself G57 0740 to a real estate business; many a people-oriented student who dreams G57 0750 of the M&D& decides to enter his father's advertising agency; G57 0760 and many a hopeful incipient business executive decides it were G57 0770 better to teach the theory of business administration than to practice G57 0780 it. The old ideal of the independent entrepreneur is extant- but G57 0790 so is the recognition that the main chance may be in a corporate bureaucracy. G57 0800 In their views on dating, courtship, sex, and family G57 0810 life, our students prefer what they are expected to prefer. For them, G57 0820 in the grim words of a once-popular song, love and marriage go together G57 0830 like a horse and carriage. Their expressed standards concerning G57 0840 sex roles, desirable age for marriage, characteristics of an ideal mate, G57 0850 number of children desired are congruent with the values and stereotypes G57 0860 of the preceding generation- minus compulsive rebellion. They G57 0870 even accept the "double standard" of sex morality in a double sense, G57 0880 i&e&, both sexes agree that standards for men differ from standards G57 0890 for women, and women apply to both sexes a standard different from G57 0900 that held by men. "Conservatism" and "traditionalism" G57 0910 seem implied by what has just been said. But these terms are treacherous. G57 0920 . G57 0940 And as they go through college, the students tend to bring their G57 0950 political position in line with that prevalent in the social groups G57 0960 to which they belong. Yet they have accepted most of the extant "welfare G57 0970 state" provisions for health, security, and the regulation of G57 0980 economic affairs, and they overwhelmingly approve of the traditional G57 0990 "liberalism" of the Bill of Rights. When their faith in civil G57 1000 liberties is tested against strong pressures of social expediency in specific G57 1010 issues, e&g&, suppression of "dangerous ideas", many waver G57 1020 and give in. The students who are most willing to acquiesce in the G57 1030 suppression of civil liberties are also those who are most likely to G57 1040 be prejudiced against minority groups, to be conformist and traditionalistic G57 1050 in general social attitudes, and to lack a basic faith in people. G57 1060 As one looks at the existing evidence, one finds a correlation, G57 1070 although only a slight one, between high grades and "libertarian" G57 1080 values. But the correlation is substantial only among upperclassmen. G57 1090 In other words, as students go through college, those who are G57 1100 most successful academically tend to become more committed to a "Bill G57 1110 of Rights" orientation. College in gross- just the general experience- G57 1120 may have varying effects, but the . G57 1140 This finding is consistent also with the fact that student leaders are G57 1150 more likely to be supporters of the values implicit in civil liberties G57 1160 than the other students. There is now substantial evidence G57 1170 from several major studies of college students that . Detached from their prior statuses and social G57 1200 groups and exposed to the pervasive stimuli of the university milieu, G57 1210 the students tend to assimilate a new common , to converge G57 1220 toward norms characteristic of their own particular campus. Furthermore, G57 1230 in certain respects, there are norms common to colleges and universities G57 1240 across the country. For instance, college-educated people consistently G57 1250 show up in study after study as more often than others supporters G57 1260 of the Bill of Rights and other democratic rights and liberties. G57 1270 The interesting thing in this connection is that the norms upon which G57 1280 students tend to converge include toleration of diversity. G57 1290 To the extent that our sampling of the orientations of American college G57 1300 students in the years 1950 and 1952 may be representative of our G57 1310 culture- and still valid in 1959- , or as a mass of other-directed conformists who are guided G57 1340 solely by social radar without benefit of inner gyroscopes. Our data G57 1350 indicate that these students of today do basically accept the existing G57 1360 institutions of the society, and, in the face of the realities of complex G57 1370 and large-scale economic and political problems, make a wary and G57 1380 ambivalent delegation of trust to those who occupy positions of legitimized G57 1390 responsibility for coping with such collective concerns. , but their conservatism G57 1410 incorporates a traditionalized embodiment of the original "radicalism" G57 1420 of 1776. Although we have no measures of its strength or intensity, G57 1430 the heritage of the doctrine of inalienable rights is retained. G57 1440 As they move through the college years our young men and women are "socialized" G57 1450 into a broadly similar culture, at the level of personal G57 1460 behavior. In this sense also, they are surely conformists. It is G57 1470 even true that some among them use the sheer fact of conformity- "everyone G57 1480 does it"- as a criterion for conduct. But the extent of G57 1490 ethical robotism is easily overestimated. Few students are really so G57 1500 faceless in the not-so-lonely crowd of the swelling population in our G57 1510 institutions of higher learning. And it may be well to recall that to G57 1515 say G57 1520 "conformity" is, in part, another way of saying "orderly human G57 1530 society". In the field of religious beliefs and values, the G57 1540 college students seem to faithfully reflect the surrounding culture. G57 1550 Their commitments are, for the most part, couched in a familiar idiom. G57 1560 . The religious quest is often intense and deep, G57 1590 and there are students on every campus who are seriously wrestling with G57 1600 the most profound questions of meaning and value. At the same time, G57 1610 a major proportion of these young men and women see religion as a means G57 1620 of personal adjustment, an anchor for family life, a source of emotional G57 1630 security. These personal and social goals often overshadow the G57 1640 goals of intellectual clarity, and spiritual transcendence. The "cult G57 1650 of adjustment" does exist. It exists alongside the acceptance of G57 1660 traditional forms of organized religion (church, ordained personnel, G57 1670 ritual, dogma). Still another segment of the student population consists G57 1680 of those who seek, in what they regard as religion, intellectual clarity, G57 1690 rational belief, and ethical guidance and reinforcement. G57 1700 Our first impression of the data was that the students were surprisingly G57 1710 orthodox and religiously involved. Upon second thought we were G57 1720 forced to realize that we have very few reliable historical benchmarks G57 1730 against which we might compare the present situation, and that conclusions G57 1740 that present-day students are "more" or "less" religious G57 1750 could not be defended on the basis of our data. As we looked more intently G57 1760 at the content of our belief and the extent of religious participation, G57 1770 we received the impression that many of the religious convictions G57 1780 expressed represented a conventional acceptance, of low intensity. G57 1790 But, here again, comparative benchmarks are lacking, and we do not G57 1800 know, in any case, what measure of profoundity and intensity to expect G57 1810 from healthy, young, secure and relatively inexperienced persons; G57 1820 after all, feelings of immortality and invulnerability are standard illusions G57 1830 of youth. Nor are optimistic and socially-oriented themes at G57 1840 all rare in the distinctive religious history of this country. G57 1850 Kluckhohn recently has summarized evidence regarding changes in values G57 1860 during a period of years, primarily 1935-1955, but extending much farther G57 1870 back in some instances. A variety of data are assembled to bear G57 1880 upon such alleged changes as diminished puritan morality, work-success G57 1890 ethic, individualism, achievement, lessened emphasis on future-time G57 1900 orientation in favor of sociability, moral relativism, consideration and G57 1910 tolerance, conformity, hedonistic present-time orientation. Although G57 1920 he questions the extent and nature of the alleged revival of religion G57 1930 and the alleged increase in conformity, and thinks that "hedonistic" G57 1940 present-time orientation does not have the meaning usually attributed G57 1950 to it, he does conclude that Americans increasingly enjoy leisure G57 1960 without guilt, do not stress achievement so much as formerly, are more G57 1970 accepting of group harmony as a goal, more tolerant of diversity and G57 1980 aware of other cultures. G58 0010 From New Jersey, Morgan hastened to the headquarters of Washington G58 0020 at Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania, arriving there on November 18th. G58 0030 There was much sickness in the corps, and the men were, in addition, G58 0040 without the clothing, shoes, and blankets needed for the winter weather. G58 0050 Morgan himself had sciatica again. Even on his tough constitution, G58 0060 the exposure and strenuous activity were beginning to tell in earnest. G58 0070 On the morning of November 17th, Cornwallis and 2,000 G58 0080 men had left Philadelphia with the object of capturing Fort Mercer G58 0090 at Red Bank, New Jersey. In order to prevent this, Washington hastened G58 0110 to dispatch several units to reinforce the fort, including a force G58 0120 under the Marquis de Lafayette containing some 160 of Morgan's G58 0130 riflemen, all who were fit for duty at this time, the rest having no shoes. G58 0140 Although the fort was evacuated in the face of the force of Cornwallis, G58 0150 Morgan and his men did have a chance to take another swing G58 0160 at the redcoats. A picket guard of about 350, mostly Hessians, were G58 0170 attacked by the Americans under Lafayette, and driven back to their G58 0180 camp, some twenty to thirty of them falling before the riflemen's fire. G58 0190 "I never saw men", Lafayette declared in regard to the G58 0200 riflemen, "so merry, so spirited, and so desirous to go on to the G58 0210 enemy, whatever force they might have, as that small party in this fight". G58 0220 Nathanael Greene told Washington that "Lafayette was charmed G58 0230 with the spirited behavior of the militia and riflemen". G58 0240 A few days later it was learned that General Howe was planning an G58 0250 attack upon the American camp. The British general moved his forces G58 0260 north from Philadelphia to Chestnut Hill, near the right wing of G58 0270 the patriot encampment. Here the Pennsylvania militia skirmished with G58 0280 the British, but soon fled. Morgan was ordered to attack the enemy, G58 0290 who had meantime moved to Edge Hill on the left of the Americans. G58 0300 Similar orders were given to the Maryland militia. Morgan immediately G58 0310 disposed his troops for action and found he had not long to wait. G58 0320 A body of redcoats were seen marching down a nearby slope, a tempting G58 0330 target for the riflemen, who threw a volley into their ranks and "messed G58 0340 up" the smart formation considerably. Now the riflemen and the G58 0350 Marylanders followed up their beginning and closed in on the British, G58 0360 giving them another telling round of fire. The redcoats ran like G58 0370 rabbits. But the Maryland militia had likewise fled, all too typical G58 0380 of this type of soldier during the Revolution, an experience which gave G58 0390 Morgan little confidence in militia in general, as he watched other G58 0400 instances of their breaking in hot engagements. The British, although G58 0410 suffering considerable losses, noted the defection of the Marylanders, G58 0420 made a stand, then turned and attacked Morgan who became greatly G58 0430 outnumbered and had to retire. The Americans lost forty-four G58 0440 men, among them Major Joseph Morris of Morgan's regiment, an G58 0450 officer who was regarded with high esteem and affection, not only by his G58 0460 commander, but by Washington and Lafayette as well. The latter was G58 0470 so upset on learning of the death of Morris, that he wrote Morgan G58 0480 a letter, showing his own warmhearted generosity. After complimenting G58 0490 Morgan and the riflemen and saying he was praising them to Congress, G58 0500 too, the ardent Frenchman added he felt that Congress should make G58 0510 some financial restitution to the widow and family of Morris, but that G58 0515 he G58 0520 knew Morgan realized how long such action usually required, if it was G58 0530 done at all. "As Mrs& Morris may be in some want before that G58 0540 time", Lafayette continued, "I am going to trouble you with a commission G58 0550 which I beg you will execute with the greatest secrecy. If G58 0560 she wanted to borrow any sum of money in expecting the arrangements of G58 0570 Congress, it would not become a stranger, unknown to her, to offer himself G58 0580 for that purpose. But you could (as from yourself) tell her that G58 0590 you had friends who, being with the army, don't know what to do with G58 0600 their money and **h would willingly let her have one or many thousand G58 0610 dollars". This was accordingly done, and the plight of the grateful G58 0620 Mrs& Morris was much relieved as a result of the generous loan, G58 0630 the amount of which is not known. Apparently still sensitive G58 0640 about the idea with which General Gates had approached him at Saratoga, G58 0650 namely, that George Washington be replaced, Morgan was vehement G58 0660 in his support of the commander-in-chief during the campaign around G58 0670 Philadelphia. Richard Peters, Secretary of the Board of War, thought G58 0680 Morgan was so extreme on the subject that he accused him of trying G58 0710 to pick a quarrel. Morgan hotly denied this and informed the Board G58 0730 of War that the men in camp linked the name of Peters with the plot G58 0740 against Washington. Peters insisted that this impression was a great G58 0750 misunderstanding, and evidently, from the quarrel, obtained an unfavorable G58 0760 impression of Morgan's judgment. Such a situation regarding G58 0770 the Board of War could hardly have helped Morgan's chances for G58 0780 promotion when that matter came before the group later on. In G58 0790 late December, the American army moved from Whitemarsh to Valley G58 0800 Forge, and although the distance was only 13 miles, the journey took G58 0810 more than a week because of the bad weather, the barefooted and almost G58 0820 naked men. The position of the new camp was admirably selected and G58 0830 well fortified, its easily defensible nature being one good reason why G58 0840 Howe did not attack it. Besides helping to prevent the movement of G58 0850 the British to the west, Valley Forge also obstructed the trade between G58 0860 Howe's forces and the farmers, thus threatening the vital subsistence G58 0870 of the redcoats and rendering their foraging to obtain necessary G58 0880 supplies extremely hazardous. In order to see that this hindering G58 0890 situation remained effective, Washington detached several bodies of his G58 0900 troops to the periphery of the Philadelphia area. Morgan and G58 0910 his corps were placed on the west side of the Schuylkill River, with G58 0920 instructions to intercept all supplies found going to the city and G58 0930 to keep a close eye on the movements of the enemy. The headquarters G58 0940 of Morgan was on a farm, said to have been particularly well located G58 0950 so as to prevent the farmers nearby from trading with the British, a G58 0960 practice all too common to those who preferred to sell their produce for G58 0970 British gold rather than the virtually worthless Continental currency. G58 0980 In his dealings with offenders, however, Morgan was typically G58 0990 firm but just. For example, he captured some persons from York County, G58 1000 who with teams were taking to Philadelphia the furniture of a man G58 1010 who had just been released from prison through the efforts of his wife, G58 1020 and who apparently was helpless to prevent the theft of his household G58 1030 goods. Morgan took charge of the furniture and restored it to its G58 1040 thankful owners, but he let the culprits who had stolen it go free. G58 1050 Morgan complained to Washington about the men detailed to him G58 1060 for scouting duty, most of them he said being useless. "They straggle G58 1070 at such a rate", he told the commander-in-chief, "that if the G58 1080 enemy were enterprising, they might get two from us, when we would take G58 1090 one of them, which makes me wish General Howe would go on, lest any G58 1100 incident happen to us". If the hardships of the winter at G58 1110 Valley Forge were trying for healthy men, they were, of course, much G58 1120 more so for those not in good health. Daniel Morgan's rheumatic condition G58 1130 worsened with the increase of the cold and damp weather. He G58 1140 had braved the elements and the enemy, but the strain, aided by the winter, G58 1150 was catching up with him at last. Also, he was now forty-three G58 1160 years old. The mild activity of his command during the sojourn of the G58 1170 troops at Valley Forge could be handled by a subordinate, he felt, G58 1180 so like Henry Knox, equally loyal to Washington, who went to Boston G58 1190 at this time, Morgan received permission to visit his home in Virginia G58 1200 for several weeks. In his absence, the rifle regiment was under G58 1210 the command of Major Thomas Posey, another able Virginian. G58 1220 But Morgan did not leave before he had written a letter to a William G58 1230 Pickman in Salem, Massachusetts, apparently an acquaintance, praising G58 1240 Washington and saying that the slanders propagated about him were G58 1250 "opposed by the general current of the people **h to exalt General G58 1260 Gates at the expense of General Washington was injurious to the latter. G58 1270 If there be a disinterested patriot in America, 'tis General G58 1280 Washington, and his bravery, none can question". It is doubtful G58 1290 if Morgan was able to take home much money to his wife and children, G58 1300 for his pay, as shown by the War Department Abstracts of early G58 1310 1778 was $75 a month as a colonel, and that apt to be delayed. He G58 1320 was shown a warm welcome regardless, and spent the time in Winchester G58 1330 recuperating from his ailment, enjoying his family and arranging his G58 1340 private affairs which were, of course, run down. His neighbors celebrated G58 1350 his return, even if it was only temporary, and Morgan was especially G58 1360 gratified by the quaint expression of an elderly friend, Isaac G58 1370 Lane, who told him, "A man that has so often left all that is dear G58 1380 to him, as thou hast, to serve thy country, must create a sympathetic G58 1390 feeling in every patriotic heart". There must have been special G58 1400 feelings of joy and patriotism in the heart of Daniel Morgan too, G58 1410 when the news was received on April 30th of the recognition by France G58 1420 of the independence of the United States. His fellow Virginian, G58 1430 George Washington, had stated, "I believe no event was ever received G58 1440 with more heartfelt joy". The dreary camp at Valley Forge G58 1450 was turned into an arena of rejoicing. Even the dignified Washington G58 1460 indulged in a game of wickets with some children. His soldiers on the G58 1470 whole did not celebrate so mildly. On May 6th, Morgan, who had returned, G58 1480 received from Washington orders to "send out patrols under G58 1490 vigilant officers" to keep near the enemy. "The reason for this", G58 1500 the orders said, "is that the enemy may think to take advantage of G58 1510 the celebration of this day. The troops must have more than the common G58 1520 quantity of liquor, and perhaps there will be some little drunkenness G58 1530 among them". Apparently no serious disorders resulted from G58 1540 the celebration, and within a few days, Morgan joined the force of G58 1550 Lafayette who now had command of some 2,000 men at Barren Hill, not G58 1560 far above Philadelphia on the Schuylkill. The Frenchman had been G58 1570 ordered to approach the enemy's lines, harass them and get intelligence G58 1580 of their movements. Interestingly enough, the order transmitted G58 1590 to Morgan through Alexander Hamilton also informed him that "A party G58 1600 of Indians will join the party to be sent from your command at Whitemarsh, G58 1610 and act with them". These were Oneida Indians. G58 1620 Washington evidently was anxious for Morgan to be cautious as well G58 1630 as aggressive, for on May 17th, 18th and 20th he admonished the leader G58 1640 of the riflemen-rangers to be on the alert. Obviously the commander-in-chief G58 1650 had confidence that Morgan would furnish him good intelligence G58 1660 too, for on the 23rd of May, he told Morgan that the British were G58 1670 prepared to move, perhaps in the night, and asked Morgan to have two G58 1680 of his best horses ready to dispatch to General Smallwood with the G58 1690 intelligence obtained. Meantime, however, this same General Smallwood G58 1700 seemed to be serving chivalry as well as the American army. Colonel G58 1710 Benjamin Ford wrote to Morgan from Wilmington that he understood G58 1720 a Mrs& Sanderson from Maryland had obtained permission from Smallwood G58 1730 to visit Philadelphia, and would return on May 26th, escorted G58 1740 by several officers from Maryland "belonging to the new levies G58 1750 in the British service". Ford urged Morgan to capture these men, G58 1760 who, he thought, might be disguised as Quakers or peasants. Morgan took G58 1770 the suggested steps, but when Mrs& Sanderson appeared, there was G58 1780 nobody with her but her husband, whom he promptly sent to headquarters G58 1790 to be questioned. But Morgan evidently reported matters of intelligence G58 1800 much more important to his commanding general. A letter of a G58 1810 few days later from Washington's aide to Morgan stated, "His Excellency G58 1820 is highly pleased with your conduct upon this occasion". G59 0010 For by now the original cause of the quarrel, Philip's seizure of G59 0020 Gascony, was only one strand in the spider web of French interests that G59 0030 overlay all western Europe and that had been so well and closely G59 0040 spun that the lightest movement could set it trembling from one end to G59 0050 the other. Even so, Edward's ambassadors can scarcely have foreseen G59 0060 that five years of unremitting work lay ahead of them before peace G59 0070 was finally made and that when it did come the countless embassies that G59 0080 left England for Rome during that period had very little to do with G59 0090 it. It is hard not to lay most of the blame for their failures G59 0100 on the pope. Nogaret is hardly an impartial witness, and even he G59 0110 did G59 0120 not make his charges against Boniface until the latter was dead, but G59 0130 there is some truth in what he said and more in what he did not say. G59 0140 It was not merely a hunger for "money, gold and precious objects" G59 0150 that delayed the papal pronouncement that could have brought the war G59 0170 to an end; the pope was playing a dangerous game, with so many balls G59 0180 in the air at once that a misstep would bring them all about his ears, G59 0190 and his only hope was to temporize so that he could take advantage G59 0200 of every change in the delicate balance of European affairs. When the G59 0210 negotiations began, his quarrel with the king of France was temporarily G59 0220 in abeyance, and he had no intention of reviving it so long as there G59 0230 was hope that French money would come to pay the troops who, under G59 0240 Charles of Valois, G59 0250 the papal vicar of Tuscany, were so valuable in G59 0260 the crusade against the Colonna cardinals and their Sicilian allies. G59 0270 If his circumspection in regard to Philip's sensibilities went so G59 0280 far that he even refused to grant a dispensation for the marriage of G59 0290 Amadee's daughter, Agnes, to the son of the dauphin of Vienne- G59 0300 a truly peacemaking move according to thirteenth-century ideas, for Savoy G59 0310 and Dauphine were as usual fighting on opposite sides- for fear G59 0320 that he might seem to be favoring the anti-French coalition, he would G59 0330 certainly never take the far more drastic step of ordering the return G59 0340 of Gascony to Edward, even though, as he admitted to the English G59 0350 ambassadors, he had been advised that the original cession was invalid. G59 0360 On the other hand, he did not want to offend Edward either, and G59 0370 he found himself in a very difficult position. On the surface, the whole G59 0380 question was purely feudal. The French were now occupying Gascony G59 0390 and Flanders on the technical grounds that their rulers had forfeited G59 0400 them by a breach of the feudal contract. But Edward was invading G59 0410 Scotland for precisely the same reason, and his insubordinate vassal G59 0420 was the ally of the king of France. Boniface had to uphold the sacredness G59 0430 of the feudal contract at all costs, for it was only as suzerain G59 0440 of Sicily and of the Patrimony of Peter that he had any justification G59 0450 for his Italian wars, but in the English-Scottish-French triangle G59 0460 it was almost impossible for him to recognize the claims of any one G59 0470 of the contestants without seeming to invalidate those of the other G59 0480 two. Because of these involvements in the matter at stake, Boniface G59 0490 lacked the impartiality that is supposed to be an essential qualification G59 0495 for the position of arbiter, and in retrospect that would G59 0505 seem to be G59 0510 sufficient reason why the English embassies to the Curia proved G59 0520 so fruitless. But when the situation was so complicated that even G59 0530 Nogaret, one of the principal actors in the drama, could misinterpret G59 0540 the pope's motives, it is possible that Othon and his companions, G59 0550 equally baffled, attributed their difficulties to a more immediate cause. G59 0560 This was Boniface's monumental tactlessness. "Tact", by G59 0570 its very derivation, implies that its possessor keeps in touch with other G59 0580 people, but the author of and , G59 0590 the wielder of the two swords, the papal sun of which the imperial G59 0600 moon was but a dim reflection, the peer of Caesar and vice-regent G59 0610 of Christ, was so high above other human beings that he had forgotten G59 0620 what they were like. He was a learned and brilliant man, one of the G59 0630 best jurists in Europe and with flashes of penetrating insight, and yet G59 0640 in his dealings with other people, particularly when he tried to be G59 0650 ingratiating, he was capable of an abysmal stupidity that can have come G59 0660 only from a complete incomprehension of human nature and human motives. G59 0670 This lofty disregard for others was not shared by such men G59 0680 as Pierre Flotte and his associates, that "brilliant group of mediocre G59 0690 men", as Powicke calls them, who provided the brains for the G59 0700 French embassy that came to Rome under the nominal leadership of the G59 0710 archbishop of Narbonne, the duke of Burgundy, and the count of St&-Pol. G59 0720 They had risen from humble beginnings by their own diligence G59 0730 and astuteness, they were unfettered by the codes that bound nobles G59 0740 like Othon or even the older generation of clerks like Hotham, and G59 0750 they were working for an end that their opponents had never even visualized. G59 0760 Boniface was later to explain to the English that Robert G59 0770 of Burgundy and Guy de St&-Pol were easy enough to do business with; G59 0780 it was the clerks who caused the mischief and who made him say G59 0790 that the ruling passion of their race was covetousness and that in dealing G59 0800 with them he never knew whether he had to do with a Frenchman or G59 0810 with a devil. To the pope, head of the universal Church, to the duke G59 0820 of Burgundy, taking full advantage of his position on the borders G59 0830 of France and of the Empire, or to Othon, who found it quite natural G59 0840 that he should do homage to Edward for Tipperary and to the count G59 0850 of Savoy for Grandson, Flotte's outspoken nationalism was completely G59 0860 incomprehensible. And yet he made no pretense about it; when G59 0870 the pope, trying no doubt to appeal to his better nature, said to him, G59 0880 "You have already taken Normandy. Do you want to drive the king G59 0890 of England from all his overseas possessions"? the Frenchman's G59 0900 answer was a terse "Vous dites vrai". Loyal and unscrupulous, G59 0910 with a single-minded ambition to which he devoted all his energies, he G59 0920 outmatched the English diplomats time and time again until, by a kind G59 0930 of poetic justice, he fell at the battle of Courtrai, the victim of G59 0940 the equally nationalistic if less articulate Flemings. The G59 0950 English, relying on a prejudiced arbiter and confronted with superior G59 0960 diplomatic skill, were also hampered in their negotiations by the events G59 0970 that were taking place at home. The Scots had found a new leader G59 0980 in William Wallace, and Edward's yearly expeditions across the Border G59 0990 called for evermounting taxes, which only increased his difficulties G59 1000 with the barons and the clergy. He was unable to send any more G59 1010 help to his allies on the Continent, and during the next few years many G59 1020 of them, left to resist French pressure unaided, surrendered to the G59 1030 inevitable and made their peace with Philip. The defeat and death G59 1040 of Adolf G59 1050 of Nassau at the hands of Albert of Habsburg also worked to G59 1060 the disadvantage of the English, for all the efforts to revive the G59 1070 anti-French coalition came to nothing when Philip made an alliance with G59 1080 the new king of the Romans. These shifts in alliance and G59 1090 allegiance not only increased the difficulties confronting the English G59 1100 embassy as a whole, but also directly involved the two Savoyards, Amadee G59 1110 and Othon. In spite of the armistice negotiated by Amadee two G59 1120 years earlier, the war between Bishop Guillaume of Lausanne and Louis G59 1130 of Savoy was still going on, and although little is known about G59 1140 it, that little proves that it was yet another phase of the struggle G59 1150 against French expansion and was closely interwoven with the larger conflict. G59 1160 A second truce had been arbitrated in April, 1298, by Jean G59 1170 d'Arlay, lord of Chalon-sur-Saone, the most staunch of G59 1180 Edward's G59 1190 Burgundian allies, and these last were represented in the discussions G59 1200 at the Curia by Gautier de Montfaucon, Othon's neighbor and a G59 1210 member of the Vaudois coalition. But although in many of these G59 1220 discussions Othon and Amadee might have been tempted to consider G59 1230 their own interests as well as those of the king, Edward's confidence G59 1240 in them was so absolute that they were made the acknowledged leaders G59 1250 of the embassy. Amadee may have owed this partly to his relationship G59 1260 with the king, but Othon, who at sixty seems still to have been a simple G59 1270 knight, merited his position solely by his own character and ability. G59 1280 The younger men, Vere, and Pembroke, who was also Edward's G59 1290 cousin and whose Lusignan blood gave him the swarthy complexion that G59 1300 caused Edward of Carnarvon's irreverent friend, Piers Gaveston, G59 1310 to nickname him "Joseph the Jew", were relatively new to the game G59 1320 of diplomacy, but Pontissara had been on missions to Rome before, G59 1330 and Hotham, a man of great learning, "jocund in speech, agreeable G59 1340 to meet, of honest religion, and pleasing in the eyes of all", and an G59 1350 archbishop to boot, was as reliable and experienced as Othon himself. G59 1360 But all the reports of this first embassy show that the two Savoyards G59 1370 were the heads of it, for they were the only ones who were empowered G59 1380 to swear for the king that he would abide by the pope's decision G59 1390 and who were allowed to appoint deputies in the event that one was unavoidably G59 1400 absent. This also gave them the unpleasant duty of G59 1410 being spokesmen for the mission, and they could foresee that that would G59 1420 not be easy. Underneath all the high-sounding phrases of royal and G59 1430 papal letters and behind the more down-to-earth instructions to the envoys G59 1440 was the inescapable fact that Edward would have to desert his Flemish G59 1450 allies and leave them to the vengeance of their indignant suzerain, G59 1460 the king of France, in return for being given an equally free hand G59 1470 with the insubordinate Scots. This was a doubly bitter blow to the G59 1480 king. In the eyes of those who still cared for such things, it was G59 1490 a reflection on his honor, and it gave further grounds for complaint to G59 1500 his overtaxed subjects, who were already grumbling- although probably G59 1510 not in Latin- "Non est lex sana Quod regi sit mea lana". G59 1520 Bad relations between England and Flanders brought hard times to the G59 1530 shepherds scattered over the dales and downs as well as to the crowded G59 1540 Flemish cities, and while the English, so far, had done no more than G59 1550 grumble, Othon had seen what the discontent might lead to, for before G59 1560 he left the Low Countries the citizens of Ghent had risen in protest G59 1570 against the expense of supporting Edward and his troops, and the G59 1580 regular soldiers had found it unexpectedly difficult to put down the G59 1590 nasty little riot that ensued. In all the talk of feudal rights, G59 1600 the knights and bishops must never forget the woolworkers, nor was G59 1610 it easy to do so, for all along the road to Italy they passed the Florentine G59 1620 pack trains going home with their loads of raw wool from England G59 1630 and rough Flemish cloth, the former to be spun and woven by the G59 1640 Arte della Lana and the latter to be refined and dyed by the Arte G59 1650 della Calimala with the pigment recently discovered in Asia Minor G59 1660 by one of their members, Bernardo Rucellai, the secret of which they G59 1670 jealously kept for themselves. These chatty merchants made amusing and G59 1680 instructive traveling companions, for their business took them to all G59 1690 four corners of the globe, and Florentine gossip had already reached G59 1700 a high stage of development as even a cursory glance at the G59 1710 will prove. A northern ambassador, willing to keep his mouth shut G59 1720 and his ears open, could learn a lot that would stand him in good stead G59 1730 at the Curia. They had other topics of conversation, besides G59 1740 their news from courts and fairs, which were of interest to Othon, G59 1750 the builder of castles in Wales and churches in his native country. G59 1760 Behind him lay the Low Countries, where men were still completing G59 1770 the cathedrals that a later Florentine would describe as "a malediction G59 1780 of little tabernacles, one on top of the other, with so many pyramids G59 1790 and spires and leaves that it is a wonder they stand up at all, G59 1800 for they look as though they were made of paper instead of stone or marble"; G59 1810 the Low Countries, where the Middle Ages were to last for G59 1820 another two centuries and die out only when Charles the Bold of Burgundy G59 1830 met his first defeat in the fields and forests below the walls G59 1840 of Grandson. G60 0010 It usually turned out well for him because either he liked the right G60 0020 people or there were only a few wrong people in the town. Alfred wanted G60 0030 to invest in my father's hotel and advance enough money to build G60 0040 a larger place. It was a very tempting offer. My father would have done G60 0050 it if it hadn't been for my mother, who had a fear of being in debt G60 0060 to anyone- even Alfred Alpert. In spite of his being well G60 0070 liked there were a few people who were very careful about Alfred. G60 0075 They had my mother's G60 0080 opinion of him: that he was too sharp or a little G60 0090 too good to be true. One of the people who was afraid of Alfred G60 0100 was his own brother, Lew. I don't know how and I don't know why G60 0110 but the two stores, the one in Margaretville and the one in Fleischmanns G60 0120 that had been set up as a partnership, were dissolved, separated G60 0130 from each other. Everything was all very friendly, except when it came G60 0140 to Harry, the youngest brother. Alfred, who was a good deal older G60 0150 than Harry, had treated him like a son, and when Harry decided to stay G60 0160 in business with Lew instead of going with Alfred, Alfred looked G60 0170 on the decision as a betrayal. From that day on he never spoke to Harry G60 0180 or to Lew, or to Lew's two boys, Mort and Jimmy. The six G60 0190 miles between the towns became an ocean and the Alperts became a family G60 0200 of strangers. Time went on and everybody got older. I became G60 0210 fifteen, sixteen, then twenty, and still Tessie Alpert sat on the G60 0220 porch with a rose in her hair, and Alfred got richer and sicker with G60 0230 diabetes. It was in the spring of the year when he took to his bed and G60 0240 Tessie and Alfred found out that they didn't know each other. They G60 0250 were like two strangers. The store was their marriage, and when G60 0260 Alfred had to leave it there was nothing to hold them together. Tessie, G60 0270 everybody thought, was a strong woman, but she was only strong because G60 0280 she had Alfred to lean on. And when Alfred was forced into his G60 0290 bed, Tessie left the front porch of the store and sat at home, rocking G60 0300 in her rocker in the living room, staring out the window- the rose G60 0310 still in her hair. Tessie could do nothing for Alfred. She couldn't G60 0320 cook or clean or make him comfortable. Instead she waited for Alfred G60 0330 to get better and take care of her. Spring was life- and G60 0340 Alfred Alpert in his sickroom was death. Alfred knew that, too. G60 0350 I remember him pointing out of the window and saying that he wished he G60 0360 could live to see another spring but that he wouldn't. Alfred G60 0370 began to put his affairs in order, and he went about it like a man G60 0380 putting his things into storage. My father, who liked Alfred very much, G60 0390 was a constant visitor. One day Alfred told him that he had decided G60 0400 to leave everything to me. My father, a wise man, asked him not G60 0410 to. He knew Alfred liked me; if he wanted to leave me something let G60 0420 it be a trinket, nothing else. By leaving me everything he wouldn't G60 0430 be doing me a favor, my father told him, and he didn't want to see G60 0440 his daughter involved in a lawsuit. He didn't want Alfred to leave G60 0450 me trouble because that's all it would be, and Alfred understood. G60 0460 Alfred was getting too sick to stay in his own home. The doctor G60 0470 wanted him in a hospital; the nearest one was forty miles away G60 0480 in Kingston. The day Alfred left his home and Fleischmanns he gave G60 0490 up the convictions of a lifetime. He sent me for Meltzer the Butcher, G60 0500 whom he wanted not as a friend but as a rabbi. Meltzer knew G60 0510 why I had come for him. Solemnly he walked me back to Alfred's G60 0520 house without a word passing between us. He entered the house in silence, G60 0530 walked into Alfred's room, and closed the door behind him. I G60 0540 sat down to wait, and I watched Tessie Alpert, who hadn't moved G60 0550 or said a word but kept staring out of the window. For a few minutes G60 0560 there was nothing to hear. Then Meltzer's voice, quiet, calm, G60 0570 strong, started the Kaddish, the prayer for the dead. I could hear G60 0580 Alfred's voice a few words behind Meltzer's like a counterpoint, G60 0590 punctuated by sobs of sorrow and resignation. There was a finality G60 0600 in the rhythm of the prayer- it was the end of a life, the end of hope, G60 0610 and the wondering if there would ever be another beginning. G60 0620 Meltzer stayed with Alfred, and when the door opened they both came G60 0630 out. Alfred was dressed for his trip to the hospital. The car was G60 0640 waiting for him. Alfred, leaning on Meltzer, stopped for a minute to G60 0650 look at Tessie. She didn't turn away from the window. Alfred nodded G60 0660 a little nod and went out through the door. Outside, his brother G60 0670 Harry was waiting for him- he had come to say good-bye. Alfred G60 0680 walked past him without a word and got into the car. Harry ran to G60 0690 the side of the car where Alfred was sitting and looked at him, begging G60 0700 him to speak. Alfred looked straight ahead. The car began to move G60 0710 and Harry ran after it crying, "Alfred! Alfred! Speak to me". G60 0720 But the car moved off and Alfred just looked straight ahead. Harry G60 0730 followed the car until it reached the main road and turned towards G60 0740 Kingston. He stood there watching until it had gone from his sight. G60 0750 I went to visit Alfred in the Kingston Hospital a few times. G60 0760 The first time I went there he asked me to bring him water from G60 0770 Flagler's well- water that reminded him of his first days in the G60 0780 mountains- and before I came the next time I filled a five-gallon G60 0790 jug for him and brought it to the hospital. I don't think he ever G60 0800 got to drink any of it. The jug stayed at the hospital and the G60 0810 water- what can happen to water?- it evaporated, disappeared, and G60 0820 came back to the earth as rain- maybe for another well or another G60 0830 stream or another Alfred Alpert. #12 "WHERE IS IT WRITTEN"?# G60 0840 Mr& Banks was always called Banks the Butcher until he left G60 0850 town and the shop passed over to Meltzer the Scholar who then became G60 0860 automatically Meltzer the Butcher. Meltzer was a boarder with the G60 0870 Banks family. He came to Fleischmanns directly from the boat that G60 0880 brought him to America from Russia. He was a learned man and a very G60 0890 gentle soul. He was filled with knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud. G60 0900 He knew the whyfores and the wherefores but he was weak, very weak, G60 0910 on the therefores. Banks the Butcher took Meltzer the Scholar G60 0920 as an apprentice and he made it very clear that a man of learning must G60 0930 be able to do more than just quote the Commentaries of the Talmud in G60 0940 order to live. So Meltzer learned a new trade from Banks, who supplied G60 0950 the town and the hotels with meat. Banks had a family- G60 0970 a wife, a daughter, and a son. The daughter, Lilly, was a very good G60 0980 friend of mine and I always had hopes that someday she and Meltzer would G60 0990 find each other. They lived in the same house and it didn't seem G60 1000 to be such a hard G60 1010 thing to do, but the sad realities of Lilly's life G60 1020 and the fact that Meltzer didn't love her never satisfied my wishful G60 1030 thinking. Banks the Butcher was a hard master and a hard G60 1040 father, a man who didn't seem to know the difference between the living G60 1050 flesh of his family and the hanging carcasses of his stock in trade. G60 1060 He treated both with equal indifference and with equal contempt; G60 1070 perhaps he was a little more sympathetic to the sides of beef that G60 1080 hung silently from his hooks. Lilly Banks and I became friends. G60 1090 She was the opposite of everything she should have been- a positive G60 1100 pole in a negative home, a living reaction of warmth and kindness G60 1110 to the harsh reality of her father. And Lilly's whole family seemed G60 1120 to be an apology for Mr& Banks. Her brother Karl was a very gentle G60 1130 soul, her mother was a quiet woman who said little but who had hard, G60 1140 probing eyes. For every rude word of Mr& Banks's the family G60 1150 had five in apology. Every chance I got I left the hotel to G60 1160 visit Lilly. I was free but she was bound to her duties that not even G60 1170 the coming of Meltzer lightened. She had to clean the glass on the G60 1180 display cases in the butcher shop, help her brother scrub the cutting G60 1190 tables with wire brushes, mop the floors, put down new sawdust on the G60 1200 floors and help check the outgoing orders. When these chores were G60 1210 finished, only then, was she allowed whatever freedom she could find. G60 1220 I helped Lilly in the store. To me it was a game, to her it G60 1230 was the deadly seriousness of life. I wanted to help so that we could G60 1240 find time to play. And Lilly allowed me to help so that she could G60 1250 have her few little hours of escape. When the work was finished, G60 1260 we would walk. The road past the butcher shop took us along the side G60 1270 of a stream. It ran north, away from the town and the people, through G60 1280 woods and past the nothingness of a graveyard. Lilly preferred G60 1290 the loneliness of that walk. I would have liked the town and the G60 1300 busyness of its people but I always followed Lilly into the peace of G60 1310 the silent and unstaring road. It wasn't hard to understand. G60 1320 To me Lilly was a fine and lovely girl. To people who didn't know G60 1330 her she was a gawky, badly dressed kid whose arms were too long, whose G60 1340 legs were a little too bony. She had the hips of a boy and a loose-jointed G60 1350 walk that reminded me of a string of beads strolling down the G60 1360 street. And she had the kind of crossed eyes that shocked. It was G60 1370 unexpected, unexpected because Lilly walked with her head bent down, G60 1380 down, and her mark of friendship was to look into your face. I accepted G60 1390 her crossed eyes as she accepted my childishness; childishness compared G60 1400 to her grown-up understanding that life was a punishment for as G60 1410 yet undisclosed sins. We were almost the same age, she was fifteen, G60 1420 I was twelve, and where I felt there was a life to look forward to Lilly G60 1430 felt she had had as much of it as was necessary. When we G60 1440 went for our walks Lilly's brother would come along every once in G60 1450 a while. Karl was an almost exact copy of his father physically and it G60 1460 was strange to see the expected become the unexpected. This huge hulk G60 1470 played the guitar and he would take it along on our walks and play G60 1480 for us as we sat alone in the woods or by the stream. Karl played well G60 1490 and his favorite song was a Schubert lullaby. He spoke no German G60 1500 but he could sing it and the words of the song were the only ones he knew G60 1510 in a foreign language. The song, he said, was called "The Stream's G60 1520 Lullaby", and when he sang, "Gute ruh, Gute ruh, Mach't G60 1530 die augen zu" there was such longing and such simple sadness that G60 1540 it frightened me. Later, when I was older, I found the song was part G60 1550 of Schubert's . And even hearing G60 1560 it in a concert hall surrounded by hundreds of people the words and G60 1570 the melody would make me a little colder and I would reach out for my G60 1580 husband's hand. The brother and sister seemed to be a sort G60 1590 of mutual-aid society, a little fortress of kindness for each other in G60 1600 a hard world. I felt very flattered to be included in the protection G60 1610 of their company even though I had nothing to be protected from. G61 0010 The turn of the century, or to be more precise, the two decades G61 0020 preceeding and following it, marks a great change in the history of G61 0030 early English scholarship. At the bottom of this change were great strides G61 0040 forward in the technical equipment and technical standards of the G61 0050 historian. In archaeology, for example, the contributions of Frederick G61 0060 Haverfield and Reginald Smith to the various volumes of the Victoria G61 0070 County Histories raised the discipline from the status of an G61 0080 antiquarian pastime to that of the most valuable single tool of the G61 0090 early English historian. And with the publication of E& T& Leeds' G61 0100 the student G61 0110 was presented with an organized synthesis of the archaeological data G61 0120 then known. What was true for archaeology was also true of place-name G61 0130 studies. The value of place-names in the reconstruction of early G61 0140 English history had long been recognized. Place-names, in fact, G61 0150 had been extensively utilized for this purpose from the time of Camden G61 0160 onwards. Without a precise knowledge of Germanic philology, however, G61 0170 it is debatable whether their use was not more often a source of confusion G61 0180 and error than anything else. Even in the nineteenth century G61 0190 such accomplished philologists as Kemble and Guest were led into what G61 0200 now seem ludicrous errors because of their failure to recognize that G61 0210 modern forms of place names are not necessarily the result of logical G61 0220 philological development. It was therefore not until the publication G61 0230 of J&H& Round's "The Settlement of the South and East G61 0240 Saxons", and W&H& Stevenson's "Dr& Guest and the English G61 0250 Conquest of South Britain", that a scientific basis for place-name G61 0260 studies was established. Diplomatic is another area for G61 0270 which the dawn of the twentieth century marks the beginning of modern G61 0280 standards of scholarship. Although because of the important achievements G61 0290 of nineteenth century scholars in the field of textual criticism G61 0300 the advance is not so striking as it was in the case of archaeology G61 0310 and place-names, the editorial principles laid down by Stevenson in G61 0320 his great edition of Asser and in his were a G61 0330 distinct improvement upon those of his predecessors and remain unimproved G61 0340 upon today. In sum, it can be said that the techniques and G61 0350 standards of present day have their origin at the turn of the century. G61 0360 And it is this, particularly the establishment of archaeology and G61 0370 place-name studies on a scientific basis, which are immediately pertinent G61 0380 to the Saxon Shore. Almost inevitably, the first result G61 0390 of this technological revolution was a reaction against the methods and G61 0400 in many cases the conclusions of the Oxford school of Stubbs, Freeman G61 0410 and (particularly) Green regarding the nature of the Anglo-Saxon G61 0420 conquest of Britain. Even before the century was out the tide of G61 0430 reaction had set in. Charles Plummer in the introduction and notes to G61 0440 his splendid edition of Bede voiced some early doubts concerning the G61 0450 "elaborate superstructure" they raised up over the slim foundations G61 0460 afforded by the traditional narratives of the conquest. It was Plummer, G61 0470 in fact, who coined the much quoted remark: "Mr& Green G61 0480 indeed writes as if he had been present at the landing of the Saxons G61 0490 and had watched every step of their subsequent progress". Sir Henry G61 0500 Howorth, writing in 1898, put himself firmly in the Lappenburg-Kemble G61 0510 tradition by attacking the veracity of the West Saxon annals. G61 0520 Early in the present century, W& H& Stevenson continued G61 0530 the attack with a savage article against Guest. Following him in varying G61 0540 degrees of scepticism were T&W& Shore, H&M& Chadwick, G61 0550 Thomas Hodgkin and F& G& Beck. By 1913, Ferdinand Lot G61 0560 could begin an article subtitled "" with the words, " **h". It is also worthy G61 0600 of note that Lot cited both Kemble and Lappenberg with favor in G61 0610 that article. It would seem that the wheel had turned full circle. G61 0620 In fact, modern scholarly opinion in the main has not retreated G61 0630 all the way back to the destructive scepticism of the first half of the G61 0640 nineteenth century. Although one meets with occasional extremists like G61 0650 Zachrisson or, very recently, Arthur Wade-Evans the majority of G61 0660 scholars have taken a middle position between the extremes of scepticism G61 0670 and gullibility. Most now admit that Bede, Gildas, Nennius and G61 0680 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles cannot be the infallible guides to early G61 0690 English history that Guest, Freeman and Green thought them to be. G61 0700 As R&H& Hodgkin has remarked: "The critical methods of G61 0710 the nineteenth century shattered most of this picturesque narrative. G61 0720 On G61 0730 the other hand, the consensus of opinion is that, used with caution G61 0740 and in conjunction with other types of evidence, the native sources still G61 0750 provide a valid rough outline for the English settlement of southern G61 0760 Britain. As Sir Charles Oman once said, "it is no longer fashionable G61 0770 to declare that we can say nothing certain about Old English G61 0780 origins". Therefore, in one way Kemble and Lappenberg G61 0790 have been vindicated. Their conclusions concerning the untrustworthiness G61 0800 of the West Saxon annals, the confused chronology of Bede, the G61 0810 unreliability of the early positions of the Anglo-Saxon genealogies G61 0820 and the mythological elements contained in Nennius are now mostly accepted. G61 0830 Nevertheless, in another way modern historians still labor in G61 0840 the vineyard of the Oxford school. For it is their catastrophic concept G61 0850 of the Anglo-Saxon invasions rather than Kemble's gradualist G61 0860 approach which dominates the field. Despite the rejection of the traditional G61 0870 accounts on many points of detail, as late as 1948 it was still G61 0880 possible to postulate a massive and comparatively sudden (beginning G61 0890 in ca& 450) influx of Germans as the type of invasions. At G61 0900 this point, of course, the issue has become complicated by a development G61 0910 unforeseen by Lappenberg and Kemble. They, however much they were G61 0920 in disagreement with the late Victorians over the method by which G61 0930 Britain was Germanized, agreed with them that the end result was the G61 0950 complete extinction of the previous Celtic population and civilization. G61 0960 But beginning, for all practical purposes, with Frederick Seebohm's G61 0970 scholars have had to reckon G61 0980 with a theory involving institutional and agrarian continuity between G61 0990 Roman and Anglo-Saxon times which is completely at odds with the reigning G61 1000 concept of the Anglo-Saxon invasions. Against Seebohm formidable G61 1010 foes have taken the field, notably F& W& Maitland, was written expressly for this purpose, G61 1030 and Sir Paul Vinogradoff whose had G61 1050 a similar aim. Largely due to their efforts the catastrophic invasion-theory G61 1060 has maintained its position although Seebohm has always found G61 1070 supporters. H&L& Gray in his and G61 1080 Zachrisson's defended in part the G61 1090 Seebohm thesis while at the present time H&P&R& Finberg and G61 1100 Gordon Copley seem to fall into the Celtic survivalist camp. This G61 1110 is nevertheless a minority view. Most scholars, while willing to accept G61 1120 a survival (revival?) of Celtic art forms and a considerable proportion G61 1130 of the Celtic population, reject any institutional legacy from G61 1140 pre-Anglo-Saxon Britain. Therefore, it is plain that the G61 1150 clear distinctions of the nineteenth century are no longer with us. G61 1160 In the main stream of historical thinking is a group of scholars, H&M& G61 1170 Chadwick, R&H& Hodgkin, Sir Frank Stenton et al& G61 1180 who are in varying degrees sceptical of the native traditions of the conquest G61 1190 but who defend the catastrophic type of invasion suggested by G61 1200 them. They, in effect, have compromised the opposing positions of the G61 1210 nineteenth century. On the other side are the Celtic survivalists who G61 1220 have taken a tack divergent from both these schools of nineteenth century G61 1230 thought. As a group they should be favorable to a concept of gradual G61 1240 Germanic infiltration although the specialist nature of much of G61 1250 their work, e&g& Seebohm, Gray and Finberg, tends to obscure G61 1260 their sympathies. Those who do have occasion to deal with the invasions G61 1270 in a more general way, like T&W& Shore and Arthur Wade-Evans, G61 1280 are on the side of a gradual and often peaceful Germanic penetration G61 1290 into Britain. Wade-Evans, in fact, denies that there were any Anglo-Saxon G61 1300 invasions at all other than a minor Jutish foray in A&D& G61 1310 514. Now omitting for a moment some recent developments G61 1320 we can say the Saxon Shore hypothesis of Lappenberg and Kemble has G61 1330 undergone virtual eclipse in this century. It is no longer possible G61 1340 to say that a sceptical attitude towards the received accounts of the G61 1350 invasions almost automatically produces a "shore occupied by" interpretation. G61 1360 Everyone is more or less sceptical and virtually no one has G61 1370 been willing to accept Lappenberg or Kemble's position on that G61 1380 point. One reason is, of course, that the new scepticism has been willing G61 1390 to maintain the general picture of the invasions as portrayed in G61 1400 the traditional sources. The few scholars who have adopted the "shore G61 1410 occupied by" interpretation, Howorth, Shore, and Wade-Evans, G61 1420 have all been Celtic survivalists. Moreover, they have done so in rather G61 1430 special circumstances. The primary reason for the abandonment G61 1440 of the "shore occupied by" thesis has been the assimilation and G61 1450 accumulation of archaeological evidence, the most striking feature G61 1451 of early English studies in this century. Again omitting recent developments, G61 1455 E&T& G61 1460 Leeds' dictum of 1913 has stood unchallenged: "So far G61 1470 as archaeology is concerned, there is not the least warrant for the G61 1480 second (shore occupied by) of these theories". Even earlier Haverfield G61 1490 had come to the same conclusion. What they meant was that there G61 1500 was no evidence to show that the south and east coasts of Britain received G61 1510 Germanic settlers conspicuously earlier than some other parts of G61 1520 England. That is, there was no trace of Anglo-Saxons in Britain G61 1530 as early as the late third century, to which time the archaeological G61 1540 evidence for the erection of the Saxon Shore forts was beginning to G61 1550 point. In the face of a clear judgment from archaeology, therefore, it G61 1560 became impossible for a time for scholars to re-adopt the "shore settled G61 1570 by" theory. In recent years, however, a wind of change G61 1580 seems to be blowing through early English historical circles. The G61 1590 great increase in the amount of archaeological activity, and therefore G61 1600 information, in the years immediately preceeding and following the Second G61 1610 World War has brought to light data which has changed the complection G61 1620 of the Saxon Shore dispute. Where there were none fifteen years G61 1630 ago, several scholars currently are edging their way cautiously towards G61 1640 the acceptance of the "shore occupied by" position. We must, G61 1650 therefore, have a look at the new archaeological material and re-examine G61 1660 the literary and place-name evidence which bears upon the problem. G61 1670 #@# What exactly are we trying to prove? We know that the G61 1680 Saxon Shore was a phenonenon of late Roman defensive policy; in G61 1690 other words its existence belongs to the period of Roman Britain. So G61 1700 whenever the Romans finally withdrew from the island, the Saxon Shore G61 1710 disappeared in the first decade of the fifth century. We also know G61 1720 that the Saxon Shore as reflected in the was created G61 1730 as a part of the Theodosian reorganization of Britain (post-A&D& G61 1740 369). My argument is that there was no Saxon Shore prior to that G61 1750 time even though the forts had been in existence since the time of Carausius. G61 1760 Therefore, what we must prove or disprove is that there were G61 1770 Saxons, in the broad sense in which we must construe the word, in G61 1780 the area of the Saxon Shore at the time it was called the Saxon Shore. G61 1790 That is, we must find Saxons in East Anglia, Kent, Sussex and G61 1800 Hampshire in the last half of the fourth century. The problem, G61 1810 in other words, is strictly a chronological one. In Gaul the Saxon G61 1820 element on its Saxon Shore was plainly visible because there the G61 1830 Saxons were an intrusive element in the population. In Britain, obviously, G61 1840 the archaeological and place-name characteristics of the Saxon G61 1850 Shore region are bound to be Saxon. It is a matter of trying to G61 1860 sort out an earlier fourth-century Saxon element from the later, fifth-century G61 1870 mainstream of Anglo-Saxon invasions. This, naturally, will G61 1880 be difficult to do since both the archaeological and place-name evidence G61 1890 in this period, with some fortunate exceptions, is insufficient G61 1900 for precise chronological purposes. It might be well to consider G61 1910 the literary evidence first because it can provide us with an answer G61 1920 to one important question; namely, is the idea that there were Saxon G61 1930 mercenaries in England at all reasonable? G62 0010 To do so, something was necessary beyond volunteering because there was G62 0020 little glamour or romance in the European war; it meant instead G62 0030 hardship, dirt, and death. Baker gave Leonard Wood credit for G62 0040 the initiation of the draft of soldiers; from the General's idea G62 0050 a chain reaction occurred. Wood took the proposal to Chief of Staff G62 0060 Hugh L& Scott, who passed it on to Baker a month before the actual G62 0070 declaration of war against Germany. The Secretary of War gave G62 0080 his assent after studying the history of the draft in the American G62 0090 Civil War as well as the British volunteer system in World War /1,. G62 0100 He concluded that selective service would not only prevent the disorganization G62 0110 of essential war industries but would avoid the undesirable G62 0120 moral effects of the British reliance on enlistment only- "where G62 0130 the feeling of the people was whipped into a frenzy by girls pinning G62 0140 white feathers on reluctant young men, orators preaching hate of the G62 0150 Germans, and newspapers exaggerating enemy outrages to make men enlist G62 0160 out of motives of revenge and retaliation". Baker took the plan G62 0170 to Wilson who said: "Baker, this is plainly right on any ground. G62 0180 Start to prepare the necessary legislation so that if I am obliged G62 0190 to go to Congress the bills will be ready for immediate consideration". G62 0200 The result was that by secret agreement draft machinery was actually G62 0210 ready long before the country knew that the device was to take G62 0220 the place of the volunteering method which Theodore Roosevelt favored. G62 0230 Before the Draft Act was passed Baker had confidentially briefed G62 0240 governors, sheriffs, and prospective draft board members on the administration G62 0250 of the measure- and the confidence was kept so well that G62 0260 only one newspaper learned what was going on. It was Baker, working G62 0270 through Provost Marshal Enoch Crowder and Major Hugh S& ("Old G62 0280 Ironpants") Johnson, who arranged for a secret printing by the G62 0290 million of selective service blanks- again before the Act was passed- G62 0300 until corridors in the Government Printing Office were full G62 0310 and the basement of the Washington Post Office was stacked to the ceiling. G62 0320 General Crowder proposed that Regular Army officers select G62 0330 the draftees in cities and towns throughout the nation; it was Baker G62 0340 who thought of lessening the shock, which conscription always brings G62 0350 to a country, by substituting "Greetings from your neighbors" for G62 0360 the recruiting sergeant, and registration in familiar voting places G62 0370 rather than at military installations. Even so, the Draft Act G62 0380 encountered rough sledding in its progress through the Congress. Democratic G62 0390 Speaker Champ Clark saw little difference between a conscript G62 0400 and a convict. Democrat Stanley H& Dent, Chairman of the G62 0410 House Military Affairs Committee, declined to introduce the bill. G62 0420 Democratic Floor Leader Claude Kitchin would have no part of the G62 0430 measure. In the judgment of Chief of Staff Scott it was ironic that G62 0440 the draft policy of a Democratic President, aimed at Germany, had G62 0450 to be pushed through the House of Representatives by the ranking minority G62 0460 member of the Military Affairs Committee- a Republican Jew G62 0470 born in Germany! He was Julius Kahn for whom the Chief of Staff G62 0480 thought no honor could be too great. After Kahn's death in 1924 G62 0490 Scott wrote: "May he rest in peace with the eternal gratitude G62 0500 of his adopted country". In spite of powerful opposition the G62 0510 Draft Act finally passed Congress on May 17, 1917. In early June G62 0520 ten million young men registered by name and number. The day passed G62 0530 without incident in spite of the warning of Senator James A& Reed G62 0540 of Missouri: "Baker, you will have the streets of our American G62 0550 cities running with blood on registration day". On July 20, the G62 0560 first drawing of numbers occurred in the Senate Office Building before G62 0570 a distinguished group of congressmen and high Army officers. Secretary G62 0580 of War Baker, blindfolded, put his hand into a large glass G62 0590 bowl and drew the initial number of those to be called. It was 258. G62 0600 A man in Mississippi wired: "Thanks for drawing 258- that's G62 0610 me". He was the first of 2,800,000 called to the Army through the G62 0620 selective service system. ## It was one thing to call men to the G62 0630 colors; it was another to house, feed, and train them. The existing G62 0640 Army posts were wholly inadequate. In a matter of months the War G62 0650 Department built thirty-two camps, each one accommodating fifty thousand G62 0660 men- sixteen were under canvas in the South and sixteen with frame G62 0670 structures in the North. It was a gargantuan task; a typical G62 0680 cantonment in the North had twelve hundred buildings, an electric-sewer-water G62 0700 system, and twenty-five miles of roads. At Camp Taylor in Kentucky G62 0710 a barracks was built in an hour and a half from timber that had G62 0720 been standing in Mississippi forests one week before. The total G62 0725 operation G62 0730 was a construction project comparable in magnitude with the Panama G62 0740 Canal, but in 1917 time was in short supply; in three months G62 0750 the Army spent three-quarters as much as had been expended on the "big G62 0760 Ditch" in ten years. In later years Josephus Danielswas G62 0765 to G62 0770 claim that World War /1, was the first in American history in which G62 0780 there was great concern for both the health and morals of our soldiers. G62 0790 It was the first American war in which the death rate from disease G62 0800 was lower than that from battle, due to the provision of trained G62 0810 medical personnel (of the 200,000 officers, 42,000 were physicians), compulsory G62 0820 vaccination, rigorous camp sanitation, and adequate hospital G62 0830 facilities. To the middle of September 1918, there had been fewer than G62 0840 10,000 deaths from disease in the new army. This enviable record G62 0850 would have been maintained but for a great and unexpected disaster which G62 0855 struck G62 0860 the world with murderous stealth. It was the influenza pandemic G62 0870 of 1918-19. The malady was popularly known as the "Spanish flu" G62 0880 from the alleged locale of its origin. The world-wide total of deaths G62 0890 from "Spanish flu" was around twenty million; in the United G62 0900 States 300,000 succumbed to it. In mid-September 1918, the influenza-pneumonia G62 0910 pandemic swept through every American military camp; during G62 0920 the eight-week blitz attack 25,000 soldiers died from the disease G62 0930 and the death rate (formerly 5 per year per 1,000 men) increased almost G62 0940 fifty times to 4 per 1,000 men. In spite of this catastrophe G62 0950 the final mortality figure from disease in the American Army G62 0960 during World War /1, was 15 per 1,000 per year, contrasted with G62 0970 110 per 1,000 per year in the Mexican War, and 65 in the American Civil G62 0980 War. Both Secretary of War Baker and Secretary of Navy G62 0990 Daniels devoted much time and effort to the problem of providing G62 1000 reasonably normal and wholesome activities in camp for the millions of G62 1010 men who had been removed from their home environment. Their policy G62 1020 ran counter to the traditional idea that a good fighter was usually a G62 1030 libertine, and that in sex affairs "God-given passion" was a proof G62 1040 of manliness. Baker moved first; six days after war was declared G62 1050 he appointed Raymond Fosdick chairman of the Commission on Training G62 1060 Camp Activities (the ~CTCA). Fosdick, a brother of minister G62 1080 Harry Emerson Fosdick, was a graduate of Princeton, and a member of G62 1090 Phi Beta Kappa and the American Philosophical Association. His G62 1100 assignment was not a new one because Baker had sent him to the Mexican G62 1110 border in 1916 to investigate lurid newspaper stories about lack G62 1120 of discipline, drunkenness, and venereal disease in American military G62 1130 camps. Fosdick had found the installations surrounded by a battery of G62 1140 saloons and houses of prostitution, with from all G62 1150 over the country flocking to San Antonio, Laredo, and El Paso to G62 1160 "woman the cribs". He also ascertained that many officers were G62 1170 indifferent to the problem, including Commanding General Frederick G62 1180 Funston who gave Fosdick the nickname of "Reverend". On the basis G62 1190 of the long chronicle of military history Funston and his brethren G62 1200 assumed that the issue was insoluble and that anyone interested in a G62 1210 mission like Fosdick's was an impractical idealist or a do-gooder. G62 1220 During the brief Mexican venture Fosdick's report to the G62 1230 Secretary recommended a definite stand by the War Department against G62 1240 the saloon and the excesses of prostitution. The problem involved military G62 1250 necessity as much as morality, for in pre-penicillin days venereal G62 1260 disease was a crippling disability. Fosdick insisted that a strong G62 1270 word was needed from Washington, and it was immediately forthcoming. G62 1280 Baker put the "cribs" and the saloons out of bounds, ordered the G62 1290 co-operation of military officers with local law authorities, and told G62 1300 communities that the troops would be moved unless wholesome conditions G62 1310 were restored. Both Baker and Fosdick knew that a substitute was G62 1320 necessary, that a approach was not the real answer. They G62 1330 were aware that soldiers went to town, in more ways than one, because G62 1340 of the monotony of camp life, to find the only release available in G62 1350 the absence of movies, reading rooms, and playing fields with adequate G62 1360 athletic equipment. Both knew that when trains stopped at Texan crossroads G62 1370 bored soldiers would sometimes enter to ask the passengers if G62 1380 they had any reading material to spare, even a newspaper. There was G62 1390 no time in the short Mexican encounter to evolve a solution but the G62 1400 area provided a proving ground for new departures in the near future. G62 1410 When the United States entered the First World War Baker G62 1420 made certain that the Draft Act of 1917 prohibited the sale of liquor G62 1430 to men in uniform and that it provided for broad zones around the camps G62 1440 in which prostitution was outlawed. Even so Fosdick, as the new G62 1450 Chairman of the Commission on Training Camp Activities, encountered G62 1460 strong and vociferous opposition. New Orleans had a notorious red-light G62 1470 district extending over twenty-eight city blocks, and the business-minded G62 1480 mayor of the city journeyed to Washington to present the G62 1490 case for "the God-given right of men to be men". In Europe, Premier G62 1500 Clemenceau, showing his animal proclivities as the "Tiger of G62 1510 France", asked Pershing by letter for the creation of special houses G62 1520 where the sexual desires of American men could be satisfied. When G62 1530 Fosdick showed the letter to Baker his negative response was: "For G62 1540 God's sake, Raymond, don't show this to the President or G62 1550 he'll stop the war". Ultimately Fosdick's "Fit to fight" G62 1560 slogan swept across the country and every well-known red-light district G62 1570 in the United States was closed, a hundred and ten of them. The G62 1580 result was that the rate of venereal disease in the American Army G62 1590 was the lowest in our military history. This was the negative G62 1600 side of the situation. Affirmatively Baker worked on the premise that G62 1610 "young men spontaneously prefer to be decent, and that opportunities G62 1620 for wholesome recreation are the best possible cure for irregularities G62 1630 in conduct which arise from idleness and the baser temptations". G62 1640 The wholesome activities were to be provided by many organizations including G62 1650 the ~YMCA, the Knights of Columbus, the Jewish Welfare G62 1660 Board, the American Library Association, and the Playground and G62 1670 Recreation Association- private societies which voluntarily performed G62 1680 the job that was taken over almost entirely by the Special Services G62 1690 Division of the Army itself in World War /2,. Over these G62 1700 voluntary agencies, in 1917-18, the ~CTCA served as a co-ordinating G62 1710 body in carrying out what called "the most stupendous G62 1720 piece of social work in modern times". Under Fosdick the first G62 1730 executive officer of the ~CTCA was Richard Byrd, whose name in G62 1740 later years was to become synonymous with activities at the polar antipodes. G62 1750 From the point of view of popularity the best-known member of G62 1760 the Commission was Walter Camp, the Yale athlete whose sobriquet G62 1770 was "the father of American football". He was placed in charge of G62 1780 athletics, and among other things adapted the type of calisthenics known G62 1790 as the daily dozen. The ~CTCA program of activities was profuse: G62 1800 William Farnum and Mary Pickford on the screen, Elsie Janis G62 1810 and Harry Lauder on the stage, books provided by the American G62 1820 Library Association, full equipment for games and sports- except that G62 1830 no "bones" were furnished for the all-time favorite pastime played G62 1840 on any floor and known as "African golf". The ~CTCA distributed G62 1850 a khaki-bound songbook that provided the impetus for spirited G62 1860 renditions of the selections found therein, plus a number of others G62 1870 whose lyrics were more earthy- from "Johnny Get Your Gun" to G62 1880 "Keep the Home Fires Burning" to "Mademoiselle from Armentieres". G63 0010 In the imagination of the nineteenth century the Greek tragedians and G63 0020 Shakespeare stand side by side, their affinity transcending all the G63 0030 immense contrarieties of historical circumstance, religious belief, and G63 0040 poetic form. We no longer use the particular terms of Lessing G63 0050 and Victor Hugo. But we abide by their insight. The word "tragedy" G63 0060 encloses for us in a single span both the Greek and the Elizabethan G63 0070 example. The sense of relationship overreaches the historical G63 0080 truth that Shakespeare may have known next to nothing of the actual G63 0090 works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. It transcends the G63 0100 glaring fact that the Elizabethans mixed tragedy and comedy whereas G63 0110 the Greeks kept the two modes severely distinct. It overcomes our emphatic G63 0120 awareness of the vast difference in the shape and fabric of the G63 0130 two languages and styles of dramatic presentation. The intimations of G63 0140 a related spirit and ordering of human values are stronger than any G63 0150 sense of disparity. Comparable visions of life are at work in G63 0160 and . We see at once what Victor Hugo G63 0170 means when he calls Macbeth a northern scion of the house of Atreus. G63 0180 Elsinore seems to lie in a range of Mycenae, and the fate of Orestes G63 0190 resounds in that of Hamlet. The hounds of hell search out their G63 0200 quarry in Apollo's sanctuary as they do in the tent of Richard /3,. G63 0210 Oedipus and Lear attain similar insights by virtue of similar blindness. G63 0220 It it not between Euripides and Shakespeare that the western G63 0230 mind turns away from the ancient tragic sense of life. It is after G63 0240 the late seventeenth century. I say the late seventeenth century because G63 0250 Racine (whom Lessing did not really know) stands on the far side G63 0260 of the chasm. The image of man which enters into force with Aeschylus G63 0270 is still vital in and . It is the G63 0280 triumph of rationalism and secular metaphysics which marks the point G63 0290 of no return. Shakespeare is closer to Sophocles than he is to Pope G63 0300 and Voltaire. To say this is to set aside the realness of time. But G63 0310 it is true, nevertheless. The modes of the imagination implicit in G63 0320 Athenian tragedy continued to shape the life of the mind until the age G63 0330 of Descartes and Newton. It is only then that the ancient habits G63 0340 of feeling and the classic orderings of material and psychological experience G63 0350 were abandoned. With the and the G63 0360 the things undreamt of in Horatio's philosophy seem G63 0370 to pass from the world. In Greek tragedy as in Shakespeare, G63 0380 mortal actions are encompassed by forces which transcend man. The reality G63 0390 of Orestes entails that of the Furies; the Weird Sisters wait G63 0400 for the soul of Macbeth. We cannot conceive of Oedipus without a G63 0410 Sphinx, nor of Hamlet without a Ghost. The shadows cast by the personages G63 0420 of Greek and Shakespearean drama lengthen into a greater darkness. G63 0430 And the entirety of the natural world is party to the action. G63 0440 The thunderclaps over the sacred wood at Colonus and the storms in G63 0450 are caused by more than weather. In tragedy, lightning G63 0460 is a messenger. But it can no longer be so once Benjamin Franklin G63 0470 (the incarnation of the new rational man) has flown a kite to it. The G63 0480 tragic stage is a platform extending precariously between heaven and G63 0490 hell. Those who walk on it may encounter at any turn ministers of grace G63 0500 or damnation. and instruct us how little of G63 0510 the world belongs to man. Mortality is the pacing of a brief and dangerous G63 0520 watch, and to all sentinels, whether at Elsinore or on the battlements G63 0530 at Mycenae, the coming of dawn has its breath of miracle. It G63 0540 banishes the night wanderers to fire or repose. But at the touch of G63 0550 Hume and Voltaire the noble or hideous visitations which had haunted G63 0560 the mind since Agamemnon's blood cried out for vengeance, disappeared G63 0570 altogether or took tawdry refuge among the gaslights of melodrama. G63 0580 Modern roosters have lost the art of crowing restless spirits back to G63 0590 Purgatory. In Athens, in Shakespeare's England, and at G63 0600 Versailles, the hierarchies of worldly power were stable and manifest. G63 0610 The wheel of social life spun around the royal or aristocratic centre. G63 0620 From it, spokes of order and degree led to the outward rim of the G63 0630 common man. Tragedy presumes such a configuration. Its sphere is that G63 0640 of royal courts, dynastic quarrels, and vaulting ambitions. The same G63 0650 metaphors of swift ascent and calamitous decline apply to Oedipus G63 0660 and Macbeth because they applied also to Alcibiades and Essex. And G63 0670 the fate of such men has tragic relevance because it is public. Agamemnon, G63 0680 Creon, and Medea perform their tragic actions before the eyes G63 0690 of the . Similarly the sufferings of Hamlet, Othello, G63 0700 or Phedre engage the fortunes of the state. They are enacted at the G63 0710 heart of the body politic. Hence the natural setting of tragedy is the G63 0720 palace gate, the public square, or the court chamber. Greek and Elizabethan G63 0730 life and, to a certain extent, the life of Versailles shared G63 0740 this character of intense "publicity". Princes and factions clashed G63 0750 in the open street and died on the open scaffold. With the G63 0760 rise to power of the middle class the centre of gravity in human affairs G63 0770 shifted from the public to the private. The art of Defoe and Richardson G63 0780 is founded on an awareness of this great change. Heretofore G63 0790 an action had possessed the breadth of tragedy only if it involved high G63 0800 personages and if it occurred in the public view. Behind the tragic G63 0810 hero stands the chorus, the crowd, or the observant courtier. In the G63 0820 eighteenth century there emerges for the first time the notion of a G63 0830 private tragedy (or nearly for the first time, there having been a small G63 0840 number of Elizabethan domestic tragedies such as the famous ). In and G63 0860 tragedy is made intimate. And private tragedy became the chosen ground G63 0870 not of drama, but of the new, unfolding art of the novel. G63 0880 The novel was not only the presenter of the new, secular, rationalistic, G63 0890 private world of the middle class. It served also as a literary form G63 0900 exactly appropriate to the fragmented audience of modern urban culture. G63 0910 I have said before how difficult it is to make any precise statements G63 0920 with regard to the character of the Greek and Elizabethan public. G63 0930 But one major fact seems undeniable. Until the advent of rational G63 0940 empiricism the controlling habits of the western mind were symbolic G63 0950 and allegoric. Available evidence regarding the natural world, the G63 0960 course of history, and the varieties of human action were translated G63 0970 into imaginative designs or mythologies. Classic mythology and Christianity G63 0980 are such architectures of the imagination. They order the manifold G63 0990 levels of reality and moral value along an axis of being which G63 1000 extends from brute matter to the immaculate stars. There had not yet G63 1010 supervened between understanding and expression the new languages of G63 1020 mathematics and scientific formulas. The poet was by definition a realist, G63 1030 his imaginings and parables being natural organizations of reality. G63 1040 And in these organizations certain primal notions played a radiant G63 1050 part, radiant both in the sense of giving light and of being a pole G63 1060 toward which all perspectives converge. I mean such concepts as the presence G63 1070 of the supernatural in human affairs, the sacraments of grace G63 1080 and divine retribution, the idea of preordainment (the oracle over Oedipus, G63 1090 the prophecy of the witches to Macbeth, or God's covenant with G63 1100 His people in ). I refer to the notion that the structure G63 1110 of society is a microcosm of the cosmic design and that history G63 1120 conforms to patterns of justice and chastisement as if it were a morality G63 1130 play set in motion by the gods for our instruction. These G63 1140 conceptions and the manner in which they were transposed into poetry or G63 1150 engendered by poetic form are intrinsic to western life from the time G63 1160 of Aeschylus to that of Shakespeare. And although they were, as I G63 1170 have indicated, under increasing strain at the time of Racine, they G63 1180 are still alive in his theatre. They are the essential force behind G63 1190 the conventions of tragedy. They are as decisively present in the G63 1200 and as in , and . G63 1210 After the seventeenth century the audience ceased to G63 1220 be an organic community to which these ideas and their attendant habits G63 1230 of figurative language would be natural or immediately familiar. Concepts G63 1240 such as grace, damnation, purgation, blasphemy, or the chain of G63 1250 being, which are everywhere implicit in classic and Shakespearean tragedy, G63 1260 lose their vitality. They become philosophic abstractions of G63 1270 a private and problematic relevance, or mere catchwords in religious customs G63 1280 which had in them a diminishing part of active belief. After Shakespeare G63 1290 the master spirits of western consciousness are no longer G63 1300 the blind seers, the poets, or Orpheus performing his art in the face G63 1310 of hell. They are Descartes, Newton, and Voltaire. And their chroniclers G63 1320 are not the dramatic poets but the prose novelists. The G63 1330 romantics were the immediate inheritors of this tremendous change. G63 1340 They were not yet prepared to accept it as irremediable. Rousseau's G63 1350 primitivism, the anti-Newtonian mythology of Blake, Coleridge's G63 1360 organic metaphysics, Victor Hugo's image of the poets as the Magi, G63 1370 and Shelley's "unacknowledged legislators" are related elements G63 1380 in the rear-guard action fought by the romantics against the new G63 1390 scientific rationalism. From this action sprang the idea of somehow uniting G63 1400 Greek and Shakespearean drama into a new total form, capable G63 1410 of restoring to life the ancient moral and poetic responses. The dream G63 1420 of achieving a synthesis between the Sophoclean and the Shakespearean G63 1430 genius inspired the ambitions of poets and composers from the time G63 1440 of Shelley and Victor Hugo to that of Bayreuth. It could not really G63 1450 be fulfilled. The conventions into which the romantics tried to breath G63 1460 life no longer corresponded to the realities of thought and feeling. G63 1470 But the attempt itself produced a number of brilliant works, and G63 1480 these form a transition from the early romantic period to the new age G63 1490 of Ibsen and Chekhov. ## The wedding of the Hellenic to the northern G63 1500 genius was one of the dominant motifs in Goethe's thought. His G63 1510 Italian journey was a poet's version of those perennial thrusts G63 1520 across the Alps of the German emperors of the Middle Ages. The dream G63 1530 of a descent into the gardens of the south always drew German ambitions G63 1540 toward Rome and Sicily. Goethe asks in G63 1550 whether we know the land where the lemon trees flower, and the light G63 1560 of the Mediterranean glows through and the . Goethe believed that the Germanic spirit, with its G63 1580 grave strength but flagrant streaks of brutality and intolerance, should G63 1590 be tempered with the old sensuous wisdom and humanism of the Hellenic. G63 1600 On the narrower ground of poetic form, he felt that in the drama G63 1610 of the future the Greek conception of tragic fate should be joined to G63 1620 the Shakespearean vision of tragic will. The wager between God and G63 1630 Satan brings on the destiny of Faust, but Faust assumes his role G63 1640 voluntarily. The third Act of /2, is a formal celebration G63 1650 of the union between the Germanic and the classic, between G63 1660 the spirit of Euripides and that of romantic drama. The motif of Faust's G63 1670 love for Helen of Troy goes back to the sources of the Faustian G63 1680 legend. It tells us of the ancient human desire to see the highest G63 1690 wisdom joined to the highest sensual beauty. There can be no greater G63 1700 magic than to wrest from death her in whom the flesh was all, in whom G63 1710 beauty was entirely pure because it was entirely corruptible. It is G63 1720 thus that the brightness of Helen passes through Marlowe's . G63 1730 Goethe used the fable to more elaborate ends. Faust rescuing G63 1740 Helen from Menelaus' vengeance is the genius of renaissance Europe G63 1750 restoring to life the classic tradition. The necromantic change from G63 1760 the palace at Sparta to Faust's Gothic castle directs us to the G63 1770 aesthetic meaning of the myth- the translation of antique drama into G63 1780 Shakespearean and romantic guise. This translation, or rather G63 1790 the fusion of the two ideals, creates the , G63 1800 the "total art form". G64 0010 The Bishop of Gloucester described the elder Thomas in 1577 as the G64 0020 richest recusant in his diocese, worth five hundred pounds a year in G64 0030 lands and goods. When Quiney and William Parsons wrote to Greville G64 0040 in 1593 asking his consent in the election for bailiff, they sent the G64 0050 letter to Mr& William Sawnders, attendant on the worshipful Mr& G64 0060 Thomas Bushell at Marston. Mr& Bushell was mentioned in 1602 G64 0070 in the will of Joyce Hobday, widow of a Stratford glover. Thomas G64 0080 the elder married twice, had seventeen children, and died in 1615. His G64 0090 daughter Elinor married Quiney's son Adrian in 1613, and his son G64 0100 Henry married Mary Lane of Stratford in 1609. His son Thomas, G64 0110 aged fifteen when he entered Oxford in 1582, married as his first wife G64 0120 Margaret, sister of Sir Edward Greville. Bridges, a son by his G64 0130 second wife, was christened at Pebworth in 1607, but Thomas the younger G64 0140 was living at Packwood two years later and sold Broad Marston G64 0150 manor in 1622. A third Thomas Bushell (1594-1674), "much loved" G64 0160 by Bacon, called himself "the Superlative Prodigall" in (1628) and became an expert on silver G64 0180 mines and on the art of running into debt. Edward Greville, G64 0190 born about 1565, had inherited Milcote on the execution of his father G64 0200 Lodowick for murder in 1589. He refused his consent to the election G64 0210 of Quiney as bailiff in 1592, but gave it at the request of the G64 0220 recorder, his cousin Sir Fulke Greville. The corporation entertained G64 0230 him for dinner at Quiney's house in 1596/7, with wine and sugar G64 0240 sent by the bailiff, Sturley. At Milcote on November 3, 1597, the G64 0250 aldermen asked him to support their petition for a new charter. Sturley G64 0260 wrote to Quiney that Sir Edward "gave his allowance and liking G64 0270 thereof, and affied unto us his best endeavour, so that his rights be G64 0280 preserved", and that "Sir Edward saith we shall not be at any G64 0290 fault for money for prosecuting the cause, for himself will procure it G64 0300 and lay it down for us for the time". Greville proposed Quiney as G64 0310 the fittest man "for the following of the cause and to attend him in G64 0320 the matter", and at his suggestion the corporation allowed Quiney G64 0330 two shillings a day. "If you can firmly make the good knight sure G64 0340 to pleasure our Corporation", Sturley wrote, "besides that ordinary G64 0350 allowance for your diet you shall have @20 for recompence". G64 0360 In his letter mentioning Shakespeare on January 24, 1597/8, Sturley G64 0370 asked Quiney especially that "theare might [be] bi Sir Ed& G64 0380 Grev& some meanes made to the Knightes of the Parliament for G64 0390 an ease and discharge of such taxes and subsedies wherewith our towne G64 0400 is like to be charged, and I assure u I am in great feare and doubte G64 0410 bi no meanes hable to paie. Sir Ed& Gre& is gonne to Brestowe G64 0420 and from thence to Lond& as I heare, who verie well knoweth our estates G64 0430 and wil be willinge to do us ani good". The knights for Warwickshire G64 0440 in this parliament, which ended its session on February 9, G64 0450 were Fulke Greville (the poet) and William Combe of Warwick, as Fulke G64 0460 Greville and Edward Greville had been in 1593. The corporation G64 0470 voted on September 27, 1598, that Quiney should ride to London about G64 0480 the suit to Sir John Fortescue, chancellor of the Exchequer, G64 0490 for discharging of the tax and subsidy. He had been in London for several G64 0500 weeks when he wrote to Shakespeare on October 25. Sturley on G64 0510 November 4 answered a letter from Quiney written on October 25 which G64 0520 imported, wrote Sturley, "that our countriman **f **f Shak& would G64 0530 procure us monei: which I will like of as I shall heare when wheare G64 0540 + howe: and I prai let not go that occasion if it mai sort to G64 0550 ani indifferent condicions. Allso that if monei might be had for 30 G64 0560 or **f a lease +c& might be procured". Sturley quoted Quiney as G64 0570 having written on November 1 that if he had "more monei presente much G64 0580 might be done to obtaine our Charter enlargd, ij& faires more, with G64 0590 tole of corne, bestes, and sheepe, and a matter of more valewe then G64 0600 all that". Sturley thought that this matter might be "the rest G64 0610 of the tithes and the College houses and landes in our towne". He G64 0620 suggested offering half to Sir Edward, fearing lest "he shall thinke G64 0630 it to good for us and procure it for himselfe, as he served us the G64 0640 last time". This refers to what had happened after the Earl of Warwick G64 0650 died in 1590, when the town petitioned Burghley for the right to G64 0660 name the vicar and schoolmaster and other privileges but Greville bought G64 0670 the lordship for himself. Sturley's allusion probably explains G64 0680 why Greville took out the patent in the names of Best and Wells, G64 0690 for Sir Anthony Ashley described Best as "a scrivener within Temple G64 0700 Bar, that deals in many matters for my L& Essex" through Sir G64 0710 Gelly Merrick, especially in "causes that he would not be known G64 0720 of". Adrian Quiney wrote to his son Richard on October G64 0730 29 and again perhaps the next day, since the bearer of the letter, the G64 0740 bailiff, was expected to reach London on November 1. In his second G64 0750 letter the old mercer advised his son "to bye some such warys as yow G64 0760 may selle presentlye with profet. yff yow bargen with **f sha **h G64 0770 [so in the ~MS] or Receave money ther or brynge your money home G64 0780 yow maye see howe knite stockynges be sold ther ys gret byinge of them G64 0790 at Aysshom **h. wherefore I thynke yow maye doo good yff yow can have G64 0800 money". This seems to refer, not to the loan Richard had asked G64 0810 for, but to a proposed bargain with Shakespeare. Richard Quiney G64 0820 the younger, a schoolboy of eleven, wrote a letter in Latin asking G64 0830 his father to buy copybooks ("") for him G64 0840 and his brother. His mother Bess, who could not write herself, reminded G64 0850 her husband through Sturley to buy the apron he had promised her G64 0860 and "a suite of hattes for 5 boies the yongst lined + trimmed with silke" G64 0870 (for John, only a year old). A letter signed "Isabell Bardall" G64 0880 entreated "Good Cozen" Quiney to find her stepson Adrian, G64 0890 son of George Bardell, a place in London with some handicraftsman. G64 0900 William Parsons and William Walford, drapers, asked Quiney to G64 0910 see to business matters in London. Daniel Baker deluged his "Unckle G64 0920 Quyne" with requests to pay money for him to drapers in Watling G64 0930 Street and at the Two Cats in Canning Street. His letter of G64 0940 October 26 named two of the men about whom Quiney had written to Shakespeare G64 0950 the day before. Baker wrote: "I tooke order with **f E& G64 0960 Grevile for the payment of Ceartaine monei beefore his going towardes G64 0970 London. + synce I did write unto him to dessier him to paie **f G64 0980 for mee which standeth mee greatly uppon to have paide. + **f more G64 0985 **f peeter Rowswell G64 0990 tooke order with his master to paie for mee". He G64 1000 asked Quiney to find out whether the money had been paid and, if not, G64 1010 to send to the lodging of Sir Edward and entreat him to pay what G64 1020 he owed. Baker added: "I pray you delivre these inclosed Letters G64 1030 And Comend mee to **f Rychard mytton whoe I know will ffreind G64 1040 mee for the payment of this monei". Further letters in November mention G64 1050 that Sir Edward paid forty pounds. Stratford's petition G64 1060 to the queen declared that two great fires had burnt two hundred G64 1070 houses in the town, with household goods, to the value of twelve thousand G64 1080 pounds. The chancellor of the Exchequer wrote on the petition: G64 1090 "in myn opinion it is very resonable and conscionable for hir matie G64 1100 to graunt in relief of this towne twise afflicted and almost wasted G64 1110 by fire". The queen agreed on December 17, a warrant was signed G64 1120 on January 27, and the Exchequer paid Quiney his expenses on February G64 1130 27, 1598/9. He listed what he had spent for "My own diet in G64 1140 London eighteen weeks, in which I was sick a month; my mare at coming G64 1150 up 14 days; another I bought there to bring me home 7 weeks; G64 1160 and I was six days going thither and coming homewards; all which G64 1170 cost me at the least @20". He was allowed forty-four pounds in all, G64 1180 including fees to the masters of requests, Mr& Fanshawe of the G64 1190 Exchequer, the solicitor general, and other officials and their clerks. G64 1200 If he borrowed money from Shakespeare or with his help, he would G64 1210 now have been able to repay the loan. Since more is known about G64 1220 Quiney than about any other acquaintance of Shakespeare in Stratford, G64 1230 his career may be followed to its sudden end in 1602. During 1598 G64 1240 and 1599 he made "manye Guiftes of myne owne provision bestowed uppon G64 1250 Cowrtiers + others for the better effectinge of our suites in hande". G64 1260 He was in London "searching records for our town's causes" G64 1270 in 1600 with young Henry Sturley, the assistant schoolmaster. When G64 1280 Sir Edward Greville enclosed the town commons on the Bancroft, G64 1290 Quiney and others leveled his hedges on January 21, 1600/1, and were G64 1300 charged with riot by Sir Edward. He also sued them for taking toll G64 1310 of grain at their market. Accompanied by "Master Greene our solicitor" G64 1320 (Thomas Greene of the Middle Temple, Shakespeare's "cousin"), G64 1330 Quiney tried to consult Sir Edward Coke, attorney general, G64 1340 and gave money to a clerk and a doorkeeper "that we might have G64 1350 access to their master for his counsel **h butt colde nott have him G64 1360 att Leasure by the reason of thees trobles" (the Essex rising on February G64 1370 8). He set down that "I gave **f Greene a pynte of muskadell G64 1380 and a roll of bread that last morning I went to have his company G64 1390 to Master Attorney". After returning to Stratford he drew up a G64 1395 defense G64 1400 of the town's right to toll corn and the office of collecting it, G64 1410 and his list of suggested witnesses included his father and Shakespeare's G64 1420 father. No one, he wrote, took any corn of Greville's, for G64 1430 his bailiff of husbandry "swore a greate oathe thatt who soe came G64 1440 to put hys hande into hys sackes for anye corne shuld leave hys hande G64 1450 be hynde hym". Quiney was in London again in June, 1601, and in G64 1460 November, when he rode up, as Shakespeare must often have done, by way G64 1470 of Oxford, High Wycombe, and Uxbridge, and home through Aylesbury G64 1480 and Banbury. After Quiney was elected bailiff in September, G64 1490 1601, without Greville's approval, Greene wrote him that Coke G64 1500 had promised to be of counsel for Stratford and had advised "that G64 1510 the office of bayly may be exercised as it is taken upon you, (**f Edwardes G64 1520 his consent not beinge hadd to the swearinge of you)". Asked G64 1525 by G64 1530 the townsmen to cease his suit, Greville had answered that "hytt G64 1540 shulde coste hym **f first + sayed it must be tried ether before my Lorde G64 1550 Anderson in the countrey or his uncle ffortescue in the exchequer G64 1560 with whom he colde more prevaile then we". The corporation proposed G64 1570 Chief Justice Anderson for an arbiter, sending him a gift of sack G64 1580 and claret. Lady Greville, daughter of the late Lord Chancellor G64 1590 Bromley and niece of Sir John Fortescue, was offered twenty pounds G64 1600 by the townsmen to make peace; she "labored + thought she shuld G64 1610 effecte" it but her husband said that "we shuld wynne it by the sworde". G64 1620 His servant Robin Whitney threatened Quiney, who had Whitney G64 1630 bound to "the good abaringe" to keep the peace. A report of G64 1640 **f Edw: Grevyles minaces to the Baileefe Aldermen + Burgesses G64 1650 of Stratforde" tells how Quiney was injured by Greville's men: G64 1660 "in the tyme **f Ryc' Quyney was bayleefe ther came some of G64 1670 them whoe beinge druncke fell to braweling in ther hosts howse wher G64 1680 thei druncke + drewe ther dagers uppon the hoste: att a faier tyme the G64 1690 Baileefe being late abroade to see the towne in order + comminge by G64 1695 in G64 1700 **f hurley Burley. came into the howse + commawnded the peace to be G64 1710 kept butt colde nott prevayle + in hys endevor to sticle the brawle had G64 1720 his heade grevouselye brooken by one of hys [Greville's] men whom G64 1730 nether hym selfe [Greville] punnished nor wolde suffer to be punnished G64 1740 but with a shewe to turne them awaye + enterteyned agayne". G65 0010 The fall of Rome, the discovery of precious metals, and the Protestant G65 0020 Reformation were all links and could only be explained and understood G65 0030 by comprehending the links that preceded and those that followed. G65 0040 Often the historian must consider the use of intuition or instinct G65 0050 by those individuals or nations which he is studying. Unconsciously, G65 0060 governments or races or institutions may enter into some undertaking G65 0070 without fully realizing why they are doing so. They react in obedience G65 0080 to an instinct or urge which has itself been impelled by natural G65 0090 law. A court may strike down a law on the basis of an intuitive feeling G65 0100 that the law is inimical to the numerical majority. A nation may G65 0110 go to war on some trifling pretext, when in reality it may have been G65 0120 guided by an unconscious instinct that its very life was at stake. When G65 0130 the historian encounters a situation in which he can perceive no visible G65 0140 cause and effect sequence, he should be alert to intuition and unconscious G65 0150 instinct as possible guides. Adams firmly contended G65 0160 that the historian must never underrate the impact of the geographical G65 0170 environment on history. Here was another indispensable tool. Indeed, G65 0180 he concluded that "geographical conditions have exercised a great, G65 0190 possibly a preponderating, influence over man's destiny". The failure G65 0200 of Greece to reach the imperial destiny that Periclean Athens G65 0210 had seemed to promise was almost directly attributable to her physical G65 0220 conformation. All areas of history were either favorably or adversely G65 0230 affected by the geographical environment, and no respectable historian G65 0240 could pursue the study of history without a thorough knowledge of G65 0250 geography. Brooks Adams was consistent in his admonishments G65 0260 to historians about the necessary tools or insights they needed to possess. G65 0270 However, as a practicing historian, he, himself, has left few clues G65 0280 to the amount of professional scholarship that he used when writing G65 0290 history. In fact, if judgments are to be rendered upon the soundness G65 0300 of his historicism, they must be based on scanty evidence. What evidence G65 0310 is available would seem to indicate that Brooks, unlike his older G65 0320 brother Henry, had most of the methodological vices usually found G65 0330 in the amateur. A credulousness, a distaste for documentation, an uncritical G65 0340 reliance on contemporary accounts, and a proneness to assume G65 0350 a theory as true before adequate proof was provided were all evidences G65 0360 of his failure to comprehend the use of the scientific method or to evaluate G65 0370 the responsibilities of the historian to his reading public. This G65 0380 is not to assume that his work was without merit, but the validity G65 0390 of his assumptions concerning the meaning of history must always be G65 0400 considered against this background of an unprofessional approach. G65 0410 His credulity is perhaps best illustrated in his introduction to , which purports to examine the G65 0430 trials of Moses and to draw a parallel between the leader of the Israelite G65 0440 exodus from Egypt and the leadership of the Puritan clergy in G65 0450 colonial New England. Much criticism has been leveled at this rather G65 0460 forced analogy, but what is equally significant is Adams' complete G65 0470 acceptance of the Biblical record as "good and trustworthy history". G65 0480 In light of the scholarly reappraisals engendered by the higher G65 0490 criticism this is a most remarkable statement, particularly coming G65 0500 from one who was well known for his antifundamentalist views. The desire G65 0510 to substantiate a thesis at the expense of sound research technique G65 0520 smacks more of G65 0530 the propagandist than the historian. A similar amateurish G65 0540 characteristic is revealed in Adams' failure to check the G65 0550 accuracy and authenticity of his informational sources. If he found data G65 0560 that fitted his general plan, he used it and counted his sources trustworthy. G65 0570 Conversely, if statistics were uncovered which contradicted G65 0580 a cherished theory, the sources were denounced as faulty. Such manipulations G65 0590 are frequently encountered in his essay on the suppression G65 0600 of the monasteries during the English reformation. Adams depended largely G65 0610 on the dispatches of foreign ambassadors and observers in England, G65 0620 claiming that the reports of such agents had to be accurate because G65 0630 there were no newspapers. This is certainly an irrational dogmatism, G65 0640 in which the modern mind attempts to understand the spirit of the sixteenth G65 0650 century on twentieth-century terms. Moreover, he rejects the G65 0660 contemporary accounts of Englishmen, casually adjudging them to be distorted G65 0670 by prejudice because "the opinions of Englishmen are of no G65 0680 great value". What is exposited by this observation is not the inherent G65 0690 prejudices of Englishmen but the Anglophobia of Brooks Adams. G65 0700 In all fairness it must be admitted that Adams made no pretense G65 0710 at being an impartial historian. Impartiality to him meant an unwillingness G65 0720 to generalize and to search for a synthesis. He deplored the G65 0730 impact of German historiography on the writing of history, terming G65 0740 it a "dismal monster". Ranke and his disciples had reduced history G65 0750 to a profession of dullness; Brooks Adams preferred the chronicles G65 0760 of Froissart or the style and theorizing of Edward Gibbon, for G65 0770 at least they took a stand on the issues about which they wrote. He wrote G65 0780 eloquently to William James that impartial history was not only G65 0790 impossible but undesirable. If the historian was convinced of his own G65 0800 correctness, then he should not allow his vision to become fogged by G65 0810 disturbing facts. It was history that must be in error, not the historian. G65 0820 It was this basic trait that separated Adams from the ranks G65 0830 of professional historians and led him to commit time and time again what G65 0840 was his most serious offense against the historical method- namely, G65 0850 the tendency to assume the truth of an hypothesis before submitting G65 0860 it to the test of facts. All of Adams' work reflects this G65 0870 dogmatic characteristic. No page seems to be complete without the statement G65 0880 of at least one unproved generalization. One example of this G65 0890 was his assertion that "**h all servile revolts must be dealt with by G65 0900 physical force". There is no explanation of terms nor a qualification G65 0910 that most such revolts have been dealt with by force- only a bald G65 0920 dogmatism that they must, because of some undefined compulsion, be G65 0930 so repelled. On matters of race he was similarly inflexible: "Most G65 0940 of the modern Latin races seem to have inherited **h the rigidity G65 0950 of the Roman mind". He cites the French Revolution as typifying G65 0960 this rigidity but makes no mention of the Italians, who have been able G65 0970 to G65 0980 adapt to all types of circumstances. He pontificates that "one G65 0990 of the first signs of advancing civilization is the fall in the value G65 1000 of women in men's eyes". It made no difference that most evidence G65 1010 points to an opposite conclusion. For Adams had made up his mind before G65 1020 all the facts were available. All critics of Adams and G65 1030 his methods have observed this particular deficiency. J& T& Shotwell G65 1040 was appalled by such spurious history as that which attributed the G65 1050 fall of the Carolingian empire to the woolen trade, and he urged Adams G65 1060 to "transform his essay into a real history, embodying not merely G65 1070 those facts which fit into his theory, but also the modifications G65 1080 and exceptions". A& M& Wergeland called the Adams method literally G65 1090 antihistorical, while Clive Day maintained that the assumptions G65 1100 were not confined to theories alone but were also applicable to straight G65 1110 factual evidence. Moreover, stated Day, "He always omits G65 1120 facts which tend to disprove his hypothesis". Even D& A& Wasson, G65 1130 who compared to the lifting G65 1140 of a fog from ancient landscapes, was also forced to admit the methodological G65 1150 deficiencies of the author. In summary, Brooks Adams G65 1160 felt that the nature of history was order and that the order so discovered G65 1170 was as much subject to historical laws as the forces of nature. G65 1180 Moreover, he believed that most professional historians lacked some G65 1190 of the essential instruments for a proper study of history. However, G65 1200 despite the insight of many of his observations, his own conclusions G65 1210 are open to suspicion because of his failure to employ at all times the G65 1220 correct research methods. This should not prejudice an evaluation of G65 1230 his findings, but they were not the findings of a completely impartial G65 1240 investigator. What was perhaps more important than his concept of G65 1250 the nature of history and the historical method were those forces which G65 1260 shaped the direction of his thought. In the final analysis his contribution G65 1270 to American historiography was founded on almost intuitive insights G65 1280 into religion, economics, and Darwinism, the three factors which G65 1290 conditioned his search for a law of history. #RELIGION WITHOUT SUPERNATURALISM# G65 1300 Brooks Adams considered religion as an extremely significant G65 1310 manifestation of man's fear of the unknown. But it was nothing G65 1320 more than that. Religion and the churches were institutions which G65 1330 had been created by man, not God. He did not deny God; he simply G65 1340 did not believe that a Creator intervened or interfered in human G65 1350 affairs. The historian need not be concerned with the philosophical problems G65 1360 suggested by religion. There was no evidence, either of a positive G65 1370 or negative type, of the actions of a Divine Being in this world; G65 1380 and, since the historian should only be interested in strictly terrestrial G65 1390 activity, his research should eliminate the supernatural. Furthermore, G65 1400 he must regard religion as the expression of human forces. G65 1410 Certainly, he must recognize its power and attempt to ascertain its G65 1420 influence on the flow of history, but he must not confuse the natural G65 1430 and the mundane with the divine. Adams was not breaking new ground G65 1440 when he claimed that the worship of an unseen power was in reality G65 1450 a reflection of man's inability to cope with his environment. Students G65 1460 of anthropology and comparative religion had long been aware that G65 1470 there was, indeed, a direct connection. But Adams was one of the first G65 1480 to suggest that this human incompetence was the only motivating factor G65 1490 behind religion. It was this fear which explained the development G65 1500 of a priestly caste whose function in society was to mollify and appease G65 1510 the angry deities. To keep themselves entrenched in power, the G65 1520 priests were forced to demonstrate their unique status through the miracle. G65 1530 It was the use of the supernatural that kept them in business. G65 1540 The German barbarians of the fourth century offered an excellent example: G65 1550 "The Germans in the fourth century were a very simple G65 1560 race, who comprehended little of natural laws, and who therefore referred G65 1570 phenomena they did not understand to supernatural intervention. G65 1580 This intervention could only be controlled by priests, and thus the G65 1590 invasions caused a rapid rise in the influence of the sacred class. The G65 1600 power of every ecclesiastical organization has always rested on the G65 1610 miracle, and the clergy have always proved their divine commission as G65 1620 did Elijah". Adams contended that once such a special class G65 1630 had been created it became a vested interest and sought to maintain G65 1640 itself by assuming exclusive control over the relationships between G65 1650 God and man. Thus, the Church was born and because of its intrinsic G65 1660 character was soon identified as a conservative institution, determined G65 1670 to resist the forces of change, to identify itself with the political G65 1680 rulers, and to maintain a kind of splendid isolation from the masses. G65 1690 Doctrine was not only mysterious; it was also sacred, "and no G65 1700 believer in an inspired church could tolerate having her canons examined G65 1710 as we should examine human laws". These basic ideas concerning the G65 1720 nature of religion were, Adams believed, some of the major keys to G65 1730 the understanding of history and the movement of society. The dark views G65 1740 about the Puritans found in G65 1750 were never altered. Despite their adherence to the , the forces of organized religion were compelled to make adjustments G65 1770 as increasing civilization augmented human knowledge. In Brooks Adams traced this evolution, G65 1790 always pointing to the fact that although the forms became more G65 1800 rational, the substance remained unchanged. The relic worship and monasticism G65 1810 of the Middle Ages were more advanced forms than were primitive G65 1820 fetish worship and nature myths. Yet, the idea imbedded in each G65 1830 was identical: to surround the unknown with mystery and to isolate that G65 1840 class which had been given special dominion over the secrets of God. G65 1850 To Adams that age in which religion exercised power over the entire G65 1860 culture of the race was one of imagination, and it is largely the G65 1870 admiration he so obviously held for such eras that betrays a peculiar G65 1880 religiosity- a sentiment he would have probably denied. G66 0010 Stephens had written his classic "incidents of travel" about these G66 0020 regions a hundred years before, and Catherwood, who had studied Piranesi G66 0030 in London and the great ruins of Egypt and Greece, had drawn G66 0040 the splendid illustrations that accompanied the text. Catherwood, an G66 0050 architect in New York, had been forgotten, like Stephens, and Victor G66 0060 reconstructed their lives as one reconstructs, for a museum, a dinosaur G66 0070 from two or three petrified bones. He had unearthed Stephens's G66 0080 letters in a New Jersey farmhouse and he discovered Stephens's G66 0090 unmarked grave in an old cemetery on the east side of New York, where G66 0100 the great traveller had been hastily buried during a cholera epidemic. G66 0110 Victor had been stirred by my account of him in G66 0120 for Stephens was one of the lost writers whom Melville had seen G66 0130 in his childhood and whom I was bent on resurrecting. Victor G66 0140 had led an adventurous life. His was the American tropics, G66 0150 and he had lived all over Latin America and among the primitive G66 0160 tribes on the Amazon river. Well he knew the sleepless nights, the howling G66 0170 sore-ridden dogs and the biting insects in the villages of the G66 0180 Kofanes and Huitotoes. He had not yet undertaken the great exploit G66 0190 of his later years, the rediscovery of the ancient Inca highway, the G66 0200 route of Pizarro in Peru, but he had climbed to the original El Dorado, G66 0210 the Andean lake of Guatemala, and he had scaled the southern Sierra G66 0220 Nevada with its Tibetan-like people and looked into the emerald G66 0230 mines of Muzo. As a naturalist living for two years at the headwaters G66 0240 of the Amazon, he had collected specimens for Mexican museums, G66 0250 and he had taken to the London zoo a live quetzal, the sacred bird of G66 0260 the old Mayans. In fact, he had raised quetzal birds in his camp in G66 0270 the forest of Ecuador. Moreover, he had spent six months on the Galapagos G66 0280 islands, among the great turtles that Captain Cook had found G66 0290 there, and now and then he would disappear into some small island of G66 0300 the West Indies. Victor's book on John Lloyd Stephens was largely G66 0310 written in my study in the house at Weston. I had had my G66 0320 name taken out of the telephone book, and this was partly because of G66 0330 a convict who had been discharged from Sing Sing and who called me night G66 0340 after night. He said he was a friend of Heywood Broun who had G66 0350 run a free employment bureau for several months during the depression, G66 0360 but the generous Broun to whom I wrote did not know his name and I G66 0370 somehow conceived the morbid notion that the man in question was prowling G66 0380 round the house. But one day came the voice of a man I had known G66 0390 when he was a boy, and I later remembered that this boy, thirty years G66 0400 before, had struck me as coming to no good. There had been something G66 0410 sinister about him that warned me against him,- I had never felt G66 0420 that way about any other boy,- but when he uttered his name on the G66 0430 telephone I had forgotten this and I was glad to do what he asked of G66 0440 me. He was a captain, he said, in the army, and on the train to New G66 0450 York his purse and all his money had been stolen, and would I lend G66 0460 him twenty-five dollars to be given him at the General Delivery window? G66 0470 Never hearing from him again, I remembered the little boy of whom G66 0480 I had had such doubts when he was ten years old. We lived for a G66 0490 while in a movie melodrama with a German cook and her son who turned G66 0500 out to be Nazis. Finally we got them out of the house, after the boy G66 0510 had run away four times looking for other Nazis, threatening to murder G66 0520 village schoolchildren and bragging that he was to be the next Fu^hrer. G66 0530 Then he began to have epileptic fits. We found that a charitable G66 0540 society in New York had a long case-history of the two; and G66 0550 they agreed to see that the tragic pair would not put poison in anybody G66 0560 else's soup. To the Weston house came once William Allen G66 0570 Neilson, the president of Smith College who had been one of my old G66 0580 professors and who still called me "Boy" when I was sixty. It G66 0590 reminded me of my other professor, Edward Kennard Rand, of whom I G66 0600 had been so fond when I was at Harvard, the great mediaevalist and G66 0610 classical scholar who had asked me to call him "Ken", saying, "Age G66 0620 counts for nothing among those who have learned to know life . I had always thought of that lovable man G66 0640 as many years older than myself, although he was perhaps only twenty G66 0650 years older, and he confirmed my feeling, along with the feeling of both G66 0660 my sons, that teachers of the classics are invariably endearing. I G66 0670 must have written to say how much I had enjoyed his fine book , and I found he had not regretted giving G66 0700 me the highest mark in his old course on the later Latin poets, although G66 0720 in my final examination I had ignored the questions and filled the G66 0730 bluebook with a comparison of Propertius and Coleridge. He had written G66 0740 to me about a dinner he had had with the Benedictine monks at St& G66 0750 Anselm's Priory in Washington. There had been reading at table, G66 0760 especially from two books, Pope Gregory the Great's account G66 0770 of St& Scholastica in his and my own . He said, "Some have criticized your book G66 0790 as G66 0800 being neither literary criticism nor history. Of course it was not G66 0810 meant to be. Some have felt that Washington Irving comes out rather G66 0820 slimly, but let them look at the title of the book". He felt as G66 0830 I felt about this best of all my books, that it was "really tops". G66 0840 Two or three times, C& C& Burlingham came to lunch with G66 0850 us in Weston, that wonderful man who lived to be more than a hundred G66 0860 years old and whose birthplace had been my Wall Street suburb. His G66 0870 reading ranged from Agatha Christie to the Book of Job and he had G66 0880 an insatiable interest in his fellow-creatures, while his letters were G66 0890 full of gossip about new politicians and old men of letters with whom G66 0900 he had been intimately thrown six decades before. I could never forget G66 0910 the gaiety with which, when he was both blind and deaf, he let me G66 0920 lead him around his rooms to look at some of the pictures; and once G66 0930 when he came to see us in New York he walked away in a rainstorm, G66 0940 unwilling to hear of a taxi or even an umbrella, although he was at the G66 0950 time ninety years old. There were several men of ninety or more whom G66 0960 I knew first or last, all of whom were still productive and most of G66 0970 whom knew one another as if they had naturally come together at the apex G66 0980 of their lives. I never met John Dewey, whose style was a sort G66 0990 of verbal fog and who had written asking me to go to Mexico with him G66 1000 when he was investigating the cause of Trotsky; but I liked to think G66 1010 of him at ninety swimming and working at Key West long after Hemingway G66 1020 had moved to Cuba. At Lee Simonson's house, I had dined G66 1030 with Edith Hamilton, the nonogenarian rationalist and the charming scholar G66 1040 who had a great popular success with . Then G66 1050 there was Mark Howe and there was Henry Dwight Sedgwick, an accomplished G66 1060 man of letters who wrote in the spirit of Montaigne and produced G66 1070 in the end a formidable body of work. I saw Sedgwick often before G66 1080 his death at ninety-five,- he had remarried at the age of ninety,- G66 1090 and he asked me, when once I returned from Rome, if I knew the G66 1100 Cavallinis in the church of St& Cecilia in Trastevere. I had to G66 1110 confess that I had missed these frescoes, recently discovered, that G66 1120 he had studied in his eighties. Sedgwick had chosen to follow the philosophy G66 1130 of Epicurus whom, with his followers, Dante put in hell; but G66 1140 he defended the doctrine in , and what indeed G66 1150 could be said against the Epicurean virtues, health, frugality, G66 1160 privacy, culture and friendship? Of Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe G66 1170 the philosopher Whitehead said the Earth's first visitors to Mars G66 1180 should be persons likely to make a good impression, and when he was G66 1200 asked, "Whom would you send"? he replied, "My first choice G66 1210 would be Mark Howe". This friend of many years came once to visit G66 1220 us in the house at Weston. Then I spoke at the ninetieth birthday G66 1230 party of W& E& Burghardt Du Bois, who embarked on a fictional G66 1240 trilogy at eighty-nine and who, with , had created a G66 1250 Negro intelligentsia that had never existed in America before him. As G66 1260 their interpreter and guide, he had broken with Tuskegee and become G66 1270 a spokesman of the coloured people of the world. Mr& Burlingham,- G66 1280 "C&C&B&"- wrote to me once about an old friend G66 1290 of mine, S& K& Ratcliffe, whom I had first met in London in G66 1300 1914 and who also came out for a week-end in Weston. "Did you ever G66 1310 know a man with greater zest for information? And his memory, like G66 1320 an elephant's, stored with precise knowledge of men and things and G66 1330 happenings". His wife, Katie, "as gay as a lark and as lively G66 1340 as a gazelle",- she was then seventy-six,- had a "a sense of humour G66 1350 that has been denied S&K&, but neither has any aesthetic perceptions. G66 1360 People and books are enough for them". S&K& was visiting G66 1370 C&C&B& and, not waiting for breakfast, he was off to G66 1380 the University Club, where he spent hours writing obituaries of living G66 1390 Americans for the or the . G66 1400 Later, rising ninety, he was beset by publishers for the story G66 1410 of his life and miracles, as he put it, but, calling himself the Needy G66 1420 Knife-grinder, he had spent his time writing short articles and long G66 1430 letters and could not get even a small popular book done. Then, all G66 1440 but blind, he said there was nothing in ,- G66 1450 "G&B&S& ought to have known that",- and "I look at my G66 1460 bookshelves despairingly, knowing that I can have nothing more to do G66 1470 with them". However, at eighty-five, he had still been busy writing G66 1480 articles, reviewing and speaking, and I had never before known an G66 1490 Englishman who had visited and lectured in three quarters of the United G66 1500 States. Finally, colleges and clubs took the line that speakers G66 1510 from England were not wanted any longer, even speakers like S&K&, G66 1520 so unlike the novelists and poets who had patronized the Americans G66 1530 for many years. With their facile generalizations about the United G66 1540 States, these mediocrities, as they often were, had been great successes. G66 1550 While S&K& did not like Dylan Thomas, I liked his poems G66 1560 very much, but I made the mistake of telling Dylan Thomas so, whereupon G66 1570 he said to me, "I suppose you think you know all about me". G66 1580 I should have replied, "I probably know something about the best G66 1590 part of you". But I only thought of that in the middle of the night. G66 1600 Many years later I went to see S&K& in England, where G66 1620 he was living at Whiteleaf, near Aylesbury, and he showed me beside G66 1630 his cottage there the remains of the road on which Boadicea is supposed G66 1640 to have travelled. He was convinced that George Orwell's <1984> G66 1650 was nearly all wrong as it applied to England, which was "driving G66 1660 forward into uncharted waters", with the danger of a new tyranny G66 1670 ahead. "But however we go, whatever our doom, it will not take the G66 1680 Orwellian shape". With facts mainly in his mind, he was often acute G66 1690 in the matter of style, and he said, "The young who have as yet G66 1700 nothing to say will try larks with initial letters and broken lines. G66 1710 But put them before a situation which they are forced to depict",- G66 1720 he was speaking of the Spanish civil war,- "and they have no hesitation; G66 1730 they merely do their best to make it real for others". G67 0010 He looked at her as she spoke, then got up as she was speaking still, G67 0020 and, simply and wordlessly, walked out. And that was the end. Or nearly. G67 0030 He went to the Hotel Mayflower and telegraphed Mencken. G67 0040 Would he meet him in Baltimore in Drawing Room ~A, Car Three G67 0050 on the train leaving Washington at nine o'clock next morning? G67 0060 They would go to New York together, where parties would be piled on G67 0070 weariness and on misery. But not for long. Both Alfred Harcourt and G67 0080 Donald Brace had written him enthusiastic praise of G67 0090 (any changes could be made in proof, which was already coming from G67 0100 the printer) and they had ordered 140,000 copies- the largest first G67 0110 printing of any book in history. But none of this could soothe the G67 0120 exacerbated nerves. On New Year's Eve, Alfred Harcourt drove G67 0130 him up the Hudson to Bill Brown's Training Camp, a well-known establishment G67 0140 for the speedy if temporary rehabilitation of drunkards who G67 0150 could no longer help themselves. But, in departing, Lewis begged G67 0160 Breasted that there be no liquor in the apartment at the Grosvenor on G67 0170 his return, and he took with him the first thirty galleys of . On January 4, with the boys back at school and college, G67 0190 Mrs& Lewis wrote Harcourt to say that she was "thro, quite G67 0200 thro". "This whole Washington venture was my last gesture, G67 0210 and it has failed. Physically as well as mentally I have reached the G67 0220 limit of my endurance. My last gift to him is complete silence until G67 0230 the book is out and the first heated discussion dies down. For him to G67 0240 divorce God and wife simultaneously would be bad publicity. I am G67 0250 really ill at the present moment, and I will go to some sort of a sanitarium G67 0260 to normalize myself". And she withdrew then to Cromwell G67 0270 Hall, in Cromwell, Connecticut. Harcourt replied: "I do G67 0280 really hope you can achieve serenity in the course of time. Of course G67 0290 I hope Hal can also, but those hopes are much more faint". #8# G67 0300 ON JANUARY 8, 1927, he returned to the Grosvenor in high G67 0310 spirits, and looking fit. He had been, he wrote Mencken at once, "in G67 0320 the country", a euphemism for an experience that had not greatly G67 0330 changed him. Charles Breasted remembers that, before unpacking his bag, G67 0340 he telephoned his bootlegger with a generous order, and almost at G67 0350 once "the familiar procession of people began milling through our living G67 0360 room at any hour between two P&M& and three A&M&". G67 0370 They were strays of every kind- university students and journalists, G67 0380 Village hangers-on and barflies, taxi drivers and editors and unknown G67 0390 poets, as well as friends like Elinor Wylie and William Rose Benet, G67 0400 the Van Dorens and Nathan, Rebecca West and Hugh Walpole G67 0410 and Osbert Sitwell, Laurence Stallings, Lewis Browne, William Seabrook, G67 0420 Arthur Hopkins, the Woodwards. When he came home from his G67 0430 office at the end of the afternoon, Breasted never knew what gathering G67 0440 he should expect to find, but there almost always was one. G67 0450 He did not neglect his wife in Cromwell Hall, but telephoned her and G67 0460 wrote her with assurances of his continuing interest and of his wish G67 0470 to "stand behind" her in their separation and of his hope that there G67 0480 would be no bitterness between them. She was occupying herself in G67 0490 an attempt to write an article about the variety of houses that they G67 0500 had rented abroad. He was of unsettled mind as to whether he should go G67 0510 abroad when the galleys were finished. For a time, urging G67 0520 Breasted to give up his public relations work and take up writing G67 0530 instead, he hoped to persuade him to become his assistant in research G67 0540 for the labor novel; if Breasted agreed, they would get a car and tour G67 0550 the country, visiting every kind of industrial center. When Breasted G67 0560 insisted that this was impossible for him, Lewis decided to go abroad. G67 0570 He telephoned L& M& Birkhead and asked him and his G67 0580 wife to come to Europe as his guests, but Birkhead declined on the G67 0590 grounds that one of them must be in the United States when was published. Lewis was spending his mornings, with the G67 0610 help of two secretaries, on the galleys of that long novel, making considerable G67 0620 revisions, and the combination of hard work and hard frivolity G67 0630 exhausted him once more, so that he was compelled to spend three days G67 0640 in the Harbor Sanatorium in the last week of January. Before he G67 0650 made that retreat, he telephoned Earl Blackman in Kansas City and G67 0660 asked him to come to Europe with him. Blackman was to be in New York G67 0670 by February 2, because they were sailing at 12:01 next morning. G67 0680 Lewis told him what clothes he should bring along, and enjoined him G67 0690 not to buy anything that he did not already own, they would do that G67 0700 in New York. Blackman arrived a day or two early, and Lewis took him G67 0710 to a department store immediately and outfitted him, luggage and all, G67 0720 and then he took him to a party at the Woodwards that went on until G67 0730 four in the morning. On the evening that they were to sail, G67 0740 Lewis himself gave a party, but he was too indisposed to appear at it. G67 0750 Woodward took occasion to warn Blackman about Lewis's drinking G67 0760 and urged him to "try to keep him sober". After a dinner party for G67 0770 which she had come down to New York, Mrs& Lewis and Casanova G67 0780 arrived to see them off, and Elinor Wylie made tart observations that G67 0790 indicated that Lewis had been less discreet than he had promised to G67 0800 be about the real nature of their separation. Nevertheless, Mrs& G67 0810 Lewis was still solicitous of his condition: let him do as he wished, G67 0820 let him sleep with chambermaids if he must, but, she begged Blackman, G67 0830 try to keep him from drinking a great deal and bring him back in G67 0840 good health. As they stood at the first-class rail, waving down to his G67 0850 wife and Casanova below, Lewis said, "Earl, there is Gracie's G67 0860 future husband". And when questioned by ship's reporters about G67 0870 the separation, she said, "I adore him, and he adores me". G67 0880 Blackman had brought news from Kansas City. Before his departure, G67 0890 a group of his friends, the Reverend Stidger among them, had given G67 0900 him a luncheon, and Stidger had seen advance sheets of . G67 0910 He was outraged by the book and announced that he had discovered G67 0920 fifty technical errors in its account of church practices. L& M& G67 0930 Birkhead challenged him to name one and he was silent. But his rancor G67 0940 did not cease, and presently, on March 13, when he preached a sermon G67 0950 on the text, "And Ben-hadad Was Drunk", he told his congregation G67 0960 how disappointed he was in Mr& Lewis, how he regretted having G67 0970 had him in his house, and how he should have been warned by the fact G67 0980 that the novelist was drunk all the time that he was working on the G67 0990 book. But that sermon, like those of hundreds of other ministers, was G67 1000 yet to be delivered. In London Lewis took the usual suite G67 1010 in Bury Street. To the newspapers he talked about his unquiet life, G67 1020 about his wish to be a newspaperman once more, about the prevalence of G67 1030 American slang in British speech, about the loquacity of the English G67 1040 and the impossibility of finding quiet in a railway carriage, about G67 1050 his plans to wander for two years "unless stopped and made to write G67 1060 another book". The wondered how anyone G67 1070 in a railway carriage would have an opportunity to talk to Mr& Lewis, G67 1080 since it was well known that Mr& Lewis always did all of the talking. G67 1090 His English friends, it said, had gone into training to keep G67 1100 up with him vocally and with his "allegro movements around the luncheon G67 1110 table". The New York editorialist wondered just who G67 1120 would stop Mr& Lewis and make him write a book. Lewis's G67 1130 remarks about his marriage were suggestive enough to induce American G67 1140 reporters to invade the offices of Harcourt, Brace + Company for G67 1150 information, to pursue Mrs& Lewis to Cromwell Hall, and, after G67 1160 she had returned to New York, to ferret her out at the Stanhope on G67 1170 upper Fifth Avenue where she had taken an apartment. There, to the G67 1180 she emphatically denied the divorce rumors and explained G67 1190 that she had stayed behind because of the schooling of their son, G67 1200 which henceforth would be strictly American. These rumors of permanent G67 1210 separation started up a whole crop of stories about her. One had G67 1220 it that a friend, protesting her snobbery, said, "But, Gracie, G67 1230 you are an American, aren't you"? and she replied, "I was born G67 1240 in America, I was in . Lewis G67 1250 himself furthered these tales. He is said to have reported that once, G67 1260 when she went to a hospital to call on a friend after a serious operation, G67 1270 and the friend protested that it had been "nothing", she replied, G67 1280 "Well, it was your healthy American peasant blood that pulled G67 1290 you through". With these and similar tales he was entertaining his G67 1300 English friends, all of whom he was seeing when he was not showing G67 1310 Blackman the sights of London and its environs. At once upon G67 1320 his arrival, he telephoned Lady Sybil Colefax who invited them to G67 1330 tea, and then Lewis decided to give a party as a quick way of rounding G67 1340 up his friends. He invited Lady Sybil, Lord Thomson, Bechhofer G67 1350 Roberts, and a half dozen others. It was a dinner party, Lewis had G67 1360 been drinking during the afternoon, and long before the party really G67 1370 got under way, he was quite drunk, with the result that the party broke G67 1380 up even before dinner was over. Lewis, at the head of the table, would G67 1390 leap up and move around behind the chairs of his guests making remarks G67 1400 that, when not highly offensive, were at least highly inappropriate, G67 1410 and then presently he collapsed and was put to bed. When G67 1420 Blackman emerged from the bedroom, everyone was gone except the tolerant G67 1430 Lord Thomson, who stayed and chatted with him for half an hour, G67 1440 and then Blackman lay awake most of that night, despairing of what he G67 1450 must expect on the Continent. Finally, at dawn, he fell asleep, and G67 1460 when he awoke and came into the living room, he found Lewis in his pajamas G67 1470 before the fire, smoking a cigarette. Blackman said that he wanted G67 1480 to apologize for not having prevented Lewis from making that horrible G67 1490 spectacle of himself, that he should have seized him by the neck G67 1500 at once and forcibly hauled him into his bedroom. Lewis warned him never G67 1510 to lay a hand on him, and then Blackman asked for his fare back G67 1520 to the United States. Lewis looked at him and began to cry, and then, G67 1530 saying that he was going to make a promise, he asked Blackman to call G67 1540 the porter and to tell him to take out all the liquor that he did G67 1550 not want. "And from now on, for the rest of this trip, I will only G67 1560 drink what you agree that I should drink". Blackman called the porter G67 1570 and had him remove everything but one bottle of brandy, and after G67 1580 that they would have a cocktail or two before dinner, or, on one of their G67 1590 walking trips, beer, or, in France and Italy, wine in moderation. G67 1600 Lewis gave him a guidebook tour of London and, motoring and G67 1610 walking, took him to Stratford, but the London stay was for only ten G67 1620 days, and on the twentieth they took the train for Southampton, where G67 1630 they spent the night for an early morning Channel crossing. Near G67 1640 Southampton, in a considerable establishment, lived Homer Vachell, G67 1650 a well-known pulp writer, and his brother, Horace- both friends of G67 1660 Lewis's. He suggested that they call on these brothers, who received G67 1670 them pleasantly. Then they returned to their hotel and got ready G67 1680 for bed. It was late, and Blackman was ready to go to sleep, but Lewis G67 1690 was not. He said, "We had a good time tonight, didn't we, Earl"? G67 1700 Earl agreed, and Lewis said that it would have been very different G67 1710 if his wife had been with him. Then he kept Blackman awake G67 1720 for more than an hour while he did an imaginary dialogue between his wife G67 1730 and himself in which, discussing the evening, he was continually berated. G67 1740 He began the dialogue by having his wife announce that one does G67 1750 not invade people's homes without warning them that one is coming, G67 1760 and went on from that with the entire catalogue of his social gaucheries. G68 0010 From 1613 on, if the lists exist, they contain between twenty to thirty G68 0020 names. As the total number of incepting bachelors in 1629 was, according G68 0030 to Masson (, 1:218 and ~n), two hundred fifty-nine, G68 0040 the twenty-four names listed in the for that G68 0050 year constitute slightly less than one tenth of the total number of bachelors G68 0060 who then incepted. There were four from St& John's and G68 0070 four from Christ's, three from Pembroke, and two from each of the G68 0080 colleges, Jesus, Peterhouse, Queens', and Trinity, with Caius, G68 0090 Clare, King's, Magdalene, and Sidney supplying one each in the . The list was headed by [Henry] Hutton of St& G68 0110 John's who was matriculated from St& John's at Easter, G68 0120 1625. He became a fellow of Jesus in 1629, proceeded M&A& from G68 0130 Jesus in 1632, and was proctor in 1639-40. The second name was [Edward] G68 0140 Kempe, matriculated from Queens' College at Easter, 1625. G68 0150 He proceeded M&A& in 1632, and B&D& in 1639, being made G68 0160 fellow in 1632. He was ordained deacon 16 June and priest 22 December G68 0170 1633. The third name was [John] Ravencroft, who was admitted G68 0180 to the Inner Temple in November 1631. The fourth name was [John] G68 0190 Milton of Christ's College, followed by [Richard] Manningham G68 0200 of Peterhouse, who matriculated 16 October 1624. Venn gave his B&A& G68 0210 as 1624, a mistake for 1629. Manningham also proceeded M&A& G68 0220 in 1632 and became a fellow of his college in that year. [John] G68 0230 Boutflower of Christ's was twelfth in the list, coming from Perse G68 0240 School under Mr& Lovering as pensioner 20 April 1625 under Mr& G68 0250 Alsop. The fourteenth name was [Richard] Buckenham, written G68 0260 Buckman, admitted to Christ's College under Scott 2 July 1625. G68 0270 The fifteenth name was [Thomas] Baldwin, admitted to Christ's G68 0280 4 March 1625 under Alsop. Christ's College was well represented G68 0290 that year in the , and the name highest on the list from that G68 0300 college was Milton's, fourth in the entire university. Small wonder G68 0310 that Milton later boasted of how well his work had been received G68 0320 there, since he attained a rank in the order of commencing bachelors higher G68 0330 than that of any other inceptor from Christ's of that year. G68 0350 It is not possible to reconstruct fully the arrangements whereby G68 0360 these honors lists were then made up or even how the names that they G68 0370 contained assumed the order in which we find them. The process usually G68 0380 began with a tutor boasting about a boy, as Chappell had boasted about G68 0390 Lightfoot, to the higher officers of the college and university. G68 0400 Then the various officers of the college might take up the case. It G68 0410 would, however, reach the proctors and other officers in charge of the G68 0420 public-school performances of the incepting bachelors, and the place G68 0430 that any individual obtained in the lists depended greatly on how he comported G68 0440 himself in the public schools during his acts therein as he was G68 0450 incepting. Of course the higher officials could add or place a name G68 0460 on the list wherever they wished. Milton's name being fourth is neither G68 0470 too high nor too low to be assigned to the arbitrary action of G68 0480 vice-chancellor, proctor, master, or other mighty hand. He evidently G68 0490 earned the place assigned him. #RECAPITULATION OF MILTON'S UNDERGRADUATE G68 0500 CAREER# Looking back from the spring of 1629 over the four years G68 0510 of Milton's undergraduate days, certain phases of his college G68 0520 career stand out as of permanent consequence to him and hence to us. Of G68 0530 course the principal factor in the whole experience was the kind of G68 0540 education he received. It differed from what an undergraduate receives G68 0550 today from any American college or university mainly in the certainty G68 0560 of what he was forced to learn compared with the loose and widely G68 0570 scattered information obtained today by most of our undergraduates. Milton G68 0580 was required to absorb and display an intensive and accurate knowledge G68 0590 of Latin grammar, logic-rhetoric, ethics, physics or natural philosophy, G68 0600 metaphysics, and Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He had also G68 0610 sampled various special fields of learning, being unable to miss some G68 0620 study of divinity, Justinian (law), and Galen (medicine). Above all, G68 0630 he had learned to write formal Latin prose and verse to a remarkable G68 0640 degree of artistry. He had learned to dispute devastatingly, both formally G68 0650 and informally in Latin, and according to the rules on any topic, G68 0660 pro or con, drawn from almost any subject, more especially from Aristotle's G68 0670 works. He could produce carefully constructed orations, G68 0680 set and formal speeches, artfully and prayerfully made by writing and G68 0690 rewriting with all the aid his tutor and others could provide, and then G68 0700 delivered verbatim from memory. He had also learned to dispute extempore G68 0710 remarkably well, the main evidence for which of course is the presence G68 0720 of his name in the honors list of 1628/29. He also displayed G68 0730 the ability to write Latin verse on almost any topic of dispute, the G68 0740 verses, of course, to be delivered from memory. Then we have surviving G68 0750 at least one instance of a poem prepared for another in , and perhaps also the . But G68 0770 his greatest achievement, in his own eyes and in the eyes of his colleagues G68 0780 and teachers, was his amazing ability to produce literary Latin G68 0790 pieces, and he was often called on to do so. These were his public G68 0800 academic activities, , in the college and in the university. G68 0810 And his performances attracted much attention, as the frequency G68 0820 of his surviving pieces in any calendar that may be set up for his G68 0830 undergraduate activities testifies. His other activities are G68 0840 not so easily recovered. His statements about sports and exercises of G68 0850 a physical nature are suggestive, but inconclusive. His later boastings G68 0860 of his skill with the small sword are indicative of much time and G68 0870 practice devoted to the use of that weapon. Venn and others have dealt G68 0880 with sports and pastimes at Cambridge in Milton's day with not very G68 0890 specific results. Milton himself, uncommunicative as he is about G68 0900 his lesser and nonliterary activities, at least gives us some evidence G68 0910 that he was a great walker, under any and all conditions. His early G68 0920 poems and some of his prose prolusions speak of wanderings in the city G68 0930 and the neighboring country that may be extended to Cambridge and its G68 0940 surrounding countryside. The town itself and the "reedy Cam" he G68 0950 often visited, as did all in the university. The churches, the taverns, G68 0960 and the various other places of the town must have known his figure G68 0970 well as he roved to and about them. The tiny hamlet of Chesterton G68 0980 to the north, with the fens and marshes lying on down the Ouse River, G68 0990 may have attracted him often, as it did many other youths of the time. G68 1000 The Gog Magog Hills to the southeast afforded him and all other G68 1010 students a vantage point from which to view the town and university G68 1020 of their dwelling. The country about Cambridge is flat and not particularly G68 1030 spectacular in its scenery, though it offers easy going to the G68 1040 foot traveler. Ball games, especially football, required some attention, G68 1050 and other organized sports may have attracted him as participant G68 1060 or spectator. He smoked, as did everybody, and imbibed the various alcoholic G68 1070 beverages of that day, although his protestations while at Cambridge G68 1080 and after that he was no drunkard point to reasonable abstinence G68 1090 from the wild drinking bouts of some of the undergraduates and, we G68 1100 must add, of some of their elders including many of the regents or teachers. G68 1110 What manner of person does Milton appear to have been G68 1120 when as an undergraduate he resided at Christ's College? He was G68 1130 then a slightly built young man of pleasing appearance, medium stature, G68 1140 and handsome face. Graceful as his fencing and dancing lessons had G68 1150 taught him to be in addition to the natural grace of his slight, wiry G68 1160 frame, he cut enough of a figure to have evoked a nickname in the college, G68 1170 to which he himself referred in . That is, if we can trust that most specious G68 1190 of prolusions, packed as it is with wit and persiflage. The G68 1200 sounds real enough, if we could only trust the conditions under G68 1210 which we learn of its use; but anyone who would put much trust in any G68 1220 phase of except its illusive allusiveness deserves G68 1230 whatever fate may be meted out to him by virtue of the egregiously G68 1240 stilted banter. In short, the traditional epithet for Milton of 'Lady G68 1250 of Christ's', while eminently fitting, rests only on this G68 1260 baffling passage in the midst of the most treacherous piece of writing G68 1270 Milton left us. Aubrey's mention of it (2:67, and Bodleian ~MS G68 1280 Aubr& 8, f& 63) comes from this prolusion, through Christopher G68 1290 Milton or Edward Phillips. It is not a question of truth or falsity; G68 1300 the prolusion in which the autobiographic statement about the G68 1310 epithet occurs is such a mass of intentionally buried allusions that G68 1320 almost nothing in it can be accepted as true- or discarded as false. G68 1330 The entire exercise, Latin and English, is most suggestive of the G68 1340 kind of person Milton had become at Christ's during his undergraduate G68 1350 career; the mere fact that he was selected, though as a substitute, G68 1360 to act as interlocutor or moderator for it, or perhaps we should say G68 1370 with Buck as 'father of the act', is in itself a difficult phase G68 1380 of his development to grasp. Milton was to act as the archfool, the G68 1390 supreme wit, the lightly bantering who could G68 1400 at once trip lightly over that which deserved such treatment, or could G68 1410 at will annihilate the common enemies of the college gathering, and G68 1420 with words alone. From an exercise involving merely raucous, rough-and-tumble G68 1430 comedy, in his hands the performance turned into a revel of G68 1440 wit and word play, indecent at times, but always learned, pointed, and G68 1450 carefully aimed at some individuals present, and at the whole assembly. G68 1460 To do this successfully required great skill and a special talent G68 1470 for both solemn and ribald raillery, a talent not bestowed on many persons, G68 1480 but one with which Milton was marked as being endowed and in which, G68 1490 at least in this performance, he obviously reveled. It may be thought G68 1500 unfortunate that he was called on entirely by accident to perform, G68 1510 if again we may trust the opening of the , for it marks G68 1520 the beginning for us of his use of his peculiar form of witty word play G68 1530 that even in this Latin banter has in it the unmistakable element of G68 1540 viciousness and an almost sadistic delight in verbally tormenting an G68 1550 adversary. But the real beginnings of this development in him go back G68 1560 to the opposing of grammar school, and probably if it had not been this G68 1570 occasion and these Latin lines it would have been some others, such G68 1580 as the first prolusion, that set off this streak in him of unbridled G68 1590 and scathing verbal attack on an enemy. All western Europe would hear G68 1600 and listen to him in this same vein about the middle of the century. G68 1610 But these prolusions that we have surviving from the Christ's G68 1620 College days are only one phase of his existence then. Perhaps G68 1630 his most important private activity was the combination of reading, G68 1640 discussion with a few- if we can trust his writings to Diodati and G68 1650 the younger Gill, very few- congenial companions. Lines 23-36 of G68 1660 later point to a friendship with Edward King, who entered G68 1670 Christ's College 9 June 1626. No other names among the young men G68 1680 in residence at the time seem to have been even suggested by Milton G68 1690 as those of persons with whom he in any way consorted. But that scarcely G68 1700 means that he was the aloof, forbidding type of student who shared G68 1710 few if any activities with his fellows, the banter of the surviving G68 1720 prolusions providing enough evidence to deny this. Apparently he was G68 1730 not a participant in the college or university theatricals, which he G68 1740 once attacked as utterly unworthy performances (see 3:300); G68 1750 but even in that famous passage, Milton was aiming not at the G68 1760 theatricals as such but at their performance by 'persons either enter'd, G68 1770 or presently to enter into the ministry'. The fact that he G68 1780 nowhere mentioned theatrical performances as part of the activities of G68 1790 the boys later in his hypothetical academy (1644) should not be taken G68 1800 too seriously as evidence that he desired them to eschew such performances. G68 1810 Perhaps, in that short piece or letter written to Hartlib in G68 1820 which he sketched his scheme for educating young men, he merely overlooked G68 1830 that phase of their exercises. G69 0010 Writers of this class of science fiction have clearly in mind the assumptions G69 0020 that man can master the principles of this cause-and-effect universe G69 0030 and that such mastery will necessarily better the human lot. On G69 0040 the other hand, the bright vision of the future has been directly stated G69 0060 in science fiction concerned with projecting ideal societies- science G69 0070 fiction, of course, is related, if sometimes distantly, to that G69 0080 utopian literature optimistic about science, literature whose period G69 0090 of greatest vigor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries G69 0100 produced Edward Bellamy's and H& G& G69 0110 Wells's . In Arthur Clarke's (1953), though written after the present flood of dystopias G69 0130 began, we can see the bright vision of science fiction clearly G69 0140 defined. - apparently indebted to Kurd G69 0150 Lasswitz's utopian romance, (1897), and G69 0160 also to Wells's histories of the future, especially (1914) and (1933)- G69 0180 describes G69 0190 the bloodless conquest of earth by the Overlords, vastly superior G69 0200 creatures who come to our world in order to prepare the human race for G69 0210 its next stage of development, an eventual merging with the composite G69 0220 mind of the universe. Arriving just in time to stop men from turning G69 0230 their planet into a radioactive wasteland, the Overlords unite earth G69 0240 into one world in which justice, order, and benevolence prevail and G69 0250 ignorance, poverty, and fear have ceased to exist. Under their rule, G69 0260 earth becomes a technological utopia. Both abolition of war and new G69 0270 techniques of production, particularly robot factories, greatly increase G69 0280 the world's wealth, a situation described in the following passage, G69 0290 which has the true utopian ring: "Everything was so cheap that G69 0300 the necessities of life were free, provided as a public service by G69 0310 the community, as roads, water, street lighting and drainage had once G69 0320 been. A man could travel anywhere he pleased, eat whatever he fancied- G69 0330 without handing over any money". With destructive tensions and G69 0340 pressures removed men have the vigor and energy to construct a new human G69 0350 life- rebuilding entire cities, expanding facilities for entertainment, G69 0360 providing unlimited opportunities for education- indeed, for G69 0370 the first time giving everyone the chance to employ his talents to the G69 0380 fullest. Mankind, as a result, attains previously undreamed of levels G69 0390 of civilization and culture, a golden age which the Overlords, a very G69 0400 evident symbol of science, have helped produce by introducing reason G69 0410 and the scientific method into human activities. Thus science is the G69 0420 savior of mankind, and in this respect only G69 0430 blueprints in greater detail the vision of the future which, though not G69 0435 always so directly stated, G69 0440 has nevertheless been present in the minds G69 0450 of most science-fiction writers. Considering then the optimism G69 0460 which has permeated science fiction for so long, what is really remarkable G69 0470 is that during the last twelve years many science-fiction writers G69 0480 have turned about and attacked their own cherished vision of the future, G69 0490 have attacked the kind of faith that science G69 0500 and technology will inevitably better the human condition. And they G69 0510 have done this on a very large scale, with a veritable flood of novels G69 0520 and stories which are either dystopias or narratives of adventure G69 0530 with dystopian elements. Because of the means of publication- science-fiction G69 0540 magazines and cheap paperbacks- and because dystopian science G69 0550 fiction is still appearing in quantity the full range and extent G69 0560 of this phenomenon can hardly be known, though one fact is evident: G69 0570 the science-fiction imagination has been immensely fertile in its extrapolations. G69 0580 Among the dystopias, for example, Isaac Asimov's (1954) portrays the deadly effects on human life G69 0600 of the super-city of the future; James Blish's G69 0610 (1958) describes a world hiding from its own weapons of destruction G69 0620 in underground shelters; Ray Bradbury's (1954) presents a book-burning society in which wall television G69 0640 and hearing-aid radios enslave men's minds; Walter M& Miller, G69 0650 Jr&'s, (1959) finds men, after G69 0660 the great atomic disaster, stumbling back to their previous level of G69 0670 civilization and another catastrophe; Frederick Pohl's "The Midas G69 0680 Touch" (1954) predicts an economy of abundance which, in order G69 0690 to remain prosperous, must set its robots to consuming surplus production; G69 0700 Clifford D& Simak's "How-2" (1954) tells of a future G69 0710 when robots have taken over, leaving men nothing to do; and Robert G69 0720 Sheckley's (1960) describes a world G69 0730 which, frightened by the powers of destruction science has given it, G69 0740 becomes static and conformist. A more complete list would also include G69 0750 Bradbury's "The Pedestrian" (1951), Philip K& G69 0755 Dick's G69 0760 (1955), David Karp's (1953), Wilson G69 0770 Tucker's (1952), Jack Vance's G69 0780 G69 0790 (1956), Gore Vidal's (1954), and G69 0800 Bernard Wolfe's (1952), as well as the three perhaps most G69 0810 outstanding dystopias, Frederik Pohl and C& M& Kornbluth's G69 0820 (1953), Kurt Vonnegut's (1952), and John Wyndham's (1953), works which G69 0840 we will later examine in detail. The novels and stories like Pohl's G69 0850 (1960), with the focus on adventure and G69 0860 with the dystopian elements only a dim background- in this case an G69 0870 uneasy, overpopulated world in which the mass of people do uninteresting G69 0880 routine jobs while a carefully selected, university-trained elite G69 0890 runs everything- are in all likelihood as numerous as dystopias. G69 0900 There is, of course, nothing new about dystopias, for they belong G69 0910 to a literary tradition which, including also the closely related satiric G69 0920 utopias, stretches from at least as far back as the eighteenth century G69 0930 and Swift's to the twentieth century G69 0940 and Zamiatin's Capek's Huxley's G69 0950 E& M& Forster's "The Machine G69 0960 Stops", C& S& Lewis's G69 0970 and Orwell's and which in science fiction G69 0975 is represented G69 0980 before the present deluge as early as Wells's trilogy, "A Story of the Days to Come", and and as recently as Jack Williamson's "With G69 1010 Folded Hands" (1947), the classic story of men replaced by their G69 1020 own robots. What makes the current phenomenon unique is that so G69 1030 many science-fiction writers have reversed a trend and turned to writing G69 1040 works critical of the impact of science and technology on human life. G69 1050 Since the great flood of these dystopias has appeared only in the G69 1060 last twelve years, it seems fairly reasonable to assume that the chief G69 1070 impetus was the 1949 publication of an assumption G69 1080 which is supported by the frequent echoes of such details as G69 1090 Room 101, along with education by conditioning from G69 1100 a book to which science-fiction writers may well have returned G69 1110 with new interest after reading the more powerful Orwell dystopia. G69 1120 Not all recent science fiction, however, is dystopian, for the G69 1130 optimistic strain is still very much alive in G69 1140 and as we have seen, as well as in many other G69 1150 recent popular novels and stories like Fred Hoyle's (1957); and among works of dystopian science fiction, not G69 1170 all provide intelligent criticism and very few have much merit as literature- G69 1180 but then real quality has always been scarce in science fiction. G69 1190 In addition, there are many areas of the human situation besides G69 1200 the impact of science and technology which are examined, for science-fiction G69 1210 dystopias often extrapolate political, social, economic tendencies G69 1220 only indirectly related to science and technology. Nevertheless, G69 1230 with all these qualifications and exceptions, the current dystopian G69 1240 phenomenon remains impressive for its criticism that science and technology, G69 1250 instead of bringing utopia, may well enslave, dehumanize, and even G69 1260 destroy men. How effectively these warnings can be presented is seen G69 1270 in Pohl and Kornbluth's Vonnegut's G69 1280 and Wyndham's . Easily G69 1290 the best known of these three novels is a G69 1300 good example of a science-fiction dystopia which extrapolates much more G69 1310 than the impact of science on human life, though its most important G69 1320 warning is in this area, namely as to the use to which discoveries in G69 1330 the behavioral sciences may be put. The novel, which is not merely dystopian G69 1340 but also brilliantly satiric, describes a future America where G69 1350 one-sixteenth of the population, the men who run advertising agencies G69 1360 and big corporations, control the rest of the people, the submerged G69 1370 fifteen-sixteenths who are the workers and consumers, with the government G69 1380 being no more than "a clearing house for pressures". Like G69 1390 ours, the economy of the space merchants must constantly expand in order G69 1400 to survive, and, like ours, it is based on the principle of "ever G69 1410 increasing everybody's work and profits in the circle of consumption". G69 1420 The consequences, of course, have been dreadful: reckless expansion G69 1430 has led to overpopulation, pollution of the earth and depletion G69 1440 of its natural resources. For example, even the most successful executive G69 1450 lives in a two-room apartment while ordinary people rent space in G69 1460 the stairwells of office buildings in which to sleep at night; soyaburgers G69 1470 have replaced meat, and wood has become so precious that it is G69 1480 saved for expensive jewelry; and the atmosphere is so befouled that G69 1490 no one dares walk in the open without respirators or soot plugs. G69 1500 While indicates, as Kingsley Amis has G69 1510 correctly observed, some of the "impending consequences of the growth G69 1520 of industrial and commercial power" and satirizes "existing habits G69 1530 in the advertising profession", its warning and analysis penetrate G69 1540 much deeper. What is wrong with advertising is not only that it is G69 1550 an "outrage, an assault on people's mental privacy" or that it G69 1560 is a major cause for a wasteful economy of abundance or that it contains G69 1570 a coercive tendency (which is closer to the point). Rather what Kornbluth G69 1580 and Pohl are really doing is warning against the dangers inherent G69 1590 in perfecting "a science of man and his motives". like such humanist documents as Joseph Wood Krutch's G69 1610 and C& S& Lewis's considers what may result from the scientific study G69 1630 of human nature. If man is actually the product of his environment G69 1640 and if science can discover the laws of human nature and the ways in which G69 1650 environment determines what people do, then someone- a someone G69 1660 probably standing outside traditional systems of values- can turn around G69 1670 and develop completely efficient means for controlling people. Thus G69 1680 we will have a society consisting of the planners or conditioners, G69 1690 and the controlled. And this, of course, is exactly what Madison Avenue G69 1700 has been accused of doing albeit in a primitive way, with its "hidden G69 1710 persuaders" and what the space merchants accomplish with much G69 1720 greater sophistication and precision. Pohl and Kornbluth's G69 1730 ad men have long since thrown out appeals to reason and developed techniques G69 1740 of advertising which tie in with "every basic trauma and neurosis G69 1750 in American life", which work on the libido of consumers, which G69 1760 are linked to the "great prime motivations of the human spirit". G69 1770 As the hero, Mitchell Courtenay, explains before his conversion, G69 1780 the job of advertising is "to convince people without letting them G69 1790 know that they're being convinced". And to do this requires first G69 1800 of all the kind of information about people which is provided by the G69 1810 scientists in industrial anthropology and consumer research, who, for G69 1820 example, tell Courtenay that three days is the "optimum priming period G69 1830 for a closed social circuit to be triggered with a catalytic cue-phrase"- G69 1840 which means that an effective propaganda technique is to send G69 1850 an idea into circulation and then three days later reinforce or undermine G69 1860 it. And the second requirement for convincing people without G69 1870 their knowledge is artistic talent to prepare the words and pictures which G69 1880 persuade by using the principles which the scientists have discovered. G69 1890 Thus the copywriter in the world of the space merchants is the G69 1900 person who in earlier ages might have been a lyric poet, the person "capable G69 1910 of putting together words that stir and move and sing". As G69 1920 Courtenay explains, "Here in this profession we reach into the souls G69 1930 of men and women. And we do it by taking talent- and redirecting G69 1940 it". Now the basic question to be asked in this situation G69 1950 is what motivates the manipulators, that is, what are their values?- G69 1960 since, as Courtenay says, "Nobody should play with lives the way G69 1970 we do unless he's motivated by the highest ideals". But the only G69 1980 ideal he can think of is "Sales"! Indeed, again and again, the G69 1990 space merchants confirm the prediction of the humanists that the conditioners G69 2000 and behavioral scientists, once they have seen through human G69 2010 nature, will have nothing except their impulses and desires to guide G69 2020 them. G70 0010 ## We often say of a person that he "looks young for his age" G70 0020 or "old for his age". Yet even in the more extreme of such cases G70 0030 we seldom go very far astray in guessing what his age actually is. And G70 0040 this means, I suppose, that almost invariably age reveals itself by G70 0050 easily recognizable signs engraved on both the body and the mind. "Young G70 0060 for his age" means only the presence of some minor characteristic G70 0070 not quite usual. Stigmata quite sufficient for diagnosis are nevertheless G70 0080 there. An assumption of youth, or the presence of a few youthful G70 0090 characteristics, deceives no more successfully than rouge or dyed G70 0110 hair. "Looking young for your age" means "for your age" and G70 0120 it means no more. A mind expressing itself in words may reveal G70 0130 itself a little less obviously as old or young. Its surface loses its G70 0140 bloom and submits to its wrinkles in ways less immediately obvious G70 0150 than the body does. Youth may be, and often is, skeptical, cynical or G70 0160 despairing; age may be idealistic, believing and much given to professions G70 0170 of optimism. But there is, nevertheless, always a subtle difference G70 0180 in the way in which supposedly similar opinions are held. The G70 0190 pessimism of the young is defiant, anxious to confess or even exaggerate G70 0200 its ostensible gloom, and so exuberant as to reveal the fact that G70 0205 it regards G70 0210 its ability to face up to the awful truth as more than enough to compensate G70 0220 for the awfulness of that truth. Similarly the optimism of age G70 0230 protests too much. If it proclaims that the best is yet to be, it always G70 0240 arouses, at least in the young, either a suspicious question or perhaps G70 0250 the exclamation of the Negro youth who saw on a tombstone the G70 0260 inscription, "I am not dead but sleeping". "Boy, you ain't fooling G70 0270 nobody but yourself". We may say of some unfortunates G70 0280 that they were never young. We cannot truthfully say of anyone who has G70 0290 succeeded in entering deep into his sixties that he was never old. G70 0300 Those famous lines of the Greek Anthology with which a fading beauty G70 0310 dedicates her mirror at the shrine of a goddess reveal a wise attitude: G70 0320 "Venus take my votive glass, Since I am not what I was, What G70 0330 from this day I shall be, Venus, let me never see". No G70 0340 good can come of contemplating the sad, inevitable fact that once youth G70 0350 has passed "a worse and worse time still succeeds the former". G70 0360 But there are at least two reasons for contemplating one's G70 0370 in even a cracked mirror. One is that there sometimes are real although G70 0380 inadequate compensations in growing old. Serenity, if one is fortunate G70 0390 enough to achieve it, is not so good as joy, but it is something. G70 0400 Even to be "from hope and fear set free" is at least better than G70 0410 to have lost the first without having got rid of the second. The other G70 0420 reason (and the one with which I am here concerned) is that one thus G70 0430 becomes inclined to inquire of any opinion, or change of opinion, G70 0440 whether it represents the wisdom of experience or is only the result of G70 0450 the difference between youth and age which is as inevitable as the all G70 0460 too obvious physical differences. One may be exasperatingly aware G70 0470 that if the answer is favorable it will be judged such only by those of G70 0480 one's own age. But at least the question has been raised. Many readers G70 0490 of this department no doubt discount certain of my opinions for G70 0500 the simple reason that they can guess pretty accurately, even if they G70 0510 have never actually been told, what my age is. At least I should like G70 0520 them to know that I know these discounts are being made. ## Let G70 0530 me then (and in public) glance into the mirror. I have known some G70 0540 men and women who said that the selves they are told about or even remember G70 0550 seem utter strangers to them now; that their remote past is as G70 0560 discontinuous with their present selves, as lacking in any conscious G70 0570 likeness to their mature personality, as the self of a butterfly may be G70 0580 imagined discontinuous with that of the caterpillar it once was. For G70 0590 my part I find it difficult to conceive such a state of affairs. I G70 0600 have changed and I have reversed opinions; but I am so aware of an G70 0610 uninterrupted continuity of the persona or ego that I see only as absurd G70 0620 the tendency of some psychologists from Heraclitus to Pirandello G70 0630 and Proust to regard consciousness as no more than a flux amid which G70 0640 nothing remains unchanged. So far as I am concerned, the child is G70 0650 unmistakably father to the man, despite the obvious fact that child and G70 0660 father differ greatly- sometimes for the better and sometimes for G70 0670 the worse. Fundamental values, temperament and the way in which G70 0680 one approaches a conviction change less, of course, than specific opinions. G70 0690 That fact is very clearly illustrated in the case of the many G70 0700 present-day intellectuals who were Communists or near-Communists in G70 0710 their youth and are now so extremely conservative (or reactionary, as G70 0720 many would say) that they can define no important political conviction G70 0730 that does not seem so far from even a centrist position as to make G70 0740 the distinction between Mr& Nixon and Mr& Khrushchev for them G70 0750 hardly worth noting. But in ways more fundamental than specific political G70 0760 opinions they are still what they always were: passionate, sure G70 0770 without a shadow of doubt of whatever it is that they are sure of, capable G70 0780 of seeing black and white only and, therefore, committed to the G70 0790 logical extreme of whatever it is they are temporarily committed to. G70 0800 To those of my readers who find many of my opinions morally, or G70 0810 politically, or sociologically antiquated (and I have reason to know G70 0820 that there are some such), I would like to say what I have already G70 0830 hinted, namely, that some of my opinions may indeed be subject to some G70 0840 discount on the simple ground that I am no longer young and therefore G70 0850 incapable of being youthful of mind. But I will also remind them that G70 0860 I have always been inclined to skepticism, to a kind of Laodicean G70 0870 lack of commitment so far as public affairs are concerned; so that, G70 0880 although not as eager as I once was to be disapproved of, I can still G70 0900 resist prevailing opinions. At about the age of twelve I became G70 0910 a Spencerian liberal, and I have always considered myself a liberal G70 0920 of some kind even though the definition has changed repeatedly since G70 0930 Spencer became a reactionary. Several times in my youth I voted G70 0940 the Socialist ticket, but less because I was Socialist than because G70 0950 I was not either a Republican or a Democrat, and I voted for G70 0960 Franklin Roosevelt every time he was a candidate. Yet during the years G70 0970 when I was on the staff of the I tried to the limit G70 0980 the patience of the editors on almost every occasion when I was permitted G70 0990 to write an editorial having a bearing on a political or social G70 1000 question. Never once during the trying thirties did I come so G70 1010 close to succumbing to the private climate of opinion as to grant Russian G70 1020 communism even that most weasel-worded of encomiums "an interesting G70 1030 experiment". There are few things of which I am prouder than G70 1040 of that unblemished record. Many of my friends at the time thought that G70 1050 I had received a well-deserved condemnation when Lincoln Steffens G70 1060 denounced me in a review of one of my books as a perfect example of G70 1070 the obsolete man who could understand and sympathize only with the dead G70 1080 past. But he, as I can now retort, was the man who could see so G70 1090 short a distance ahead that after a visit to Russia he gave voice to G70 1100 the famous exclamation: "I have seen the future and it works". G70 1110 The favorite excuse of those who have now recanted their approval G70 1120 of communism is that they did not know how things would develop. With G70 1130 this excuse I have never been much impressed. There was, it seems G70 1140 to me, enough in the openly declared principles and intentions of Russian G70 1150 leaders to alienate honorable men without their having to wait G70 1160 to see how it would turn out. Once many years ago I sat at dinner G70 1170 next to Arthur Train, and the subject of the came G70 1180 up. He asked me suddenly, "What are political opinions"? G70 1190 "Well", I replied, "some of my colleagues on the paper regard G70 1200 me as a rank reactionary". After a moment's thought he replied, G70 1210 "That still leaves you a lot of latitude". And I suppose it G70 1220 did. I never have been, and am not now, any kind of utopian. When G70 1230 I first came across Samuel Johnson's pronouncement, "the remedy G70 1240 for the ills of life is palliative rather than radical", it seemed G70 1250 to me to sum up the profoundest of political and social truths. It G70 1260 will probably explain more of my attitudes toward society than any G70 1270 other phrase or principle could. ## Why did I choose to fill these G70 1280 pages in this particular issue with this mixture of rather tenuous G70 1290 reflections and autobiography? The reason is, I think, my awareness G70 1300 that my remarks last quarter on pacifism may well have served to confirm G70 1310 the opinion of some that my tendency to skepticism and dissent gets G70 1320 us nowhere, and that I am simply too old to hope. I would, however, G70 1330 like to suggest that, wrong though I may be, the tendency to see G70 1340 dilemmas rather than solutions is one of which I have been a victim ever G70 1350 since I can remember, and therefore not merely a senile phenomenon. G70 1360 I know that one must act. But one need not always be sure that the G70 1370 action is either wise or conclusive. Apropos of what some would G70 1380 call cynicism, I remember an anecdote the source of which I forget. G70 1390 It concerns a small-town minister who staged an impressive object G70 1400 lesson by confining a lion and a lamb together in the same cage outside G70 1410 his church door. Not only his parishioners, but the whole town and, G70 1420 ultimately, the whole county were enormously impressed by this object G70 1430 lesson. One day he was visited by a delegation of would-be imitators G70 1440 who wanted to know his secret. "How on earth do you manage it? G70 1450 What is the trick"? "Why", he replied, "it is perfectly simple; G70 1460 there is no trick involved. All you have to do is put in a fresh G70 1470 lamb from time to time". Cynical? Blasphemous? Not really, G70 1480 it seems to me. The promise that the lion and the lamb will lie down G70 1490 together was given in the future tense. It is not something that can G70 1500 be expected to happen now. ## Without really changing the general G70 1510 subject, I take this opportunity to confess that I am troubled by G70 1520 doubts, not only about pacifism, but also when asked to join in the protest G70 1530 against a law that most of those who consider themselves humane G70 1540 and liberal seem to regard as obviously barbarous; namely, the law G70 1550 that prescribes the death penalty for murder when there seem to be no G70 1560 extenuating circumstances. It is not that I am unaware of the force G70 1570 of their strongest contention. Life, they say, should be regarded as G70 1580 sacred and, therefore, as something that neither an individual nor his G70 1590 society has a right to take away. In fact I cannot imagine myself G70 1600 condemning a man to the noose or the electric chair if I had to take, G70 1610 as an individual, the responsibility for his death. Just as I know G70 1620 I would make a bad soldier even though I cannot sincerely call myself G70 1630 a pacifist, so too I would not be either a hangman by profession or, G70 1640 if I could avoid it, even a member of a hanging jury. Despite these G70 1650 facts the question "Should no murderer ever be executed"? seems G70 1660 to me to create a dilemma not to be satisfactorily disposed of by a G70 1670 simple negative answer. Punishment of the wrongdoer, so liberals G70 1680 are inclined to say, can have only three possible justifications: G70 1690 revenge, reformation or deterrent example. G71 0010 For here if anywhere in contemporary literature is a major effort to G71 0020 counterbalance Existentialism and restore some of its former lustre to G71 0030 the tarnished image of the species Man, or, as Malraux himself puts G71 0040 it, "to make men conscious of the grandeur they ignore in themselves". G71 0050 #/1,# Andre Malraux's G71 0060 was written in the early years of the second World War, during G71 0070 a period of enforced leisure when he was taken prisoner by the Germans G71 0080 after the fall of France. The manuscript, presumably after being G71 0090 smuggled out of the country, was published in Switzerland in 1943. G71 0100 The work as it stands is not the entire book that Malraux wrote at that G71 0110 time- it is only the first section of a three-part novel called G71 0120 and this first section was somehow preserved G71 0130 (there are always these annoying little mysteries about the actual G71 0140 facts of Malraux's life) when the Gestapo destroyed the rest. G71 0150 If we are to believe the list of titles printed in Malraux's latest G71 0160 book, Vol& /1, (1957), he is G71 0170 still G71 0180 engaged in writing a large novel under his original title. But as he G71 0190 remarks in his preface to "a novel can hardly G71 0200 ever be rewritten", and "when this one appears in its final form, G71 0210 the form of the first part **h will no doubt be radically changed". G71 0220 Malraux pretends, perhaps with a trifle too self-conscious a modesty, G71 0230 that his fragmentary work will accordingly "appeal only to the G71 0240 curiosity of bibliophiles" G71 0250 and "to connoisseurs of what might have G71 0260 been". Even in its present form, however, the first part of Malraux's G71 0270 unrecoverable novel is among the greatest works of mid-twentieth G71 0280 century literature; and it should be far better known than it is. G71 0290 The theme of is most closely G71 0300 related to its immediate predecessor in Malraux's array of novels: G71 0310 (1937). This magnificent but greatly underestimated G71 0320 book, which bodies forth the very form and pressure of its time G71 0330 as no other comparable creation, has suffered severely from having G71 0340 been written about an historical event- the Spanish Civil War- G71 0350 that is still capable of fanning the smoldering fires of old political G71 0360 feuds. Even so apparently impartial a critic as W& H& Frohock G71 0370 has taken for granted that the book was originally intended as a piece G71 0380 of Loyalist propaganda; and has then gone on to argue, with unimpeachable G71 0390 consistency, that all the obviously non-propagandistic aspects G71 0400 of the book are simply inadvertent "contradictions". Nothing, G71 0410 however, could be farther from the truth. The whole purpose of G71 0420 is to portray the tragic dialectic between means and G71 0430 ends inherent in all organized political violence- and even when such G71 0440 violence is a necessary and legitimate self-defense of liberty, justice G71 0450 and human dignity. Nowhere before in Malraux's pages have we G71 0460 met such impassioned defenders of a "quality of man" which transcends G71 0470 the realm of politics and even the realm of action altogether- G71 0480 both the action of Malraux's early anarchist-adventurers like Perken G71 0490 and Garine, and the self-sacrificing action of dedicated Communists G71 0500 like Kyo Gisors and Katow in . "Man engages G71 0510 only a small part of himself in an action" says old Alvear the art-historian; G71 0520 "and the more the action claims to be total, the smaller G71 0530 is the part of man engaged". These lines never cease to haunt G71 0540 the book amidst all the exaltations of combat, and to make an appeal for G71 0550 a larger and more elemental human community than one based on the brutal G71 0560 necessities of war. It is this larger theme of the "quality G71 0570 of man", a quality that transcends the ideological and flows into G71 0580 "the human", which now forms the pulsating heart of Malraux's G71 0590 artistic universe. Malraux, to be sure, does not abandon the world G71 0600 of violence, combat and sudden death which has become his hallmark as G71 0610 a creative artist, and which is the only world, apparently, in which G71 0620 his imagination can flame into life. G71 0630 includes not one war but two, and throws in a Turkish revolution G71 0640 along with some guerrilla fighting in the desert for good measure. But G71 0650 while war still serves as a catalyst for the values that Malraux wishes G71 0660 to express, these values are no longer linked with the triumph or G71 0670 defeat of any cause- whether that of an individual assertion of the G71 0680 will-to-power, or a collective attempt to escape from the humiliation G71 0690 of oppression- as their necessary condition. On the contrary, the G71 0700 frenzy and furor of combat is only the sombre foil against which the G71 0710 sudden illuminations of the human flash forth with the piercing radiance G71 0720 of a Caravaggio. #/2,# G71 0730 is composed in the form of a triptych, with the two small side panels G71 0740 framing and enclosing the main central episode of the novel. This G71 0750 central episode consists of a series of staccato scenes set in the period G71 0760 from the beginning of the present century up to the first World War. G71 0770 The framing scenes, on the other hand, both take place in the late G71 0780 Spring of 1940, just at the moment of the defeat of France in the G71 0790 second great world conflict. The narrator is an Alsatian serving with G71 0800 the French Army, and he has the same name (Berger) that Malraux G71 0810 himself was later to use in the Resistance; like Malraux he was also G71 0820 serving in the tank corps before being captured, and we learn as well G71 0830 that in civilian life he had been a writer. These biographical analogies G71 0840 are obvious, and far too much time has been spent speculating G71 0850 on their possible implications. Much more important is to grasp G71 0860 the feelings of the narrator (whose full name is never given) as he G71 0870 becomes aware of the disorganized and bewildered mass of French prisoners G71 0880 clustered together in a temporary prison camp in and around the cathedral G71 0890 of Chartres. For as his companions gradually dissolve back G71 0900 into a state of primitive confrontation with elemental necessity, as they G71 0910 lose all the appanage of their acquired culture, he is overcome by G71 0920 the feeling that he is at last being confronted with the essence of mankind. G71 0930 "As a writer, by what have I been obsessed these last ten G71 0940 years, if not by mankind? Here I am face to face with the primeval G71 0950 stuff". The intuition about mankind conveyed in these opening G71 0960 pages is of crucial importance for understanding the remainder of G71 0970 the text; and we must attend to it more closely than has usually been G71 0980 done. What does the narrator see and what does he feel? A good many G71 0990 pages of the first section are taken up with an account of the dogged G71 1000 determination of the prisoners to write to their wives and families- G71 1010 even when it becomes clear that the Germans are simply allowing G71 1020 the letters to blow away in the wind. Awkwardly and laboriously, in stiff, G71 1030 unemotional phrases, the soldiers continue to bridge the distance G71 1040 between themselves and those they love; they instinctively struggle G71 1050 to keep open a road to the future in their hearts. And by a skillful G71 1060 and unobtrusive use of imagery (the enclosure is called a "Roman-camp G71 1070 stockade", the hastily erected lean-to is a "Babylonian hovel", G71 1080 the men begin to look like "Peruvian mummies" and to acquire G71 1090 "Gothic faces"), Malraux projects a fresco of human endurance- G71 1100 which is also the endurance of the human- stretching backward into G71 1110 the dark abyss of time. The narrator feels himself catching a glimpse G71 1120 of pre-history, learning of man's "age-old familiarity with misfortune", G71 1130 as well as his "equally age-old ingenuity, his secret G71 1140 faith in endurance, however crammed with catastrophes, the same faith G71 1150 perhaps as the cave-men used to have in the face of famine". G71 1160 This new vision of man that the narrator acquires is also accompanied G71 1170 by a re-vision of his previous view. "I thought I knew more than G71 1180 my education had taught me" notes the narrator, "because I had encountered G71 1190 the militant mobs of a political or religious faith". Is G71 1200 this not Malraux himself alluding to his own earlier infatuation with G71 1210 the ideological? But now he knows "that an intellectual is not only G71 1220 a man to whom books are necessary, he is any man whose reasoning, G71 1230 however elementary it may be, affects and directs his life". From this G71 1240 point of view the "militant mobs" of the past, stirred into action G71 1250 by one ideology or another, were all composed of "intellectuals"- G71 1260 and this is not the level on which the essence of mankind can be G71 1270 discovered. The men around him, observes the narrator, "have been G71 1280 living from day to day for thousands of years". The human is deeper G71 1290 than a mass ideology, certainly deeper than the isolated individual; G71 1300 and the narrator recalls the words of his father, Vincent Berger: G71 1310 "It is not by any amount of scratching at the individual that one G71 1320 finally comes down to mankind". The entire middle section G71 1330 of is taken up with the life of Vincent Berger G71 1340 himself, whose fragmentary notes on his "encounters with mankind" G71 1350 are now conveyed by his son. "He was not much older than myself" G71 1360 writes the narrator, "when he began to feel the impact of that human G71 1370 mystery which now obsesses me, and which makes me begin, perhaps, G71 1380 to understand him". For the figure of Vincent Berger Malraux has G71 1390 obviously drawn on his studies of T& E& Lawrence (though Berger G71 1400 fights on the side of the Turks instead of against them), and like G71 1410 both Lawrence and Malraux himself he is a fervent admirer of Nietzsche. G71 1420 A professor at the University of Constantinople, where his first G71 1430 course of lectures was on Nietzsche and the "philosophy of action", G71 1440 Vincent Berger becomes head of the propaganda department of the G71 1450 German Embassy in Turkey. As an Alsatian before the first World G71 1460 War he was of course of German nationality; but he quickly involves G71 1470 himself in the Young Turk revolutionary movement to such an extent G71 1480 that his own country begins to doubt his patriotism. And, after becoming G71 1490 the right-hand man of Enver Pasha, he is sent by the latter G71 1500 to pave the way for a new Turkish Empire embracing "the union of all G71 1510 Turks throughout Central Asia from Adrianople to the Chinese oases G71 1520 on the Silk Trade Route". Vincent Berger's mission G71 1530 is a failure because the Ottoman nationalism on which Enver Pasha G71 1540 counted does not exist. Central Asia is sunk in a somnolence from which G71 1550 nothing can awaken it; and amid a dusty desolation in which nothing G71 1560 human any longer seemed to survive, Vincent Berger begins to dream G71 1570 of the Occident. "Oh for the green of Europe! Trains whistling G71 1580 in the night, the rattle and clatter of cabs **h". Finally, after G71 1590 almost being beaten to death by a madman- he could not fight back G71 1600 because madmen are sacred to Islam- he throws up his mission and G71 1610 returns to Europe. This has been his first encounter with mankind, and, G71 1620 although he has now become a legendary figure in the popular European G71 1630 press, it leaves him profoundly dissatisfied. Despite Berger's G71 1640 report, Enver Pasha refuses to surrender his dream of a Turkish Blood G71 1650 Alliance; and Vincent Berger learns that political ambition G71 1660 is more apt to hide than to reveal the truth about men. But as he discovers G71 1670 shortly, on returning among intellectuals obsessed by his experience of action had also taught him a more positive G71 1690 lesson. "For six years my father had had to do too much commanding G71 1700 and convincing" writes the narrator, "not to understand that man G71 1710 begins with 'the other'". And when Vincent Berger returns G71 1720 to Europe, this first result of his encounters with mankind is G71 1730 considerably enriched and deepened by a crucial revelation. For a dawning G71 1740 sense of illumination occurs in consequence of two events which, G71 1750 as so often in Malraux, suddenly confront a character with the existential G71 1760 question of the nature and value of human life. One such event G71 1770 is the landing in Europe itself, when the mingled familiarity and strangeness G71 1780 of the Occident, after the blank immensities of Asia, shocks G71 1790 the returning traveller into a realization of the infinite G71 1800 of human life. G72 0010 In a pessimistic assessment of the cold war, Eden declared: "There G72 0020 must be much closer unity within the West before there can be effective G72 0030 negotiation with the East". Ordinary methods of diplomacy within G72 0040 the free world are inadequate, said the former Prime Minister. G72 0050 "Something much more thorough is required". Citing the experience G72 0060 of the Combined Chiefs of Staff in World War /2,, Eden said G72 0070 that all would have been confusion and disarray without them. "This", G72 0080 he said, "is exactly what has been happening between the politically G72 0090 free nations in the postwar world. We need joint chiefs of a political G72 0100 general staff". Citing the advances of Communist power in G72 0110 recent years, Sir Anthony observed: "This very grave state of G72 0120 affairs will continue until the free nations accept together the reality G72 0130 of the danger that confronts them and unite their policies and resources G72 0140 to meet it". While I fully agree with Sir Anthony's G72 0150 contention, I think that we must carry the analysis farther, bearing G72 0160 in mind that while common peril may be the measure of our , G72 0170 the existence or absence of a positive sense of community must be the G72 0180 measure of our . While it is hazardous to project G72 0190 the trend of history, it seems clear that a genuine community is painfully G72 0200 emerging in the Western world, particularly among the countries G72 0210 of Western Europe. At the end of World War /2,, free Europe was G72 0220 ready for a new beginning. The excesses of nationalism had brought G72 0230 down upon Europe a generation of tyranny and war, and a return to the G72 0240 old order of things seemed unthinkable. Under these conditions a new G72 0250 generation of Europeans began to discover the bonds of long association G72 0260 and shared values that for so long had been subordinated to nationalist G72 0270 xenophobia. A slow and painful trend toward unification has taken G72 0280 hold, a trend which may at any time be arrested and reversed but which G72 0290 may also lead to a binding federation of Europe. It may well be G72 0300 that the unification of Europe will prove inadequate, that the survival G72 0310 of free society will require nothing less than the confederation of G72 0320 the entire Western world. The movement toward European unity G72 0330 has been expressed in two currents: federalism and functionalism, G72 0340 one looking to the constitution of a United States of Europe, the G72 0350 other building on wartime precedents of practical coo^peration for the G72 0360 solution of specific problems. Thus far the advances made have been G72 0370 almost entirely along functional lines. Many factors contributed G72 0380 to the growth of the European movement. In 1946 Sir Winston Churchill, G72 0390 who had spoken often of European union during the war, advocated G72 0400 the formation of "a kind of United States of Europe". Had G72 0410 Churchill been returned to office in 1945, it is just possible that G72 0420 Britain, instead of standing fearfully aloof, would have Europe G72 0430 toward union. In 1947 and 1948 the necessity of massive G72 0440 coo^rdinated efforts to achieve economic recovery led to the formation G72 0450 of the Organization for European Economic Coo^peration to supervise G72 0460 and coo^rdinate the uses of American aid under the Marshall G72 0470 Plan. The United States might well have exploited the opportunity G72 0480 provided by the European Recovery Program to push the hesitant European G72 0490 nations toward political federation as well as economic coo^peration, G72 0500 but all proposals to this effect were rejected by the United G72 0510 States Government at the time. Another powerful factor in G72 0520 the European movement was the threat of Soviet aggression. The Communist G72 0530 coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948 was followed immediately by the G72 0540 conclusion of the Brussels Treaty, a 50-year alliance among Britain, G72 0550 France and the Benelux countries. And of course the Soviet threat G72 0560 was responsible for ~NATO, the grand alliance of the Atlantic G72 0570 nations. New organs of unification proliferated in the decade G72 0580 following the conclusion of the ~NATO alliance. In 1949 the Council G72 0590 of Europe came into existence, a purely consultative parliamentary G72 0600 body but the first organ of political rather than functional unity. G72 0610 In 1952, the European Coal and Steel Community was launched, G72 0620 placing the coal and steel production of France, West Germany, Italy G72 0630 and Benelux under a supranational High Authority. For a time it G72 0640 appeared that a common European army might be created, but the project G72 0650 for a European Defense Community was rejected by the French National G72 0660 Assembly in 1954. In 1957 the social-economic approach to European G72 0670 integration was capped by the formation among "the Six" of G72 0680 a tariff-free European Common Market, and Euratom for coo^peration G72 0690 in the development of atomic energy. The "overseas" democracies G72 0700 have generally encouraged the European unification movement G72 0710 without seriously considering the wisdom of their own full participation G72 0720 in a broader Atlantic community. The United States and Canada G72 0730 belong only to ~NATO and the new O&E&C&D&. Britain G72 0740 until recently went along in some areas with all of the enthusiasm of G72 0750 the groom at a shotgun wedding. In other areas it held back, pleading G72 0760 its Commonwealth bonds. Now Britain has decided to seek admission G72 0770 to the European Economic Community and it seems certain that she will G72 0780 be joined by some of her partners in the loose Free Trade Area G72 0790 of the "Outer Seven". Besides its historical significance as a G72 0800 break with the centuries-old tradition of British insularity, Britain's G72 0810 move, if successful, will constitute an historic landmark of the G72 0820 first importance in the movement toward the unification of Europe and G72 0830 the Western world. If a broader Atlantic community is to G72 0840 be formed- and my own judgment is that it lies within the realm of both G72 0850 our needs and our capacity- a ready nucleus of machinery is at hand G72 0860 in the ~NATO alliance. The time is now ripe, indeed overdue, G72 0870 for the vigorous development of its non-military potentialities, for G72 0880 its development as an instrument of Atlantic community. What is required G72 0890 is the full implementation of Article 2 of the Treaty, which G72 0900 provides: "The Parties will contribute toward the further development G72 0910 of peaceful and friendly international relations by strengthening G72 0920 their free institutions, by bringing about a better understanding of G72 0930 the principles upon which these institutions are founded, and by promoting G72 0940 conditions of stability and well-being. They will seek to eliminate G72 0950 conflict in their international economic policies and will encourage G72 0960 economic collaboration between any and all of them". As Lester G72 0970 Pearson wrote in 1955: "~NATO cannot live on fear alone. It G72 0980 cannot become the source of a real Atlantic community if it remains G72 0990 organized to deal only with the military threat which first brought G72 1000 it into being". The problem of ~NATO is not one of machinery, G72 1010 of which there is an abundance, but of the will to use it. The G72 1020 ~NATO Council is available as an executive agency, the Standing G72 1030 Group as a high military authority. The unofficial Conference of G72 1040 Parliamentarians is available as a potential legislative authority. G72 1050 This machinery will not become the instrument of an Atlantic community G72 1060 by fiat, but only when that community evolves from potentiality to G72 1070 reality. The existence of a community is a state of mind- a conviction G72 1080 that goals and values are widely shared, that effective communication G72 1090 is possible, that mutual trust is reasonably assured. An G72 1100 equally promising avenue toward Atlantic community may lie through the G72 1110 development and expansion of the O&E&C&D& Conceived as G72 1120 an organ of economic coo^peration, there is no reason why O&E&C&D& G72 1130 cannot evolve into a broader instrument of union if its members G72 1140 so desire. Indeed it might be a more appropriate vehicle than ~NATO G72 1150 for the development of a parliamentary organ of the Atlantic G72 1160 nations, because it could encompass of the members of the Atlantic G72 1170 community including those, like Sweden and Switzerland, who G72 1180 are unwilling to be associated with an essentially military alliance like G72 1190 ~NATO. Underlying these hopes and prescriptions is a G72 1200 conviction that the nations of the North Atlantic area do indeed form G72 1210 a community, at least a potential community. There is nothing new G72 1220 in this; what is new and compelling is that the West is now but one G72 1230 of several powerful civilizations, or "systems", and that one or G72 1240 more of the others may pose a mortal danger to the West. For centuries G72 1250 the North Atlantic nations dominated the world and as long as they G72 1260 did they could afford the luxury of fighting each other. That time G72 1270 is now past and the Atlantic nations, if they are to survive, must develop G72 1280 a full-fledged community, and they must also look beyond the frontiers G72 1290 of "Western civilization" toward a world-wide "concert of G72 1300 free nations". #/6,# The burden of these reflections is that G72 1310 a broader unity among the free nations is at the core of our needs. G72 1320 And if we do not aspire to too much, it is also within our capacity. G72 1330 A realistic balancing of the need for new forms of international organization G72 1340 on the one hand, and our capacity to achieve them on the other, G72 1350 must be approached through the concept of "community". History G72 1360 has demonstrated many times that concerts of nations based solely on G72 1370 the negative spur of common danger are unlikely to survive when the external G72 1380 danger ceases to be dramatically urgent. Only when a concert of G72 1390 nations rests on the positive foundations of shared goals and values G72 1400 is it likely to form a viable instrument of long-range policy. It follows G72 1410 that the solution to the current disunity of the free nations is G72 1420 only to a very limited extent a matter of devising new machinery of consultation G72 1430 and coo^rdination. It is very much a matter of building G72 1440 the foundations of community. It is for these reasons that proposals G72 1450 for a "new world order", through radical overhaul of the United G72 1460 Nations or through some sort of world federation, are utterly G72 1470 fatuous. In a recent book called "World Peace Through World Law", G72 1480 two distinguished lawyers, Grenville Clark and Louis Sohn, call G72 1490 for just such an overhaul of the U&N&, basing their case on G72 1500 the world-wide fear of a nuclear holocaust. I believe that these proposals, G72 1510 however meritorious in terms of world needs, go far beyond our G72 1520 capacity to realize them. Such proposals look to an apocalyptic act, G72 1530 a kind of Lockian "social contract" on a world-wide scale. The G72 1540 defect of these proposals is in their attempt to outrun history and their G72 1550 assumption that because something may be desirable it is also possible. G72 1560 A working concept of the organic evolution of community G72 1570 must lead us in a different direction. The failures of the U&N& G72 1580 and of other international organs suggest that we have already gone beyond G72 1590 what was internationally feasible. Our problem, therefore, is to G72 1600 devise processes more modest in their aspirations, adjusted to the real G72 1610 world of sovereign nation states and diverse and hostile communities. G72 1620 The history of the U&N& demonstrates that in a pluralistic G72 1630 world we must develop processes of influence and persuasion rather than G72 1640 coercion. It is possible that international organization will ultimately G72 1650 supplant the multi-state system, but its proper function for the G72 1660 immediate future is to reform and supplement that system in order to G72 1670 render pluralism more compatible with an interdependent world. G72 1680 New machinery of coo^rdination should not be our primary objective G72 1690 in G72 1700 the foreseeable future- though perhaps the "political general staff" G72 1710 of Western leaders proposed by Sir Anthony Eden would serve G72 1720 a useful purpose. Generally, however, there is an abundance of available G72 1730 machinery of coo^rdination- in ~NATO, in O&E&C&D&, G72 1750 in the U&N& and elsewhere. The trouble with this machinery G72 1760 is that it is not used and the reason that it is not used is the absence G72 1770 of a conscious sense of community among the free nations. G72 1780 Our proper objective, then, is the development of a new spirit, the G72 1790 realization of a potential community. A "concert of free nations" G72 1800 should take its inspiration from the traditions of the nineteenth century G72 1810 Concert of Europe with its common values and accepted "rules G72 1820 of the game". Constitutions of and by themselves mean little; the G72 1830 history of both the League of Nations and the United Nations demonstrates G72 1840 that. But a powerful sense of community, even with little G72 1850 or no machinery, means a great deal. That is the lesson of the nineteenth G72 1860 century. A realistic "concert of free nations" might G72 1870 be expected to consist of an "inner community" of the North Atlantic G72 1880 nations and an "outer community" embracing much or all of the G72 1890 non-Communist world. G73 0010 THE recent experiments in the new poetry-and-jazz movement G73 0020 seen by some as part of the "San Francisco Renaissance" have G73 0030 been as popular as they are notorious. "It might well start a craze G73 0050 like swallowing goldfish or pee wee golf", wrote Kenneth Rexroth G73 0060 in an explanatory note in the , and he may have G73 0070 been right. Under the general heading "poetry-and-jazz" widely G73 0080 divergent experiments have been carried out. Lawrence Ferlenghetti G73 0090 and Bruce Lippincott have concentrated on writing a new poetry G73 0100 for reading with jazz that is very closely related to both the musical G73 0110 forms of jazz, and the vocabulary of the musician. Even musicians themselves G73 0120 have taken to writing poetry. (Judy Tristano now has poems G73 0130 as well as ballads written for her.) But the best known exploiters G73 0140 of the new medium are Kenneth Rexroth and Kenneth Patchen. Rexroth G73 0150 and Patchen are far apart musically and poetically in their experiments. G73 0160 Rexroth is a longtime jazz buff, a name-dropper of jazz heroes, G73 0170 and a student of traditional as well as modern jazz. In San Francisco G73 0180 he has worked with Brew Moore, Charlie Mingus, and other G73 0190 "swinging" musicians of secure reputation, thus placing himself within G73 0200 established jazz traditions, in addition to being a part of the G73 0210 San Francisco "School". Although Patchen has given previous G73 0220 evidence of an interest in jazz, the musical group that he works G73 0230 with, the Chamber Jazz Sextet, is often ignored by jazz critics. ( G73 0240 did not mention the Los Angeles appearance of Patchen G73 0250 and the Sextet, although the engagement lasted over two months.) The G73 0260 stated goal of the ~CJS is the synthesis of jazz and "serious" G73 0270 music. Patchen's musicians are outsiders in established jazz circles, G73 0280 and Patchen himself has remained outside the San Francisco poetry G73 0290 group, maintaining a self-imposed isolation, even though his conversion G73 0300 to poetry-and-jazz is not as extreme or as sudden as it may first G73 0310 appear. He had read his poetry with musicians as early as 1951, and G73 0320 his entire career has been characterized by radical experiments with G73 0330 the form and presentation of his poetry. However, his subject matter G73 0340 and basic themes have remained surprisingly consistent, and these, together G73 0350 with certain key poetic images, may be traced through all his G73 0360 work, including the new jazz experiments. From the beginning of G73 0370 his career, Patchen has adopted an anti-intellectual approach to poetry. G73 0380 His first book, (1936), is a collection G73 0390 of poems that are almost all Communistic, but after publication of this G73 0400 book he rejected G73 0410 Communism, and advocated a pacifistic anarchy, though G73 0420 retaining his revolutionary idiom. He spoke for a "proletariat" G73 0430 that included "all the lost and sick and hunted of the earth". Patchen G73 0440 believes that the world is being destroyed by power-hungry and G73 0450 money-hungry people. Running counter to the destroying forces in the G73 0460 world are all the virtues that are innate in man, the capacity for love G73 0470 and brotherhood, the ability to appreciate beauty. Beauty as well G73 0480 as love is redemptive, and Patchen preaches a kind of moral salvation. G73 0490 This salvation does not take the form of a Christian Heaven. In G73 0500 Patchen's eyes, organized churches are as odious as organized governments, G73 0510 and Christian symbols, having been taken over by the moneyed G73 0520 classes, are now agents of corruption. Patchen envisions a Dark Kingdom G73 0530 which "stands above the waters as a sentinel warning man of danger G73 0540 from his own kind". The Dark Kingdom sends Angels of Death G73 0550 and other fateful messengers down to us with stern tenderness. Actually G73 0560 Heaven and the Dark Kingdom overlap; they form two aspects of G73 0570 heavenly life after death. Patchen has almost never used strict G73 0580 poetic forms; he has experimented instead with personal myth-making. G73 0590 Much of his earlier work was conceived in terms of a "pseudo-anthropological" G73 0600 myth reference, which is concerned with imaginary places G73 0610 and beings described in grandiloquent and travelogue-like language. G73 0620 These early experiments were evidently not altogether satisfying G73 0630 to Patchen. Beginning in (1943) he experimented G73 0640 in merging poetry and visual art, using drawings to carry long G73 0650 narrative segments of a story, as in , and constructing G73 0660 elaborate "poems-in-drawing-and-type" in which it is impossible G73 0665 to distinguish between G73 0670 the "art" and the poetry. Art "makings" G73 0680 or pseudo-anthropological myths did not meet all of Patchen's requirements G73 0690 for a poetic frame of reference. Many of his poems purported G73 0700 to be exactly contemporary and political; so during the period approximately G73 0710 from 1941 to 1946, Patchen often used private detective stories G73 0720 as a myth reference, and the "private eye" as a myth hero. Speaking G73 0730 in terms of sociological stereotype, the "private eye" might G73 0740 appeal to the poet in search of a myth for many reasons. The private G73 0750 detective (at least in the minds of listeners and readers all over G73 0760 the country) is an individual hero fighting injustice. He is usually G73 0770 something of an underdog, he must battle the organized police force as G73 0780 well as recognized criminals. The private detective must rely, as the G73 0790 Youngest Son or Trickster Hero does in primitive myth, on his wits. G73 0800 The private detective is militant against injustice, a humorous G73 0810 and ironic explorer of the underworld; most important to Patchen, he G73 0820 was a non-literary hero, and very contemporary. In 1945, probably almost G73 0830 every American not only knew who Sam Spade was, but had some G73 0840 kind of emotional feeling about him. In G73 0850 (1945) Patchen exploited this national sentiment by making G73 0860 his hero, Albert Budd, a private detective. But since 1945, G73 0870 Sam Spade has undergone a metamorphosis; he has become Friday G73 0880 on , a mouthpiece of arbitrary police authority. He has, G73 0890 like so many other secular and religious culture symbols, gone over to G73 0900 the side of the ruling classes. Obviously, the "private eye" can G73 0910 have no more appeal for Patchen. To fill the job of contemporary hero G73 0920 in 1955, Patchen needed someone else. It was logical that G73 0930 he would come up with the figure of the modern jazz musician. The revolution G73 0940 in jazz that took place around 1949, the evolution from the "bebop" G73 0950 school of Dizzy Gillespie to the "cool" sound of Miles G73 0960 Davis and Lennie Tristano, Lee Konitz, and the whole legend of G73 0970 Charlie Parker, had made an impression on many academic and literary G73 0980 men. The differentiation between the East Coast and West Coast schools G73 0990 of jazz, the differences between the "hard bop" school of Rollins, G73 1000 and the "cerebral" experiments of Tristano, Konitz and G73 1010 Marsh, the general differences in the mores of white and negro musicians, G73 1020 all had become fairly well known to certain segments of the public. G73 1030 The immense amount of interest that the new jazz had for the younger G73 1040 generation must have impressed him, and he began working toward the G73 1050 merger of jazz and poetry, as he had previously attempted the union G73 1060 of graphic art and poetry. In addition to his experiments in reading G73 1070 poetry to jazz, Patchen is beginning to use the figure of the modern G73 1080 jazz musician as a myth hero in the same way he used the figure of the G73 1090 private detective a decade ago. In this respect, his approach to poetry-and-jazz G73 1100 is in marked contrast to Kenneth Rexroth's. Rexroth G73 1110 uses many of his early poems when he reads to jazz, including many of G73 1120 his Chinese and Japanese translations; he usually draws some kind G73 1130 of comparison with the jazz tradition and the poem he is reading- G73 1140 for instance, he draws the parallel between a poem he reads about an Oriental G73 1150 courtesan waiting for the man she loves, and who never comes, G73 1160 and the old blues chants of Ma Rainy and other Negro singers- but G73 1170 usually the comparison is specious. Rexroth may sometimes achieve an G73 1180 effective juxtaposition, but he rarely makes any effort to capture any G73 1190 jazz "feeling" in the text of his poems, relying on his very competent G73 1200 musicians to supply this feeling. Patchen does read some G73 1210 of his earlier works to music, but he has written an entire book of G73 1220 short poems which seem to be especially suited for reading with jazz. G73 1230 These new poems have only a few direct references to jazz and jazz musicians, G73 1240 but they show changes in Patchen's approach to his poetry, G73 1250 for he has tried to enter into and understand the emotional attitude G73 1260 of the jazz musician. It is difficult to draw the line between G73 1270 stereotype and the reality of the jazz musician. Everyone knows that G73 1280 private detectives in real life are not like Sam Spade and Pat Novak, G73 1290 but the real and the imaginary musician are closely linked. Seen G73 1300 by the public, the musician is the underdog . He G73 1310 is forced to play for little money, and must often take another job to G73 1320 live. His approach to music is highly individualistic; the accent G73 1330 is on improvisation rather than arrangements. While he is worldly, the G73 1340 musician often cultivates public attitudes of childlike astonishment G73 1350 and naivete. The musician is non-intellectual and non-verbal; he G73 1360 is far from being a literary hero, yet is a creative artist. Many of G73 1370 these aspects will be seen as comparable to those of the ideal detective, G73 1380 but where the detective is active and militant, the jazz musician G73 1390 is passive, almost a victim of society. In order to write with authority G73 1400 either about musicians, or as a musician, Patchen would have to soft G73 1410 pedal his characteristically outspoken anger, and change (at least G73 1420 for the purposes of this poetry) from a revolutionary to a victim. He G73 1430 must become one who knows all about the injustice in the world, but G73 1440 who declines doing anything about it. This involves a shift in G73 1450 Patchen's attitude and it is a first step toward writing a new jazz G73 1460 poetry. He has shown considerable ingenuity in adapting his earliest G73 1470 symbols and devices to the new work, and the fact that he has kept a G73 1480 body of constant symbols through all of his experiments gives an unexpected G73 1490 continuity to his poetry. Perhaps tracing some of these more important G73 1500 symbols through the body of his work will show that Patchen's G73 1510 new poetry is well thought out, and remains within the mainstream G73 1520 of his work, while being suited to a new form. Henry Miller characterized G73 1530 Patchen as a "man of anger and light". His revolutionary G73 1540 anger is apparent in most of his early poems. The following passage G73 1550 from "The Hangman's Great Hands" illustrates the directness G73 1560 of this anger. "Anger won't help. I was born angry. Angry G73 1570 that my father was being burnt alive in the mills; Angry that none G73 1580 of us knew anything but filth and poverty. Angry because I was that G73 1590 very one somebody was supposed To be fighting for". This G73 1600 angry and exasperated stance which Patchen has maintained in his poetry G73 1610 for almost fifteen years has been successfully modulated into a kind G73 1620 of woe that is as effective as anger and still expresses his disapproval G73 1630 of the modern world. In his recent book, G73 1640 (1957), one of the most important short poems- and it is the title G73 1650 poem for one of the long jazz arrangements- is written for recital G73 1660 with jazz. Although it does not follow the metrical rules for a blues G73 1670 to be sung, the phrases themselves carry a blues feeling. "I G73 1680 WENT TO THE CITY And there I did Weep, Men a-crowing likes asses, G73 1690 And living like sheep. Yes, I went to the city, And G73 1710 there I did bitterly cry, Men out of touch with the earth, And G73 1720 with never a glance at the sky. " Patchen is still G73 1740 the rebel, but he writes in a doleful, mournful tone. Neither of these G73 1750 poems is an aberration; each is so typical that it represents a prominent G73 1760 trend in the poet's development. Patchen is repeatedly G73 1770 preoccupied with death. In many of his poems, death comes by train: G73 1780 a strongly evocative visual image. Perhaps Patchen was once involved G73 1790 in a train accident, and this passage from G73 1800 may have been how the accident appeared to the poet when he G73 1810 first saw it- if he did: " Lord love us, look at all the G73 1820 disconnected limbs floating hereabouts, like bloody feathers at that- G73 1830 and all the eyes are talking and all the hair are moving and all the G73 1840 tongue are in all the cheek **h". G74 0010 Let us see just how typical Krim is. He is New York-born G74 0020 and Jewish. He spent one year at the University of North Carolina G74 0030 because Thomas Wolfe went there. He returned to New York to work G74 0040 for to edit a Western pulp, to "duck the war G74 0050 in the ~OWI", to write publicity for Paramount Pictures and G74 0060 commentary for a newsreel, then he began his career as critic for various G74 0070 magazines. Now he has abandoned all that to be A Writer. I do G74 0080 not want to quibble about typicality; in a certain sense, one manner G74 0090 of experience will be typical of any given group while another will G74 0095 not. G74 0100 But I've got news for Krim: he's not typical, he's pretty special. G74 0110 His may typify a certain kind of postwar New York experience, G74 0120 but his experience is certainly not typical of his "generation's". G74 0130 In any case, who ever thought that New York is typical of anything? G74 0140 Men of Krim's age, aspirations, and level of sophistication G74 0150 were typically involved in politics before the war. They did G74 0160 not "duck the war" but they fought in it, however reluctantly; G74 0170 they sweated out some kind of formal education; they read widely and G74 0175 eclectically; G74 0180 they did not fall into pseudo-glamorous jobs on pseudo-glamorous G74 0200 magazines, but they did whatever nasty thing they could get G74 0210 in order to eat; they found out who they were and what they could do, G74 0220 then within the limits of their talent they did it. They did not worry G74 0230 about "experience", because experience thrust itself upon them. G74 0240 And they traveled out of New York. Only a native New Yorker could G74 0250 believe that New York is now or ever was a literary center. It G74 0260 is a publishing and public relations center, but these very facts prevent G74 0270 it from being a literary center because writers dislike provincialism G74 0280 and untruth. Krim's typicality consists only in his New Yorker's G74 0290 view that New York is the world; he displays what outlanders G74 0300 call the New York mind, a state that the subject is necessarily unable G74 0310 to perceive in himself. The New York mind is two parts abstraction G74 0320 and one part misinformation about the rest of the country and in fact G74 0330 the world. In his fulminating against the literary world, Krim is G74 0340 really struggling with the New Yorker in himself, but it's a losing G74 0350 battle. Closely related to his illusions about his typicality G74 0360 is Krim's complicated feeling about his Jewishness. He writes, G74 0370 "Most of my friends and I were Jewish; we were also literary; G74 0380 the combination of the Jewish intellectual tradition and the sensibility G74 0390 needed to be a writer created in my circle the most potent and G74 0400 incredible intellectual-literary ambition I have ever seen or could ever G74 0410 have imagined. Within themselves, just as people, my friends were G74 0420 often tortured and unappeasably bitter about being the offspring of this G74 0430 unhappily unique-ingrown-screwedup breed; their reading and thinking G74 0440 gave G74 0450 an extension to their normal blushes about appearing 'Jewish' G74 0460 in subway, bus, racetrack, movie house, any of the public places that G74 0470 used to make the Jew of my generation self-conscious (heavy thinkers G74 0480 walking across Seventh Avenue without their glasses on, willing to G74 0490 dare the trucks as long as they didn't look like the ikey-kikey caricature G74 0500 of the Yiddish intellectual) **h". At other points in his G74 0510 narrative, Krim associates Jewishness with unappeasable literary ambition, G74 0520 with abstraction, with his personal turning aside from the good, G74 0530 the true, and the beautiful of fiction in the manner of James T& G74 0540 Farrell to the international, the false, and the inflated. G74 0550 Krim says, in short, that he is a suffering Jew. The only possible G74 0560 answer to that is, I am a suffering Franco-Irishman. We all love G74 0570 to suffer, but some of us love to suffer more than others. Had Krim G74 0575 gone G74 0580 farther from New York than Chapel Hill, he might have discovered G74 0590 that large numbers of American Jews do not find his New York version G74 0600 of the Jews' lot remotely recognizable. More important is the G74 0610 simple human point that all men suffer, and that it is a kind of G74 0615 anthropological-religious G74 0620 pride on the part of the Jew to believe that his suffering G74 0630 is more poignant than mine or anyone else's. This is not to G74 0640 deny the existence of pogroms and ghettos, but only to assert that these G74 0650 horrors G74 0660 have had an effect on the nerves of people who did not experience G74 0670 them, that among the various side effects is the local hysteria G74 0680 of Jewish writers and intellectuals who cry out from confusion, which G74 0690 they call oppression and pain. In their stupidity and arrogance they G74 0700 believe they are called upon to remind the gentile continually of pogroms G74 0710 and ghettos. Some of us have imagination and sensibility too. G74 0720 Finally, there is the undeniable fact that some of the finest American G74 0730 fiction is being written by Jews, but it is not fiction; G74 0740 Saul Bellow and Bernard Malamud, through intellectual toughness, G74 0750 perception, through experience in fact, have obviously liberated G74 0760 themselves from any sentimental Krim self-indulgence they might have G74 0770 been tempted to. Krim's main attack is upon the aesthetic and G74 0780 the publishing apparatus of American literary culture in our day. G74 0790 Krim was able to get an advance for a novel, and time and opportunity G74 0800 to write at Yaddo, but it was no good. "I had natural sock", he G74 0810 says, 'as a storyteller and was precociously good at description, dialogue, G74 0820 and most of the other staples of the fiction-writer's trade G74 0830 but I was bugged by a mammoth complex of thoughts and feelings that G74 0840 prevented me from doing more than just diddling the surface of sustained G74 0850 fiction-writing". And again, "how can you write when you haven't G74 0860 yet read 'Bartleby the Scrivener'"? Krim came to believe G74 0870 that "the novel as a form had outlived its vital meaning". His G74 0880 "articulate Jewish friends" convinced him that education (read "reading") G74 0890 was "a must". He moved in a "highly intellectual" G74 0900 group in Greenwich Village in the late forties, becoming "internationalized" G74 0910 overnight. Then followed a period in which he wrote reviews G74 0920 for G74 0930 had a small piece in and moved on G74 0940 to and . The work for G74 0950 G74 0960 was more satisfying than work for "because G74 0970 of the staff's tiptoeing fear of making a booboo". G74 0980 was a mere suburb of the arch-enemy. Both G74 0990 magazines were "rigid with what-will-T& S& Eliot-or-Martin G74 1000 Buber-think? fear **h". has failed, G74 1010 Krim says, for being "snob-clannish, overcerebral, Europeanish, aristocratically G74 1020 alienated" from the U&S&. It was "the creation G74 1030 of a monstrous historical period wherein it thought it had to synthesize G74 1040 literature and politics and avant-garde art of every kind with G74 1050 its writers crazily trying to outdo each other in Spenglerian inclusiveness G74 1060 **h". and operated in an "Anglo-Protestant G74 1070 New Critical chill"; their example caused Krim G74 1080 and his friends to put on "Englishy airs, affect all sorts of G74 1085 impressive G74 1090 scholarship and social-register unnaturalness **h in order to G74 1100 slip through their narrow transoms and get into their pages". as the French Jewish intellectuals used G74 1120 to say. Through all this raving, Krim is performing a traditional G74 1130 and by now boring rite, the attack on intelligence, upon the largely G74 1140 successful attempt of the magazines he castigates to liberate American G74 1150 writing from local color and other varieties of romantic corn. God G74 1160 knows that and the rest often were, and remain, guilty G74 1170 of intellectual flatulence. Sociological jargon, Germano-Slavic G74 1180 approximations to English, third-rate but modish fiction, and outrages G74 1190 to common sense have often disfigured and in lesser degree, G74 1200 the other magazines on the list. What Krim ignores, in his contempt G74 1210 for history and for accuracy, is that these magazines, G74 1220 foremost, brought about a genuine revolution in the American mind G74 1230 from the mid-thirties to approximately 1950. The most obvious characteristic G74 1240 of contemporary American writing, apart from the beat nonsense, G74 1250 is its cosmopolitanism. The process of cosmopolitanism G74 1260 had begun in earnest about 1912, but the First War and the depression G74 1270 virtually stalled that process in its tracks. Without the good magazines, G74 1280 without their book reviews, their hospitality to European writers, G74 1290 without above all their awareness of literary standards, we might G74 1300 very well have had a generation of Krim's heroes- Wolfes, Farrells, G74 1310 Dreisers, and I might add, Sandburgs and Frosts and MacLeishes G74 1320 in verse- and then where would we be? Screwed, stewed, and tattooed, G74 1330 as Krim might say after reading a book about sailors. When G74 1340 and set up shop, Mencken was still accepted G74 1350 as an arbiter of taste (remember Hergesheimer?), George Jean Nathan G74 1360 and Alexander Woollcott were honored in odd quarters, and the whole G74 1370 Booth Tarkington, Willa Catheter (), Pearl Buck, Amy G74 1380 Lowell, William Lyon Phelps atmosphere lay thick as Los Angeles G74 1390 smog over the country. Politics, economics, sociology- the G74 1400 entire area of life that lies between literature and what Krim calls G74 1410 "experience"- urgently needed to be dug into. The universities G74 1420 certainly were not doing it, nor were the popular magazines of the day. G74 1430 This above all did; if it had never printed a word G74 1440 of literature its contribution to the politico-sociological area would G74 1450 still be historic. But it did print good verse and good fiction. If G74 1460 the editors sometimes dozed and printed pretentious, New York-mind G74 1470 dross, they also printed Malraux, Silone, Chiaromonte, Gide, Bellow, G74 1480 Robert Lowell, Francis Fergusson, Mary McCarthy, Delmore G74 1490 Schwartz, Mailer, Elizabeth Hardwick, Eleanor Clark, and a host G74 1500 of other good writers. and the other literary magazines G74 1510 helped to educate, in the best sense, an entire generation. That G74 1520 these magazines also deluded the Krims of the world is unfortunate G74 1530 but inevitable. It is a fact of life that magazines are edited by G74 1540 groups: they have to be or they wouldn't be published at all. And G74 1550 it is also a fact of life that there will always be youngish half-educated G74 1560 people around who will be dazzled by the glitter of what looks like G74 1570 a literary movement. (There are no literary movements, there are G74 1580 only writers doing their work. Literary movements are the creation of G74 1590 pimps who live off writers.) When Krim says "mine was as severe a G74 1600 critical-intellectual environment as can be imagined", he is off his G74 1610 rocker. He indicates that he has none of the disciplines that criticism G74 1620 requires, including education; the result was his inevitable bedazzlement G74 1630 through ignorance. He wasn't being educated in those Village G74 1640 bull-sessions, as he claims. No one was ever educated through bull-sessions G74 1650 in anything other than, to quote him again, "perfumed bullshit". G74 1660 Only a New York hick would expect to find the literary G74 1670 life in Greenwich Village at any point later than Walt Whitman's G74 1680 day. The "highly intellectual **h minds" that Krim says he encountered G74 1690 in the Village did their work in spite of, not because of, any G74 1700 Village atmosphere. But Krim's complaint is important because not G74 1710 only in New York, but in other cities and in universities throughout G74 1720 this country, young and not so young men at this moment are being G74 1730 bedazzled by half-digested ideas. Those who have quality will outgrow G74 1740 the experience; the rest will turn beat, or into dentists, or into G74 1750 beat dentists. For the sad truth is that while one might write G74 1760 well without having read "Bartleby the Scrivener", one is more G74 1770 likely to write well if one has read it, and much else. The most appalling G74 1780 aspect of Krim's piece is his reflection of the beat aesthetic. G74 1790 He mentions the beats only once, when he refers to their having "revived G74 1800 through mere power and abandonment and the unwillingness to commit G74 1810 death in life some idea of a decent equivalent between verbal expression G74 1820 and actual experience **h", but the entire narrative is written G74 1830 in the tiresome vocabulary of that lost and dying cause, and in the G74 1840 sprung syntax that is supposed to supplant our mother tongue. Krim's G74 1850 aesthetic combines anti-intellectualism, conscious and unconscious G74 1860 nai^vete, and a winsome reliance upon the "natural" and upon "experience". G74 1870 Ideas are the "thruway to nowhere". "My touchstones G74 1880 **h had been strictly literature and, humanly enough, G74 1890 literature (because that was what I wanted to write)". He alludes G74 1900 to something called "direct writing", and he finds that criticism G74 1910 gets in the way of his "truer, realer, imaginative bounce". G75 0010 There had been signs and portents like the regular toppling over and G75 0020 defacing of the bust of Lauro di Bosis near the Villa Lante and in G75 0030 the Gianicolo. Something was happening all right, slowly it G75 0040 is true, but you could feel it. The Italians felt it. Little things. G75 0050 An Italian poet had noticed plainclothes policemen lounging around G75 0060 the area of Quirinal Palace, the first time since the war. At least G75 0070 they hadn't stepped up and asked to see papers in the hated, flat, G75 0080 dialect mispronunciation of Mussolini's home district- . But, who knew, that might be coming one of these days. G75 0100 There were other Italians who still bore scars they had earned G75 0110 in police station basements, resisting. They laughed and, true to national G75 0120 form and manners, never talked long or solemnly on any subject G75 0130 at G75 0140 all, but some of them worried out loud about short memories and ghosts. G75 0150 We saw Giuseppe Berto at a party once in a while, tall, lean, G75 0170 nervous and handsome, and, in our opinion, the best novelist of them G75 0180 all except Pavese, and Pavese is dead. Berto's had been a small masterpiece and in its special way the best book G75 0200 to come out of the war. Now he was married to a beautiful girl, had G75 0210 a small son, and lived in an expensive apartment and worked for the G75 0220 movies. On his desk was a slowly accumulating treatment and script of G75 0230 . On his bookshelves were some of G75 0240 the latest American novels, including Bellow's G75 0250 but he hadn't read them (they were sent by American publishers) and G75 0260 wasn't especially interested in what the American writers were up G75 0270 to. He was interested in Robert Musil's . G75 0280 So were a lot of other people. He was interested in Italo G75 0290 Svevo. He was thinking his way into a new novel, a big one, one that G75 0300 people had been waiting for. It was going to be hard going all the G75 0310 way because he hadn't written seriously for a while, except for a few G75 0320 stories, was tired of the old method of he had so successfully G75 0330 used in . This one was going to be different. G75 0340 He had bought a little piece of property down along the coast G75 0350 of the hard country of Calabria that he knew so well. He was going G75 0360 to do one or two more films for cash and then chuck it all, leave Rome G75 0370 and its intellectual cliques and money-fed life, go back to Calabria. G75 0380 Berto seemed worried, too. He knew all about it and had put G75 0390 it down in journal form in , a wonderful G75 0400 book not, for some strange reason, published in the U&S&. He G75 0410 knew all about the appeal of a black shirt and jackboots to a poor, G75 0420 southern, peasant boy. He knew all about the infection and the fever, G75 0430 and, too, the moment of realization when he saw for himself, threw up G75 0440 his hands and quit, ended the war as a prisoner in Texas. Berto knew G75 0450 all about Fascism. So did his friend, the young novelist Rimanelli. G75 0460 Rimanelli is tough and square-built and adventurous, says what he G75 0470 thinks. He had put it down in a war novel, . G75 0480 These people were not talking much about it, but you, a foreigner, G75 0490 sensed their apprehension and disappointment. So there we were G75 0500 talking around and about it. The English lady said she had to go G75 0510 to Vienna for a while. It was a pity because she had planned to lay G75 0520 a wreath at the foot of the Garibaldi statue, towering over Rome in G75 0530 spectacular benediction from the highpoint of the Gianicolo. Around G75 0540 that statue in the green park where children play and lovers walk in twos G75 0550 and there is a glowing view of the whole city, in that park are the G75 0560 rows of marble busts of Garibaldi's fallen men, the ones who one G75 0570 day rushed out of the Porta San Pancrazio and, under fire all the way, G75 0580 up the long, straight narrow lane to take, then lose the high ground G75 0590 of the Villa Doria Pamphili. When they lost it, the French artillery G75 0600 moved in, and that was the end for Garibaldi that time, on 30 G75 0610 April 1849. Once out of the gate they had charged straight up the narrow G75 0620 lane. We had walked it many times and shivered, figuring what a G75 0630 fish barrel it had been for the French. Now the park is filled with G75 0640 marble busts and all the streets in the immediate area have the full and G75 0650 proper names of the men who fell. We were at a party once and G75 0660 heard an idealistic young European call that awful charge . G75 0670 Our companion was a huge, plain-spoken American sculptor who had G75 0680 been a sixteen-year-old rifleman all across France in 1944. He said G75 0690 it was stupid butchery to order men to make a charge like that, no G75 0700 matter who gave the order and what for. "Oh, it would be butchery G75 0710 all right", G75 0720 the European said. "We would see it that way, but G75 0730 it was glorious . It was the last time in history anybody could G75 0740 do something gloriously like that". I thought: Who is G75 0750 older now? Old world and new world. The sculptor looked at G75 0760 him, bugeyed and amazed, angry. He had made an assault once with 180 G75 0770 men. It was a picked assault company. They went up against an ~SS G75 0780 unit of comparable size, over a little rise of ground, over an open G75 0790 field. Object- a village crossroads. They made it, killed every last G75 0800 one of the Krauts, took the village on schedule. When it was over, G75 0810 eight of his company were still alive and all eight were wounded. The G75 0820 whole thing, from the moment when they jumped heavily off the trucks, G75 0830 spread out and moved into position just behind the cover of that slight G75 0840 rise of ground and then jumped off, took maybe between twenty and G75 0850 thirty minutes. The sculptor looked at him, let the color drain out G75 0860 of his face, grinned, and looked down into his drink, a bad Martini G75 0870 made with raw Italian gin. "Bullshit", he said softly. G75 0880 "Excuse me", the European said. "I am not familiar with G75 0890 the expression". The apartment where we were talking that afternoon G75 0900 in March faced onto the street Garibaldi's men had charged G75 0910 up and along. Across the way from the apartment building is a ruined G75 0920 house, shot to hell that day in 1849, and left that way as a memorial. G75 0930 There is a bronze wreath on the wall. Like everything else in Rome, G75 0940 ruins and monuments alike, that house is lived in. I have seen diapers G75 0950 strung across the ruined roof. The English lady really G75 0960 wanted to put a wreath on the Garibaldi monument on the 30th of April. G75 0970 She had her reasons for this. For one thing, there wasn't going G75 0980 to be any ceremony at all this year. There were a few reasons for that, G75 0990 too: Garibaldi had been taken up and exploited by the Communists G75 1000 nowadays. Therefore the government wanted no part of him. (It is G75 1010 sort of as if our government should decide to disown Washington or Lincoln G75 1020 for the same reason.) And then there were ecclesiastical matters, G75 1030 the matter of Garibaldi's anti-clericalism. There was a new Pope G75 1040 and the Vatican was making itself heard and felt these days. As G75 1050 it happens the English lady is a good Catholic herself, but of more G75 1060 liberal political persuasion. Nothing was going to be done this year G75 1080 to celebrate Garibaldi's bold and unsuccessful defense of Rome. All G75 1090 that the English lady wanted to do was to walk up to the monument G75 1100 and lay a wreath at its base. This would show that somebody, even a foreigner G75 1110 living in Rome, cared. And then there were other things. Some G75 1120 of the marble busts in the park are of young Englishmen who fought G75 1130 and died for Garibaldi. She also mentioned leaving a little bunch G75 1140 of flowers at the bust of Lauro di Bosis. It is hard for me G75 1150 to know how I feel about Lauro di Bosis. I suffer from mixed feelings. G75 1160 He was a well-to-do, handsome, and sensitive young poet. His bust G75 1170 shows an intense, mustached, fine-featured face. He flew over Rome G75 1180 one day during the early days of Mussolini and scattered leaflets over G75 1190 the city, denouncing the Fascists. He was never heard of again. G75 1200 He is thought either to have been killed by the Fascists as soon as G75 1210 he landed or to have killed himself by flying out to sea and crashing G75 1220 his plane. He was, thus, an early and spectacular victim. And there G75 1230 is something so wonderfully romantic about it all. He really didn't G75 1240 know how to fly. He had crashed on take off once before. Gossip had G75 1250 it (for gossip is the soul of Rome) that a famous American dancer G75 1260 of the time had paid for both the planes. It was absurd and dramatic. G75 1270 It is remembered and has been commemorated by a bust in a park and a G75 1280 square in the city which was renamed Piazzo Lauro di Bosis after the G75 1290 war. Most Romans, even some postmen, know it by the old name. G75 1300 Faced with a gesture like Di Bosis', I find usually that my G75 1310 sentiments are closer to those of my sculptor friend. The things that G75 1320 happened in police station basements were dirty, grubby, and most often G75 1330 anonymous. No poetry, no airplanes, no dancers. That is how the real G75 1340 routine of resistance goes on, and its strength is directly proportionate G75 1350 to the number of insignificant people who can let themselves be G75 1360 taken to pieces, piece by piece, without quitting. It is an ugly business G75 1370 and there are few, if any, wreaths for them. I keep thinking G75 1380 of a young woman I knew during the Occupation in Austria. She was G75 1390 from Prague. She had been picked up by the Russians, questioned in G75 1400 connection with some pamphlets, sentenced to life imprisonment for espionage. G75 1410 She escaped, crawled through the usual mine fields, under barbed G75 1420 wire, was shot at, swam a river, and we finally picked her up in Linz. G75 1430 She showed us what had happened to her. No airplanes, no Nathan G75 1440 Hale statements. Just no spot, not even a dimesize spot, on her whole G75 1450 body that wasn't bruised, bruise on top of bruise, from beatings. G75 1460 I understand very well about Lauro di Bosis and how his action G75 1470 is symbolic. The trouble is that like many symbols it doesn't seem G75 1480 a very realistic one. The English lady wanted to pay tribute G75 1490 to Garibaldi and to Lauro di Bosis, but she wasn't going to be here G75 1500 to do it. Were any of us interested enough in the idea to do it for G75 1510 her, by proxy so to speak? There was a pretty thorough silence at G75 1520 that point. My spoon stirring coffee, banging against the side of the G75 1530 cup, sounded as loud as a bell. I thought: What the hell? Why G75 1540 not? I said I would do it for her. I had some reasons, too. G75 1550 I admire the English lady. I hate embarrassing silences and have G75 1560 been known to make a fool out of myself just to prevent one. I also G75 1570 had and have feelings about Garibaldi. Like every Southerner I can't G75 1580 escape the romantic tradition of brave defeats, forlorn lost causes. G75 1590 Though Garibaldi's fight was small shakes compared to Pickett's G75 1600 Charge- which, like all Southerners, I view in almost Miltonic G75 1610 terms, fallen angels, etc&- I associated the two. And to top G75 1620 it all I am often sentimental on purpose, trying to prove to myself G75 1630 that I am not . So much for all that. G75 1640 The English lady was pleased and enthusiastic. She gave me the names G75 1650 of some people who would surely help pay for the flowers and might even G75 1660 march up to the monument with me. The idea of the march pleased her. G75 1670 Maybe twenty, thirty, fifty. **h Maybe I could call Rimanelli G75 1680 at the magazine where he worked.