J01 001 **[295 TEXT J01**]
J01 002 ^*0For instance, offspring of both black and red females reared
J01 003 at pupal temperatures of 24*@\0C were uniformly red, whereas
J01 004 those reared at 5*@\0C were uniformly black. ^Intermediate
J01 005 pupal temperatures produced adults with predictable proportions
J01 006 of black and red. ^Experiments on *1{6{0P.(T.)} conformis}
J01 007 *0and *1{6\0E. insularis} *0(females), on the other hand,
J01 008 revealed a greater genetic influence on the occurrence of
J01 009 melanism (Harris 1974).
J01 010 |(8)^The experimental results (see (7), above) correlate with
J01 011 field conditions. ^In southern populations, female *1{6\0E.
J01 012 insularis} *0legs and *1{6\0P. conformis} *0bodies are
J01 013 uniformly black, unlike those of *1{6\0S. fugax} *0and *1{6\0S.
J01 014 calvus}, *0in which occasional red-bodied forms occur depending
J01 015 on local microclimates. ^Dunedin provides good examples of
J01 016 microclimatically induced colour variation in *1{6\0S. fugax}
J01 017 *0and *1{6\0S. calvus}. ^*0Both have the abdomen black north of
J01 018 Dunedin on Leith Saddle, which is freqently shrouded in
J01 019 orographic mist. ^At a comparable altitude on south-eastern
J01 020 \0Mt Maungatua (south of Dunedin) *- which usually escapes
J01 021 orographic mist on days when Leith Saddle is clouded, as well
J01 022 as having higher spring air and ground temperatures *- abdomens
J01 023 of *1{6\0S. fugax} *0and *1{6\0S. calvus} *0are completely red.
J01 024 ^The Otago Peninsula is sometimes misty, and there both species
J01 025 have the abdomen mostly red but striped with broad bands of
J01 026 black.
J01 027 |(9)^Apart from colour-variable areas of mesosomal integument
J01 028 which are concealed beneath golden pile, *1{6\0S. nitidus}
J01 029 *0remains uniformly red-bodied throughout its range, showed no
J01 030 increased cuticular melanism on experimental chilling other
J01 031 than on the mesosoma, and (significantly) does not occur in the
J01 032 far south.
J01 033 *<*4Geographically separated colour morphs*>
J01 034 |^*0Geographical barriers of the past ({0e.g.}, Pliocene
J01 035 Auckland Straits, Pleistocene glacial mid Canterbury between
J01 036 the contemporary Rangitata River and Waitaki River) and present
J01 037 ({0e.g.}, Cook Strait, Southern Alps) are marked by abrupt
J01 038 disjunctions between adjoining populations of the same species,
J01 039 or by hybrid-zones (Harris 1974). ^These disjunctions are at
J01 040 the root of many of the taxonomic problems. ^For example,
J01 041 several geographical isolates have some of the characteristics
J01 042 of subspecies, or even full species. ^I have adopted a lumping
J01 043 approach to their taxonomy, and regard them as polytypic
J01 044 species. ^For instance, *1{6Sphictostethus nitidus} *0has three
J01 045 clear-cut forms, separated respectively by Cook Strait, where
J01 046 there is a complete disjunction, and by the former Auckland
J01 047 Straits, where there is a narrow hybrid-zone. ^In *1{6\0P.
J01 048 conformis}, *0distribution patterns and relative numbers of red
J01 049 and black forms, together with (unpublished) data from limited
J01 050 electrophoretic tests, suggest that populations in the mid
J01 051 Canterbury hybrid-zone are not in panmixis. ^In this roughly
J01 052 65-\0km-long band *1{6\0P. conformis} *0populations occur in
J01 053 which roughly 47% of individuals have black abdomens, 47% have
J01 054 red abdomens, and the remainder form a complete gradation
J01 055 between the extremes. ^Within the hybrid-zone there are many
J01 056 areas in which the two colour morphs occur together ({0e.g.},
J01 057 Mills Bush, Peel Forest). ^In other places the colour morphs
J01 058 are separated both spatially and temporally. ^In several
J01 059 valleys every individual on one side is black (usually a
J01 060 northeast-facing slope that receives only morning sunlight),
J01 061 whereas the opposite side supports wasps with red abdomens
J01 062 ({0e.g.}, at Kelsey's Bush, Waimate).
J01 063    |^North of the hybrid-zone all individuals of *1{6\0P.
J01 064 conformis} *0have red abdomens and south of it the abdomen is
J01 065 invariably black. ^Harris (1974) suggested that 
J01 066 pre-Pleistocene populations throughout New Zealand formed 
J01 067 north-south clines related directly to climate, similar to those of
J01 068 contemporary populations of *1{6\0S. fugax} *0and *1{6\0S.
J01 069 calvus}. ^*0A Pleistocene ice cap in the \0Mt Cook region
J01 070 extending westwards to the sea via piedmont glaciers, combined
J01 071 with periglacial conditions on the east, divided *1{6\0P.
J01 072 conformis} *0into two allopatric populations. ^These would have
J01 073 converged during interglacials.
J01 074    |^In New Zealand today insolation is greatest in
J01 075 Marlborough and least in Southland (the approximate positions
J01 076 of Pleistocene refugia), and Harris (1974) suggested that under
J01 077 Pleistocene conditions similar to today's but more extreme,
J01 078 melanism may have become partially genetically fixed in the
J01 079 southern population during one (or more) glacial advances, so
J01 080 that in some interglacials (including the present one)
J01 081 populations in the area of convergence showed many of the signs
J01 082 of secondary intergradation. ^The situation can be just as well
J01 083 regarded as a zone of balanced polymorphism between two roughly
J01 084 monomorphic populations with, overlain, an environmentally
J01 085 controlled variation of phenotype. ^Hence, I have regarded the
J01 086 name *1\6diligens *0given by Smith (1876) to the melanic form
J01 087 as a junior synonym of *1\6conformis, *0which has page priority
J01 088 in the same paper. ^(The holotype of *1\6diligens, *0moreover,
J01 089 is an incompletely melanic form from Peel Forest, at the
J01 090 northern limit of the hybrid-zone.)
J01 091    |^Notwithstanding this, overall melanism in *1{6\0P.
J01 092 conformis} *0increases fairly regularly southwards throughout
J01 093 its range.
J01 094    |^*1{6Sphictostethus nitidus} *0comprises three races. ^A
J01 095 South Island form is separated by Cook Strait from a southern
J01 096 and central North Island form, and this forms a cline between
J01 097 Auckland and Warkworth with a Northland form. ^The Southern
J01 098 Alps separate Westland and East Coast forms of *1{6\0S. fugax}.
J01 099 ^*0In both species, geographical forms are distinguishable
J01 100 mainly by differences in wing coloration.
J01 101    |^Characteristic forewing patterns of the colour-variable
J01 102 species are shown in Figures 220-236.
J01 103 *<*6MIMICRY*>
J01 104 |^*0The endemic Pompilidae throughout New Zealand are included
J01 105 in three well established mimicry associations, each having
J01 106 Mu"llerian and Batesian components. ^Female pompilids,
J01 107 ichneumonids, and other stinging insects comprise the
J01 108 Mu"llerian component, while male pompilids and ichneumonids
J01 109 together with sun-loving beetles and flies are Batesian mimics.
J01 110 ^Male pompilids will sometimes mimic  females of another, more
J01 111 common, species. ^Mimicry in the colour-variable species is
J01 112 selectively less important than variable melanism. ^Thus,
J01 113 female pompilids switch from a red-and-gold complex to a 
J01 114 black-and-yellow one south of latitude 45*@\0S, where reduced
J01 115 insolation and temperature evidently induce the melanism that
J01 116 confers thermal advantage.
J01 117 *<*4Mimicry complex 1: black body and clear wings*>
J01 118 |^*2COLORATION. ^*0Body, legs, antennae, and palpi shining
J01 119 black; wings clear hyaline, or very lightly clouded.
J01 120 |^*2MOVEMENTS. ^*0Heliotaxis, and walking in a characteristic
J01 121 jerky manner interspersed with short bursts of flight.
J01 122 |^*2MU"LLERIAN COMPONENT
J01 123 **[LIST**];
J01 124 *0also various endemic solitary bees, sphecids, and
J01 125 Ichneumonidae.
J01 126 |^*2BATESIAN COMPONENT. ^*0Males of the above four species,
J01 127 *1{6Priocnemis (\0T.) monachus} *0(males only), various Diptera
J01 128 such as *1{6Pollenia pernix} *0(Hutton) (Calliphoridae), and
J01 129 elaterids.
J01 130 |^*2REMARKS. ^*0This complex favours more open places than the
J01 131 other mimicry associations. ^Its pompilid elements do not show
J01 132 colour variation.
J01 133 *<*4Mimicry complex 2: red body, yellow thorax, and amber
J01 134 wings*>
J01 135 |^*2COLORATION. ^*0Body bright red except for hind part of
J01 136 thorax, propodeum, and sometimes part of first segment of
J01 137 metasoma, which are glistening yellow; wings tinted with amber;
J01 138 legs red; antennae black.
J01 139 |^*2CHARACTERISTIC MOVEMENTS. ^*0Heliotaxis (appearing almost
J01 140 exclusively in sunlight, and disappearing very rapidly when the
J01 141 sunlight fades). ^Walking in a bold, jerky manner, with the
J01 142 antennae held out in front, constantly moving, sometimes
J01 143 palpating the ground (some dipterous mimics compensate for
J01 144 short antennae by having the first pair of legs black but the
J01 145 other two pairs red, and waving the front legs about like
J01 146 antennae). ^Taking short flights interspersed with periods of
J01 147 jerky walking.
J01 148 |^*2MU"LLERIAN MIMICRY ASSOCIATES.
J01 149 **[LIST**]
J01 150 |^*2BATESIAN MIMICS.
J01 151 **[LIST**].
J01 152 |^*2REMARKS. ^*0The asilids function as Batesian mimics with
J01 153 respect to avian predation, and as aggresive mimics towards
J01 154 male ichneumonids and pompilids, which sometimes appear to
J01 155 mistake the asilids for females of their own species and fly
J01 156 towards them, when they are eaten. ^*1{6Proctotrupes
J01 157 maculipennis} *0is a specific mimic of *1{6Sphictostethus
J01 158 calvus}. ^*0The wing coloration, forewing fascia, and apical
J01 159 wing infuscation are strikingly similar, and the body changes
J01 160 from red to black southwards in a notably similar way. ^Both
J01 161 *1{6Sphictostethus fugax} *0and *1{6Priocnemis \0(T.)
J01 162 conformis} *0are models for *1{6Saropogon extenuatus}.
J01 163 *<*4Mimicry complex 3: black body, yellow abdominal base, amber
J01 164 wings*>
J01 165 |^*2COLORATION. ^*0Head and thorax black; base of abdomen
J01 166 bright orange-yellow; apex of abdomen black; wings tinted with
J01 167 amber, their apices lightly infuscated; coxae and apical parts
J01 168 of tarsi black. ^(Abdomen always smooth, shining, and devoid of
J01 169 bristles, even in the tachinid mimic *1{6Huttonobasseria
J01 170 verecunda} *0Hutton.)
J01 171 |^*2CHARACTERISTIC MOVEMENTS. ^*0As for the previous mimicry
J01 172 complex.
J01 173 |^*2MU"LLERIAN MIMICRY ASSOCIATES.
J01 174 **[LIST**]
J01 175 |^*2BATESIAN MIMICS.
J01 176 **[LIST**]
J01 177 |^*2AGGRESSIVE MIMIC. *1{6Saropogon extenuatus} *0(Asilidae) is
J01 178 an excellent mimic of melanic *1{6Priocnemis (\0T.) conformis}
J01 179 *0females, to which male pompilids are sometimes attracted,
J01 180 whereupon the asilid captures them.
J01 181 |^*2REMARKS. *0Both Mu"llerian and Batesian components appear
J01 182 to be based on *1{6Degithina decepta} *0females. ^This complex
J01 183 gains species south of latitude 44*@\0S.
J01 184 *<*4Effects of thermal melanism on mimicry*>
J01 185 |^*0South of about latitude 44*@30*?7\0S mimicry complex 2,
J01 186 dominant in northern districts, fades out and mimicry complex 3
J01 187 gains new associates. ^This is especially true of species that
J01 188 are strongly subject to thermal melanism, such as
J01 189 **[LIST**],
J01 190 and others, which become completely black-bodied and switch to
J01 191 the association with black body, yellow thorax, and amber
J01 192 wings. ^Several species (such as *1{6Sphictostethus calvus}
J01 193 *0and *1{6Priocnemis (\0T.) conformis}*0) have the body
J01 194 completely black, {0i.e.}, without orange-yellow on the
J01 195 propodeum and the base of the abdomen. ^The pompilids, however,
J01 196 hold the wings tightly over the back, so that the amber basal
J01 197 part resembles the orange base of the abdomen and the enlarged
J01 198 apical infuscation corresponds to the black abdominal apex. ^On
J01 199 Stewart Island some *1{6Priocnemis (\0T.) conformis} *0males
J01 200 have the wings entirely infuscated, and the body and appendages
J01 201 are black as well. ^These resemble members of the black-bodied,
J01 202 clear-winged mimicry complex when running on the ground.
J01 203 *<*6NESTING BEHAVIOUR*>
J01 204 |^*0Morphology and behaviour are closely interrelated in
J01 205 Pompilidae, as they are in most aculeate Hymenoptera, and
J01 206 taxonomists ever since Linnaeus have sought to include
J01 207 ethological notes in their descriptions of wasps, bees, and
J01 208 ants. ^In an excellent study on the classification and
J01 209 phylogeny of the social Vespidae, Ducke (1914) made extensive
J01 210 use of nesting behaviour. ^Wheeler (1923, 1928) undertook
J01 211 similar studies on ants; Plath (1934) proposed a classification
J01 212 of bumblebees based on nesting behaviour; Duncan (1939) showed
J01 213 a close parallel between morphological and biological
J01 214 characters in defining the genera of Vespidae; Spooner (1948)
J01 215 found clear-cut generic and specific differences in the
J01 216 behaviour of the British Pseninae (Sphecidae);
J01 217 **[TABLE**]
J01 218 and Michener has made comparable discoveries with solitary
J01 219 bees. ^Evans (1953) constructed a classification of Pompilidae
J01 220 based solely on their comparative ethology, and this very
J01 221 closely paralleled the existing morphological one. ^Hence,
J01 222 nidification cycles provide revealing taxonomic characters that
J01 223 should be used in classification to support conclusions derived
J01 224 from morphology.
J01 225    |^Comparative ethologists of solitary wasps such as Iwata
J01 226 (1942), Arens (1948), Tsuneki (1957), Evans ({0e.g.}, 1958),
J01 227 Olberg (1959), Malyshev (1966), and Grandi (1971) have divided
J01 228 the nesting cycles into behavioural sequences which are denoted
J01 229 by letters and numbers. ^Harris (1974) applied the nesting
J01 230 formulae devised by Arens (1948), Malyshev (1966), and Evans &
J01 231 Eberhard (1970) to the New Zealand species. ^Nidification
J01 232 formulae based on such sequences are usually arranged in
J01 233 hierarchies ranging from simple to complex. ^It is frequently
J01 234 assumed that simple nidification formulae represent a lower
J01 235 stage of evolutionary development than more complex ones.
J01 236    |^*1{6Priocnemis (\0T.) monachus} *0usually performs the
J01 237 full set of sequences devised by Malyshev. ^Not all species do
J01 238 this, however, and many enact the steps in a different order.
J01 239 ^For example, a more derived species may dig a cell before it
J01 240 hunts a spider, whereas a primitive one often digs its cell
J01 241 after it has captured a spider.
J01 242    |^Evans & Eberhard (1970, \0pp. 114-119) gave a simplified
J01 243 nesting hierarchy which is used in this account. ^Only the
J01 244 first four stages apply to Pompilidae, as follows:
J01 245 *<(1) prey *- egg*>
J01 246 |^No nest made; egg laid directly on host *- {0e.g.},
J01 247 *1{6Epipompilus insularis}.
J01 248 *<*0(2) prey *- niche *- egg *- (closure)
J01 249 |^Prey caught outside its own burrow and dragged back into its
J01 250 burrow *- no New Zealand examples.
J01 251 *<(3) prey *- nest *- egg *- closure
J01 252 |^Prey dragged into pre-existing hole which may subsequently be
J01 253 modified by the wasp; prey caught before nest is made or found
J01 254 *- {0e.g.}, all species in New Zealand (except *1{6\0E.
J01 255 insularis}*0); always in *1{6Priocnemis nitidiventris}, *0which
J01 256 seemingly makes only single-celled nests exclusively in sand;
J01 257 sometimes only in the other species.
J01 258 *#
J02 001 **[296 TEXT J02**]
J02 002 |^*2THE IDEA OF *0forest management is interpreted quite
J02 003 differently by the conservation and sawmilling factions. ^To
J02 004 the former it has come to mean an invitation to open slather on
J02 005 native forests; to the latter, an unjustified limitation on the
J02 006 use of the resource. ^Both interpretations may be favourably
J02 007 revised in time.
J02 008    |^Sustained-yield management ought to be long-term
J02 009 government policy in indigenous forests zoned for production.
J02 010 ^The adoption of such a policy would represent a breakthrough
J02 011 *- the boundary between a pioneering, extractive phase and an
J02 012 era in which the timber industry adjusted to living with the
J02 013 forests in perpetuity. ^A forest sustained is a forest in which
J02 014 harvesting and mortality combined do not exceed regeneration.
J02 015 ^Naturally enough, faster-growing forests produce more timber,
J02 016 which is why attention would tend to swing from podocarps to
J02 017 beech forests regardless of the state of the podocarp resource.
J02 018    |^The colonists cannot be blamed for plunging in without
J02 019 thought to whether the resource had limits. ^They brought from
J02 020 Britain little experience or understanding of how to maintain
J02 021 forest structure and a timber supply for all time. ^Under
J02 022 German management it might have been different here. ^The
J02 023 Germans have practised the sustained approach since the
J02 024 seventeenth century when they faced a timber shortage as a
J02 025 result of a series of wars. ^In New Zealand in the latter part
J02 026 of the twentieth century, an anticipated shortage of the most
J02 027 valuable native timber, rimu, prompts a similar response *- no
J02 028 more contraction of the indigenous forest and a balancing of
J02 029 yield with increment in selected areas.
J02 030    |^This is not to say the idea is being aired here for the
J02 031 first time. ^Over a century ago the first Conservator of
J02 032 Forests proposed sustained harvesting. ^He was cried down.
J02 033 ^There were far too many trees left to bother about it.
J02 034    |^And yet in the pastoral context the dangers of
J02 035 overgrazing were appreciated early in the piece. ^New Zealand
J02 036 geography students are taught to this day how overgrazing
J02 037 causes the degradation of the soil and hillsides to slide away,
J02 038 and that with them can go the viability of hill-country sheep
J02 039 and cattle farming. ^That a forest could be overgrazed as
J02 040 easily was not widely accepted until much later *- so late, in
J02 041 fact, that the counter to it, sustained-yield management, would
J02 042 be forced upon the industry and come as a shock to it.
J02 043    |^It is a simple enough concept on paper: balance harvest
J02 044 with growth and you have a natural renewable resource; forest
J02 045 products forever. ^Plus the social and economic benefits of
J02 046 regular work and income, a regular timber supply and relatively
J02 047 stable markets. ^Plus the environmental benefits that accrue
J02 048 from minimising the impact on soil and water qualities and
J02 049 wildlife.
J02 050    |^In practice, however, sustainability depends on how well
J02 051 the dynamics of the forest are understood. ^And these vary from
J02 052 area to area according to forest make-up, soil profile,
J02 053 altitude, climate and factors which forest science may yet
J02 054 discover. ^Ecology is deep-felt.
J02 055    |^To the distant eye a green cloak over a faulted,
J02 056 glacier-scoured landscape, the forest is a complex thing close
J02 057 up. ^Growth patterns are never the same even in adjacent blocks
J02 058 of forest. ^Increments in virgin rimu forest can vary from less
J02 059 than half a cubic metre per hectare per year to six cubic
J02 060 metres. ^In the slowest-growing patches the loss of a single
J02 061 tree can reduce increment for the year to zero. ^Clearly, the
J02 062 new era in forestry must conform with the forest's natural
J02 063 rhythms.
J02 064    |^The rimu forest exhibits a growth patchwork that pays no
J02 065 heed to a forester's straight-lined compartments. ^Five growth
J02 066 phases have been identified in virgin rimu terrace forest and
J02 067 they can occupy areas ranging in size from a fifth of a hectare
J02 068 to 20 hectares. ^These patches include saplings competing in
J02 069 groves under canopy gaps and mature survivors that form a
J02 070 fairly dense canopy 40 metres or more above the forest floor.
J02 071 ^How to cull out the senile trees in the most advanced phase
J02 072 without disturbing the cycle is the challenge facing forestry
J02 073 from now on. ^It will be met. ^It must be met.
J02 074    |^The trouble with the old selection-logging techniques was
J02 075 that they could accelerate decline by exposing trees to
J02 076 toppling by wind storm (the domino effect), by impeding
J02 077 drainage, and by directly damaging trunks or roots. ^Moreover,
J02 078 the logging was conducted on a scale too large and inflexible
J02 079 for natural growth patterns to be recognised let alone
J02 080 respected.
J02 081    |^Scale is a key factor. ^Areas of rimu forest given over
J02 082 to sustained-yield production will always have to be larger
J02 083 than those for beech for the same output of timber unless
J02 084 sub-canopy trees growing in association with rimu, like kamahi,
J02 085 hinau and tawheowheo, become valued for their timber and can
J02 086 contribute to the total yield.
J02 087    |^Conservation argument in the future will probably focus
J02 088 not so much on the question of whether rimu forests will
J02 089 survive, for that is assured under a sustained-yield approach,
J02 090 but on just what proportion should be committed for production.
J02 091 ^While any rimu forest is zoned for production there is likely
J02 092 to be, for some years to come, a nervous regard for its
J02 093 wellbeing.
J02 094    |^The Forest Service, whose production responsibilities
J02 095 were vested in the Forestry Corporation in 1987, fielded a
J02 096 considerable amount of opposition during the seventies and
J02 097 eighties. ^It came from the conservation and sawmilling lobbies
J02 098 almost in the same breath. ^The Forest Service attempted
J02 099 simultaneously to balance these views with political
J02 100 imperatives that seemed as leaves in a fickle breeze created by
J02 101 too many people breathing hard in opposite directions.
J02 102    |^Opinions were polarised. ^The smallest black mark against
J02 103 the Forest Service could escalate to a scandal of regional or
J02 104 even national proportions. ^The service's credibility seemed
J02 105 always on the line, a line somewhere between the devil and the
J02 106 deep green forest.
J02 107    |^In the public eye the department's credibility was eroded
J02 108 somewhat in proportion to the number of pictures published of
J02 109 clear-felling, of stumps and the wreckage of once-proud crowns,
J02 110 of mud and slush and dishevelled forest margins. ^Never mind
J02 111 that a crop of newly planted rimu might be growing there,
J02 112 hidden by the slash but doing well, an eyesore was an eyesore,
J02 113 and bad public relations.
J02 114    |^Meanwhile, in the lead-up to the reduction in podocarp
J02 115 logging *- a threat to one camp, a promise to the other *- the
J02 116 Forest Service worked on ways to ease the timber industry into
J02 117 it. ^Trials in helicopter logging were undertaken, and a new
J02 118 portable chainsaw mill was designed and tested. ^Amendments to
J02 119 the Forests Act back in 1976 had foreshadowed radical change.
J02 120 ^The accent shifted from production to production and
J02 121 protection.
J02 122    |^In general, indigenous State forest was not to be cleared
J02 123 for the planting of exotic trees, and any logging that exceeded
J02 124 a sustainable level had to be justified on compelling economic
J02 125 or social grounds. ^Sustained-yield was implanted as a
J02 126 long-term policy goal.
J02 127    |^By 1990 native wood production from State forests across
J02 128 the country will have declined by over 90 per cent since the
J02 129 legislation of the mid-seventies set the changes in motion.
J02 130 ^Private owners of native forest remain free to manage their
J02 131 stands as they please, although inevitably their conservation
J02 132 performance will come in for public scrutiny.
J02 133    |^No one is predicting a complete halt to harvesting.
J02 134 ^There will always be a demand for fine woods and if they
J02 135 cannot be supplied from within New Zealand then another
J02 136 country's natural forests will be called on to produce them at
J02 137 who knows what ecological cost.
J02 138    |^The 1976 Act advanced the idea that native forest
J02 139 furnishes more than timber and that its uses need to be brought
J02 140 into balance. ^Timber production is but a fraction of the
J02 141 spectrum. ^Other forest produce includes sphagnum moss (the
J02 142 Coast's moss industry is worth more than *+$3 million a year in
J02 143 export earnings), possums and other game, honey, garden plants,
J02 144 florists' materials, and even decorative rocks. ^And enshrined
J02 145 in legislation now are forest values such as water and soil
J02 146 management, protection of indigenous flora and fauna,
J02 147 scientific significance, and a host of social benefits *-
J02 148 recreational, educational, cultural, historical, scenic and
J02 149 aesthetic.
J02 150    |^All State forests are potential public playgrounds. ^Some
J02 151 of them have acquired the special status of forest park that
J02 152 guarantees their recreational use. ^At the time of its
J02 153 disestablishment in 1987, the Forest Service was administering,
J02 154 nationally, 21 forest parks covering 1.6 million hectares of
J02 155 State forest. ^The country's second largest forest park,
J02 156 Victoria, is on the West Coast, sprawling across a mountainous
J02 157 region of beech forest bounded generally by Reefton (park
J02 158 headquarters), Murchison and Springs Junction.
J02 159    |^Neither Victoria nor any of the other parks, however, is
J02 160 reserved exclusively for recreation. ^Victoria is a mosaic of
J02 161 protection forest, ecological areas, production zones, exotic
J02 162 forest, scenic reserves and *'amenity**' areas in which
J02 163 recreational values outweigh those of production for
J02 164 historical, cultural or scenic reasons, alone or in
J02 165 combination.
J02 166    |^Never before have State forests been so accessible. ^Any
J02 167 recreational map of the West Coast is a mass of squiggles
J02 168 marking new or improved walking tracks of varying length and
J02 169 grade. ^Some mark historic gold- or coal-mining sites that
J02 170 happen to fall within State forest boundaries. ^The development
J02 171 of these tracks and their associated huts, bridges, campsites
J02 172 and picnic places has formed an important part of forestry work
J02 173 on the West Coast in the recent past. ^It has presented
J02 174 visitors with an abundance of outdoor opportunities and with
J02 175 that most precious opportunity of all *- the chance to commune
J02 176 with the forest, to join the carousel, to celebrate the
J02 177 solitude of wild places.
J02 178    |^Without doubt the forestry work has enhanced the tourist
J02 179 potential of the Coast, the forested wilderness coast. ^To
J02 180 outsiders the idea of the forestry service going out of its way
J02 181 to develop tourism might seem incongruous. ^But the West Coast
J02 182 is not the average New Zealand region. ^Its forest backdrop
J02 183 means as much to tourism as it does to timber, and in coming
J02 184 years the value of the forest to the visitor industry is bound
J02 185 to outstrip, in dollar terms, proceeds from timber production.
J02 186    |^A phenomenon of late has been the influx of rental camper
J02 187 vans. ^Thousands of tourists, driving themselves around, can
J02 188 explore forested byways and walking tracks with the assurance
J02 189 that a cup of tea and a bed are waiting where they have parked.
J02 190 ^And in more and more places on the Coast visitors can go where
J02 191 no logging machinery is permitted *- Ecological Areas, for
J02 192 instance. ^The first of these natural laboratories was gazetted
J02 193 in 1979. ^There are about 30 altogether now, covering 100,000
J02 194 hectares (10 per cent) of State forest. ^Their primary purpose
J02 195 is to preserve representative examples of flora and fauna and
J02 196 maintain genetic diversity.
J02 197    |^As a result of revised forest policy, exotic plantations
J02 198 no longer threaten to usurp the territories of the indigenous
J02 199 resource. ^Large-scale conversion to exotics was dropped as an
J02 200 option in the mid-seventies. ^But exotics of one kind or
J02 201 another will have to sustain the bigger mills. ^Radiata pine
J02 202 flourishes on the Coast, and Douglas fir, Tasmanian blackwood
J02 203 and various eucalypts also do well. ^In the future the mills
J02 204 will look to radiata as their main source of sawlogs. ^Growth
J02 205 rates to date point to a 30-year rotation, although not
J02 206 everyone is convinced radiata is the long-term saviour.
J02 207    |^New Zealand is well stocked with radiata pine. ^To
J02 208 compete, West Coast radiata would have to command a premium
J02 209 (for quality it does surpass, by and large, the Canterbury
J02 210 product, which is more affected by cold and dry spells) or go
J02 211 directly to Australian markets. ^The West Coast is a day and a
J02 212 half closer to Australia by sea than East Coast ports. ^But it
J02 213 is the old story *- the need for port development. ^For a
J02 214 substantial trade to eventuate there would need to be a major
J02 215 upgrading of Greymouth's river port. ^And that is not
J02 216 altogether forestry's business.
J02 217    |^Besides tourism foresters have been associated with some
J02 218 unusual projects, nonetheless, through the avenue of
J02 219 environmental forestry.
J02 220 *#
J03 001 **[297 TEXT J03**]
J03 002    |^*0Apparent anomalies are present in the distribution of
J03 003 the main species and of the two main forest types. ^Such
J03 004 irregularities have been explained in terms of marked climatic
J03 005 changes which are assumed to have taken place in the regional
J03 006 climate some hundreds of years ago. ^Whether correct or not,
J03 007 there must have been constant changes proceeding since the last
J03 008 major phase of the ice age and the melting of glaciers and ice
J03 009 sheets. ^This is estimated to have been only 10-15,000 years
J03 010 ago. ^Indeed, pollen profile studies have indicated a
J03 011 succession of climates commencing with one in which grasses
J03 012 were dominant *- a type of vegetation that would quickly occupy
J03 013 the ground following retreat of the ice *- then podocarp-broadleaf
J03 014 forest with little beech, and finally the phase in
J03 015 which beech has spread and become dominant in places.
J03 016    |^The most obvious anomaly is the presence of podocarp-broadleaf
J03 017 forest above beech which is invading the former by
J03 018 moving uphill. ^Normally, where the two types of forests occur
J03 019 together, podocarps grow in the lower altitudes and warmer
J03 020 sites, while beech occupies the higher, colder areas.
J03 021    |^From the mountain massif of Fiordland and Otago for a
J03 022 distance extending 600-700 kilometres northwards, the Southern
J03 023 Alps form the backbone of the South Island until they reach a
J03 024 northern mountain massif stretching from west to east coasts.
J03 025 ^Along the Southern Alps a huge fault runs. ^It has served to
J03 026 steepen the western flanks on to which descend tremendous
J03 027 rainfalls coming from the west. ^Such rain causes massive slips
J03 028 in spite of dense forest. ^Rivers are numerous and unruly and
J03 029 would, in the absence of forest, increase the erosion many-fold
J03 030 and render most of the West Coast uninhabitable.
J03 031    |^The rain is carried from the west across to the easier,
J03 032 though still steep, eastern slopes of the mountains, and gives
J03 033 rise to larger but fewer rivers than there are in the west.
J03 034 ^These flow down across deep shingle plains through an
J03 035 increasingly dry climate gradient. ^In the most protected 
J03 036 rain-shadow areas the fall drops to 250 \0mm per year.
J03 037    |^It is on the eastern side of the Southern Alps that
J03 038 fires, both Polynesian and settler, have destroyed very large
J03 039 areas of forest. ^Pockets remain, but the only sizeable areas
J03 040 are in the headwaters of the large rivers.
J03 041    |^Along the West Coast the signs of glaciation are just as
J03 042 pronounced as they are in Fiordland, but their form is quite
J03 043 different. ^The Southern Alps of greywacke and schist rocks
J03 044 have been much more readily eroded. ^Valley sides are,
J03 045 therefore, less steep and large quantities of detritus have
J03 046 been left *'perched**' as glaciers have receded. ^At the foot
J03 047 of the mountains the aftermath of glaciation is to be seen in a
J03 048 series of low terraces of boulders covered by glacial till.
J03 049 ^Moraines emerge through the terraces, and lakes, trapped by
J03 050 glaciated material, are many.
J03 051    |^Proceeding northwards from Fiordland along this wet West
J03 052 Coast the extensive silver and mountain beech forest gives way
J03 053 to much reduced areas and pockets. ^Nevertheless the catchments
J03 054 of a few of the large rivers are filled with beech, mainly
J03 055 silver and mountain just as in Fiordland. ^On more favourable
J03 056 sites red beech joins these two and the southernmost, limited
J03 057 pockets of hard beech appear.
J03 058    |^The ability of mountain beech to tolerate the most
J03 059 infertile sites occupied by any beech is shown by its presence
J03 060 on areas of ultrabasic rock. ^In places this formation carries
J03 061 no vegetation at all. ^With soil improvement mountain beech is
J03 062 one of the plants to appear first. ^As companions on these very
J03 063 difficult sites are manuka (*1{6Leptospermum scoparium}*0), a
J03 064 shrub that frequently acts as a nurse vegetation for beech
J03 065 seedlings throughout the country, and stunted southern rata and
J03 066 dwarf podocarps.
J03 067    |^For a distance of about 180 \0km, north of Fiordland, the
J03 068 West Coast lowland terrain is covered by unconnected areas of
J03 069 beech forest in the river catchments and podocarp-broadleaf
J03 070 forest on the terraces. ^Then for another 150 \0km there is no
J03 071 sign of beech either on the mountains or the terraces, but
J03 072 north of that gap the major beech forests of New Zealand begin.
J03 073 ^They occupy the greater part of the mountain massif in the
J03 074 north of the South Island.
J03 075    |^Where the beech gap occurs the forest on the Southern
J03 076 Alps' western faces is dominated by southern rata and kamahi,
J03 077 and that on the terraces by broadleaf trees and a few species
J03 078 of podocarps, mainly rimu, which have occupied the ground by
J03 079 the following process.
J03 080    |^The glacial till and pans have made the terrace soils
J03 081 impervious. ^Such conditions must have created bogs as the ice
J03 082 melted. ^Forest invasion, which is still going on, of these
J03 083 exceptionally difficult habitats has taken on a regular
J03 084 pattern. ^Rimu, because of its ability to spread long distances
J03 085 by bird-carried seed, would have invaded the drier sites, the
J03 086 lower foothills and moraines. ^From these the bogs were
J03 087 invaded. ^Manuka first occupied the edges and gradually moved
J03 088 on to the wet ground. ^Then manuka was invaded by a podocarp,
J03 089 silver pine (*1{6Dacrydium colensoi}*0), which tolerates very
J03 090 acid conditions, and then by rimu. ^The final result is a
J03 091 forest dominated by rimu which is present in groups of all
J03 092 ages. ^It grows in the bogs sitting on top of the impervious
J03 093 soils and when cut down there is an immediate reversion to
J03 094 bogs. ^Other processes are also at work.
J03 095    |^Why the beech gap? ^Two possible explanations have been
J03 096 put forward. ^One is that all along that stretch of the
J03 097 mountains there are no passes below timberline through which
J03 098 beech can migrate from the east. ^Another is that the beech to
J03 099 the north and south of the gap has not had time to invade the
J03 100 rimu forest. ^There is another possible reason: the habitat is
J03 101 markedly unsuited to beech which would have difficulty in
J03 102 invading the well-established rimu forest. ^The true position
J03 103 is not yet clear because pollen profile studies have shown that
J03 104 at some time in the past beech has been present.
J03 105    |^In the dry climate east of the Southern Alps the forest
J03 106 destroyed by Polynesian fires was replaced by tussock grassland
J03 107 and shrubland. ^Evidence collected to date suggests that beech
J03 108 was the main constituent of the burned forest though large
J03 109 areas show only podocarp logs and charcoal. ^Mainly beech
J03 110 remnants remain today. ^It is, however, impossible yet to
J03 111 reconstruct the total forest pattern because the remnants are
J03 112 the result of glaciation effects in the headwaters of rivers
J03 113 and a long history of fires and grazing and browsing by sheep
J03 114 and wild animals.
J03 115    |^The most extensive forests remaining in the east are in
J03 116 the wetter mountain areas towards the main divide of the
J03 117 Southern Alps. ^Beeches are the dominant trees. ^Mountain,
J03 118 silver and red are all well represented. ^The first two share
J03 119 the timberline, their occurrence depending on the degree of
J03 120 wetness. ^Red beech keeps to lower altitudes. ^In kinder areas
J03 121 and near the coast beech sometimes gives way to podocarp-broadleaf
J03 122 forest, of which only small pockets remain. ^The
J03 123 ground cover of ferns and lower layer of shrubs have been
J03 124 affected, often severely, by animals, both domestic and wild.
J03 125    |^At lower foothill altitudes of the Southern Alps black
J03 126 beech occupies a few extensive remnants. ^In fact, that tree
J03 127 attains its optimum development in eastern South Island
J03 128 country. ^It is able to grow where rainfall drops as low as 500
J03 129 \0mm per annum which is the lowest limit that will support
J03 130 forest growth of any kind in New Zealand. ^Under such dry
J03 131 conditions other forest vegetation offers little competition to
J03 132 black beech so that it is almost the sole forest tree.
J03 133    |^There are places where forest containing black beech at
J03 134 low altitudes continues up the mountain sides giving way
J03 135 gradually to mountain beech. ^Apart from such altitudinal
J03 136 changes there is also a latitudinal change in this eastern low
J03 137 country. ^It takes place over a distance of about 500 \0km from
J03 138 mountain beech in the south of the South Island to black beech
J03 139 in mid Canterbury. ^It is the equivalent of the altitudinal
J03 140 change noted above.
J03 141    |^Throughout the jumbled mass of mountains in the north-west
J03 142 of the South Island beech forest is by far the commonest
J03 143 vegetative cover and except for alpine communities at high
J03 144 altitudes and larger valleys is continuous over extensive
J03 145 areas. ^Sparsity of settlement and absence of clearing or
J03 146 damage by fire has left extensive areas intact.
J03 147    |^The area contains an extraordinary variety of country.
J03 148 ^Frequent changes in underlying rocks bring about changes in
J03 149 soils and drainage. ^Rivers flow in all directions. ^Altitudes
J03 150 range from sea-level to above timberline. ^Slopes are of all
J03 151 gradients and aspects and there are widespread effects of
J03 152 severe earthquakes.
J03 153 **[PLATE**]
J03 154    |^This complicated and ever-changing collection of habitats
J03 155 forms the meeting ground of all the beech species and contains
J03 156 the optimum growing conditions for two of them, red and hard
J03 157 beeches. ^A general pattern of species distribution based on
J03 158 habitat preferences is apparent, but there are frequent and
J03 159 sudden inexplicable changes. ^It seems that such anomalies are
J03 160 mainly the adjustments proceeding as a result of climatic
J03 161 changes and adjustments following epidemic catastrophes.
J03 162    |^The silver beech forests of Fiordland, 400 kilometres or
J03 163 so to the south, have been left behind and are replaced by less
J03 164 extensive areas occurring mainly at high altitudes. ^On the
J03 165 other hand there is a more widespread occurrence of mountain
J03 166 beech, also at higher altitudes, but inland. ^These two species
J03 167 make up the greater part of the timberline and cold temperate
J03 168 forest. ^Silver beech grows in the wetter and freer draining
J03 169 areas while mountain beech occupies the relatively drier and
J03 170 more difficult sites. ^The frequent changes of these two trees
J03 171 at timberline and lower down and the occasional association in
J03 172 the same forest provide clues as to their preferences.
J03 173    |^At sea-level and lower altitudes podocarp-broadleaf
J03 174 forest is plentiful in the western seaboard mountains but beech
J03 175 is more closely intermingled with it than in any other part of
J03 176 the country. ^Hard beech is the species most at home amongst
J03 177 mixtures of podocarps containing rimu, miro and kahikatea.
J03 178 ^Amongst these it grows vigorously and reaches heights of 30
J03 179 metres. ^It grades from such stands into pure hard beech.
J03 180    |^Red beech is one of the main species at mid altitudes
J03 181 while black beech occupies chiefly riparian sites. ^Red will
J03 182 occupy these too if they are well drained and when it does the
J03 183 best red beech stands in the country are to be found. ^Trees
J03 184 will grow up to 35 metres high and diameters of 2-3 metres are
J03 185 common in mature trees. ^Regeneration is plentiful and all
J03 186 phases are represented. ^The intermingling of fine trees and
J03 187 the foliage of regeneration beneath make this type of forest
J03 188 some of the most picturesque in the country.
J03 189    |^The outlier of beech forest immediately north of the West
J03 190 Coast *'gap**' contains hard, red, silver and mountain beeches;
J03 191 in other words, a more than adequate springboard for invasion,
J03 192 if it is going to take place, into the podocarp-broadleaf
J03 193 forests to the south.
J03 194    |^From the north-west South Island concentration, beech
J03 195 forest, in more limited areas, carries on along the mountains
J03 196 all the way to the Marlborough Sounds where Banks and Solander
J03 197 collected the first New Zealand species. ^There it has largely
J03 198 been cleared away for farming. ^In the forest that remains the
J03 199 story is much the same as it is in the west. ^All species are
J03 200 present. ^When beech reaches the timberline it is silver or
J03 201 mountain beeches. ^Mid slope forest is red and silver. ^Black
J03 202 beech occupies alluvial lowlands and there are many stands
J03 203 which grade from black to mountain beech. ^The southernmost
J03 204 limit of hard beech in the east is about the Marlborough
J03 205 Sounds. ^In a few areas black, hard, silver and red beeches
J03 206 mingle together in the same stands.
J03 207 *<*4North Island: podocarp forest disappears but beech
J03 208 remains*>
J03 209 |^*0Cook Strait, separating the North and South islands, has
J03 210 not been in existence long enough to interrupt the distribution
J03 211 pattern of beech forest.
J03 212 *#
J04 001 **[298 TEXT J04**]
J04 002 ^*0Even at Arthur's Pass and in the headwaters of the Hurunui
J04 003 River where forest predominates, larvae are found only in
J04 004 forest clearings and seemingly never in the shaded forest
J04 005 habitats associated with *1{6\0U. carovei}.
J04 006    |^*0That no *1\6Uropetala *0have been recorded from either
J04 007 Banks Peninsula or the Chatham Islands is consistent with the
J04 008 evolution of a species pair with markedly different habitat
J04 009 requirements. ^Banks Peninsula was heavily forested until the
J04 010 1870s and thus would have been unsuitable for *1\6chiltoni,
J04 011 *0and its recent scattered tussock and grass habitat would be
J04 012 unsuited to a *1\6carovei *0population. ^If, as seems likely,
J04 013 females of *1\6Uropetala *0do remain in the vicinity of their
J04 014 own emergence sites (see \0p. 121) then colonization of Banks
J04 015 Peninsula by *1\6chiltoni *0from the alpine foothills (sixty
J04 016 kilometres distant) would be improbable. ^The Chatham Islands'
J04 017 vegetation was reduced to *'scrub**' during glaciations and
J04 018 would not have provided habitat for any forest dwelling
J04 019 (proto?) *1\6carovei. ^*0Within the geographical limits of the
J04 020 Chatham Islands there is unlikely to have been sufficient time
J04 021 for the evolution of sub-alpine adapted populations of
J04 022 *1\6Uropetala *0given the widely accepted rapid rates of
J04 023 temperature change at the onset of a glaciation.
J04 024    |^The actual biological mechanisms effecting the
J04 025 reproductive isolation of the *1\6Uropetala *0species are
J04 026 unknown. ^Despite the relatively *'weak**' nature of the minor
J04 027 morphological differences between the species, individuals with
J04 028 mixed characters are rarely found and are restricted to a
J04 029 narrow zone where the species distributions are contiguous.
J04 030 ^This in spite of the fact that through much of the *'alpine**'
J04 031 boundary separating them very large *1\6carovei *0and
J04 032 *1\6chiltoni *0populations coexist within a few kilometres of
J04 033 each other with no geographical obstruction to free movement.
J04 034 ^This is clearly evident in the Otira-Turiwhate area of
J04 035 Westland and in the Umbrella Range of Central Otago. ^Through
J04 036 most of the last 10,000 years specialized *1\6chiltoni
J04 037 *0habitat has been very restricted, certainly to dimensions of
J04 038 the order of the *'cruise range**' of *1\6Uropetala *0males,
J04 039 and the survival of *1\6chiltoni *0populations is testament to
J04 040 the efficacy of biological barriers preventing introgression of
J04 041 *1\6carovei *0genes. ^In contrast, during the height of the
J04 042 latest (Otiran) glaciation *1\6chiltoni *0habitat existed north
J04 043 to the Waikato basin and *1\6carovei *0would have been
J04 044 restricted to the far north and to forest refuges.
J04 045 *<*4Ecology*>
J04 046    |^*0Emergence of *1{6\0U. chiltoni} *0in Canterbury and
J04 047 Central Otago seems to be largely concentrated into December
J04 048 and early January. ^As with *1\6carovei, *0the pharate adult
J04 049 climbs a few centimetres up a nearby clump of vegetation,
J04 050 secures a grip and proceeds to moult. ^After moulting, the
J04 051 newly emerged adult climbs a little higher while it hardens
J04 052 prior to its first flight. ^Emergence probably occurs most
J04 053 often in the earlier part of the night so that most adults have
J04 054 completed emergence and are ready to fly before dawn. ^*1{6\0U.
J04 055 chiltoni} *0in the laboratory have commenced emergence at
J04 056 temperatures as low as six degrees Celsius but have been unable
J04 057 to complete the ecdysis at this temperature. ^On cool nights,
J04 058 adults may not harden quickly enough to take flight before
J04 059 sunrise and seagulls, terns, and other birds are known to prey
J04 060 on large numbers of these helpless animals. ^The sites at which
J04 061 *1\6chiltoni *0emerge are far more exposed than those used by
J04 062 *1\6carovei *0and the relatively larger and more concentrated
J04 063 *1\6chiltoni *0colonies can be subjected to heavy predation.
J04 064 ^The exuvia left by the adult on emergence is remarkably hardy.
J04 065 ^At Cass, exuviae are easily found in the early spring after
J04 066 winter snowfalls and frosts cause the tussock to die back; they
J04 067 look as fresh as the day they were left. ^After a further
J04 068 year's exposure some exuviae I marked appeared no more battered
J04 069 and weather-worn than some of those left by recently emerged
J04 070 animals. ^Even two years after emergence traces could still be
J04 071 found.
J04 072    |^As with *1{6\0U. carovei}, *0little is known about
J04 073 activity during the maturation period. ^During the first few
J04 074 days the adults are largely quiescent and perch in cover, often
J04 075 with their wings held together above the thorax. ^Maturation
J04 076 appears to
J04 077 **[MAP**]
J04 078 take about three weeks, but the onset of sexual activity is
J04 079 dependent on climatic conditions. ^Collection data suggest that
J04 080 males range far more widely than females since males are
J04 081 frequently taken kilometres from any breeding site whereas
J04 082 almost all females have been taken from breeding sites or
J04 083 scrub/ matagouri areas within a few hundred metres of a
J04 084 breeding site. ^Under cooler conditions, such as early in the
J04 085 morning, the adults fly vigorously; but at higher temperatures
J04 086 they tend to glide about. ^When it is sunny many perch and bask
J04 087 for long periods on exposed, flat surfaces.
J04 088    |^During the early part of the mating season males move on
J04 089 to the seepages in the middle of the afternoon (about three
J04 090 hours after solar noon). ^First they spend about half a minute
J04 091 in a low, slow, hovering *'inspection**' flight within two to
J04 092 five centimetres of the surface, then they seek out a perch.
J04 093 ^Preferred perches are shrubs or tallish woody vegetation on,
J04 094 or at the border of, the seepage.
J04 095 **[MAP**]
J04 096 ^At one site one metre tall stakes placed to aid a larval
J04 097 burrow survey proved by far the most attractive perches. ^Once
J04 098 perched the male remains still, leaving the perch only to
J04 099 challenge any other males approaching within about five metres.
J04 100 ^Males challenged while on an *'inspection**' flight flee and
J04 101 are pursued for ten to twenty metres by the territory occupant
J04 102 which then returns to its perch. ^*1{6\0U. chiltoni} *0male
J04 103 navigation doesn't seem as accurate as that displayed by
J04 104 *1{6Austrolestes colensonis} *0and they often spend some time
J04 105 searching for their perch. ^While on their territorial perches
J04 106 males are wary, and much harder to approach than when they are
J04 107 settled, basking, some way from breeding sites. ^After about
J04 108 half an hour on their perch they become restive, make a few
J04 109 short flights to *'inspect**' the site or examine alternative
J04 110 perches, then abruptly leave. ^This behaviour pattern closely
J04 111 parallels that recorded in other petalurids (*1{6Tachopteryx
J04 112 thoreyi, Tanypteryx hageni, \0T. pryeri*0) and contrasts with
J04 113 the active flying patrols seen in *1{6\0U. carovei}.
J04 114    |^*0During the night and in bad weather, congregations of
J04 115 adults can be found clinging in sheltered spots, usually on the
J04 116 northern faces of rock outcrops. ^My attention was drawn to
J04 117 these aggregations through the independent observations of a
J04 118 number of people who had been tramping in the Cass area, but it
J04 119 was not until January 1981 that I came across such a phenomena
J04 120 myself. ^My cousins and I were examining an area in the
J04 121 Umbrella Range, Central Otago. ^We arrived at the musterers'
J04 122 hut late in the afternoon accompanied by a chilly breeze and
J04 123 drizzle. ^The following morning was cold, by 11 {0a.m.} the
J04 124 temperature was still below ten degrees Celsius, and there
J04 125 seemed little prospect of finding any dragonflies. ^My cousin
J04 126 Rodney, who was investigating rock outcrops on the southern
J04 127 side of the valley, found a *1\6Uropetala *0male roosting in a
J04 128 crevice in a rock face; it was immobilized by the cold and was
J04 129 easily captured. ^We then began to search several of these
J04 130 house-sized outcrops and in little more than half an hour had
J04 131 captured eighteen animals, often finding two or three hanging
J04 132 within a metre of each other in the same crevice. ^Many more
J04 133 animals were seen under ledges and in crevices which couldn't
J04 134 be reached and search time was lost while photographing animals
J04 135 *1{in situ}. ^*0Despite a thorough search of the other faces of
J04 136 the outcrops (which were easier to get at), roosting
J04 137 dragonflies were found only on the northern faces of the rocks.
J04 138 ^Similarly an examination of outcrops on the northern (south
J04 139 facing) slope of the valley failed to produce *1\6Uropetala.
J04 140 ^*0About midday the weather suddenly improved and the
J04 141 temperature increased rapidly. ^The first free-flying
J04 142 *1\6Uropetala *0was seen when the air temperature reached
J04 143 sixteen degrees Celsius but flights were short and *'clumsy**'.
J04 144 ^By 1 {0p.m.} the air temperature exceeded twenty degrees
J04 145 Celsius and many *1\6Uropetala *0were in flight, some moving
J04 146 between basking spots on clay banks and rock outcrops while a
J04 147 number of males
J04 148 **[DIAGRAM**]
J04 149 **[DIAGRAM**]
J04 150 **[DIAGRAM**]
J04 151 were observed *'investigating**' a large seepage and larval
J04 152 site, making slow, low hovering flights and occasionally
J04 153 landing for several minutes at a time.
J04 154    |^Mating occurs on tussock clumps near the breeding sites.
J04 155 ^After mating, females move onto the seepage and lay alone,
J04 156 climbing down tussock stems to insert eggs individually into
J04 157 mosses which cover the adjacent ground. ^The last three or four
J04 158 segments of the abdomen are pushed into the moss rootlets or
J04 159 soil before the batch of six to ten eggs is laid. ^Each egg in
J04 160 the batch appears individually cemented to roots or
J04 161 subterranean stems. ^The female takes about two minutes to lay
J04 162 a batch. ^The abrasive nature of tussock causes severe damage
J04 163 to the wings of the females and even animals with fresh body
J04 164 colouring can have their hind wings badly frayed. ^Despite this
J04 165 damage, females with worn wings are often seen making feeding
J04 166 flights a short distance from oviposition sites and it seems
J04 167 probable that they survive to lay more than one batch of eggs.
J04 168 ^Females also lay perching flat on the moss surface as has been
J04 169 observed in *1{6\0U. carovei}.
J04 170    |^*0Little is known of their larval life. ^The burrows of
J04 171 earlier instar larvae appear to be more common in soft soil
J04 172 close to the runnels which dissect the bog and also dug near
J04 173 horizontally into the slopes down and through which the seepage
J04 174 occurs. ^The large burrows of later instar larvae are more
J04 175 conspicuous in the more solid soils of hummocks rising five to
J04 176 twenty centimetres above the water table. ^It is unlikely that
J04 177 the earliest instars would be able to burrow to the water table
J04 178 through these solid, vegetation supported, soils and some
J04 179 movement between microhabitats probably occurs as the larvae
J04 180 develop. ^As a rule of thumb the burrow diameter is
J04 181 approximately half the length of the occupant. ^Burrows found
J04 182 in the sides and at the tops of runnels within the
J04 183 sphagnum-*1\6Shoenus *0habitat lack the well-formed mound of
J04 184 excavated mud at their entrances characteristic of *1{6\0U.
J04 185 carovei} *0burrows on similar slopes.
J04 186    |^It has been generally, and fairly uncritically, accepted
J04 187 that the larvae are nocturnal, although this is certainly not
J04 188 true of petalurids in general, and a note of caution should be
J04 189 sounded. ^Larvae in captivity and kept under shaded interior
J04 190 lighting have often been seen to spend many of the daylight
J04 191 hours near the tops of their burrows. ^When in this position
J04 192 they react instantly to vibration, or to any large object
J04 193 passing overhead and silhouetted against the sky, by scuttling
J04 194 backwards down their tunnels. ^Approaches to the same burrows
J04 195 made at night
J04 196 **[DIAGRAM**]
J04 197 resulted in approximately the same proportion of occupants
J04 198 being found at the top. ^Thus, the *'nocturnal**' nature of
J04 199 these highly mobile (in their burrows), well-sighted larvae may
J04 200 be the result of inadvertent observer interference. ^This is
J04 201 supported to some extent by the fact that in the field, larvae
J04 202 are often encountered very close to the surface during the day.
J04 203 ^Later instar larvae are known to prey on a wide variety of
J04 204 small animals and it is notable that both diurnally and
J04 205 nocturnally active prey are present.
J04 206    |^I have observed captive *1{6\0U. chiltoni} *0larvae
J04 207 preying on cockroaches. ^The prey appeared to be detected by
J04 208 sight; as the cockroach moved down the burrow the dragonfly
J04 209 larva struck with its labium, grasping and impaling. ^Observed
J04 210 attacks were all directed *'above the larva's head**' at the
J04 211 dorsal side of the burrow and occurred well before the
J04 212 cockroach was within range of the dragonfly's antennae. ^Often
J04 213 the larva flicked its body backwards, lifting its forelegs
J04 214 clear of the substrate, as it struck. ^The labial strike of a
J04 215 *1\6Uropetala *0larva is very strong and prey are often
J04 216 extensively damaged as they are caught; when prey held in
J04 217 forceps is attacked the resulting blow has a force quite
J04 218 unexpected from an insect.
J04 219    |^Larvae in captivity have been observed while digging
J04 220 their tunnels. ^Some have even been observed to abandon a
J04 221 burrow during the day and to begin construction of a new hole
J04 222 in daylight.
J04 223 *#
J05 001 **[299 TEXT J05**]
J05 002 ^*0The bottom waters vary seasonally from 0 to 3*@\0C.
J05 003 ^Phytoplankton productivity is low and cyanobacterial mats
J05 004 occur extensively over the lake floor. ^The lake receives
J05 005 inflowing meltwaters during spring, but these form a discrete
J05 006 layer beneath the ice which does not mix with the lakewater
J05 007 beneath. ^Unlike Heywood Lake, this throughflow does not flush
J05 008 out a significant proportion of algal cells and nutrients.
J05 009    |^Sombre Lake water and inflows have a high ratio of
J05 010 {0N:P}, and algal growth potential assays indicated that
J05 011 phosphorus was the element in least supply. ^Assays of the
J05 012 natural lake phytoplankton indicated that the assemblage was
J05 013 not nutrient-limited between April and October when
J05 014 photosynthesis was undetectable in the water beneath the ice.
J05 015 ^Phosphorus limitation responses were first recorded with the
J05 016 onset of growth in spring, but later in the season from
J05 017 November onwards, dual enrichment with \0N + \0P produced the
J05 018 greatest growth response (Hawes 1983).
J05 019    |^Like nearby Heywood Lake, winter chlorophyll *1a *0levels
J05 020 are low and photosynthesis is undetectable. ^Light availability
J05 021 suddenly rises by two orders of magnitude in September-October
J05 022 because of the loss of overlying snow and the rise in incident
J05 023 radiation. ^As in Heywood Lake, chlorophyll *1a *0begins to
J05 024 increase at this time and continues to steadily rise over the
J05 025 subsequent months, reaching a maximum during the summer
J05 026 ice-free period. ^The spring and summer algal populations
J05 027 differ in their photosynthesis versus light responses. ^In both
J05 028 Sombre Lake and Heywood Lake photosynthetic capacity per unit
J05 029 chlorophyll markedly increases during the open water phase and
J05 030 then declines during the period of ice cover (Hawes 1985b).
J05 031 *<*4Moss Lake: A freshwater lake with benthic macrophytes*>
J05 032 |^*0Many of the saline and freshwater lakes of Antarctica have
J05 033 rich benthic felts of cyanophytes (see Vanda and Fryxell
J05 034 above), but in the Antarctic Peninsula region benthic mosses
J05 035 provide an additional important source of primary production.
J05 036 ^Moss Lake on Signy Island has a 40% cover of the mosses
J05 037 *1{6Calliergon sarmentosum} *0and *1\6Drepanocladus *0\0sp.
J05 038 below the 5 \0m depth contour (Priddle 1980). ^The mosses have
J05 039 large leaves and stems up to 40 \0cm long. ^The benthic
J05 040 vegetation also includes the algal *1{6Tolypothrix-Plectonema}
J05 041 *0community found in nearby Sombre Lake, mostly in steep
J05 042 portions of the littoral and as patches in shallow water. ^A
J05 043 third community, of prolific *1\6Oedogonium *0growth is located
J05 044 in rocky areas of the lake.
J05 045    |^Benthic production and respiration by these communities
J05 046 have been estimated throughout the year using dissolved oxygen
J05 047 assays on container incubations (Priddle 1980) and provides an
J05 048 example of adaptation to the low light environment. ^There was
J05 049 only a brief period of subcompensation light levels extending
J05 050 from June through early August. ^Significant photosynthesis was
J05 051 initiated before the ice increased to its maximum thickness.
J05 052 ^The moss community had a low compensation point of about 10
J05 053 \0kJ \0m*:-2**: \0d*:-1**: as well as a low saturation light
J05 054 level. ^Its annual nett production was estimated at 4.0 \0g \0C
J05 055 \0m*:-2**:, about twice the benthic algal production, but only
J05 056 30% of the phytoplankton production.
J05 057    |^Laboratory studies demonstrated that the two moss species
J05 058 (plus their epiphytic algae) have very different photosynthesis
J05 059 versus light characteristics. ^*1\6Drepanocladus *0had a
J05 060 compensation of 0.11 \0W \0m*:-2**: which was similar to that
J05 061 of the *1{6Tolypothrix-Plectonema} *0community (0.17 \0W
J05 062 \0m*:-2**:). ^*1\6Calliergon, *0which generally occurred in the
J05 063 more shallow water, had a much higher compensation point (0.64
J05 064 \0W \0m*:-2**:). ^Increasing temperature modified these
J05 065 characteristics, particularly for *1\6Calliergon, *0by shifting
J05 066 the compensation point to higher light levels.
J05 067    |^*1Drepanocladus *0appeared to be especially well adapted
J05 068 towards the deep lake environment with its extremely low
J05 069 compensation point, a low responsiveness to temperature, and
J05 070 perhaps also a high leaf area index since the plants are larger
J05 071 than *1\6Calliergon *0with longer leaves. ^The compensation
J05 072 points for both species were very low by comparison with
J05 073 terrestrial mosses in polar environments. ^Fogg (1977)
J05 074 suggested that this characteristic in general is a response to
J05 075 the low stable temperature of antarctic aquatic ecosystems
J05 076 which allows the cells to maintain production at rates above
J05 077 their respiratory requirement ({0i.e.}, nett production) at
J05 078 very low irradiances.
J05 079    |^Benthic moss communities have been recorded elsewhere in
J05 080 the Antarctic Peninsula region. ^In the ponds of the ice-free
J05 081 region at Ablation Point swards of luxuriant moss occurred at
J05 082 0.5 to 6 \0m depth, with stems up to 30 \0cm long. ^The
J05 083 dominant species were *1{6Campylium polyganium} *0and
J05 084 *1\6Dicranella *0\0sp., but *1{6Distichium capillaceum, Bryum
J05 085 algens} *0and *1\6Bryum *0\0sp. were also found. ^Cover varied
J05 086 between 40 and 70% and totalled 3500 \0m*:2**: in a total area
J05 087 of pools examined of 10 000 \0m*:2**: (Heywood 1977b).
J05 088    |^In addition to the production ecology of Moss Lake,
J05 089 decomposition processes have been the subject of considerable
J05 090 investigation in this and nearby waters (Ellis-Evans 1985). ^In
J05 091 Moss Lake the water column remains oxygenated throughout winter
J05 092 and decomposition is dominated by aerobic processes. ^Winter
J05 093 anoxia is a feature of the enriched waters of this region, and
J05 094 the duration of anoxia increases with trophic state (\0Fig.
J05 095 12). ^Anaerobic decomposition is therefore much more important
J05 096 in eutrophic waters such as Heywood Lake. ^However, even in the
J05 097 oligotrophic lakes anaerobic processes have been measured in
J05 098 the sediments; in Sombre Lake, for example, methanogenesis,
J05 099 which is a strictly anaerobic process, consumes 13% of
J05 100 **[FIGURE**]
J05 101 the annually sedimented particulate carbon (Ellis-Evans 1984).
J05 102 ^The lakes of Signy Island clearly offer an ideal trophic
J05 103 series in which to quantify aerobic and anaerobic microbial
J05 104 responses to the antarctic aquatic environment.
J05 105 *<*6ICE-BOUND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS*>
J05 106 |^*0Ice is a dominant feature of the antarctic landscape, and
J05 107 in many parts of the continental margin, lakes and pools have
J05 108 formed within the ice, or behind ice dams. ^These ice-bound
J05 109 ecosystems vary in size from the small (<50 \0cm diameter)
J05 110 water-filled pockets on glaciers (cryoconite pools) to
J05 111 anastomosing freshwater systems on the ablation zone of major
J05 112 ice shelves. ^Ice-dammed valleys have filled with water to form
J05 113 inland lakes such as Untersee, while on the coast the ice dams
J05 114 may float on the sea, trapping freshwater behind them, but
J05 115 allowing the free movement of seawater beneath ({0e.g.},
J05 116 Ablation Lake). ^These ice-bound ecosystems were probably the
J05 117 dominant freshwaters during major glaciations of the antarctic
J05 118 region and may have been important refugia for the biota during
J05 119 these sustained periods of extreme cold.
J05 120 *<*4Lake Untersee: An inland proglacial lake*>
J05 121 |^Proglacial lakes, that is, lakes dammed or contained by ice,
J05 122 were perhaps a precursor to some of the permanently ice-capped
J05 123 lakes that have been discussed above. ^This type of lake still
J05 124 exists in certain regions of the continent. ^One such lake has
J05 125 been discovered recently in the Wohlthat Massif, 150 \0km
J05 126 inland from the open waters of the Lazarev Sea (Hermichen {0et
J05 127 al.} 1985). ^It is permanently capped by 2.5 \0m of ice and
J05 128 partially bounded by a glacier which feeds the lake by
J05 129 underwater melting. ^The salinity and temperature of the water
J05 130 column is homogeneous down to the maximum depth of sampling (79
J05 131 \0m) suggesting that thermal convection mixes the lake
J05 132 completely during each summer. ^The lake has no outflow and
J05 133 loses water by ablation from its ice cap. ^The chloride content
J05 134 of the lakewater (43.4 \0g \0m*:-3**:) is very high by
J05 135 comparison with precipitation measurements over the continent
J05 136 (typically 0.05-1.0 \0g \0m*:-3**:) and suggests that the
J05 137 present day waterbody is the remnant of a meltwater lake that
J05 138 was at least 50 times larger in volume. ^Biologically this lake
J05 139 remains unexplored, but bottom sediments have a several
J05 140 millimetre-thick organic layer suggesting moderate production
J05 141 rates, or a long period of accumulation.
J05 142    |^Inland ice-dammed lakes have also been described on the
J05 143 downwind sides of nunataks in the Framnes Mountain range (67*@
J05 144 45*?7\0S, 45*@ 45*?7\0E). ^These vary from 4-114 \0m depth with
J05 145 permanent ice-caps that are 3 \0m or more thick (Pickard &
J05 146 Adamson 1983). ^Lakes dammed by ice are found throughout the
J05 147 Ross Dependency and include Trough Lake behind the Koettlitz
J05 148 Glacier at the head of the Alph River.
J05 149 *<*4Ablation Lake: An ice dammed lake in contact with the sea*>
J05 150 |^An unusual group of lakes, later termed epishelf lakes
J05 151 (Heywood 1977a) were first described in the Schirmachervatna
J05 152 (70*@\0S, ll*@\0E) as freshwaters that exhibited tidal shifts
J05 153 in lake level over irregular semi-diurnal periods. ^The waters
J05 154 here are dammed by thick ice that extends 90 \0km to the north.
J05 155 ^Representatives of this type of lake have been subsequently
J05 156 recorded in the Antarctic Peninsula region. ^The best described
J05 157 of these is Ablation Lake which lies adjacent to Alexander
J05 158 Island next to the 100-500 \0m thick ice shelf floating on
J05 159 George *=VI *0Sound (Heywood 1977b). ^The bottom waters of the
J05 160 lake appear to be connected to the open sea which lies 100 \0km
J05 161 away. ^The upper 55 \0m layer of the lake is freshwater
J05 162 (salinity 0.1 to 1 {0ppt}) capped by permanent ice that is
J05 163 about 4 \0m thick in winter and 3 \0m thick in summer. ^Below
J05 164 55 \0m there is a sharp pycnocline, and the salinity rises
J05 165 abruptly to 32 {0ppt} at 66.5 \0m and below. ^The lake surface
J05 166 rises and falls with an irregular diurnal rhythm, and a maximum
J05 167 tidal range of 0.65 \0m. ^The bottom seawater extends 4 \0km
J05 168 into the lake. ^This marine intrusion has a temperature of
J05 169 -2*@\0C and therefore acts as an effective heat sink for the
J05 170 freshwater on top which remains more or less isothermal at
J05 171 about +0.1*@\0C.
J05 172    |^Observations in late summer (February) showed that the
J05 173 shallow water region of Ablation Lake had a relatively sparse
J05 174 film of periphytic algae. ^Planktonic chlorophyll *1a *0levels
J05 175 were 0.5 \0mg \0m*:-3**: down to 20 \0m, but were in slightly
J05 176 higher concentrations (0.65 \0mg \0m*:-3**:) just beneath the
J05 177 ice. ^A maximum photosynthetic rate for the water column to 20
J05 178 \0m was 6 \0mg \0C \0m*:-3**: \0d*:-1**: beneath the ice, with
J05 179 an integral rate of 60 \0mg \0C \0m*:-2**: \0d*:-1**:. ^The
J05 180 water column was highly transparent with an extinction
J05 181 coefficient for blue light (460 \0nm wavelength) of 0.08
J05 182 \0m*:-1**:, but only 15-20% of surface light penetrated the
J05 183 ice-cover under snow-free conditions.
J05 184    |^The fauna of the upper freshwater strata of Ablation Lake
J05 185 included *1{6Pseudoboeckella poppei}, *0a non-marine planktonic
J05 186 copepod that is found throughout the Peninsula region. ^A
J05 187 common antarctic marine benthic fish, *1{6Trematomus
J05 188 bernacchii} *0occurs in the bottom seawater layer of the lake.
J05 189 ^These fish were caught at 70 \0m and showed *"signs of acute
J05 190 distress**" when they were brought to the surface indicating
J05 191 that they were unable to tolerate the upper freshwater
J05 192 conditions. ^An unidentified cyclopoid copepod was collected at
J05 193 depths below 40 \0m over a wide range of salinities of 0.6-32
J05 194 {0ppt} suggesting that this species is well suited to brackish
J05 195 water conditions within the epishelf lake environment. ^The
J05 196 sediments at the bottom of the seawater layer contained viable
J05 197 foraminifera and at least 11 species of diatoms (Lipps {0et
J05 198 al.} 1977).
J05 199 *<*6RISE: *4An ice shelf aquatic ecosystem*>
J05 200 |^*0The western extension of the Ross Ice Shelf near McMurdo
J05 201 Sound, known as the McMurdo Ice Shelf, contains a large number
J05 202 of frozen pools and streams that melt out for 1-2 months each
J05 203 summer (Plate 4), collectively referred to here as the Ross Ice
J05 204 Shelf Ecosystem ({0RISE}). ^Micro-algae are visibly abundant in
J05 205 these meltwaters, but although this system is probably the
J05 206 largest non-marine aquatic environment in the McMurdo Region
J05 207 (Brady 1980) it has been very little explored.
J05 208    |^The system encompasses an ablation area of more than 2000
J05 209 \0km*:2**: with 10-60% of it in mid summer being shallow open
J05 210 water flowing over ice and moraine. ^There is a large amount of
J05 211 sediment material distributed across this region, including a
J05 212 number of well-defined, elevated drift bands (Plate 4) that are
J05 213 oriented in a north-south direction. ^These drift lines are
J05 214 believed to be derived from marine sediments at the zones of
J05 215 grounding of the ice shelf, and radio carbon dates of
J05 216 microfossils in this material systematically increase with
J05 217 distance northwards to a maximum age of about 5000-6000 years
J05 218 (Kellogg & Kellogg 1984).
J05 219 *#
J06 001 **[300 TEXT J06**]
J06 002    |^*0Cuttings of *1\6Spartina *0(probably *1{6\0S.
J06 003 townsendii}*0) were first planted at Mapua and in Westhaven
J06 004 Inlet about 1932 (Russ 1975) but they did not thrive. ^A dozen
J06 005 plants from Essex, {0U.K.}, were planted by {0W.G.} Thomson in
J06 006 Moutere Inlet in 1947. ^In 1948 the Nelson Harbour Board made
J06 007 trial plantings in Waimea estuary and Nelson Haven, using 1000
J06 008 plants of the more vigorous *1{6Spartina anglica}, *0collected
J06 009 from estuaries near Invercargill. ^Since then private
J06 010 individuals have made additional plantings, mostly using plants
J06 011 obtained from the earlier Nelson trials. ^However, after
J06 012 initial enthusiasm for *1\6Spartina's *0vigorous colonising
J06 013 abilities, largely from agriculturalists ({0e.g.} Allan 1930,
J06 014 Harbord 1947), observers throughout New Zealand advised more
J06 015 caution in its use ({0e.g.} Blick 1965) and more recently
J06 016 advocated its eradication. ^A 1975 Amendment to the Harbours
J06 017 Act 1950 prohibited further planting of introduced species
J06 018 (which include *1\6Spartina *0\0spp.) in any tidal waters.
J06 019    |^A detailed survey of the distribution of *1\6Spartina
J06 020 *0along the Tasman and Golden Bay coastline was carried out by
J06 021 the Wildlife Service in September 1975. ^From this survey it
J06 022 was concluded that although *1\6Spartina had spread widely from
J06 023 the original plantings, and was still doing so, it was not too
J06 024 late to eradicate it from the Golden Bay areas and the Riwaka
J06 025 and Moutere Inlets. ^Waimea Inlet was so heavily infested that
J06 026 to eradicate *1\6Spartina *0would require a large and expensive
J06 027 control programme (Russ 1975). ^After a meeting of all groups
J06 028 concerned with estuaries, the Wildlife Service undertook to
J06 029 begin eradication operations, using knapsack sprayers in a
J06 030 low-key operation in specific localities (Plate 53).
J06 031 ^*1\6Spartina *0is now almost eradicated from Whanganui Inlet,
J06 032 Golden Bay and some of Tasman Bay. ^A larger scale operation
J06 033 (aerial spraying) with the assistance of the Ministry of
J06 034 Transport and the Harbour Board  will be used during 1984/ 85
J06 035 to control the heavy investation in Waimea Inlet ({0B D} Bell,
J06 036 {0pers. comm.}).
J06 037    |^Apart from some feeding on it by pukeko (Blick 1965,
J06 038 Bascand 1970), *1\6Spartina *0is not known to be used by other
J06 039 wildlife in New Zealand. ^In North American estuarine systems,
J06 040 *1\6Spartina *0is regarded as a major producer of organic
J06 041 material for detritus feeders, and doubtless it performs this
J06 042 role in New Zealand as well. ^Nevertheless, the loss of
J06 043 non-vegetated tidal habitat and replacement of indigenous
J06 044 saltmarsh communities are the main reasons for the Wildlife
J06 045 Service's efforts to eradicate *1\6Spartina.
J06 046 *<*45.  *7THE FAUNA*>
J06 047 *<*05.1  *3LARGE LAND SNAILS*>
J06 048    |^*0New Zealand has more than 1000 species of endemic
J06 049 native land snails, mostly less than 3 \0mm diameter. ^The
J06 050 giants of the land snail fauna belong to the genera
J06 051 *1{6Powelliphanta, Paryphanta} *0and *1\6Placostylus *0and,
J06 052 while the last two are not found in the survey area, the
J06 053 majority of forms of *1\6Powelliphanta *0are in Nelson, Buller,
J06 054 Marlborough Sounds and Levin. ^The Nelson *1\6Powelliphanta
J06 055 *0are discussed in some detail below.
J06 056    |^*1\6Powelliphanta *0have large, often brightly coloured
J06 057 and ornamented shells. ^A few species are alpine, living under
J06 058 tussock and scrub near the bushline, but most live in native
J06 059 forest. ^Though the range of a few species of *1\6Powelliphanta
J06 060 *0is extensive, the distribution of most is confined to
J06 061 relatively small areas. ^*1\6Powelliphanta *0feed during warm,
J06 062 wet nights, and spend the day under damp litter or logs. ^They
J06 063 are carnivorous, eating mainly native bush worms and slugs.
J06 064    |^*1\6Powelliphanta *0is an ancient endemic New Zealand
J06 065 genus. ^Like the tuatara and kiwi, it probably reached New
J06 066 Zealand before the break up of the Gondwanaland continent and
J06 067 has evolved in isolation from the rest of the world since then
J06 068 (Stevens 1980). ^Their present pattern of distribution *- with
J06 069 many species occurring within a small area of the northern
J06 070 South Island *- apparently reflects the recent geological past
J06 071 when the relatively warm North-west Nelson acted as a refuge
J06 072 for plants and animals during the Pleistocene ice ages. ^While
J06 073 *1\6Powelliphanta's *0origins are still not fully understood,
J06 074 its present distribution has been helpful in determining the
J06 075 number and timing of land bridges connecting the North and
J06 076 South Islands during the Pleistocene (Te Punga 1953).
J06 077    |^While the taxonomy of *1\6Powelliphanta *0is still
J06 078 subject to debate, {0A W B} Powell's classification, which
J06 079 included 10 species, 37 subspecies and 4 forms, is the most
J06 080 widely known and used and will be followed here. ^Climo (1979)
J06 081 reclassified the genus into only 2 species, but none-the-less
J06 082 argues that every population of *1\6Powelliphanta *0is
J06 083 important and should be preserved.
J06 084 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J06 085 (\0Dr \0F. Climo, {0pers. comm.} 1981).
J06 086    |^As with other large, ancient, ground-inhabiting
J06 087 invertebrates, reptiles, and birds endemic to New Zealand,
J06 088 *1\6Powelliphanta *0were badly affected by the changes which
J06 089 occurred when New Zealand was colonised by man. ^As the plains
J06 090 and valleys of Nelson were cleared, the lowland
J06 091 *1\6Powelliphanta *0became restricted to a few small forest
J06 092 remnants. ^Today the forest stands are usually unfenced and
J06 093 consequently grazing and trampling by stock has lead to the
J06 094 drying out and destruction of much of the remaining snail
J06 095 habitat; in addition, predation by introduced rats in such
J06 096 remnants is a major problem. ^While less of the upland country
J06 097 was cleared, in places feral goats, pigs, deer and possums
J06 098 greatly modified the forest litter habitat, leaving the snails
J06 099 vulnerable to drying out and exposed to native predators such
J06 100 as weka, as well as introduced predators such as rats, pigs,
J06 101 stoats and blackbirds. ^People also found the land snails'
J06 102 shells attractive, and in the past many live snails were
J06 103 collected from the more accessible colonies. ^Today
J06 104 *1\6Powelliphanta *0are becoming more widely recognised as
J06 105 being just as *"uniquely New Zealand**" as the kiwi, and both
J06 106 the live animal and its shell have full legal protection under
J06 107 the Wildlife Amendment Act 1980. ^The Wildlife Service is
J06 108 trying to ensure the survival of all *1\6Powelliphanta *0taxa
J06 109 through the protection of habitat: fencing important forest
J06 110 remnants, poisoning rats in the habitat of the most vulnerable
J06 111 subspecies, and establishing small reserves. ^They are also
J06 112 attempting to learn more of the basic biology of the land snail
J06 113 so populations can be manipulated if necessary ({0e.g.} captive
J06 114 breeding, island transfers).
J06 115    |^At present applications to prospect for coal and minerals
J06 116 are being sought over much of North-west Nelson and
J06 117 consequently over some snail habitat. ^While some types of
J06 118 prospecting have little effect on wildlife values, prospecting
J06 119 or mining which affects colonies of snails of very restricted
J06 120 distribution, or which involves substantial changes to the
J06 121 habitat, would be the subject of strong objections by the
J06 122 Wildlife Service. ^Within the survey area there are 6 species
J06 123 of *1\6Powelliphanta *0with 22 subspecies (for distribution,
J06 124 see \0Fig 4).
J06 125 *<*1{6Powelliphanta hochstetteri}*>
J06 126    |^*0(Distribution: Map 1, Appendix 1) Three subspecies of
J06 127 this large (up to 75 \0mm diameter) snail are present in
J06 128 Nelson, all in high altitude beech forest. ^*1{6{0P.h.}
J06 129 hochstetteri} *0(see cover photo) in the northern \0Mt Arthur
J06 130 Range/ Cobb/ Pikikiruna Range area has a relatively extensive
J06 131 range, most of which is moderately to severely damaged by feral
J06 132 goats, pigs, and in places, stock. ^On the Takaka Hill there
J06 133 continues to be a steady loss of habitat as beech forest on
J06 134 private land is clearfelled. ^*1{6{0P.h.} anatokiensis}
J06 135 *0occurs on the western slopes of the Haupiri Range in
J06 136 relatively intact habitat. ^*1{6{0P.h.} consobrina} *0is
J06 137 present on the Bryant Range, and also the \0Mt Richmond Range
J06 138 (just east of the survey area). ^In addition to the ubiquitous
J06 139 deer and possum, feral pigs and goats are present and
J06 140 throughout much of this snail's range the forest habitat has
J06 141 been badly damaged.
J06 142 *<*1{6Powelliphanta superba}*>
J06 143    |^*0(Distribution: Map 2, Appendix 1) ^Five subspecies of
J06 144 this snail have been described but their relationship is
J06 145 complex and not yet fully understood. ^They have very large (up
J06 146 to 95 \0mm diameter) golden-yellow or reddish shells, and live
J06 147 in high altitude forest and scrub in the Aorere-Heaphy area.
J06 148 ^*1{6{0P.s.} superba} *0occurs on both sides of the Aorere
J06 149 valley on the Wakamarama and Haupiri Ranges, while *1{6{0P.s.}
J06 150 prouseorum, {0P.s.} harveyi, {0P.s.} mouatae} *0and *1{6{0P.s.}
J06 151 richardsoni} *0live in the Gouland Downs/ Mackay Downs area. ^A
J06 152 previously undescribed *1\6Powelliphanta *0was found in the
J06 153 headwaters of the Gunner River during a Wildlife Service survey
J06 154 in 1982 (Walker 1982). ^Dubbed *1{6\0P. *0*"Gunner River**"}
J06 155 but still not formally named, this snail is probably also a
J06 156 subspecies of *1{6\0P. superba}.
J06 157    |^*0Goats are present on the foothills of the Wakamarama
J06 158 Range but elsewhere the habitat is relatively intact. ^This
J06 159 species occurs largely within North-west Nelson State Forest
J06 160 Park, over which many coal and mineral prospecting licences are
J06 161 presently held or sought. ^The wildlife value of some sites is
J06 162 outstanding and should be considered in any decisions about
J06 163 prospecting or mining. ^In 1980 on Cedar Creek Ridge, the type
J06 164 locality for *1{6{0P.s.} superba}, *0many snails were killed
J06 165 when a controlled fire in the valley spread into neighbouring
J06 166 forest and scrub.
J06 167 *<*1{6Powelliphanta annectens}*>
J06 168    |^*0(Distribution: Map 2, Appendix 1) ^This large snail,
J06 169 which has a deep reddish-brown, axially banded shell, appears
J06 170 to merge clinally with *1{6\0P. superba} *0in the north (Walker
J06 171 1982). ^It is largely found in high altitude beech forest on
J06 172 the western slopes of Gunner Downs, and in beech/ podocarp
J06 173 forest in the Oparara Basin. ^Snail shells found in the
J06 174 recently discovered Honeycomb Cave in the Oparara show that
J06 175 *1{6\0P. annectens} *0has existed, apparently little changed, in
J06 176 the area for at least 14,700 years, when the primeval rain
J06 177 forest also supported New Zealand's extinct eagle, wrens, and
J06 178 moas (\0Dr \0F Climo, {0pers. comm.}). ^Although the Oparara is
J06 179 part of North-west Nelson Forest Park, it is just outside the
J06 180 Nelson survey area and is considered in a separate report
J06 181 (Walker 1982).
J06 182    |^In the forests on the flanks of the Gunner Downs, deer
J06 183 have grazed the ground layer and understorey heavily, exposing
J06 184 the snails to natural predators including weka and parrot (kaka
J06 185 or kea) as well as to the introduced blackbird. ^While the
J06 186 original range of *1{6\0P. annectens} *0was relatively
J06 187 extensive, loss of over 30% of this to logging and exotic
J06 188 conversion in the Oparara means that the importance of
J06 189 protecting the relatively remote colonies on the slopes of the
J06 190 Gunner Downs is increased.
J06 191 *<*1{6Powelliphanta lignaria}*>
J06 192    |^*0(Distribution: Map 3, Appendix 1) ^Although largely a
J06 193 north Westland species, the range of three of the seven
J06 194 subspecies of *1{6\0P. lignaria} *0lies partially or completely
J06 195 within the Nelson survey area. ^*1{6\0P.l. unicolorata} *0is a
J06 196 small snail, with a plain olive-brown coloured shell while
J06 197 *1{6\0P.l. ruforadiata} *0is larger and spirally striped with
J06 198 irregular rufous bands: the habitat of both subspecies is
J06 199 lowland beech/ podocarp/ broadleaf forest, particularly on
J06 200 limestone. ^*1{6\0P.l. ruforadiata} *0occurs in Maori Gully
J06 201 north of the Mokihinui Forks and on the northern side of the
J06 202 Mokihinui River gorge. ^*1{6\0P.l. unicolorata} *0lives beside
J06 203 the South Branch of the Mokihinui River and on the south bank
J06 204 of the Mokihinui River gorge, as far downstream as Seddonville
J06 205 (west of the survey area). ^Clearance of most forest around
J06 206 Seddonville has left the upper Mokihinui as the stronghold for
J06 207 this subspecies. ^Rats are a problem in these lowland forests,
J06 208 as are feral goats which are damaging the snail habitat. ^A
J06 209 number of land-use changes have been proposed for the Mokihinui
J06 210 flats, including flooding them by damming the river at the
J06 211 Forks; and logging the podocarp forest ({0NZFS} 1981): at
J06 212 present inaccessibility makes both plans uneconomic. ^The
J06 213 Wildlife Service would be very concerned should any such
J06 214 schemes take
J06 215 **[PLATE**]
J06 216 place in this important area. ^*1{6\0P.l. oconnori}, *0a large,
J06 217 strongly striped snail, lives near the limestone bluffs on the
J06 218 western flanks of the southern Arthur Range, and in the lower
J06 219 Karamea River *- Little Wanganui River area. ^Rat predation is
J06 220 considerable in the low altitude colonies, and goats, spreading
J06 221 from the Arthur Range, are damaging the forest habitat.
J06 222 *<*1{6Powelliphanta gilliesi}*>
J06 223    |^*0(Distribution: Map 4, Appendix 1) ^Nine subspecies of
J06 224 *1{6\0P. gilliesi} *0have been described, all confined to small
J06 225 areas of north-western Golden Bay.
J06 226 *#
J07 001 **[301 TEXT J07**]
J07 002 |^*0Hydro-lakes or water storage impoundments may be natural
J07 003 lakes whose outlet streams or rivers are dammed, or lentic
J07 004 water bodies created by the damming of rivers. ^Examples of the
J07 005 former are Lakes Waikaremoana, Hawea and Pukaki, whereas the
J07 006 eight Waikato hydro-lakes are good examples of the latter.
J07 007 ^Man-made impoundments are the more common on a world-wide
J07 008 scale (Baxter, 1977) and they tend to differ from natural lakes
J07 009 in several ways. ^In terms of basin morphometry they are
J07 010 usually deepest immediately in front of the dam, shoreline
J07 011 development is high and shore modification is marked. ^As well
J07 012 as circulating currents, reservoirs possess a longitudinal
J07 013 current (inlet to outlet), and the rate of water renewal is
J07 014 faster than in most natural lakes.
J07 015    |^Chemical inputs to newly created impoundments are often
J07 016 high as a result of leaching from newly flooded vegetation and
J07 017 soil. ^This period of enrichment may last several years but
J07 018 over time water quality can be expected to increase.
J07 019 ^Sedimentation as a result of bank erosion, river inputs and
J07 020 sheet erosion is also characteristic, its magnitude depending
J07 021 on rainfall, soil, vegetation cover, slope and land use. ^In
J07 022 the short term, sedimentation combined with the leaching of
J07 023 humic and other substances from soil and plants may result in
J07 024 at least local oxygen depletion within a reservoir, but, in the
J07 025 long term, impoundment is likely to improve the quality of
J07 026 water for domestic and industrial use. ^This is because solids
J07 027 are settled out and in many cases both the colour and bacterial
J07 028 populations decrease (Baxter, 1977). ^These physico-chemical
J07 029 features and other factors considered below help determine the
J07 030 nature of the animal communities in artificial lakes.
J07 031 *<*4Plankton*>
J07 032    |^*0Following the damming of a river, the original running
J07 033 water (lotic) fauna is replaced by slow- and stillwater
J07 034 (lentic) species which can be categorized as benthic, marginal
J07 035 (littoral) or planktonic forms depending on the habitats they
J07 036 occupy. ^Flow conditions under which plankton become
J07 037 established are somewhat variable, but the upper flow limit
J07 038 according to Russian workers is about 0.2 {0m/sec} (Baxter,
J07 039 1977). ^Phytoplankton blooms frequently occur soon after
J07 040 initial flooding and in this country Vidal & Maris-McArthur
J07 041 (1973) recorded blooms of *1{6Melosira granulata} *0and very
J07 042 large populations of a copepod, *1{6Boeckella propinqua} *0as
J07 043 the Tiritea reservoir (Palmerston North water supply) was
J07 044 filled inundating forest and scrub. ^However, following the
J07 045 impoundment of Southern Indian Lake in northern Manitoba,
J07 046 Canada, zooplankton biomass decreased 30-40 per cent mostly as
J07 047 a result of declines in numbers of Cladocera and small,
J07 048 cyclopoid copepods. ^This response and a spectacular increase
J07 049 in numbers of *1{6Mysis relicta} *0were attributed to a
J07 050 lowering of water temperature following impoundment and reduced
J07 051 predation because of lower lake transparency (Hecky *1{0et
J07 052 al.}, *01984).
J07 053    |^Zooplankton communities in New Zealand are lacking in
J07 054 diversity, particularly with respect to the small Crustacea
J07 055 many of which are ubiquitous in occurrence. ^In the Waikato
J07 056 River hydro-lakes Chapman *1{0et al.}, *0(1975) recorded the
J07 057 copepods *1{6Boeckella minuta, \0B. propinqua} *0and
J07 058 *1{6Calamoecia lucasi} *0(sometimes together which is unusual)
J07 059 and the cladocerans *1{6Bosmina meridionalis} *0and
J07 060 *1{6Ceriodaphnia dubia}. ^*0Whitehouse (1980) found only four
J07 061 species (*1{6Boeckella dilatata}, *0a cyclopoid
J07 062 *1{6Macrocyclops albidus, \0B. meridionalis} *0and *1{6\0C.
J07 063 dubia}*0) in the Waitaki hydro-lakes. ^However, she found that
J07 064 at least 11 rotifers were present as well and that they could
J07 065 contribute substantially to secondary production and nutrient
J07 066 cycling in Lakes Aviemore, Waitaki and the Ahuriri Arm of
J07 067 Benmore.
J07 068    |^In contrast, zooplankton production in the Main Arm of
J07 069 Lake Benmore is probably due almost entirely to *1{6\0B.
J07 070 dilatata}. ^*0Zooplankton occupies the whole water column in
J07 071 Aviemore and Waitaki (maximum depths of 35 \0m and 16-20 \0m,
J07 072 respectively) and is found to at least 50 \0m in Benmore.
J07 073 ^Standing stocks in the former two lakes are affected greatly
J07 074 by losses via the outflows; Whitehouse (1980) calculated that
J07 075 immigration from the lake immediately upstream often
J07 076 contributed as much or more to the standing stock of
J07 077 *1{6Keratella cochlearis} *0(a rotifer), *1{6\0B. meridionalis}
J07 078 *0and *1{6\0B. dilatata} *0as did reproduction. ^Because water
J07 079 has such a short residence time in Lake Waitaki in particular
J07 080 (0.8-3.2 days) it is not surprising that there is little
J07 081 opportunity for a distinct, resident zooplankton community to
J07 082 develop.
J07 083    |^Similarly, the zooplankton of Benmore appears to reflect
J07 084 that of Lakes Pukaki, Tekapo and Ohau in the headwaters of the
J07 085 Waitaki system (Stout, 1978). ^These lakes receive water from
J07 086 glacial and snow-fed rivers with a high silt load and possess
J07 087 zooplankton communities dominated by rotifers in Pukaki (the
J07 088 siltiest lake), *1{6\0B. dilatata} *0in Tekapo, and *1{6\0B.
J07 089 meridionalis} *0in Ohau (the clearest lake). ^Although one
J07 090 might suspect these differences in dominance to be associated
J07 091 with levels of siltation, the composition and seasonal
J07 092 distribution of zooplankton in Lake Ohau (and also Benmore)
J07 093 appears to have been affected very little by increases in lake
J07 094 water turbidity recorded between 1976 and 1979 (Stout, 1981).
J07 095 *<*4Benthos*>
J07 096    |^*0In temperate regions, the first benthic colonists are
J07 097 usually oligochaetes derived from the original drowned stream,
J07 098 and/or species of Chironomidae (non-biting midges) (Baxter,
J07 099 1977). ^Drowned trees may provide habitats for some insect
J07 100 larvae but decomposition of submerged vegetation can also lead
J07 101 to oxygen depletion in the deep waters of a reservoir. ^Where
J07 102 this is the case, benthic animals are likely to be confined to
J07 103 shallower parts of the basin. ^With time, the composition of
J07 104 the benthic fauna should approach that of a natural lake and
J07 105 may exhibit a temporal succession from eutrophic to
J07 106 oligotrophic species (Baxter, 1977).
J07 107    |^Following impoundment of Southern Indian Lake, the
J07 108 density  of the zoobenthos generally increased but no
J07 109 significant changes in community composition were found. ^In
J07 110 places, the fauna responded to localized nutrient and organic
J07 111 inputs from flooded shorelines and a major source of organic
J07 112 substrate, black spruce needles, was quickly colonized and
J07 113 broken down by chironomids (Hecky *1{0et al.}, *01984).
J07 114 ^Similarly, Voshell & Simmons (1984) found that first
J07 115 colonizers of shallow (< 7 \0m) areas of Lake Anna, a new
J07 116 mainstream impoundment in Virginia, {0USA} appeared to be
J07 117 dependent primarily on components of the formerly terrestrial
J07 118 ecosystem for food and habitat. ^In the first three years of
J07 119 impoundment, zoobenthos density increased steadily with
J07 120 chironomids becoming increasingly dominant as autochthonous
J07 121 factors began to regulate succession.
J07 122    |^In man-made Barrier reservoir, Alberta (Fillion, 1967),
J07 123 chironomids initially made up 98 per cent of the fauna but in
J07 124 subsequent years their dominance was reduced. ^Fourteen years
J07 125 after impoundment they constituted only 68 per cent of benthos
J07 126 numbers, the remainder being oligochaetes (10.6 per cent) and
J07 127 bivalves of the genus *1\6Pisidium *0(21.4 per cent) which
J07 128 invaded from the Kananaskis Lakes upstream. ^Tubificidae made
J07 129 up 98 per cent of animal numbers in a deep, 26-year-old
J07 130 Colorado
J07 131 **[Table**]
J07 132 reservoir, a situation considered by Edmonds & Ward (1979) to
J07 133 be typical of oligotrophic lakes, and lakes of great depth in
J07 134 general.
J07 135    |^In New Zealand, the work of Timms (1980, 1982, 1983,
J07 136 1984), Forsyth (1975, 1978), Forsyth & McCallum (1981) and
J07 137 Graham & Burns (1983) provides the most valuable insights into
J07 138 the nature and environmental relationships of lake benthos.
J07 139 ^The three large Waitaki lakes, Tekapo, Pukaki and Ohau, as
J07 140 well as the Waitaki Valley reservoirs, Benmore, Aviemore and
J07 141 Waitaki were included in the South Island lake survey of Timms
J07 142 (1982). ^Benthic habitats sampled appeared to be fairly
J07 143 homogeneous and apart from Waitaki, the oldest reservoir with
J07 144 the shortest retention time, faunal densities were low compared
J07 145 with those in most other lakes examined (see Table 1). ^Species
J07 146 richness was also low, a mean of seven species per lake,
J07 147 compared with 12.4 for all 20 South Island lakes surveyed, and
J07 148 a mean of 14.4 species recorded by Forsyth (1978) for seven
J07 149 North Island lakes. ^Dominant taxa in the Waitaki series were
J07 150 Tubificidae (principally *1{6Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri}*0),
J07 151 *1\6Chironomus, *0Macropelopiini (Chironomidae) and the
J07 152 gastropod, *1{6Potamopyrgus antipodarum}. ^*0The soft, silty
J07 153 bed of Lake Roxburgh on the Clutha River also had a benthic
J07 154 fauna dominated by oligochaetes when sampled by Winter (1964)
J07 155 in 1962 when just over five years old. ^However, unlike the
J07 156 Waitaki lakes, Sphaeriidae (pea mussels) were the subdominant
J07 157 group in a very dense fauna averaging 15800 individuals per
J07 158 \0m*:2**:.
J07 159    |^Chironomids, oligochaetes and molluscs comprised over 99
J07 160 per cent of the benthos in the Rotorua lakes discussed by
J07 161 Forsyth (1978). ^Main (1976) found that oligochaetes and
J07 162 *1{6\0P. antipodarum} *0each made up about 45 per cent of
J07 163 animal numbers on the fine, silt-clay bottom of regulated Lake
J07 164 Waikaremoana. ^Lake Taupo, the source of the Waikato River with
J07 165 its chain of eight hydroelectric lakes also has a benthic fauna
J07 166 dominated by Oligochaeta, Chironomidae (especially
J07 167 *1\6Chironomus *0\0spp.), *1{6\0P. antipodarum} *0and
J07 168 Sphaeriidae (Forsyth & McCallum, 1981). ^Its fauna therefore is
J07 169 not unlike that of other lakes of the volcanic plateau and the
J07 170 Waikato hydro-lakes can be expected to have the same complement
J07 171 of species.
J07 172 *<*4Marginal Fauna*>
J07 173    |^*0The development of biological communities along the
J07 174 margins of reservoirs is dominated by the practice of drawdown
J07 175 (Baxter, 1977). ^Even short periods of exposure can lead to the
J07 176 stranding and elimination of aquatic animals, although some
J07 177 protection from desiccation may be provided by logs, roots,
J07 178 stones \0etc. ^Also, some small invertebrates are able to move
J07 179 vertically down into the sediments where they remain protected;
J07 180 Fillion (1967) found that some chironomid larvae were still
J07 181 alive after 85 days**[SIC**] exposure in the drawdown zone.
J07 182    |^Impoundment of a lake outflow and consequent raising of
J07 183 the marginal zone may result in a change in species dominance
J07 184 without much modification of overall community composition
J07 185 (Paterson & Fernando, 1969). ^On the other hand, the damming of
J07 186 a river or stream will result in the replacement of a running
J07 187 water fauna with still water and facultative species. ^Initial
J07 188 colonization of a newly created shore can be a very rapid and
J07 189 active process and in Canada, Paterson & Fernando (1969) found
J07 190 that colonization of a newly formed impoundment was essentially
J07 191 complete in the summer following filling in spring. ^Of the 55
J07 192 taxa they identified, 34 were facultative rather than strictly
J07 193 lentic species and had lived among the banks and terrestrial
J07 194 vegetation hanging in the water of the stream which was
J07 195 subsequently drowned.
J07 196    |^The presence of a comparable source of potential
J07 197 colonists in New Zealand is shown by Carpenter's (1982) faunal
J07 198 surveys in overhanging grass fringes of lowland, Canterbury
J07 199 rivers. ^Of the 43 freshwater species found by him, at least 26
J07 200 are known to occur in lakes as well. ^Similarly, evidence for
J07 201 the existence of a pool of invertebrates able to colonize
J07 202 macrophytes in newly created, South Island hydro-lakes ({0e.g.}
J07 203 in the Upper Clutha) is given by Biggs & Malthus (1981, 1982a)
J07 204 who found that many of the species which now occur on submerged
J07 205 plants in Lakes Wanaka and Roxburgh also inhabit backwaters of
J07 206 the Clutha River. ^Extensive macrophyte development can be
J07 207 expected in newly created impoundments on the Clutha (Biggs &
J07 208 Malthus, 1981) and the faunas associated with plants are likely
J07 209 to be dominated by snails (*1{6Potamopyrgus antipodarum, Physa
J07 210 acuta} *0and *1{6Gyraulus corinna}*0), larval caddisflies and
J07 211 chironomids. ^These taxa usually predominate on macrophytes in
J07 212 Lakes Wanaka and Roxburgh (Biggs & Malthus, 1982a), Waitaki and
J07 213 Aviemore (Greig, 1973), Ohau (Kirk & Henriques, 1982) and
J07 214 Waikaremoana (Mylechreest, 1978), as they do in
J07 215 glacially-formed Lake Grasmere where Stark (1981) has made an
J07 216 intensive study of macrophyte-invertebrate associations.
J07 217    |^Stony shores, as in Lakes Aviemore and Waitaki also may
J07 218 have fairly diverse faunas of snails, oligochaetes, chironomids
J07 219 and caddis and in Waitaki, Greig (1973) found that density and
J07 220 diversity of invertebrates was greatest low in the drawdown
J07 221 zone where most fine sediment and organic matter was deposited.
J07 222 ^Tubificidae, *1{6\0P. antipodarum} *0and Chironomidae
J07 223 (Orthocladiinae and Macropelopiini) were also well represented
J07 224 in uncompacted silt and mud beneath macrophytes and where
J07 225 periphyton was present. ^An unstable, eroding shore and the
J07 226 presence of compacted silt, limits stone and bare sediment
J07 227 faunas in Lake Aviemore, while in Lake Roxburgh rapid (3-5
J07 228 {0cm/h}) and regular changes in water level have resulted in
J07 229 the formation of sorted, compacted sediments which provide an
J07 230 unfavourable shoreline environment (Winter, 1964).
J07 231 *#
J08 001 **[302 TEXT J08**]
J08 002    |^*0The subgenus *1{6Cymatium (Septa)} *0is here restricted
J08 003 to species closely related to *1{6\0C. rubeculum} *0(Linne*?2,
J08 004 1758). ^A lectotype is designated for *1{6\0C. rubeculum},
J08 005 *0neotypes are designated for *1{6\0C. hepaticum} *0(Ro"ding,
J08 006 1798) and *1{6\0C. flaveolum} *0(Ro"ding, 1798), *1{6\0C.
J08 007 occidentale} *0(Mo"rch, 1877) (= *1\6blacketi *0Iredale, 1936;
J08 008 = *1\6beui *0Garcia-Talavera, 1985) is recorded from the 
J08 009 Indo-West Pacific, *1{6\0C. (Septa) marerubrum} *0Garcia-Talavera,
J08 010 1985 is ranked as a geographic subspecies of *1{6\0C.
J08 011 rubeculum}, *0and three new taxa are named: *1{6\0C. (Septa)
J08 012 bibbeyi} *0{0n. sp.}, Philippine Islands; *1{6\0C. (Septa)
J08 013 closeli} *0{0n. sp.}, Indian Ocean; and *1{6\0C. (Septa)
J08 014 peasei} *0{0n. sp.}, western Pacific. ^In the subgenus
J08 015 *1{6Cymatium (Ranularia)}, *0neotypes are designated for
J08 016 *1{6\0C. gutturnium} *0(Ro"ding, 1798) and its synonyms, for
J08 017 *1{6\0C. moniliferum} *0(\0A. Adams & Reeve, 1850), and for
J08 018 *1{6\0C. pyrulum} *0(\0A. Adams & Reeve, 1850), a lectotype is
J08 019 designated for *1{6\0C. pseudopyrum} *0(Martin, 1899) (a junior
J08 020 synonym of *1{6\0C. pyrulum}), *0other species distinguished
J08 021 are *1{6\0C. encausticum} *0(Reeve, 1844) and *1{6\0C. exile}
J08 022 (Reeve, 1844), and new taxa named are {6\0C. andamanense}
J08 023 *0{0n. sp.}, Andaman Islands, *1{6\0C. springsteeni} *0{0n.
J08 024 sp.}, western Pacific and Red Sea, and *1{6\0C. sinense
J08 025 arthuri} *0{0n. subsp.}, Red Sea. ^Other Ranellidae named are
J08 026 *1{6Sassia (Sassia) ponderi} *0{0n. sp.}, Queensland, and
J08 027 *1{6Distorsio (Distorsio) euconstricta} *0{0n. sp.}, Indian
J08 028 Ocean and southwest Pacific. ^A lectotype selected for
J08 029 *1{6Murex reticularis} *0Linne*?2, 1758 is a specimen of the
J08 030 species usually known as *1{6Distorsio reticulata} *0(Ro"ding,
J08 031 1798).
J08 032    |^In *1{6Bursa (Bursa)}, *0a lectotype is designated for
J08 033 *1{6\0B. grayana} *0Dunker, 1862 (= *1{6\0B. bufoniopsis}
J08 034 *0Maury, 1917; = *1{6\0B. pacamoni} *0Matthews & Coelho, 1971),
J08 035 western Atlantic, and the similar new Oman to Philippines
J08 036 species *1{6\0B. davidboschi} *0is named. ^Other *1\6Bursa
J08 037 *0taxa named are *1{6\0B. (Colubrellina) quirihorai} *0{0n.
J08 038 sp.}, Philippines, and *1{6\0B. (Colubrellina) latitudo
J08 039 fosteri} *0{0n. subsp.}, Philippines. ^In *1{6Bufonaria
J08 040 (Bufonaria)}, *0a lectotype designated for *1{6Murex rana}
J08 041 *0Linne*?2, 1758 confirms that as the name for the most common
J08 042 western Pacific species, a lectotype designated for *1{6Ranella
J08 043 crumena} *0Lamarck, 1816 confirms that as the name for the most
J08 044 common Indian Ocean species, *1{6\0B. elegans} *0(Beck in {0G.
J08 045 B.} Sowerby *=II, *01836) is illustrated, and the new western
J08 046 Pacific species *1{6\0B. peregelans} is named; the four similar
J08 047 species *1{6\0B. nobilis} *0(Reeve, 1844), *1{6\0B.
J08 048 margaritula} *0(Deshayes, 1832), *1{6\0B. gnorima} *0(Melville,
J08 049 1918), and *1{6\0B. thersites} *0(Redfield, 1846) are
J08 050 distinguished, and the new Madagascar to Philippines species
J08 051 *1{6\0B. ignobilis} is named. ^In *1{6Tutufa (Tutufella)},
J08 052 *0the newly named species *1{6\0T. boholica} *0occurs with
J08 053 *1{6\0T. rubeta} *0(Linne*?2, 1758) in deep water in the
J08 054 Philippine Islands.
J08 055 *<*6INTRODUCTION*>
J08 056 |^*0This is the second part of a series of papers begun by Beu
J08 057 & Cernohorsky (1986), in which it is intended to revise the
J08 058 taxonomy of some of the fossil and living gastropods of the
J08 059 families Ranellidae (more familiarly known as Cymatiidae) and
J08 060 Bursidae. ^Study of these two families over a number of years
J08 061 has brought to light many necessary changes in classification
J08 062 and nomenclature, as well as the 14 new Indo-West Pacific
J08 063 living taxa described here. ^These changes result partly from
J08 064 examination of type specimens of species names by Linne*?2,
J08 065 Lamarck, and other early authors, and partly from the
J08 066 examination of much larger collections than have been available
J08 067 to earlier taxonomists. ^Documentation of many of the necessary
J08 068 changes to currently accepted taxonomy will be the subject of
J08 069 several monographs now in preparation, but pressure of other
J08 070 work means that several of these larger revisions will be some
J08 071 years in preparation. ^As many friends and colleagues are
J08 072 awaiting the description of new taxa they have brought to
J08 073 light, the 14 new living Indo-West Pacific taxa I am aware of
J08 074 are described in this preliminary paper, with the necessary
J08 075 taxonomic comments on and type clarification for related taxa.
J08 076 ^In these families, perhaps more than in most others, museum
J08 077 collections have proved inadequate to comprehend the taxonomy
J08 078 of rare and widely distributed species, and the new taxa named
J08 079 here are, in the main, a tribute to the many *"amateur**"
J08 080 collectors who have unselfishly allowed me to use some of their
J08 081 most interesting specimens over a period of several years.
J08 082 **[LIST**]
J08 083 *<*6SYSTEMATICS*>
J08 084 *<*4Family *6\6RANELLIDAE *4Gray, 1854*>
J08 085 |^*0Beu & Cernohorsky (1986) reviewed the status of the family
J08 086 and subfamily names to be used in what has been known
J08 087 unanimously, since 1913, as Cymatiidae, concluding that there
J08 088 was no alternative to adopting Ranellidae Gray, 1854 as the
J08 089 name for the family.
J08 090 *<*4Subfamily *6\6CYMATIINAE *4Iredale, 1913 (1891)*>
J08 091 *<*4Genus *5\6Cymatium *4Ro"ding, 1798*>
J08 092 **[LIST**]
J08 093 *<Subgenus *5\6Septa *4Perry, 1810*>
J08 094 **[LIST**]
J08 095    |^*0Recognition of eight taxa in the complex of species
J08 096 closely related to *1{6Cymatium rubeculum} *0has greatly
J08 097 clarified the limits of the subgenus *1{6Cymatium (Septa)}.
J08 098 ^*0The group of moderately large to large species with a
J08 099 prominently bristled periostracum, including such familiar
J08 100 species as *1{6\0C. parthenopeum} *0(\von Salis, 1798) and
J08 101 *1{6\0C. pileare} *0(Linne*?2, 1758), differs from *1{6Cymatium
J08 102 (Septa)} *0in its larger size, its much taller protoconch, its
J08 103 more varied and less regularly placed collabral costae, its
J08 104 dark brown rather than pale to medium brown periostracum
J08 105 bearing markedly longer and more densely spaced, fringed axial
J08 106 blades, its markedly longer plicae inside the outer lip, and
J08 107 its darker apertural coloration, distinctly different from that
J08 108 of the external teleoconch surface. ^Most authors, including
J08 109 me, have previously followed Clench & Turner (1957) in
J08 110 including these larger, *"hairy**" species, together with a
J08 111 wide range of other species, in a single, broad subgenus
J08 112 *1{6Cymatium (Septa)}. ^*0I now advocate subdividing the latter
J08 113 into a number of subgenera: *1{6Cymatium (Septa)}, *0restricted
J08 114 to species resembling *1{6\0C. rubeculum}, *0with a very small,
J08 115 short protoconch (\0Fig. 1, 2, 4, 5, 30); the larger,
J08 116 prominently bristled species with a large, tall protoconch
J08 117 (\0Fig. 3) and a dark brown periostracum in a separate
J08 118 subgenus, for which the earliest name is *1{6\0C. (Monoplex)}
J08 119 *0Perry, 1811 (= *1\6Lampusia *0Schumacher, 1817; =
J08 120 *1\6Cymatriton *0Clench & Turner, 1957); another subgenus
J08 121 *1{6\0C. (Turritriton)} *0Dall, 1904 (= *1\6Tritoniscus *0Dall,
J08 122 1904; = *1\6Cabestanimorpha *0Iredale, 1936) for moderate-sized
J08 123 to small species with particularly crisp sculpture, a
J08 124 large, narrowly conical protoconch (\0Fig. 6) and a sparsely
J08 125 bristled, pale straw-yellow periostracum; and *1{6\0C.
J08 126 (Reticutriton)} *0Habe & Kosuge, 1966 for the three unusual,
J08 127 tall, finely cancellate species *1{6\0C. pfeifferianum}
J08 128 *0(Reeve, 1844) (= *1{6\0C. bayeri} *0Altena, 1942), *1{6\0C.
J08 129 lineatum} *0(Broderip, 1833), and the Californian Pliocene
J08 130 *1{6*"Gyrineum**" elsmerense} *0English, 1914, with very
J08 131 numerous small, narrow denticles inside the outer lip, and a
J08 132 large, wide protoconch.
J08 133    |^As pointed out by Bandel {0et al.} (1984, \0fig. 1),
J08 134 *1\6Cymatium *0protoconchs are normally covered with
J08 135 **[PLATE**]
J08 136 a thick, brown, horny epidermis, which is not strictly
J08 137 homologous with the teleoconch periostracum as it appears that
J08 138 it is applied to the exterior of the calcareous protoconch
J08 139 after the calcareous part has been secreted. ^The conchiolin
J08 140 *"periostracum**" smoothly covers sutures, and on some
J08 141 specimens low, faint, roughly axial growth ridges on the
J08 142 epidermis are seen to cross sutures from one whorl to another.
J08 143 ^The *"periostracum**" hides all sculpture of the calcareous
J08 144 protoconch, and only when it is removed by dissolution can the
J08 145 sculpture be seen. ^A few particularly little-abraded
J08 146 protoconchs prepared in this way (\0Fig. 5) clearly display the
J08 147 initial half-whorled, honeycomb-sculptured, embryonic
J08 148 protoconch, terminating abruptly and followed by a post-embryonic
J08 149 protoconch of several whorls (in most species three
J08 150 to five), with coarse cancellate sculpture on the first whorl
J08 151 or two, passing gradually into a later smooth stage. ^However,
J08 152 these features are not as distinct on *1\6Sassia *0(\0Fig. 127,
J08 153 130) or *1\6Distorsio *0(\0Fig. 133, 137, 139) protoconchs.
J08 154 ^The *1\6Sassia *0protoconch illustrated here lacks an obvious
J08 155 periostracum, and lacks an obvious embryonic stage; perhaps it
J08 156 has direct development. ^On *1{6Distorsio euconstricta} *0the
J08 157 periostracum consists largely of one row of large, flexible,
J08 158 spine-like bristles around the middle of the whorls, and
J08 159 another of tiny spines around the suture. ^The initial whorl
J08 160 (\0Fig. 139) ends at a faint collabral groove that is
J08 161 presumably the junction between embryonic and post-embryonic
J08 162 protoconchs. ^Much more elaborate, but basically similar,
J08 163 periostracal flanges have been illustrated on Atlantic
J08 164 *1\6Distorsio *0planktonic larvae by Laursen (1981, \0fig. 42,
J08 165 43, \0pl. 2, \0fig. 6a, b).
J08 166    |^The species of *1{6Cymatium (Septa)} *0were first
J08 167 recognised as distinct because of their different geographic
J08 168 ranges. ^A similar conclusion, recognising four species, was
J08 169 reached by Arthur (1983) in his popular account of the
J08 170 subgenus. ^The taxa I now include in *1{6\0C. (Septa)}, *0all
J08 171 of which are revised below, are:
J08 172 **[LIST**]
J08 173 *<*5{6Cymatium (Septa) bibbeyi} *4{0n. sp.}*>
J08 174 |^Description. ^*0Shell moderately large for the subgenus
J08 175 (reaching about 50 {0mm} high), with relatively short spire of
J08 176 lightly convex outline, relatively short, inflated whorls, and
J08 177 a long, weakly twisted anterior canal (the longest in the
J08 178 subgenus). ^Varices situated regularly every 0.66 whorls, 4 or
J08 179 5 present on large shells; wide and prominent, regularly curved
J08 180 to give a rounded silhouette to the whorls (not straight over
J08 181 the mid-whorl area as in most species of the subgenus), with a
J08 182 marked groove behind each varix (abaperturally, with respect to
J08 183 the direction of growth), and weakly buttressed by spiral cords
J08 184 crossing the groove. ^Spiral sculpture of prominent, widely
J08 185 spaced cords with convex surface, 4 or 5 on spire whorls, 8 on
J08 186 last whorl, and a further 12 to 15 narrow, low ones on the neck
J08 187 and canal. ^Collabral structure of relatively few, coarse, well
J08 188 raised, widely spaced costae extending the whole height of each
J08 189 whorl, 10 to 19 in each intervariceal space (so few is
J08 190 otherwise seen only in *1{6\0C. rubeculum marerubrum} 
J08 191 *0Garcia-Talavera), forming relatively few, large, prominent nodules
J08 192 at junctions with spiral cords. ^Interior of outer lip bearing 8
J08 193 small, narrowly rounded, white nodules, each with a pale
J08 194 orange-brown splash at the base of its outer face; the nodules
J08 195 extend into low, rounded, clearly separated spiral ridges that
J08 196 extend as far into the aperture as can be seen, as in *1{6\0C.
J08 197 rubeculum}. ^*0Inner lip orange-red, with a thickened, white
J08 198 outer margin, bearing about 12 prominent, white, thick, weakly
J08 199 anastomosing plicae over the whole lip, plus several small
J08 200 white denticles down the columellar edge of the anterior canal.
J08 201 ^External surface crimson to orange-red, on most specimens with
J08 202 crimson spiral cords and paler, orange-red interspaces; a
J08 203 relatively very wide, paler spiral band (pale red-brown in the
J08 204 centre of each intervariceal space, fading to white near and on
J08 205 each varix) covers the fourth and fifth spiral cords down from
J08 206 the upper suture, and their interspace, forming a particularly
J08 207 prominent, bright white band on varices; an upper white band,
J08 208 at top of aperture, covers only adapertural face of the last 2
J08 209 or 3 varices but is larger over earlier varices, so on early
J08 210 whorls varices are very prominent, almost entirely white,
J08 211 transverse ridges on the crimson background.
J08 212    |^Periostracum (on {0WM} 14059) of many low, fine, closely
J08 213 spaced ridges, each bearing a row of short, fine, pale brown
J08 214 bristles, on and between collabral costae (not restricted to
J08 215 crests of costae, as in more finely sculptured consubgeners
J08 216 such as *1{6\0C. flaveolum} *0and *1{6\0C. occidentale}*0).
J08 217 |^*4Type data. ^Holotype. ^*0Philippine Islands, among lots of
J08 218 *1{6\0C. rubeculum rubeculum}, *0otherwise unlocalised, \0pres.
J08 219 Loyal \0J. Bibbey to San Diego Natural History Museum ({0USNM}
J08 220 849011).
J08 221 **[PLATE**]
J08 222 |^*4Dimensions. ^*049.0 x 25.4 {0mm} (holotype); 46.7 x 24.5
J08 223 {0mm} (largest paratype, {0SDNHM} 86050); 31.5 x 18.8 {0mm}
J08 224 (paratype, {0WM} 14094, {0NZGS}); 30.6 x 15.6 {0mm} (paratype,
J08 225 in collection The Abbey Specimen Shells).
J08 226 |^*4Remarks. ^*0I have seen only seven specimens of the new
J08 227 species but all differ from the sympatric but much more
J08 228 widespread *1{6\0C. rubeculum rubeculum} *0in so many
J08 229 characters that there can be no doubt that they represent a
J08 230 separate species. ^The specimen that formed the basis of
J08 231 Garcia-Talavera's (1985, \0fig. 4, right) record of *1{6\0C.
J08 232 rubeculum marerubrum} *0from Zamboanga, Philippine Islands,
J08 233 appears to belong in *1{6\0C. bibbeyi}. ^*0At first sight the
J08 234 colour pattern of *1{6\0C. bibbeyi} *0appears identical to that
J08 235 of *1{6\0C. rubeculum} *0but one character readily
J08 236 distinguishes them: the spiral white band around the centre of
J08 237 the last whorl, and corresponding white areas on varices, are
J08 238 narrower (extending over only one spiral cord and, on some
J08 239 specimens, its adjoining interspaces) in *1{6\0C. rubeculum}
J08 240 *0than in *1{6\0C. bibbeyi}, *0in which they extend over two
J08 241 spiral cords and the intervening space (and, on some specimens,
J08 242 the adjoining interspaces). ^The shape also is consistently
J08 243 different: *1{6\0C. rubeculum} *0has an elongate whorl shape,
J08 244 with almost straight, parallel variceal outlines on the last
J08 245 whorl, and a short, strongly twisted anterior canal, whereas
J08 246 *1{6\0C. bibbeyi} *0has considerably shorter and more inflated
J08 247 whorls with a rounded variceal outline, but a much longer and
J08 248 straighter anterior canal than that of *1{6\0C. rubeculum}.
J08 249 *#
J09 001 **[303 TEXT J09**]
J09 002    |^*0A general approach to stock modelling of fisheries when
J09 003 information is scanty is proposed, in which all available
J09 004 relevant information is utilised and in which parameters are
J09 005 examined over feasible ranges. ^Using it, a new stock reduction
J09 006 analysis ({0SRA}) is developed which is analytically simpler
J09 007 than those previously developed. ^All four factors of biomass
J09 008 change (recruitment, growth, natural mortality, and fishing
J09 009 mortality) are model inputs. ^The growth factor is derived from
J09 010 length frequency samples and a growth curve. ^Feasible ranges
J09 011 for the parameters, together with ancillary information
J09 012 regarding the stock, define a feasible region on the parameter
J09 013 space. ^In this region maxima and minima for biomass, surplus
J09 014 production, and other variables are found. ^The model is
J09 015 applied to the snapper (*1{6Chrysophrys auratus}) *0stock in
J09 016 Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.
J09 017 *<*6INTRODUCTION*>
J09 018 |^*0A general approach to stock modelling is proposed in this
J09 019 study. ^It contains two features specifically relevant to fish
J09 020 population modelling. ^Fisheries scientists are typically faced
J09 021 with a limited set of data and no existing model whose data
J09 022 requirements exactly match it. ^A suggested approach adopted
J09 023 here is to develop the simplest model which embodies all the
J09 024 available data. ^An existing model may need to be simplified
J09 025 ({0i.e.}, stronger assumptions made) to reduce the degrees of
J09 026 freedom to match the data available. ^Alternatively or in
J09 027 addition, other data items may need to be incorporated. ^Simple
J09 028 items of data can often be treated as ancillary information and
J09 029 utilised by means of constraints which reduce a feasible region
J09 030 in  a parameter space.
J09 031    |^The second feature of the general approach adopted in
J09 032 this study is to acknowledge that in fisheries science few, if
J09 033 any, parameters are known exactly. ^Therefore a range is chosen
J09 034 for each parameter depending on the accuracy with which it can
J09 035 be estimated from the available data. ^This will establish a
J09 036 feasible region for solutions.
J09 037    |^The model developed here is sufficiently similar to the
J09 038 stock reduction analysis ({0SRA}) of Kimura & Tagart (1982)
J09 039 that this term has been used to describe it. ^They assumed that
J09 040 recruitment plus growth was constant and independent of stock
J09 041 size and structure. ^They modelled recruitment plus growth as a
J09 042 single discrete annual process. ^A later paper (Kimura {0et
J09 043 al.} 1984) generalised the model by separating the growth and
J09 044 recruitment factors. ^Growth was modelled as a function of
J09 045 stock biomass using the delay-difference equation derived by
J09 046 Deriso (1980). ^Variable recruitment was allowed as a function
J09 047 of stock biomass or as an independent time series input.
J09 048    |^In the present study, all four factors of biomass change
J09 049 specified by Russel (1931) *- recruitment, growth, natural
J09 050 mortality, and fishing mortality *- are modelled separately.
J09 051 ^Growth is modelled as a continuous (exponential) process
J09 052 analogous to natural mortality. ^It is derived independently of
J09 053 the model from stock length frequency estimates and a growth
J09 054 curve for individuals. ^Variation in this parameter leads to a
J09 055 dome-shaped surplus production versus stock biomass curve.
J09 056 ^Recruitment is modelled as a discrete annual process. ^It is
J09 057 estimated independently of the model in this instance as a
J09 058 constant, but a time series of annual values could equally well
J09 059 have been used had it been available. ^A slightly simplifying
J09 060 assumption in the treatment of fishing mortality allows much
J09 061 more tractable algebra in the equation for biomass change.
J09 062    |^The model in the present study was developed for the Bay
J09 063 of Plenty snapper (*1{6Chrysophrys auratus}*0) stock. ^The
J09 064 snapper is New Zealand's most studied marine fish species.
J09 065 ^Even so, only one attempt has been made to model a snapper
J09 066 stock. ^Elder (1979) employed the Schaeffer surplus production
J09 067 model (Schaeffer 1954) and estimated an equilibrium yield
J09 068 versus effort curve for the Hauraki Gulf snapper stock. ^The
J09 069 maximum sustainable yield is estimated by this method but no
J09 070 estimates are made of stock size nor of any of the population
J09 071 parameters that contribute to production. ^{0SRA} methods make
J09 072 all these values available directly. ^In this instance ranges
J09 073 of feasible values are generated corresponding to the feasible
J09 074 region in the parameter space.
J09 075    |^The approach of Kimura & Tagart (1982), along with a
J09 076 great many fisheries model analyses, was to assume that some
J09 077 parameter values were known exactly. ^For example, natural
J09 078 mortality rates are quoted only to the nearest 0.05 y*:-1**:
J09 079 but are probably known even less accurately than this. ^Had
J09 080 this inexactitude been acknowledged, the resulting range of
J09 081 stock size estimates obtained would have given a more realistic
J09 082 picture of the state of knowledge of these fisheries.
J09 083 *<*6MODEL*>
J09 084 |^*0Equations are given describing the annual change in biomass
J09 085 of the stock in terms of the four factors of biomass change.
J09 086 ^By successive substitution, stock biomass at the end of the
J09 087 period can be expressed in terms of the initial stock biomass
J09 088 modified by the net effect of the four factors. ^If the
J09 089 proportionate stock biomass change for the period were known,
J09 090 together with annual catch and values for the four factors, the
J09 091 stock biomass would be completely determined for the period.
J09 092 ^Here the variables whose values are not known exactly are
J09 093 treated as parameters which are allowed to vary over feasible
J09 094 ranges. ^The feasible region in the parameter space is defined
J09 095 by the feasible ranges together with constraints based on
J09 096 ancillary information regarding the stock. ^The modelled
J09 097 behaviour of the stock for the period studied is then examined
J09 098 over the feasible region. ^Maxima and minima of variables of
J09 099 interest are found.
J09 100 |^Let *1B*;i**; *0be the adult biomass (fish at least 25 \0cm)
J09 101 in
J09 102 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 103 tonnes at the end of year *1i *0(*1i *0runs from 0 to *1N,
J09 104 *0corresponding to 1961 to 1980).
J09 105 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 106 |^Let *1R *0be the biomass in tonnes of the age class that
J09 107 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 108 is recruited at the end of each year. ^These fish are 3 years
J09 109 old. ^Constant annual recruitment is assumed.
J09 110 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 111 |^Let *1C*;i**; *0be the total catch in tonnes during year *1i.
J09 112 |^*0Let *1M *0be the instantaneous natural mortality rate
J09 113 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 114 per year of each adult age class up to 49-year-olds. ^The
J09 115 maximum age to which fish live is taken as 50 years. ^This is a
J09 116 simplification of the real situation where a high and
J09 117 increasing natural mortality will exist over a range of ages of
J09 118 old fish. ^A brief examination of the model showed it to be not
J09 119 very sensitive to the value of the maximum age. ^It is assumed
J09 120 that *1M *0does not vary. ^Provided the biomass of 50-year-olds
J09 121 is insignificant the instantaneous natural mortality rate per
J09 122 year of the stock, that is the proportionate loss in biomass,
J09 123 will also be *1M. ^*0It is assumed that over the period being
J09 124 modelled that this approximate equality prevails.
J09 125 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 126 |^Let *1G*;i**; *0be the instantaneous rate of increase in bio-
J09 127 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 128 mass through growth per year in the adult stock during year
J09 129 *1i.
J09 130 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 131    |^*0Growth and natural mortality are assumed to act
J09 132 independently and simultaneously on the stock, so that apart
J09 133 from recruitment and fishing, a biomass of *1B*;i-1**; *0at the
J09 134 start of year *1i *0will become,
J09 135 |**[FORMULA**],
J09 136 |at the end of the year. ^The catch is modelled as being caught
J09 137 instantaneously in the middle of the year. ^This simplifies the
J09 138 analysis and is analogous to the assumption made by Pope (1972)
J09 139 as a means of simplifying virtual population analysis. ^The
J09 140 catch, had it not been caught, would have undergone a further
J09 141 half year's growth and natural mortality by the end of the
J09 142 year. ^The effective loss to the adult stock at the end of year
J09 143 *1i *0is:
J09 144 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 145 |^Therefore,
J09 146 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 147 ^Successively substituting for *1B*;i-1**;:
J09 148 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 149 |^*0If, for convenience, we define, for *1i *0= 0 to *1N *0- 1,
J09 150 |**[FORMULA**],
J09 151 |**[FORMULA**],
J09 152 |then the equation can be written,
J09 153 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 154 **[TABLE**]
J09 155 |^It can be seen that *1P*;i**; *0is like a product of discount
J09 156 factors from year *1i *0to *1N.
J09 157 |^*0Let *1B*;0**;*?7 *0and *1B*;N**;*?7 *0be raw adult biomass
J09 158 estimates
J09 159 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 160 (without allowance for vulnerability) from trawl surveys at the
J09 161 ends of years 0 and *1N *0respectively.
J09 162 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 163 |^Let *1v*?1*;0**; *0and *1v*?1*;N**; *0be the mean
J09 164 vulnerabilities of the adult
J09 165 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 166 stock to the trawl survey gear at years 0 and *1N
J09 167 *0respectively. ^Then,
J09 168 **[FORMULA**],
J09 169 and
J09 170 **[FORMULA**].
J09 171 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 172 |^Values of *1v*?1*;0**; *0and *1v*?1*;N**; *0are unlikely to
J09 173 be known, but if the ratio of vulnerabilities
J09 174 **[FORMULA**]
J09 175 is known then Equation 2 can be written:
J09 176 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 177 |^Therefore,
J09 178 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 179 |^Hence, for given *1M,
J09 180 **[FORMULA**],
J09 181 *0and
J09 182 **[FORMULA**],
J09 183 *1B*;0**; *0can be obtained, and using Equation 1 the time
J09 184 series of stock biomass can be generated. ^If reliable point
J09 185 estimates for each of these parameters were available a single
J09 186 solution could be obtained. ^In the analysis below, each
J09 187 parameter is varied independently over the feasible region of
J09 188 the parameter space and a set of solutions is obtained. ^For
J09 189 these solutions several variables of interest are calculated.
J09 190    |^The consistent definition of instantaneous fishing
J09 191 mortality *1F*;i**; *0requires,
J09 192 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 193    |^At given stock size, the surplus production *1Y*;i**;
J09 194 *0is defined as the annual catch that will not change the stock
J09 195 size. ^Setting
J09 196 **[FORMULA**]
J09 197 and
J09 198 **[FORMULA**]
J09 199 in Equation 1:
J09 200 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 201 |^Let *1w*;j**; *0be the mean weight in grams of a fish of age
J09 202 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J09 203 exactly *1j *0years. ^This is also assumed not to vary over
J09 204 time. ^The virgin biomass, *1B*/, *0can then be obtained from
J09 205 the summation,
J09 206 **[END INDENTATION**]
J09 207 |**[FORMULA**].
J09 208 *<*6DATA*>
J09 209 *<*4Landings*>
J09 210 |^*0The landed catch data are given in Table 1. ^The
J09 211 annual landings for 1962 to 1970 (\0incl.) are from Ritchie
J09 212 {0et al.} (1975). ^This is the official report of landings from
J09 213 fishing returns. ^Landings for Bay of Plenty are based on
J09 214 *'area fished**' information recorded in the returns. ^For 1971
J09 215 to 1973 (\0incl.) the official landings data by area fished are
J09 216 from the annual Reports of Fisheries (\0Anon. 1971-1973).
J09 217 ^Since 1974 changes in the fishing return form have made area
J09 218 fished information difficult to derive. ^For 1974-1980
J09 219 (\0incl.) the official data (King 1985) are by *'point of
J09 220 landing**'. ^The area fished and point of landing definitions
J09 221 are not perfectly consistent. ^However, since 1970 the net
J09 222 amount of snapper caught in the Bay and landed at outside ports
J09 223 or vice versa does not appear to have been great.
J09 224    |^It is assumed that the total catch from the Bay of Plenty
J09 225 stock is accurately recorded in the landings data.
J09 226 *<*4Stock decline*>
J09 227 |^*0Trawl surveys were carried out by {0FRV} *1Ikatere *0over
J09 228 several cruises from March 1961 to January 1963 and again from
J09 229 March 1980 to April 1981 using similar gear. ^Each raw biomass
J09 230 estimate was obtained by assuming that the amount of fish
J09 231 caught was equal to all the fish in the water column in the
J09 232 path between the wings of the net. ^The estimates of snapper
J09 233 over 25 \0cm for Bay of Plenty were: 1961 (end of year),
J09 234 **[FORMULA**]
J09 235  and 1980 (end of year),
J09 236 **[FORMULA**].
J09 237 ^Hence
J09 238 **[FORMULA**].
J09 239 ^Estimates of the coefficient of variation of the raw biomasses
J09 240 were 0.23 for 1961 and 0.13 for 1980. ^Estimates of the mean
J09 241 vulnerabilities, *1v*?1*;0**; *0and *1v*?1*;N**;, *0are made in
J09 242 the analysis below.
J09 243    |^Snapper catch rates from 1974 to 1981 for groups of
J09 244 commercial trawlers in particular engine power classes were
J09 245 also obtained. ^These were calculated as tonnes per boat per
J09 246 day fished for summer or winter seasons and examples are shown
J09 247 in \0Fig. 1-3. ^Average annual rates of decline in catch rates
J09 248 were obtained by log-linear regression. ^They ranged from about
J09 249 10 to 30% y*:-1**:. ^Rates of decline in the latter halves of
J09 250 the periods were all faster than the average rates for the
J09 251 three classes of trawler examined. ^Many factors affect
J09 252 commercial catch rates but it is assumed here that these rapid
J09 253 declines were caused by a falling stock size.
J09 254    |^It is necessary to make an overall assessment from the
J09 255 research and commercial data and to specify a plausible range
J09 256 for the stock size change. ^The commercial data suggest that
J09 257 the decline is likely to have been greater than the surveys
J09 258 show. ^The decline in the last part of the period was
J09 259 apparently quite fast.
J09 260 ^**[FORMULA**]
J09 261 is taken as having been between 0.12 and 0.30. ^From 1978 to
J09 262 1980 the annual decline is taken as having been between 15 and
J09 263 30% y*:-1**:
J09 264 (**[FORMULA**]
J09 265 between 0.49 and 0.72).
J09 266 *#
J10 001 **[304 TEXT J10**]
J10 002    |^*0The amount of water that topsoils of the Patumahoe clay
J10 003 loam can retain at tensions between 0.2 and 15.0 bars
J10 004 (available-water capacity) has been determined for four sites
J10 005 under pasture and eleven sites in market gardens. ^The mean
J10 006 available-water capacity of the 2-12 \0cm depth was 18% of soil
J10 007 volume under pasture and 11% in gardens; for the 12-22 \0cm
J10 008 depth the mean available-water capacity was 10% under pasture
J10 009 and 12% in gardens. ^The difference between pasture and gardens
J10 010 was highly significant for the upper topsoil but not
J10 011 significant for the lower topsoil; the available-water capacity
J10 012 varied significantly with depth under pasture but not in
J10 013 gardens. ^The large available-water capacities near the surface
J10 014 under pasture derived from exceptionally high values of field
J10 015 capacity which may have been related to high contents of
J10 016 organic carbon in the soil. ^Any advantage of the pasture over
J10 017 the cultivated sites in the water-supplying power of the
J10 018 topsoil as a whole was of doubtful significance.
J10 019 *<*6INTRODUCTION*>
J10 020 |^*0Many workers reporting the capacities of soil profiles for
J10 021 storing plant-available water have paid little attention to the
J10 022 effects of land utilisation on this property. ^In some
J10 023 publications dealing with the available-water capacities of
J10 024 soils the land use is either not mentioned (Petersen {0et al.}
J10 025 1968a; Maclean & Yager 1972) or is mentioned without any
J10 026 comparison between uses that might illustrate their influence
J10 027 on the values obtained (Salter {0et al.} 1967). ^As only the A
J10 028 horizon of the soil is likely to be greatly modified by land
J10 029 use and the bulk of the capacity for storing plant-available
J10 030 water usually lies in the B and C horizons (Gradwell 1968,
J10 031 table 6; 1974, table 4) this simplified treatment may be
J10 032 justified, at least as a first approximation. ^However, where
J10 033 precise knowledge of the available-water capacities of A
J10 034 horizons is required it may be desirable to know how this
J10 035 property would vary with a change of land utilisation. ^Records
J10 036 of comparative measurements on the A horizons of identical
J10 037 soils under different treatments have been published by a few
J10 038 workers. ^Carreker {0et al.} (1968, table 2) found no
J10 039 significant difference between the available-water capacities
J10 040 of topsoils under corn and under grass and clover in some trial
J10 041 plots. ^The tests were made on cores 0.076 \0m long taken at
J10 042 unspecified depths. ^Petersen {0et al.} (1968b) found no
J10 043 significant difference in available-water capacity between
J10 044 cultivated and uncultivated A horizons in Pennsylvania. ^Here
J10 045 also the depths of sampling were not given. ^Cossens & Rickard
J10 046 (1969), however, reported greater available-water capacities in
J10 047 both 0-0.1 and 0.1-0.2 \0m depths in brown-grey and yellow-grey
J10 048 earths under well established irrigated pastures of ryegrass
J10 049 and white clover than under a nonirrigated cover of tussock and
J10 050 annual grasses.
J10 051    |^Cultivated cropland and heavily stocked pasture are
J10 052 important alternative uses for valuable soils in New Zealand.
J10 053 ^Both uses are extensive on the Patumahoe clay loam (Orbell
J10 054 1974), an immature brown granular loam on old, well weathered
J10 055 andesitic ash in the Pukekohe region, south of Auckland. ^In
J10 056 the course of a survey of the available-water capacities of
J10 057 extensive New Zealand soils under pasture, results were
J10 058 published for four profiles of this soil (Gradwell 1976, table
J10 059 2c). ^Identical determinations have also been made on the
J10 060 topsoils of eleven market gardens on this soil. ^As the values
J10 061 for available-water capacity under pasture showed marked
J10 062 variation with depth in the A horizon, each market-garden
J10 063 topsoil was sampled at two depths to permit a detailed
J10 064 comparison with the results for pasture.
J10 065 *<*6METHODS*>
J10 066 *<*4Sampling plan*>
J10 067 |^*0Ten of the gardens sampled have been listed in table 1 of
J10 068 Gradwell (1973). ^This table shows that the samples were taken
J10 069 during the growing season, in either October or December. ^Four
J10 070 of the gardens sampled were regarded as *'new**' gardens,
J10 071 having been brought into cultivation from pasture less than
J10 072 eight years before the date of sampling; the
J10 073 remaining,*'old**', gardens had been under cultivation for 18
J10 074 years or more. ^In the present work the 10 gardens and the
J10 075 farms containing them are referred to by the same numbers and
J10 076 letters as in the earlier publication. ^An eleventh garden was
J10 077 also sampled, on farm number 8. ^This will be referred to as
J10 078 garden b on that farm. ^This garden had been cultivated for two
J10 079 years and was sampled in December.
J10 080    |^In each of the gardens two undisturbed core samples, 4
J10 081 \0cm long and 10 \0cm in diameter, were taken underneath a
J10 082 single point on the centre-line of a row of onions. ^Depths of
J10 083 sampling varied somewhat among gardens but the shallower sample
J10 084 in a garden always came from within the 2-10 \0cm range of
J10 085 depths and the deeper sample from within the 11-22 \0cm range.
J10 086 *<*4Laboratory determinations and calculations for individual
J10 087 samples*>
J10 088 |^*0Determinations of field capacity, wilting point, and dry
J10 089 bulk density were made on the samples by the methods described
J10 090 by Gradwell (1971), field capacity being taken as the water
J10 091 content of a core sample at a tension of 0.2 bars and wilting
J10 092 point as the water content, at a tension of 15 bars, of a set
J10 093 of small crumbs carved from the soil. ^The available-water
J10 094 capacity of each sample was calculated, in percent of soil
J10 095 volume, as the difference between the field capacity and the
J10 096 wilting point of the sample, multiplied by the dry bulk density
J10 097 of the soil and divided by the density of water (taken as
J10 098 unity).
J10 099 *<*4Calculated properties of topsoils.*>
J10 100 |^*0The properties mentioned in the previous section have
J10 101 already been reported for three depths in the A horizon and a
J10 102 fourth depth just underneath it on each site under pasture
J10 103 (Gradwell 1976, table 2c). ^These values were plotted against
J10 104 depth and the values for depths of 0.063 (*'upper topsoil**')
J10 105 and 0.171 \0m (*'lower topsoil**') were read off the curves.
J10 106 ^These depths equalled the mean depths of sampling on the
J10 107 cultivated sites and the values read off for the sites under
J10 108 pasture were used to make comparisons between pasture and
J10 109 cultivated sites for the upper and lower topsoil respectively.
J10 110    |^The curves of available-water capacity, plotted against
J10 111 depth, were also used to calculate the total available-water
J10 112 capacity to a depth of 0.28 \0m for each site under pasture.
J10 113 ^This was obtained as the area under the curve, between the
J10 114 surface and a depth of 0.28 \0m, and was expressed in \0m of
J10 115 water. ^This depth was used as the lower limit as the mean
J10 116 depth of topsoil at 10 of the sampling points in market gardens
J10 117 had been determined as 0.28 \0m (standard error 0.0086 \0m).
J10 118 ^For the market-garden sites available-water capacities were
J10 119 measured at only two depths. ^These values were plotted against
J10 120 depth for each site and a straight line drawn through the two
J10 121 points and produced to a depth of 0.28 \0m. ^The area under
J10 122 this line, to a depth of 0.28 \0m, was determined and recorded
J10 123 as the total available-water capacity of the topsoil. ^In one
J10 124 case the produced line would have indicated values of
J10 125 available-water capacity less than 8% of soil volume before it
J10 126 reached a depth of 0.28 \0m. ^As the mean available-water
J10 127 capacity of the upper B horizon on the four sites under pasture
J10 128 was approximately equal to 8% (Gradwell 1976, table 2c) lesser
J10 129 values in the topsoil were regarded as improbable. ^The
J10 130 produced line was, therefore, shifted to indicate a value of 8%
J10 131 over the range of depths where it would have indicated a
J10 132 smaller value if drawn as above.
J10 133 *<*6RESULTS*>
J10 134 |^*0Test results for individual samples from market gardens are
J10 135 set out in Table 1. ^The upper part of this table contains the
J10 136 results from *'new**' gardens and the lower part the results
J10 137 from *'old**' gardens.
J10 138    |^Mean values of available-water capacity for new and old
J10 139 gardens, derived from Table 1, are set out in Table 2, preceded
J10 140 by mean values for the sites under pasture. ^The most
J10 141 conspicuous feature of Table 2 is the large change of
J10 142 available-water capacity with depth under pasture, which
J10 143 contrasts with the absence of change with depth in the gardens.
J10 144 ^In the results, *1t-*0tests show that the available-water
J10 145 capacity under pasture is significantly greater in the upper
J10 146 topsoil than in the lower topsoil(*1\0P*0<0.01). ^There is no
J10 147 difference between the upper and lower topsoils in new gardens;
J10 148 in old gardens the apparent difference is not significant. ^The
J10 149 effect of the gradient in available-water capacity under
J10 150 pasture is to make the mean value for the upper topsoil under
J10 151 pasture significantly greater than the mean value for the upper
J10 152 topsoil in all gardens (*1\0P*0<0.001). ^For the lower topsoil
J10 153 there is no significant difference between pasture and all
J10 154 gardens. ^The only difference between new and old gardens is in
J10 155 the upper topsoil where it just attains significance
J10 156 (*1\0P*0<0.05). ^This result does not, however, affect the
J10 157 difference between pasture and gardens as pasture has
J10 158 significantly greater available-water capacity in the upper
J10 159 topsoil than the new gardens alone (*1\0P*0<0.01).
J10 160 **[TABLES**]
J10 161    |^Mean values of the measured properties from which the
J10 162 available-water capacities were calculated are given in Table 3
J10 163 for upper topsoils and in Table 4 for lower topsoils. ^Table 3
J10 164 shows a much higher value of field capacity under pasture than
J10 165 under cultivation. ^The difference is significant whether
J10 166 pasture is compared with all gardens (*1\0P*0<0.001), with new
J10 167 gardens (*1\0P*0<0.02), or with old gardens (*1\0P*0<0.01).
J10 168 ^The difference between new and old gardens is not significant.
J10 169 ^The wilting point under pasture is only slightly higher than
J10 170 under cultivation and the difference just reaches
J10 171 **[TABLE**]
J10 172 significance when pasture is compared with all gardens
J10 173 (*1\0P*0<0.05). ^Apart from the difference between pasture and
J10 174 old gardens (*1\0P*0<0.01) the differences in dry bulk density
J10 175 in Table 3 are not significant. ^Table 4 shows that in the
J10 176 lower topsoil there are only small, non-significant differences
J10 177 between pasture and gardens. ^The difference in dry bulk
J10 178 density between new and old gardens in Table 4 is, however,
J10 179 significant (*1\0P*0<0.01).
J10 180    |^Mean values of the total available capacities of topsoils
J10 181 are given in Table 5. ^The difference between pasture and
J10 182 gardens did not attain significance (*1\0P*0=0.08 or 0.09).
J10 183 *<*6DISCUSSION*>
J10 184 *<*4The uncertainty of overall differences in available-water
J10 185 capacity*>
J10 186 |^*0As the greater available-water capacities under pasture,
J10 187 compared with those in gardens, are confined to the upper
J10 188 topsoil, a comparison carried out with samples from the middle
J10 189 depths of topsoils could well fail to establish a difference.
J10 190 ^Carreker {0et al.} (1968) sampled at only one depth in the
J10 191 topsoil and failure to show a difference between soil under
J10 192 grass and soil under corn may have been caused by this.
J10 193    |^The difficulty of demonstrating differences for topsoils
J10 194 as a whole is seen in the small differences in total
J10 195 available-water capacity of Table 5. ^In view of the
J10 196 assumptions made in calculating the total available-water
J10 197 capacities of individual gardens from only two depths of
J10 198 sampling, the bottom two figures in this table must be regarded
J10 199 as approximate. ^The mean values for gardens are probably too
J10 200 high as two of the gardens had topsoils shallower than 0.28 \0m
J10 201 and this was ignored in the calculation. ^If the soil
J10 202 underneath the topsoils in these gardens, down to a depth of
J10 203 0.28 \0m, were assigned an available-water capacity of 8% of
J10 204 soil volume (equal to that of upper B horizons under pasture)
J10 205 the mean total available-water capacity for new gardens would
J10 206 fall to 0.0330 \0m of water. ^The difference between pasture
J10 207 and gardens would then be close to significance
J10 208 (*1\0P*0=0.052).
J10 209 *<*4Causes of the differences in available-water capacity*>
J10 210 |^*0It is seen in Table 3 that the differences in
J10 211 available-water capacity obtained for upper topsoils derive
J10 212 mainly from large differences in field capacity. ^Some dense
J10 213 soils have been shown to have low field capacities because even
J10 214 when saturated they cannot contain the amounts of water that
J10 215 less dense soils retain at field capacity.
J10 216 *#
J11 001 **[305 TEXT J11**]
J11 002 |^*0The study of sequences of annual growth rings in trees
J11 003 is called dendrochronology. ^Although many aspects of
J11 004 dendrochronology have been dealt with in various texts, notably
J11 005 Fritts (1976), no overview in a New Zealand context is
J11 006 available. ^We attempt to remedy this deficiency here.
J11 007    |^In discussing studies using annual tree growth rings it
J11 008 is necessary to distinguish between those studies that use
J11 009 strict dendrochronological techniques such as crossdating, and
J11 010 those that simply use ring counts to age trees or date events.
J11 011 ^Strict dendrochronological techniques offer much to
J11 012 ecologists, as they provide an absolute chronological basis for
J11 013 tree-ring dates. ^In this review we have concentrated on
J11 014 studies that have used the strict dendrochronological approach,
J11 015 but we also discuss other applications of tree-ring
J11 016 measurements, as we believe that they can benefit from a more
J11 017 precise dendrochronological approach.
J11 018 *<*4Methodology of Dendrochronology*>
J11 019 |^*0The basic methodology of dendrochronology has been reviewed
J11 020 by Stokes and Smiley (1968), Fritts (1976) and Schweingruber
J11 021 (1983), and in the various papers in Hughes *1{0et al.}
J11 022 *0(1982). ^A brief overview of the methodology is presented,
J11 023 emphasizing those aspects we feel are important in the New
J11 024 Zealand context or where new developments warrant more detail.
J11 025 ^Computer programs are available from the authors for some of
J11 026 the statistical analyses described.
J11 027    |^Three methodological steps are common to most
J11 028 dendrochronological studies: collection and preparation of
J11 029 samples; crossdating and measurement; and chronology building.
J11 030 ^Two important applications of dendrochronology are in
J11 031 growth-climate relations and forest history. ^The methodology
J11 032 involved in these is also briefly discussed.
J11 033 *<*1Sample collection and preparation*>
J11 034 |^*0Tree growth, and hence ring-width, is dependent on a range
J11 035 of environmental and biological factors ({0e.g.} climate,
J11 036 soils, competition, browsing). ^Careful site and tree selection
J11 037 is necessary to ensure that specific influences can be studied.
J11 038 ^The failure to achieve convincing crossdating, leading to a
J11 039 lack of success in early New Zealand dendrochronological
J11 040 studies, was probably due to inappropriate site selection
J11 041 ({0e.g.} Bell and Bell, 1958; Cameron, 1960; Scott, 1964,
J11 042 1972). ^However, a site that is suitable for studying one
J11 043 factor may not be suitable for a second. ^For example, if the
J11 044 purpose of the study is to examine the relationships between
J11 045 ring-width and temperature, trees growing at sites near the
J11 046 alpine timberline are sampled. ^However, subalpine sites are
J11 047 unlikely to be suitable for investigating relationships between
J11 048 seed production and growth, as temperature effects are likely
J11 049 to mask any seed effects.
J11 050    |^In North America, long tree-ring records suitable for
J11 051 reconstructing past climate have been developed from trees
J11 052 growing at the limits of their distribution. ^Such trees
J11 053 ({0e.g.} *1{6Pinus aristata}*0) are often very old and gnarled.
J11 054 ^In New Zealand, however, tall, straight boled, dominant canopy
J11 055 trees have proved the most suitable for chronology construction
J11 056 (Norton, 1983b, c; Ahmed and Ogden, 1985), although in some
J11 057 cases ({0e.g.} to study avalanche events) damaged trees, often
J11 058 of poor form, are likely to yield the most information.
J11 059    |^Field sampling is undertaken either by extracting
J11 060 increment cores or by felling the tree. ^Coring procedures are
J11 061 described in detail by Stokes and Smiley (1968) and Burrows and
J11 062 Burrows (1976). ^The number of trees sampled depends on the
J11 063 nature of the study; we have found 15 to 20 trees adequate for
J11 064 studying growth-climate relations. ^It is important that the
J11 065 sampled trees come from an homogenous site.
J11 066    |^In most dendrochronological applications, absolute
J11 067 measures of ring-widths are not needed ({0c.f.} mensuration of
J11 068 living trees) and samples are dried before further analysis.
J11 069 ^Cores are best air-dried rather than oven-dried, then glued
J11 070 into grooved wooden mounts with the transverse surface of the
J11 071 core upwards. ^Correct core orientation is essential if the
J11 072 growth rings are to be clearly seen. ^Although several North
J11 073 American authors recommend that cores be surfaced using a razor
J11 074 blade ({0e.g.} Stokes and Smiley, 1968), we have found that
J11 075 with the narrow rings typical of many New Zealand trees, this
J11 076 makes ring identification difficult. ^In our experience, the
J11 077 best surface for counting and measuring the growth rings is
J11 078 obtained by sanding the cores and discs with successively finer
J11 079 grades of sand paper using an orbital sander. ^Staining of wood
J11 080 has not been found necessary with the species we have examined
J11 081 but procedures for this are outlined in Burrows and Burrows
J11 082 (1976).
J11 083 *<*1Crossdating and measurement*>
J11 084 |^*0*"Crossdating is the most important principle of
J11 085 dendrochronology**" (Fritts, 1976). ^Crossdating involves
J11 086 matching of similar ring-width patterns between different trees
J11 087 and is possible because the same or similar factors are
J11 088 limiting growth of several trees at a site in a similar way.
J11 089 ^As this limiting factor varies from year to year, so too does
J11 090 ring-width.
J11 091    |^In some years growth rings may be absent or more than one
J11 092 ring formed (see below). ^Such anomalous rings place tree-ring
J11 093 sequences out of chronological order. ^These anomalous rings
J11 094 can, however, be identified by crossdating, as on one side of
J11 095 the anomaly the ring-width pattern will match with other trees
J11 096 while on the other side they will not. ^When these anomalous
J11 097 rings are recognized and taken into account, the ring-width
J11 098 series from several trees will match for their entire length
J11 099 (\0Fig. 1) thus providing an absolute time base for all
J11 100 tree-ring sequences.
J11 101    |^A number of approaches to crossdating, both subjective
J11 102 and objective, have been described (Stokes and Smiley, 1968;
J11 103 Eckstein and Bauch, 1969; Huber and Giertz, 1970; Baillie and
J11 104 Pilcher, 1973; Wendland, 1975; Cropper, 1979; Munro, 1984).
J11 105 ^Although ring-width series can be crossdated objectively,
J11 106 using computer techniques, all matches must be inspected
J11 107 visually before accepting them as true. ^Furthermore these
J11 108 objective methods are only appropriate when the number of
J11 109 anomalous rings is small. ^Because of the large number of
J11 110 absent rings in many New Zealand tree-ring series and because
J11 111 of the need for visual
J11 112 **[FIGURE**]
J11 113 checking, we have found that crossdating is best undertaken
J11 114 visually. ^The statistical degree of similarity is assessed
J11 115 later.
J11 116    |^Microcomputer-based measuring systems (Robinson and
J11 117 Evans, 1980) are widely used for measuring ring-width;
J11 118 measurement is from the latewood-earlywood boundary and is
J11 119 undertaken after crossdating. ^Ring-width is not the only
J11 120 growth ring variable that can be measured. ^The size and number
J11 121 of different cell types and the elemental concentrations in the
J11 122 wood of different growth rings have been used ({0e.g.} Hill,
J11 123 1982; Eckstein and Frisse, 1982; Stuiver, Burk and Quay, 1984;
J11 124 Berish and Ragsdale, 1985). ^However, the most commonly
J11 125 measured attribute of growth rings after width is density,
J11 126 especially latewood density (Polge, 1970; Schweingruber, 1982).
J11 127 ^Latewood density has been shown to be better related to
J11 128 growing season climate than ring-width (Schweingruber *1{0et
J11 129 al.}, *01978). ^The only New Zealand use of ring density that
J11 130 we are aware of has been with *1{6Pinus radiata} *0({0e.g.}
J11 131 Cown and Kibblewhite, 1980).
J11 132    |^Because the growing season in the Southern Hemisphere
J11 133 spans two calendar years, the convention used is to date a
J11 134 growth ring by the year in which growth started. ^Thus, a
J11 135 growth ring that was laid down over the 1986-87 season is
J11 136 referred to as the 1986 growth ring.
J11 137 *<*1Anomalous growth rings*>
J11 138 |^*0In some years, environmental or biological conditions are
J11 139 such that tree growth is severely reduced, with radial growth
J11 140 localized to certain radii, or not occurring at all. ^These
J11 141 rings are said to be *'partial**',*'locally absent**' or
J11 142 *'missing**' (Fritts, 1976). ^Missing rings appear to occur for
J11 143 two reasons (Norton, Palmer and Ogden, 1987). ^Firstly, during
J11 144 years in which photosynthesis is severely reduced, most radial
J11 145 growth is confined to the upper part of the bole with little
J11 146 growth in the lower bole (Farrar, 1961). ^For example, in
J11 147 *1{6Nothofagus solandri} *0the percentage of missing rings is
J11 148 greatest closest to the ground (Norton, 1986). ^Secondly,
J11 149 missing rings occur because of ring wedging, where a single
J11 150 ring or a group of rings are absent around a portion of the
J11 151 circumference ({0e.g.} Dunwiddie, 1979). ^This is thought to be
J11 152 a result of the development and death of major branches and
J11 153 consequent variations in food and growth regulator supplies
J11 154 (Fritts *1{0et al.}, *01965).
J11 155    |^Missing rings have been identified in a number of New
J11 156 Zealand tree species (Norton, Palmer and Ogden, 1987) and on
J11 157 single radii can be as high as 10% of the total number of rings
J11 158 present. ^Missing rings are potentially a serious problem in
J11 159 tree-ring studies but can be detected by crossdating.
J11 160    |^A second type of anomalous growth ring occurs as a result
J11 161 of changes in cell structure during the course of the growing
J11 162 season causing the formation of a band of narrow cells
J11 163 resembling latewood and referred to as a *'false ring**'.
J11 164 ^False rings occur when growing season conditions become
J11 165 temporarily severe ({0e.g.} soil moisture deficits or low
J11 166 temperatures). ^When more favourable conditions resume, the
J11 167 subsequently formed cells are larger and have thinner walls.
J11 168 ^False rings are usually easily identified as there is a
J11 169 gradual transition in cell size on both margins of the band in
J11 170 contrast to the normal ring boundary, where there is a
J11 171 pronounced change in cell size. ^False rings have been observed
J11 172 in a number of New Zealand tree species. ^In Switzerland the
J11 173 occurrence of false rings in several conifer species has been
J11 174 related to the number of cold days during the growing season
J11 175 (Schweingruber, 1980).
J11 176    |^A third type of anomalous growth ring occurs as a result
J11 177 of frost damage and can be common in subalpine trees (LaMarche,
J11 178 1970). ^In affected rings, severe distortion of cells occurs.
J11 179 ^Frost rings have been identified in *1{6Nothofagus solandri}
J11 180 *0(Norton, 1985), and are probably uncommon away from
J11 181 temperature caused timberlines. ^Frost rings, if sufficiently
J11 182 widespread in occurrence, can offer a useful crossdating
J11 183 parameter independent of ring width (Ogden, 1978).
J11 184 *<*1Chronology development*>
J11 185 |^*0Ring-widths often decrease with increasing tree age. ^This
J11 186 biological growth trend is usually independent of other factors
J11 187 influencing tree growth ({0e.g.} climate) and it is often
J11 188 helpful to remove it by a curve-fitting procedure prior to
J11 189 further analysis (Fritts, 1976). ^In this *'standardization**'
J11 190 procedure, the measured ring-widths are converted to ring-width
J11 191 indices by dividing each width by the expected growth derived
J11 192 from the fitted curve. ^Traditionally negative exponential and
J11 193 polynomial curves have been used for standardization (Fritts,
J11 194 1976). ^However, several difficulties occur with these,
J11 195 including (a) the need to subjectively select a curve fitting
J11 196 procedure for each ring-width sequence, (b) curve distortion
J11 197 due to eccentric data points and (c) the tendency to
J11 198 *'overfit**' curves to short ring-width series (Warren, 1980;
J11 199 Cook and Peters, 1981; Briffa, 1984). ^The most promising
J11 200 alternative involves the use of digital filters (Mitchell
J11 201 *1{0et al.} *01966; Briffa, 1984). ^Filters have two advantages
J11 202 over exponential and polynomial curves for standardization.
J11 203 ^Firstly, the spectral properties of the filter can be
J11 204 precisely defined and secondly, their functioning is
J11 205 independent of the length of the time series.
J11 206    |^The approach used by Briffa (1984) involves setting the
J11 207 weights in the filter proportional to the ordinates of a
J11 208 Gaussian probability curve. ^Because of the nature of the
J11 209 Gaussian distribution, it is possible to precisely define the
J11 210 variations removed by the filter, and by altering the number of
J11 211 weights in the filter, to change the amplitude of the variation
J11 212 retained after filtering. ^For example, a 30 year filter will
J11 213 pass 50% or less of the variance at wave lengths of 30 years or
J11 214 greater. ^By using this filtering technique it is possible to
J11 215 objectively standardize ring-width time-series, and
J11 216 **[FIGURE**]
J11 217 to define the spectral characteristics of the resultant indexed
J11 218 series. ^An additional advantage is that both parts of the
J11 219 filtered data can be used (\0Fig. 2). ^For climatic
J11 220 reconstruction, the high frequency variations are of most
J11 221 interest, so the residuals from the filtered series are used to
J11 222 develop the tree-ring chronology. ^However, in other
J11 223 applications, the low-frequency part might be of interest and
J11 224 can be used to produce *'reciprocal chronologies**'.
J11 225    |^Other approaches to standardization have been suggested
J11 226 but have not been widely used. ^In New Zealand, Bathgate (1981)
J11 227 has developed a standardization procedure that assumes that all
J11 228 trees have the same underlying, or *'universal**', biological
J11 229 growth trend.
J11 230 *#
J12 001 **[306 TEXT J12**]
J12 002 ^*0These three geckos are nocturnal and are agile climbers.
J12 003 ^The diurnal, arboreal gecko *1{6Naultinus grayi} *0has been
J12 004 seen feeding on manuka nectar (*1{6Leptospermum scoparium}:
J12 005 *0Myrtaceae) (\0M. Bellingham {0pers.comm.}).
J12 006    |^New Zealand geckos have most often been seen feeding on
J12 007 pohutukawa nectar. ^Flowers on pohutukawa trees open
J12 008 sequentially with individual flowers lasting 6-8 days.
J12 009 ^Inflorescences have flowers open for up to 12 days, and
J12 010 flowering may take place over six weeks (Godley 1978).
J12 011 ^Similarly, individual trees within a population flower at
J12 012 different times over a season lasting 6-10 weeks (Godley 1978).
J12 013    |^When pohutukawa blooms, geckos (*1{6\0H. duvauceli} *0and
J12 014 *1{6\0H. pacificus}*0) preferentially congregate on flowering
J12 015 plants to feed on nectar. ^Whitaker (1968) reported over 50
J12 016 *1{6\0H. pacificus} *0on the flowers of a small, isolated
J12 017 pohutukawa which had a canopy surface of approximately 21
J12 018 \0m*:2**:. ^Allowing for approximately 50% of the canopy
J12 019 surface to be covered in flowers (pohutukawa flowers only on
J12 020 the canopy), there were nearly 5 geckos \0m*:-2**: of flowers
J12 021 feeding on this tree. ^On Aorangi Island, Poor Knights group,
J12 022 two small pohutukawa trees, adjoining an area of larger
J12 023 pohutukawas, were observed to have 7-8 geckos \0m*:-2**: of
J12 024 flowers on most nights over a three week period in November
J12 025 1984.
J12 026    |^Geckos group around the newly opened flowers, presumably
J12 027 because these have the greatest nectar production, and up to
J12 028 five geckos have been seen feeding together from a single
J12 029 inflorescence. ^Density of geckos \0m*:-2**: flowers at the
J12 030 right stage for  pollination is therefore probably higher than
J12 031 the above figures indicate.
J12 032    |^The geckos emerge at dusk, usually from retreats on the
J12 033 ground, and can often be seen on the flowers before it is dark.
J12 034 ^This is earlier than usual and suggests there may be
J12 035 competition for the nectar. ^The greatest foraging activity for
J12 036 nectar is in the first 2-4 hours after dusk. ^When foraging,
J12 037 the geckos climb over the surface of the flowers and push their
J12 038 heads down between the stamens to lap the nectar (\0Fig. 1; see
J12 039 also Whitaker 1987), usually working from one flower to the
J12 040 next across the inflorescence. ^They then move through the
J12 041 foliage in search of another inflorescence.
J12 042    |^Ngaio flowers are much smaller and more scattered than
J12 043 those of pohutukawa but are nonetheless keenly sought by
J12 044 *1{6\0H. pacificus}; *0only once has *1{6\0H. duvauceli} *0been
J12 045 seen feeding on  ngaio nectar. ^Geckos forage amongst the
J12 046 foliage or along the stems of ngaio until a flower is located.
J12 047 ^They then arch their necks to push the snout well down into
J12 048 the flower to reach the nectar. ^On Aorangi Island in November
J12 049 1984 each ngaio bush along the shore generally had 2-4 geckos
J12 050 each night feeding on nectar.
J12 051    |^The flowers of flax are so robust that only *1{6\0H.
J12 052 duvauceli} *0or adult *1{6\0H. pacificus} *0are able to force
J12 053 the petals apart to reach the nectar. ^They push their snout
J12 054 into the open end of the flower, prise the petals apart along
J12 055 one side and lap the nectar through the side of the flower
J12 056 (similar behaviour was reported for *1{6Phelsuma vinsoni}
J12 057 *0feeding on the nectar of *1\6Lomatophyllum *0\0sp.
J12 058 (Liliaceae) (Vinson & Vinson 1969)). ^Smaller geckos forage
J12 059 over the flax inflorescences searching for scattered droplets
J12 060 of nectar, damaged flowers or other accessible nectar sources.
J12 061 ^Densities of lizards taking flax nectar are not easy to
J12 062 calculate but Miller (1986) reported 1-6 *1{6\0H. pacificus}
J12 063 *0(usually 4-6) feeding on *5each *0flax inflorescence on Whale
J12 064 Island, Moturoa group, in November 1985. ^Three *1{6\0H.
J12 065 pacificus} *0were observed feeding on nectar from flowers on
J12 066 one bract of a flax inflorescence on Green Island, Mercury
J12 067 group, in November 1972.
J12 068    |^There has been only one observation of a gecko feeding on
J12 069 *1{6Hebe bollonsii} *0flowers; an adult *1{6\0H. pacificus}
J12 070 *0was seen clinging to the erect inflorescence and lapping
J12 071 nectar from each flower in turn.
J12 072    |^Geckos have also been seen feeding on the fluid draining
J12 073 from wounds on the trunks of trees, and on honey-dew. ^On
J12 074 Little Ohena Island, east of Whitianga, over 80 *1{6\0H.
J12 075 pacificus} *0were counted feeding on honey-dew on a 6 \0m tall
J12 076 karo *1{6Pittosporum crassifolium}: *0Pittosporaceae) in
J12 077 November 1972.
J12 078    |^To examine the potential for pollen dispersal, smears
J12 079 were collected from 32 geckos (15 *1{6\0H. duvauceli} *0and 17
J12 080 *1{6\0H. pacificus}*0) on Aorangi Island in November 1984. ^At
J12 081 the time the samples were collected pohutukawa and ngaio were
J12 082 in full flower but other possible nectar sources (flax; ti;
J12 083 *1{6Sicyos angulata}; *0puriri (*1{6Vitex lucens}:
J12 084 *0Verbenaceae); *1{6Xeronema callistemon} *0(Liliaceae)) had
J12 085 virtually finished flowering. ^Pollen smears were collected
J12 086 from geckos by pressing transparent adhesive tape
J12 087 (*"Sellotape**") to the undersurface of the throat and then
J12 088 sticking it to a glass microscope slide. ^These were examined
J12 089 at 100x magnification and identified by comparing the pollen
J12 090 with reference slides made from all the species in flower at
J12 091 the time of the survey. ^The amount of pollen was scored on an
J12 092 arbitrary scale based on that used by Gaze & Fitzgerald (1982)
J12 093 where:
J12 094 **[FIGURE**]
J12 095 |_0 = no pollen present
J12 096 |1 = very few pollen grains present
J12 097 |2 = scatter of single grains or a few small groups
J12 098 |3 = scattered groups of grains
J12 099 |4 = pollen always visible in field of view
J12 100 |5 = continuous scatter of pollen across the slide
J12 101    |^The geckos sampled included three captured while feeding
J12 102 from pohutukawa flowers and one feeding from ngaio; these
J12 103 samples were used as a measure of pollen quantity carried close
J12 104 to the source. ^The rest of the sample included 20 geckos
J12 105 actively foraging away from flowering trees and 8 geckos
J12 106 captured by day from retreats on the ground while they were
J12 107 inactive.
J12 108    |^Twenty-two (68.7%) of the geckos were carrying at least
J12 109 some pohutukawa pollen (Table 1); only the gecko sampled while
J12 110 feeding on ngaio had ngaio pollen. ^No pollen from other
J12 111 species was found. ^One *1{6\0H. duvauceli} *0carried huge
J12 112 numbers of fungal spores from two species of sooty mould of the
J12 113 type commonly found on tree-trunks ({0A. E.} Bell {0pers.
J12 114 comm.}). ^Nearby, geckos were frequently observed feeding on
J12 115 exudate from bark-wounds, surrounded by sooty moulds, in
J12 116 several karo trees.
J12 117    |^Five (62.5%) of the inactive geckos were carrying
J12 118 pohutukawa pollen. ^As these animals were sampled just before
J12 119 dusk, they must have been carrying pollen for at least 12
J12 120 hours.
J12 121    |^When geckos were sampled while actively foraging, no
J12 122 measure of the distance to the nearest nectar source was made
J12 123 because of the difficulty of doing so in forest at night.
J12 124 ^However, many of those which were carrying pohutukawa pollen
J12 125 were collected in an area 20-25 \0m from the nearest pohutukawa
J12 126 trees, and some animals with pohutukawa pollen were collected
J12 127 while foraging on the shore over 50 \0m from the nearest
J12 128 pohutukawa trees.
J12 129    |^Geckos feeding on pohutukawa or flax nectar have visible
J12 130 amounts of pollen adhering to their heads, undersurface, and
J12 131 feet (see Whitaker 1987).
J12 132 **[TABLE**]
J12 133 ^Geckos examined while inactive, or foraging somewhere other
J12 134 than on plants from which they could collect nectar usually had
J12 135 pollen adhering only to their throats (see Whitaker 1987).
J12 136 ^Although nectar may stick the pollen to the skin of the gecko
J12 137 the behaviour of a feeding gecko shows the throat is probably
J12 138 the best region of the body for the transfer of pollen to the
J12 139 stigma. ^As the throat is the region of the body where most
J12 140 pollen adheres there is the possibility that other mechanisms
J12 141 of attachment are involved. ^Preliminary examinations with a
J12 142 scanning electron microscope of the skin of *1{6\0H.
J12 143 pacificus}, *0the species most commonly observed feeding on
J12 144 nectar, have revealed interesting ultra-structural differences
J12 145 between the scales of the throat and those of other parts of
J12 146 the body ({0M. B.} Thompson & {0A. H.} Whitaker, in \0prep.).
J12 147 *<*6LIZARDS AS POTENTIAL SEED DISPERSAL VECTORS*>
J12 148 |^The first record of frugivory in New Zealand lizards was for
J12 149 *1\6Lygosoma *0(= *1\6Leiolopisma*0) *1\6smithi *0on the
J12 150 Alderman Islands where it was reported eating berries (Sladden
J12 151 & Falla 1928), later identified as taupata (*1{6Coprosma
J12 152 repens}: *0Rubiaceae) (Falla 1936). ^However, despite the
J12 153 general acceptance now that both skinks and geckos commonly
J12 154 include fruit in their diet (McCann 1955; Bull & Whitaker 1975;
J12 155 Whitaker 1976; Gill 1986; Robb 1986), there have been
J12 156 relatively few observations of frugivory by New Zealand
J12 157 lizards. ^The lizards recorded taking fruit and the species
J12 158 they consume are listed in Table 2. ^The fruits of ngaio have
J12 159 not yet been recorded in the diet of New Zealand lizards but
J12 160 are taken by *1{6Lacerta galloti} *0in the Canary Islands where
J12 161 ngaio is an introduced species (Barquin & Wildpret 1975).
J12 162    |^Lizards observed feeding on fruit include nocturnal
J12 163 (*1\6Hoplodactylus*0) and diurnal (*1\6Naultinus*0) geckos, and
J12 164 nocturnal (*1\6Cyclodina*0) and diurnal (*1\6Leiolopisma*0)
J12 165 skinks.
J12 166    |^The fruits taken are mostly drupes (*1{6Coprosma,
J12 167 Corynocarpus, Leucopogon} *0(= *1\6Cyathodes*0),
J12 168 *1{6Macropiper, Pimelea, Rubus}*0) but also include soft
J12 169 berries (*1{6Hymenanthera, Solanum}*0) and other fleshy fruits
J12 170 (*1{6Gaultheria, Muehlenbeckia}*0). ^Most are small, 3-6 \0mm
J12 171 in diameter, and are swallowed whole. ^Larger fruits such as
J12 172 kawakawa (*1{6Macropiper excelsum}: *0Piperaceae), 8-10 \0mm
J12 173 diameter x 40-60 \0mm long, are eaten in pieces (\0Fig. 2).
J12 174 ^There is one record of a *1{6\0H. duvauceli} *0eating a karaka
J12 175 (*1{6Corynocarpus laevigatus}: *0Corynocarpaceae) fruit
J12 176 approximately 20 \0mm diameter x 30 \0mm long (see Whitaker
J12 177 1987).
J12 178    |^Geckos are extremely adept climbers and have no
J12 179 difficulty in reaching fruit. ^The skinks are largely
J12 180 **[TABLE**]
J12 181 **[FIGURE**]
J12 182 terrestrial but can easily scramble through divaricating shrubs
J12 183 (*1{6Coprosma, Hymenanthera}*0) or tangled vines
J12 184 (*1{6Muehlenbeckia, Rubus}*0) and have been found several
J12 185 metres above the ground in such situations. ^On Green Island,
J12 186 Mercury group, *1{6Leiolopisma smithi} *0individuals were
J12 187 observed climbing the smooth, vertical stems of kawakawa to
J12 188 reach fruits 1.5 \0m above the ground.
J12 189    |^Small fruits are generally plucked from the plant as soon
J12 190 as they ripen and before they fall, although fruit that has
J12 191 fallen is readily consumed. ^At Macraes Flat, Otago, in March
J12 192 1986, no ripe fruit was present on (or under) plants of
J12 193 *1{6Hymenanthera alpina} *0(Violaceae), *1{6Muehlenbeckia
J12 194 axillaris} *0(Polygonaceae), or *1{6Gaultheria antipoda}
J12 195 *0(Ericaceae) on outcrops inhabited by *1{6Leiolopisma grande}
J12 196 *0(and *1{6\0L. grande} *0droppings were crammed with seeds of
J12 197 these species), yet plants on nearby outcrops without skinks
J12 198 were covered in ripe fruit. ^Similarly, on outcrops occupied by
J12 199 *1{6Leiolopisma otagense} *0there were no ripe fruit on plants
J12 200 of *1{6Hymenanthera alpina}.
J12 201    |^*0Lizards seek out and consume only the ripe portions of
J12 202 larger fruits. ^The elongate fruit of kawakawa ripens from the
J12 203 top and lizards eat only the ripe part, moving round the plant
J12 204 to take the soft pulp as soon as it is edible. ^On the
J12 205 occasions when they encounter a fruit that is wholly ripe
J12 206 *1{6\0L. smithi} *0have been seen to break the fruit from the
J12 207 plant and fall with it to the ground.
J12 208    |^Most studies where New Zealand lizards were found to be
J12 209 eating fruit either do not include monthly samples or have not
J12 210 been analysed clearly to differentiate months (Barwick 1959,
J12 211 1982; Whitaker 1982; Patterson 1985; Southey 1985), and the
J12 212 importance of fruit, assessed either by frequency of occurrence
J12 213 or by volume, is based on the whole sample. ^Because the fruits
J12 214 are available generally for only a short period in summer or
J12 215 early autumn, such studies invariably underestimate the
J12 216 seasonal importance of fruit in the diet of lizards.
J12 217    |^Fruits of *1{6Gaultheria depressa} *0(Ericaceae) and
J12 218 *1{6Leucopogon fraseri} *0(Epacridaceae) are eaten by
J12 219 *1{6Leiolopisma nigriplantare maccanni} *0and two unnamed
J12 220 sibling species in Central Otago tussock grasslands. ^Gut
J12 221 analyses on a sample collected over 21 months showed 4% (\0n =
J12 222 110) of *1{6{0L.n.} maccanni} *0contained berries which
J12 223 comprised 18% by volume of their diet; comparable figures for
J12 224 the other two taxa present were 3% (\0n = 81) frequency and 15%
J12 225 volume, and 0.5% (\0n = 210) frequency and 1% volume (Patterson
J12 226 1985). ^Frequencies of fruit in the diet of those skinks
J12 227 containing food over the period that fruit was available were
J12 228 4.4%, 3.6%, and 1.5% respectively ({0G. B.} Patterson {0pers.
J12 229 comm.}). ^Seeds (2 {0spp.}) were recorded in 5.8% (\0n = 68) of
J12 230 *1{6Leiolopisma zelandica} *0( = *1{6{0L.n.} maccanni}*0)
J12 231 collected at various sites around Wellington over 19 months
J12 232 (Barwick 1959). ^Seeds of *1{6Muehlenbeckia axillaris} *0and
J12 233 *1{6Hymenanthera alpina} *0occurred in 86% (\0n = 14) of fresh
J12 234 *1{6Leiolopisma grande} *0droppings collected in February 1986
J12 235 at Macraes Flat, Otago.
J12 236    |^Diets of three large *1\6Cyclodina *0species on Middle
J12 237 Island, Mercury group, were compared by faecal analysis
J12 238 (Southey 1985): 6.9% of the droppings of *1{6Cyclodina alani}
J12 239 *0(\0n = 101) contained seeds of *1{6Solanum nodiflorum}
J12 240 *0(Solanaceae), 8.9% contained seeds of kawakawa, and 0.9%
J12 241 contained seeds of *1\6Coprosma *0species; for *1{6Cyclodina
J12 242 whitakeri} *0(\0n = 89), 4.5% contained seeds of *1{6\0S.
J12 243 nodiflorum}, *0and 3.4% contained seeds of kawakawa; and for
J12 244 *1{6Cyclodina oliveri} *0(\0n = 49), 4.0% contained seeds of
J12 245 *1{6\0S. nodiflorum.}
J12 246 *#
J13 001 **[307 TEXT J13**]
J13 002    |^*0Private hospitals had very few group outings for
J13 003 residents, the only one mentioned being a Christmas shopping
J13 004 expedition organised by the local Lions Club, which one
J13 005 resident in the survey participated in. ^Another two people
J13 006 were taken out occasionally by staff on an individual basis.
J13 007 |^There were no organised outings for residents living in acute
J13 008 wards, but in all hospitals there was someone prepared to
J13 009 assist people to make individual trips for specific purposes.
J13 010 ^Sometimes this was as part of the staff member's duties *-
J13 011 when a resident needed to visit a dentist or optometrist for
J13 012 example. ^Similarly the person who was planning to live at home
J13 013 with a friend had been accompanied there by a staff member
J13 014 several times to assess the situation and arrange for
J13 015 modifications to be made. ^However, other outings were arranged
J13 016 on a purely personal level in the staff's own time.
J13 017 *<Holidays*>
J13 018 |^Holidays away from the hospital were rare or non-existent
J13 019 luxuries. ^Only 15 people had spent more than a day away from
J13 020 hospital since their last admission and three of these had been
J13 021 holiday transfers to other hospitals. ^One person went to a
J13 022 different hospital every year for a three week break, the other
J13 023 two had only been once or twice to be near adult children who
J13 024 lived in different parts of the country.
J13 025    |^Five people had attended the yearly week-long camps
J13 026 organised by the Paraplegic and Physically Disabled Association
J13 027 at Otaki and enjoyed it enormously, but only one went
J13 028 regularly. ^Unfortunately, these camps became too costly for
J13 029 the Association and have now been discontinued. ^The remaining
J13 030 seven residents had all been to stay with relatives or friends,
J13 031 but none went regularly or often and two in Group B had now
J13 032 become so forgetful that it was unlikely that there would be
J13 033 any more overnight visits.
J13 034    |^Even for the fully aware home visits could be highly
J13 035 problematical. ^One resident, for example, was planning to
J13 036 attend an important family event which would involve at least
J13 037 one overnight stay. ^She was independently mobile in a
J13 038 wheelchair but dependent on others for most personal care, and
J13 039 the outing consequently took on the proportions of a major
J13 040 expedition. ^This person had had the opportunity to stay with
J13 041 relatives before but had always declined because of concern
J13 042 about the amount of care she required and embarrassment about
J13 043 adult children providing such intimate care, including
J13 044 toileting. ^There was therefore considerable apprehension about
J13 045 the outing, but also a strong desire for it to be successful as
J13 046 it would then boost her confidence to accept other invitations.
J13 047 *<*3CONTROL OVER EVENTS*>
J13 048 |*0Only two aspects of control were explored in the survey.
J13 049 ^One concerned control over how time was spent, and the other
J13 050 concerned who residents could talk to if they wanted to make a
J13 051 suggestion or complaint about the care they received.
J13 052 *<*1Control Over How Time is Spent*>
J13 053 |^*0People's perceptions of how much control they had over
J13 054 occupying their day varied depending on their physical
J13 055 abilities, their level of awareness and the extent to which
J13 056 they saw themselves being governed by the ward or hospital
J13 057 routine. ^For example, 12 people felt that they had no control
J13 058 over what they did. ^All required others to perform personal
J13 059 care activities for them: eight were chair- or bed-fast, and
J13 060 only two of the others were independently mobile in
J13 061 wheelchairs. ^These two also had slight memory loss but none of
J13 062 the others had any mental impairment. ^All saw their heavy
J13 063 reliance on others as a major factor inhibiting their control
J13 064 over what they did, but several of the more articulate and
J13 065 aware commented on the extent to which ward routines restricted
J13 066 choices about activities, with one person noting that *'you
J13 067 have to run to time here**'.
J13 068    |^Ward routine was not seen as a problem for six people who
J13 069 were not greatly concerned about controlling their daily
J13 070 activities and simply fitted in with what the staff organised.
J13 071 ^Two had some memory loss but all were generally less dependent
J13 072 than those who experienced a lack of control. ^Also less
J13 073 dependent were the 15 people who felt that they did have some
J13 074 control over events. ^All but one were independently mobile, at
J13 075 least indoors. ^The fifteenth was chair-fast by choice as he
J13 076 found a wheelchair too uncomfortable, but within these confines
J13 077 he organised his own activities, only requiring someone else to
J13 078 set up the necessary equipment.
J13 079    |^The others had wider ranging choices to consider. ^Their
J13 080 mobility meant that they could determine their company to some
J13 081 extent, as they were free to decide when to stop and talk, when
J13 082 to move away and when to be alone. ^Several of these 15 people
J13 083 commented that they attended scheduled physiotherapy and
J13 084 occupational therapy sessions by choice rather than dictate.
J13 085 ^Those in Group A also felt that they had some input into
J13 086 deciding what they did when they got there and how long they
J13 087 stayed. ^However, only four people in Group B felt that they
J13 088 had this degree of control and they all suffered some memory
J13 089 loss or confusion. ^Three others in Group B commented that
J13 090 while they could choose whether to attend occupational therapy
J13 091 or not, they really had very little influence over what they
J13 092 did there. ^This difference could at least partly be attributed
J13 093 to the fact that people in Group B were usually assigned to
J13 094 established group activities while the more articulate members
J13 095 of Group A were able to negotiate programmes which best met
J13 096 their individual preferences as well as their physical
J13 097 abilities.
J13 098    |^Residents who saw themselves as being able to exert some
J13 099 control over their daily activities usually spent more of their
J13 100 time socialising than did the others. ^This included talking to
J13 101 other residents, staff or visitors and going on outings with
J13 102 relatives and friends. ^In consequence they tended to find that
J13 103 time passed more quickly than did those who saw themselves as
J13 104 having little or no control. ^They also felt less restricted by
J13 105 ward routine, although physical limitations could still be a
J13 106 major barrier to independent control. ^The inability of some
J13 107 patients in multi-storey hospitals to reach lift control
J13 108 buttons from a wheelchair provides one example of this.
J13 109 *<*1Suggestions or Complaints About Care*>
J13 110 |^*0The majority of people felt that it was most appropriate to
J13 111 talk to the person who was responsible for the day-to-day
J13 112 management of the facility if they wanted to make a suggestion
J13 113 or complaint about the care they received. ^In Hospital Board
J13 114 facilities this was the charge nurse, but as private hospitals
J13 115 were smaller it was usually the principal nurse or owner.
J13 116 ^Patients also occasionally mentioned a nursing supervisor,
J13 117 occupational therapist or physiotherapist.
J13 118    |^One or two residents had offered suggestions or expressed
J13 119 opinions about aspects of their care, but very few had openly
J13 120 complained *- although most believed that if this became
J13 121 necessary, then their complaint would be listened to and acted
J13 122 on. ^Others were not so sure. ^One resident commented that in
J13 123 theory suggestions should be made to the charge nurse but in
J13 124 reality it was necessary to go higher because it was so
J13 125 difficult to get suggestions actioned. ^Another would write to
J13 126 the Minister of Health if a complaint could not be rectified at
J13 127 the local level. ^While most patients felt that they could and
J13 128 would make suggestions or voice complaints if they considered
J13 129 it necessary, four said that they would not do so. ^Two felt
J13 130 that there was little point as no one would take any notice.
J13 131 ^One indicated that staff sometimes asked for opinions but
J13 132 never took them up. ^Another was aware of someone in the
J13 133 hospital administration who handled complaints and who was
J13 134 approachable, but asked, *'^How can you complain in a situation
J13 135 like this?**' ^She was acutely aware of her own physical
J13 136 dependence on others and of the demands placed on care-givers,
J13 137 hence she only felt justified in complaining if it was on
J13 138 behalf of other residents who were unable to speak up for
J13 139 themselves.
J13 140 *<*3THE MOST APPROPRIATE ACCOMMODATION*>
J13 141 *<*1Group A*>
J13 142 |^*0Residents were asked what they thought was the most
J13 143 appropriate accommodation for them given their particular set
J13 144 of circumstances. ^Staff were also asked their opinions. ^Two
J13 145 residents and three staff members said that there was no easy
J13 146 answer and were not prepared to state a preference. ^For the
J13 147 rest, most residents clearly answered in terms of what they
J13 148 knew to be available in the area, but over half of the staff
J13 149 suggested other alternatives *- the most common being a special
J13 150 unit for the younger physically disabled. ^There was
J13 151 nevertheless a wide range of responses, with staff and
J13 152 residents often holding different views.
J13 153    |^For example, only two residents suggested a special unit
J13 154 for younger physically disabled adults (one had previously
J13 155 spent a short time in a unit providing such care). ^In contrast
J13 156 staff felt that this type of unit could benefit seven
J13 157 residents. ^There were reservations, however, about whether
J13 158 three would be eligible because of their age. ^Two were over 60
J13 159 years of age and one was in his mid 50's.
J13 160    |^Most staff based their opinion on the resident's age and
J13 161 intellectual level, saying that it was to the resident's
J13 162 detriment to live with elderly confused people. ^However, one
J13 163 offered a different slant, suggesting that physically disabled
J13 164 people tended to have rigid routines which full-time staff
J13 165 sometimes found difficult to cope with (although part-time
J13 166 staff had less of a problem). ^They also required a lot of
J13 167 personal attention and unless there were plenty of staff
J13 168 available this could only be provided if the elderly were
J13 169 neglected. ^The physically disabled should therefore be cared
J13 170 for in a special unit with adequate staff who had a particular
J13 171 interest in this type of work.
J13 172    |^The five residents in this group who had not suggested a
J13 173 special unit all said that they needed a hospital or continuing
J13 174 care type of environment because of the amount of care that
J13 175 they required.
J13 176    |^Another three patients who were in continuing care
J13 177 facilities felt that they were in the most suitable place, but
J13 178 only in one instance did a staff member agree. ^The other two
J13 179 staff, however, were uncertain what would be most appropriate.
J13 180 ^They suggested that the residents concerned needed the
J13 181 stimulation of more contact with people their own age and
J13 182 interests, but one went on to add that she did not think that a
J13 183 ward solely for people with {0MS} would work, because of the
J13 184 amount of physical care and emotional and social support that
J13 185 many people with this condition needed. ^From her experience
J13 186 {0MS} sufferers were not able to provide each other with much
J13 187 mutual help or support and consequently placed heavy demands on
J13 188 the nursing staff.
J13 189    |^Two residents also expressed reservations about living in
J13 190 a special unit for the young disabled. ^One was concerned that
J13 191 there would be an even bigger gap in attitudes and interests
J13 192 between his age group (50-59 years) and people in their 30's or
J13 193 younger, than he currently found with the elderly. ^The other
J13 194 was averse to the assumption that younger disabled people could
J13 195 be grouped together because they had things in common. ^He had
J13 196 not found this to be the case, and would prefer to have a
J13 197 general social area available in the hospital where anyone
J13 198 could go, regardless of age or whether they were long-stay,
J13 199 short-stay or outpatients. ^He was adamant that such a place
J13 200 should be entirely informal, there being no need for staff to
J13 201 organise it as a social event. ^The staff also felt that this
J13 202 person needed the stimulation of more one-to-one contact with
J13 203 people of similar intellect and interests, as well as more
J13 204 outings on an individual basis; but the problem was arranging
J13 205 this.
J13 206    |^One resident in a continuing care ward wanted to move to
J13 207 an acute ward, but the staff felt that he was appropriately
J13 208 placed given what was available. ^Another resident would have
J13 209 liked a small establishment offering bed sitting-rooms with
J13 210 communal dining facilities, if residents wanted this, and easy
J13 211 access to a flat garden. ^She felt that this sort of
J13 212 arrangement would best meet different individual needs, as the
J13 213 level and type of care could be individually tailored for each
J13 214 person.
J13 215 *#
J14 001 **[308 TEXT J14**]
J14 002    |^*0Table 63 shows the daily intakes of sugar, cholesterol,
J14 003 saturated and poly-unsaturated fats in Maori and non-Maori
J14 004 people. ^In general, Maori males and females consume less sugar
J14 005 than non-Maori and in both groups consumption falls with age.
J14 006 ^The consumption of cholesterol is variable with a tendency for
J14 007 younger Maori males (20-49 years) to consume more saturated
J14 008 fat. ^The consumption of poly-unsaturated fat is similar at all
J14 009 age-groups for both the Maori and non-Maori populations.
J14 010    |^The principal sources of sugar in the New Zealand diet
J14 011 are sugar itself, soft drinks, fruit and baked goods. ^The most
J14 012 important contributions to saturated fat come from animal meats
J14 013 (particularly beef) and dairy products (particularly butter).
J14 014 ^Poly-unsaturated fats on the other hand come from a variety of
J14 015 sources, the most important of these being meat (pork and
J14 016 beef), margarine, vegetable oils, sauces and dressings. ^The
J14 017 principal sources of cholesterol are eggs, dairy products and
J14 018 beef.
J14 019 **[TABLE**]
J14 020    |^Table 64 shows the daily intakes of calcium, calciferol
J14 021 (Vitamin D), ascorbate (Vitamin C) and iron in Maori and
J14 022 non-Maori people. ^At all ages Maori males and females consume
J14 023 less calcium and females less calciferol. ^Ascorbate intakes
J14 024 are also less in both Maori males and females whilst the
J14 025 intakes of iron are generally much the same in Maori and
J14 026 non-Maori people, apart from the 50-64 year age-group where the
J14 027 intake is somewhat less in both Maori males and females.
J14 028    |^The principal source of calcium in the New Zealand diet
J14 029 is milk products, milk and cheese contributing almost half the
J14 030 total calcium intake. ^Bread also makes a significant
J14 031 contribution. ^With respect to iron, the single most important
J14 032 source is beef meat (26-34%).
J14 033 **[TABLE**]
J14 034    |^Whilst it is accepted that the data presented here,
J14 035 particularly for Maori people, is derived from a small number
J14 036 of studies, nevertheless there are notable differences in
J14 037 dietary intakes between Maori and non-Maori people. ^These may
J14 038 well be important when one considers the excess mortality from
J14 039 both cancer and heart disease generally experienced by Maori
J14 040 people. ^National nutrition guidelines suggest we should reduce
J14 041 our energy intakes, eat more complex carbohydrates and fibre,
J14 042 and eat less fat (92). ^That these small studies have shown
J14 043 Maori people consume more energy and fat, particularly
J14 044 saturated fat, has not previously been highlighted, though in
J14 045 studies undertaken in 1941, Maori families consumed about 50%
J14 046 more energy from meat (the most important source of fat) than
J14 047 non-Maori, and 70% less fruit and vegetables (73, 74). ^If
J14 048 these findings are substantiated, they could form the basis of
J14 049 preventive educational initiatives for both cancer and heart
J14 050 disease in Maori people.
J14 051    |^There has been much recent attention paid to osteoporosis
J14 052 in post-menopausal women and if calcium and calciferol intakes
J14 053 are important, then Maori women would seem especially prone.
J14 054    |^There is an urgent need to update the dietary information
J14 055 in New Zealanders which is now 10 years old. ^Ideally the study
J14 056 should be a large one and include a greater number of Maori
J14 057 people.
J14 058 *<*6EXERCISE*>
J14 059    |^*0Physical activity reduces the risk of coronary heart
J14 060 disease and has a beneficial effect on coronary disease risk
J14 061 factors, such as blood pressure and blood fats (55). ^In
J14 062 addition, those who exercise are more likely to be lean and
J14 063 non-smokers. ^Exercise is also an important means for weight
J14 064 control for those with sedentary occupations, and can improve
J14 065 general health and well-being.
J14 066    |^There has always been a tradition in New Zealand,
J14 067 especially amongst the young, of participation in sporting
J14 068 activities. ^In this respect, Maori children and adolescents
J14 069 have often performed with great distinction and there is much
J14 070 to be said for the promotion of sport and recreation amongst
J14 071 Maori people as a means of promoting self-esteem. ^There are
J14 072 many excellent programmes that encourage Maori youth to play
J14 073 netball, rugby and to participate in the martial arts. ^The
J14 074 Department of Health has provided funding to the Maori Women's
J14 075 Welfare League to encourage Maori women to adopt a healthy
J14 076 lifestyle. ^The strategy the League is taking is through
J14 077 netball. ^However, there is room for the whole concept of
J14 078 exercise to be expanded and to include older Maori people *-
J14 079 hikoi (walking) is an example.
J14 080    |^Data on levels of activity and fitness in New Zealanders
J14 081 is negligible, though anecdotally it is believed that the
J14 082 proportion of adults now engaging in a variety of regular
J14 083 physical activities has increased steadily in recent years
J14 084 (93). ^A recent survey in Auckland showed that approximately
J14 085 one-third of people aged 35-64 years take regular physical
J14 086 exercise (94). ^What proportion of these exercisers were Maori
J14 087 is unknown, but likely to be small as exercising by the health
J14 088 conscious is more a middle class activity. ^The recently
J14 089 commissioned lifestyle survey by the Hillary Commission will
J14 090 provide much needed information on the levels of fitness in all
J14 091 New Zealanders.
J14 092 *<*6SMOKING*>
J14 093    |^*0A greater proportion of the Maori population reported
J14 094 being regular cigarette smokers at the 1981 Census than did the
J14 095 non-Maori population (95).
J14 096    |^Of the total respondents aged 15 years and over, 53.5% of
J14 097 Maori males and 58.5% of Maori females were regular smokers
J14 098 compared with 33.1% of non-Maori males and 27.3% of non-Maori
J14 099 females. ^Figure 40 shows the percentage of smokers by 
J14 100 age-group, sex and race.
J14 101 **[FIGURE**]
J14 102    |^Of special significance is the high percentage of Maori
J14 103 women smokers. ^At ages 15-44 years, 63% reported that they
J14 104 were regular smokers compared to 31% of non-Maori women. ^Maori
J14 105 women have a lung cancer death rate 3.6 times higher than
J14 106 non-Maori women. ^Maternal smoking has been linked to low
J14 107 birthweight infants and a higher percentage of Maori infants
J14 108 are born at weights less than 2,500 grams.
J14 109 *<*6INFECTIONS*>
J14 110    |^*0Maori people have significantly higher rates of death
J14 111 and admissions to hospital for infectious diseases. ^However,
J14 112 there has been a significant reduction in the death rates in
J14 113 both the Maori and non-Maori population due to infectious
J14 114 diseases in the past decade, though Maori people are still
J14 115 nearly 4 times as likely to die, whatever the age. ^Respiratory
J14 116 infections are the major problem whether it be an infant with
J14 117 bronchiolitis or an elderly person with pneumonia or
J14 118 bronchitis. ^In 1984, acute respiratory infections and
J14 119 influenza accounted for 1,458 admissions of Maori people to
J14 120 hospital or 2.5% of the total. ^Diarrhoea and gastroenteritis
J14 121 were also notably higher in Maori infants. ^The illness and
J14 122 death in Maori people due to tuberculosis (96) and rheumatic
J14 123 fever (96a) still remains disproportionately high whilst
J14 124 diseases of the ear are the second most common cause for
J14 125 admission of Maori children to hospital in the ages 5-14 years
J14 126 (Table 46).
J14 127    |^There are worrying aspects of the excess morbidity and
J14 128 mortality of these common infectious diseases in Maori people
J14 129 as most are readily treatable providing there is appropriate
J14 130 treatment in good time. ^It has been suggested previously that
J14 131 access to medical care is an important factor here and there is
J14 132 evidence that this occurs in Maori adults but interestingly not
J14 133 in infants (13, 39, 40, 97). ^It should not be forgotten
J14 134 however, that there may be familial or genetic factors which
J14 135 are operating. ^This has previously been suggested by Glass and
J14 136 others (98) who noted that lung function of Maori people was
J14 137 lower than that of European and that this seemed to be
J14 138 independent of smoking, occupational and environmental factors.
J14 139 ^As a generalisation however, infectious diseases are notably
J14 140 more common in the lower social classes and in third world
J14 141 countries. ^There are obviously many factors which could be
J14 142 considered as being relevant here but the possibility of
J14 143 disordered immunity requires comment. ^Alcohol and cigarette
J14 144 smoking have been associated with depressed immune function and
J14 145 these factors are likely to be most relevant in those Maori
J14 146 people who both smoke and drink alcohol excessively. ^The
J14 147 effects of passive smoking in children are unknown but
J14 148 conceivably may be of some significance given Maori women
J14 149 (mothers) have a high prevalence of smoking.
J14 150    |^The high prevalence of ear disease in children is of
J14 151 concern, especially since deafness delays the acquisition of
J14 152 all language skills and impedes subsequent educational
J14 153 progress. ^Indeed, the consequences of childhood ear disease
J14 154 have more serious implications given the disproportionately
J14 155 high rates of hearing disability in Maori prisoners compared
J14 156 with non-Maori (99). ^In a study of predominantly Maori
J14 157 children in Whangarei (48), ear disease and hearing loss were
J14 158 common. ^Perhaps more telling, was the teacher's assessment
J14 159 that 44% of the study group were below average attainers and in
J14 160 all of these children, a hearing loss was demonstrated. ^In
J14 161 this study, most of the children came from families who lived
J14 162 in state rental units, many of them over-crowded and with no
J14 163 general practitioner's surgery in the area. ^Access to medical
J14 164 services was therefore difficult. ^As far as the overall
J14 165 picture of aural health was concerned, 75-80% of children
J14 166 greater than 2 years of age had evidence of ear disease. ^In a
J14 167 small study in Te Teko, ear disease was found to be the major
J14 168 health problem in children, increasing with age to adolescence
J14 169 (100).
J14 170    |^The incidence and mortality from rheumatic heart disease
J14 171 remains unacceptably high given that methods of prevention and
J14 172 treatment have been available in New Zealand for many years.
J14 173 ^In Rotorua Hospital for instance, between 1971 and 1982 the
J14 174 average annual incidence for rheumatic fever was over 7 times
J14 175 greater in young Maori people than non-Maori in the 5-19 year
J14 176 age-group (101). ^Data from the Northland rheumatic fever
J14 177 register (102) is similar and furthermore, indicate that
J14 178 recurrent attacks of rheumatic fever are appreciably more
J14 179 common in Maori people. ^Indeed, the high recurrence rates of
J14 180 rheumatic fever experienced in the Gisborne area have been
J14 181 taken as evidence of substantial failure of rheumatic fever
J14 182 prophylaxis in the Gisborne area (103). ^There is an urgent
J14 183 need to determine the precise reasons for the continuing
J14 184 unacceptable discrepancy in morbidity and mortality from
J14 185 rheumatic heart disease in Maori people. ^Current programmes
J14 186 are either nonexistent or ineffective.
J14 187    |^Hepatitis B infections are endemic in many parts of New
J14 188 Zealand and several studies have shown high rates of carriage
J14 189 and previous infection in Maori people (104, 105). ^Moreover,
J14 190 the prevalence of markers of previous infection is more than
J14 191 twice as high in Maori people than in non-Maori and hepatitis B
J14 192 carriage rate nearly 4 times the non-Maori rate. ^Thus not only
J14 193 are Maori people more likely to become infected but they are
J14 194 also more at risk of becoming carriers following acute
J14 195 infection. ^There is also a marked north/ south gradient in
J14 196 infection risk (3:1) and areas where the Maori population is
J14 197 high are also areas of high hepatitis B infection (105). ^In
J14 198 New Zealand, the highest rates are found in the Eastern Bay of
J14 199 Plenty and East Coast region and Northland, whilst low rates
J14 200 are recorded in the South Island. ^Acquisition of hepatitis B
J14 201 seems to occur most readily when children start primary school
J14 202 but this should not detract from the importance of hepatitis B
J14 203 acquired at birth from a carrier mother. ^Such acquisition
J14 204 (vertical transmission) is associated with a high incidence of
J14 205 hepatitis B carriage and chronic disease. ^It may seem amazing
J14 206 to some, but there are large communities in New Zealand where
J14 207 three-quarters of the children have evidence of hepatitis B
J14 208 infection at the time they leave school (105).
J14 209    |^The importance of hepatitis B would be questionable if it
J14 210 were a benign disorder but this is not the case (106). ^It has
J14 211 been estimated that up to 10% of hepatitis B infections result
J14 212 in chronic illness which may lead to irreversible destruction
J14 213 of the liver (cirrhosis) or the development of liver cancer.
J14 214 ^It should not be surprising then, given the high incidence of
J14 215 hepatitis B in the Maori community, that liver cancer is
J14 216 approximately 3 times that seen in non-Maori people and there
J14 217 is a north/ south gradient to this risk (76). ^Each year
J14 218 approximately 100 New Zealanders die from complications due to
J14 219 hepatitis B and a disproportionate number will be Maori people
J14 220 (106).
J14 221 *#
J15 001 **[309 TEXT J15**]
J15 002 |^*0It is several years since vesicoureteric reflux and reflux
J15 003 nephropathy were discussed in these columns [1]. ^Despite the
J15 004 extent of the clinical problem the subject continues to
J15 005 generate relatively little research interest when compared with
J15 006 glomerulonephritis or the renal mechanisms involved in
J15 007 hypertension. ^Thus advances in knowledge have been relatively
J15 008 slow.
J15 009    |^No one has contributed more to our understanding of the
J15 010 relationship between vesicoureteric reflux and renal damage
J15 011 than the late John Hodson. ^His initial description of the
J15 012 radiological features of the renal damage [2] and the workshops
J15 013 he organised in 1978 [3] and 1982 [4] have contributed
J15 014 enormously to current knowledge of this subject. ^As a tribute
J15 015 to Hodson's work a symposium was held in Melbourne in early
J15 016 March 1987.
J15 017    |^There has been a commendable move towards using less
J15 018 invasive and more quantitative methods for assessing renal
J15 019 function and structure in children. ^Although the intravenous
J15 020 urogram remains the gold standard for the assessment of the
J15 021 renal parenchyma there is now considerable enthusiasm for
J15 022 scanning using labelled {0DMSA}. ^Some investigators [5,6]
J15 023 consider the latter is more sensitive for detecting small focal
J15 024 polar scars, but this has not been the experience of the
J15 025 International Reflux Study in  Children where 20% of kidneys
J15 026 considered to have a single scar on intravenous urography had a
J15 027 normal scintigram [7]. ^The {0DMSA} scan has an additional use
J15 028 in enabling differential renal function to be measured. ^The
J15 029 findings, however, may be difficult to interpret in patients
J15 030 with bilateral renal scarring where a change in the proportion
J15 031 of {0DMSA} uptake on one side over a period of time could
J15 032 reflect either a deterioration in renal function in that kidney
J15 033 or alternatively compensatory hypertrophy in the contralateral
J15 034 kidney. ^This problem can be overcome by also measuring the
J15 035 total glomerular filtration rate {0e.g.} using the single shot
J15 036 *:99m**:{0Tc-DTPA} method. ^Experienced ultrasonographers using
J15 037 sophisticated equipment believe that they can reliably detect
J15 038 renal cortical scarring. ^The clinician, generally unskilled in
J15 039 the interpretation of static ultrasound pictures must depend on
J15 040 the operator's interpretation.
J15 041    |^There is now considerable enthusiasm for grading the
J15 042 degree of renal scarring demonstrated on intravenous urography.
J15 043 ^The simple classification proposed by Smellie {0et al} [8] is
J15 044 popular and allows more precise data presentation.
J15 045    |^Voiding (micturating) cystourethrography remains the gold
J15 046 standard for demonstrating and grading the degree of
J15 047 vesicoureteric reflux. ^Nevertheless, some workers believe that
J15 048 quantitative radionuclide micturating cystography [9] is a more
J15 049 sensitive and reliable method of detecting reflux and
J15 050 associated with a lower radiation dose than conventional
J15 051 cystography. ^Certainly the radionuclide micturating cystogram
J15 052 has advantages for followup studies. ^Ultrasonography of the
J15 053 bladder and lower ureters by a skilled operator is able to
J15 054 detect the dilating forms of reflux in infants and young
J15 055 children. ^A full urodynamic evaluation of the bladder to
J15 056 exclude associated bladder neck or detrusor abnormalities is
J15 057 considered by some to be essential in the modern workup of a
J15 058 patient with vesicoureteric reflux.
J15 059    |^The original classification of the degree of
J15 060 vesicoureteric reflux proposed by Rolleston {0et al} [10,11]
J15 061 was of enormous value because it first drew attention to the
J15 062 fact that there were different degrees of severity of reflux
J15 063 and, more importantly, that those infants found to have gross
J15 064 reflux under the age of one year were those most at risk of
J15 065 developing renal parenchymal damage.
J15 066    |^There is now strong support for a uniform classification
J15 067 of the degree of vesicoureteric reflux and most investigators
J15 068 are now using the international classification [12]. ^The
J15 069 latter subdivides gross or grade *=III *0reflux on the
J15 070 Rolleston classification [10] into three subgroups according to
J15 071 the degree of dilatation of the collecting system. ^I believe
J15 072 the international classification should now be adopted
J15 073 throughout New Zealand. ^No classification has yet considered
J15 074 the presence of intrarenal reflux [13], but this is uncommonly
J15 075 seen except in very young children, and if observed should be
J15 076 mentioned separately.
J15 077    |^The prevalence of primary vesicoureteric reflux in Asian
J15 078 countries has been difficult to assess. ^The author recently
J15 079 sent a questionnaire to leading nephrologists in all Asian
J15 080 countries and from the replies it seemed as if the disorder was
J15 081 not frequently recognised by them. ^Even in Japan, paediatric
J15 082 and adult nephrologists appeared to see little vesicoureteric
J15 083 reflux and its complications. ^However, if the recently
J15 084 reported experience of Ikoma and Shimada [14], urologists in
J15 085 Nishinomiya, is typical then reflux is not uncommon in Japan.
J15 086 ^This urology group reported details of 711 children (348 boys)
J15 087 seen with primary reflux over the past 12 1/2 years. ^Of this
J15 088 group of 711, 40 (5.6%) had developed proteinuria, 17 (2.3%)
J15 089 renal insufficiency and 4 (0.6%) had started haemodialysis.
J15 090 ^Until the end of December 1985, 303 children have had a total
J15 091 of 321 renal transplants in Japan [15]. ^Of these 303 children,
J15 092 15-39 (5-13%) probably had reflux nephropathy, although many of
J15 093 these were listed as having chronic pyelonephritis, hypoplasia
J15 094 or dysplasia.
J15 095    |^Primary vesicoureteric reflux is a congenital lesion that
J15 096 may be inherited as an autosomal dominant with variable
J15 097 clinical expression [16]. ^Ideally, therefore the condition
J15 098 should be detected shortly after birth, or even in utero. ^This
J15 099 would enable patients with severe reflux to undergo early
J15 100 corrective surgery and for antimicrobial prophylaxis to be
J15 101 instituted early. ^No definite or reliable genetic marker has
J15 102 yet been identified, but the search must continue for such a
J15 103 marker. ^In the absence of a simple screening test for reflux
J15 104 the policy of investigating the urinary tract of newborn
J15 105 infants or children of parents or siblings with vesicoureteric
J15 106 reflux or reflux nephropathy, regardless of symptoms, should be
J15 107 continued.
J15 108    |^Any fetus shown on ultrasonography to have a dilated
J15 109 urinary tract should be reviewed within 24 hours of birth [17].
J15 110 ^Portman {0et al} [18] have shown that an increased
J15 111 concentration of urinary *1\15b*0*;2**;-microglobulin
J15 112 (indicating abnormal proximal renal tubular function)
J15 113 correlates well with the presence of tubulointerstitial renal
J15 114 lesions in children and may have promise as a screening test
J15 115 for reflux.
J15 116    |^Careful ultrasonography of the lower ureters in infants
J15 117 can reliably detect ureteric dilatation associated with
J15 118 vesicoureteric reflux [19]. ^It would clearly be impossible
J15 119 to examine all newborn infants using this technique, but
J15 120 ultrasonography could be of value as a screening test for those
J15 121 in high risk categories. ^In search for a simple screening test
J15 122 for reflux a Japanese worker [20] has advocated a simple test
J15 123 that assesses the volume of urine that refluxes into the upper
J15 124 urinary tract during micturition. ^Kouno [20] has shown that
J15 125 healthy Japanese boys who have emptied their bladder can then
J15 126 pass a mean of 7.2 \0ml of urine if asked to void a second time
J15 127 three to five minutes later. ^The corresponding mean for normal
J15 128 girls is 5.0 \0ml. ^In children aged 4-10 years with dilating
J15 129 degrees of reflux (grade *=III-V using international
J15 130 classification) the morning twice voiding test was 14-100 \0ml.
J15 131 ^This test would have little value as a screening test in the
J15 132 newborn.
J15 133    |^The female mini-pig is the best experimental model for
J15 134 vesicoureteric reflux. ^Sterile high pressure reflux in this
J15 135 model has been shown to result in areas of renal
J15 136 parenchymal damage occurring at the site of intrarenal reflux
J15 137 [21,22]. ^A superimposed urinary tract infection increases the
J15 138 rapidity and severity of scar formation. ^The monkey model has
J15 139 also provided useful supporting data [23].
J15 140    |^The initial two-year followup report [24] on the
J15 141 Birmingham reflux study has now been extended to 161 children
J15 142 observed for two years, of whom 104 have been followed for five
J15 143 years [25]. ^This study has compared operative with
J15 144 nonoperative treatment of children with gross vesicoureteric
J15 145 reflux. ^All children have been treated with long-term,
J15 146 low-dose antimicrobial prophylaxis. ^Between the treatment
J15 147 groups no significant differences have emerged in the incidence
J15 148 of breakthrough urinary tract infections, glomerular filtration
J15 149 rate, renal concentrating ability, renal growth, the
J15 150 progression of existing scars or new scar formation.
J15 151 ^Unfortunately this included relatively few children under the
J15 152 age of one year and the majority of them already had renal
J15 153 scarring at entry. ^The authors have concluded that neither
J15 154 treatment can claim superiority, nor can they fully protect the
J15 155 kidneys from further damage, and have stressed that efforts
J15 156 must continue to be directed towards identifying those infants
J15 157 at risk before scarring develops.
J15 158    |^A London study which started in 1976 included infants
J15 159 under the age of one year with bilateral gross (Rolleston
J15 160 classification) vesicoureteric reflux and was designed to
J15 161 compare successful antimicrobial prophylaxis with successful
J15 162 antireflux surgery. ^Five year followup of 12 infants enrolled
J15 163 in each group has shown a significantly higher mean glomerular
J15 164 filtration rate in the surgically treated group. ^However the
J15 165 mean renal function of the two groups at enrolment was not
J15 166 comparable ({0J M} Smellie, personal communication).
J15 167    |^The International Reflux Study in Children started in
J15 168 1980 [12] and enrolment was completed in 1985 [26]. ^In the
J15 169 European arm of the study 402 children were entered from eight
J15 170 paediatric nephrology units, but only 142 from the eight
J15 171 collaborating units in the United States of America. ^The
J15 172 children entered in the study were under 11 years of age and
J15 173 had grade *=III or *=IV reflux (international classification).
J15 174 ^Unfortunately children with grade *=V reflux were not included
J15 175 because most clinicians were agreed that this severe form of
J15 176 reflux in an infant or young child warranted antireflux
J15 177 surgery. ^In the European arm of the study the children had a
J15 178 repeat voiding cystourethrogram three months after enrolment
J15 179 and if they still had dilating reflux ({0ie}, grade *=III or
J15 180 more) they were then considered to have stable reflux, entered
J15 181 in the main study and randomised to either surgery or no
J15 182 surgery. ^All children received antimicrobial prophylaxis.
J15 183 ^This preallocation period resulted in 80 children in the
J15 184 European arm being excluded because of unstable reflux. ^These
J15 185 80 children are being followed as a separate group. ^Thus there
J15 186 are 322 children in the European arm of the study who are now
J15 187 under long term followup in the main study . ^At entry,
J15 188 one-third of these children already had renal scars.
J15 189    |^There was no preallocation phase in the United States arm
J15 190 of the study which definitely had problems with recruitment.
J15 191 ^In addition, it is difficult to explain why in this group
J15 192 there were only 13 boys (9.2% of total), compared with 87 boys
J15 193 (21.6% of total) in the European group. ^This difference was
J15 194 statistically significant and was not explained by an older age
J15 195 group of the American children. ^If the latter was true fewer
J15 196 boys would be expected as they tend to present within the first
J15 197 year of life. ^It has been shown recently that the risk of
J15 198 urinary tract infections in boys is higher in those who are
J15 199 uncircumcised [27], and it has been postulated that the
J15 200 practise of widespread circumcision in America may be
J15 201 responsible for the small number of boys enrolled in this
J15 202 trial.
J15 203    |^A prospective study is in progress in Auckland enrolling
J15 204 children aged six months to 10 years with grade *=III or *=IV
J15 205 reflux (international classification). ^To date over 100
J15 206 children have been randomised to either conservative treatment
J15 207 or to antireflux surgery, but no followup data is yet available
J15 208 (Morris and Rothwell, personal communication).
J15 209    |^The South-West Pediatric Nephrology Study Group in Dallas
J15 210 have a prospective study in progress to follow children with
J15 211 grade *=I, *=II and *=III reflux (international
J15 212 classification). ^All children will be followed for at least
J15 213 five years while receiving low-dose cotrimoxazole (Arant {0BS},
J15 214 personal communication). ^This American study is similar to the
J15 215 initial study by Rolleston {0et al} [10,11] but the former
J15 216 includes children under the age of five years rather than just
J15 217 infants and excludes those with the most severe degrees of
J15 218 reflux.
J15 219 **[TABLE**]
J15 220    |^Although the commonest clinical presentation of
J15 221 vesicoureteric reflux or reflux nephropathy is a complicating
J15 222 urinary tract infection the disorder may present in several
J15 223 other ways (Table 1).
J15 224    |^In Australasia, and probably in other western countries,
J15 225 reflux nephropathy is the commonest cause of both malignant
J15 226 hypertension and endstage renal failure in children [28].
J15 227 ^Persistent proteinuria is a bad prognostic feature and
J15 228 indicates a complicating glomerulopathy with the features of
J15 229 focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis and hyalinosis [29,30].
J15 230 *#
J16 001 **[310 TEXT J16**]
J16 002 |^*4P*0aget's disease of bone is principally a disorder of
J16 003 osteoclasts. ^There is excessive bone dissolution followed by
J16 004 disordered reconstitution with typical radiological features of
J16 005 lysis, sclerosis, a disordered trabecular pattern and an
J16 006 increase in bone volume. ^Activity in individual bones can be
J16 007 predominantly lytic; then mixed with an increase in bone
J16 008 osteoblastic activity; and finally, on occasions, becoming
J16 009 quiescent. ^A lytic area may be present for months or years and
J16 010 may progress along a bone shaft, linked to a change in bone
J16 011 architecture (\0fig. 1). ^The condition involves single bones,
J16 012 although often at multiple sites. ^The axial skeleton (skull,
J16 013 thoracic and lumbar spine, pelvis and long bones of the legs)
J16 014 is particularly affected. ^Overall disease activity can be
J16 015 measured with 24-hour urinary hydroxyproline levels (monitoring
J16 016 osteoclastic activity) and serum alkaline phosphatase
J16 017 (monitoring osteoblastic activity). ^Actively involved bone has
J16 018 increased vascularity. ^Local blood flow can cause an increase
J16 019 in the cardiac output, and predispose to bone pain.
J16 020    |^The condition is common, possibly involving 2 to 5% of
J16 021 New Zealanders over the age of 50 (Ibbertson {0et al.} 1979;
J16 022 Reasbeck {0et al.} 1983). ^Studies in the United States and
J16 023 United Kingdom have suggested a patchy distribution between
J16 024 geographical areas.
J16 025    |^Paget's disease is frequently asymptomatic; it is a
J16 026 common incidental finding on x-ray or cause of a raised
J16 027 alkaline phosphatase. ^Most Pagetic bones can be demonstrated
J16 028 by bone scan. ^When problems occur, they can result from bone
J16 029 pain, deformity, osteoarthritis in adjacent joints, fracture,
J16 030 nerve compression or ischaemia. ^Very occasionally extensive
J16 031 Paget's disease can contribute towards congestive heart failure
J16 032 and very occasionally Pagetic bone can undergo sarcomatous
J16 033 change.
J16 034    |^The trigger to the altered osteoclast morphology and
J16 035 increased bony activity is thought to be a viral infection of
J16 036 the measles or respiratory syncytial virus types. ^Inclusion
J16 037 particles suggestive of such viruses have been found in
J16 038 osteoclasts in most cases in which they have been sought by
J16 039 electronmicroscopy.
J16 040    |^There have been several useful symposia and reviews on
J16 041 the subject (Altman and Singer 1980; Hosking 1985; Ibbertson
J16 042 {0et al.} 1979; Wallach 1977; Williams 1981). ^In this article
J16 043 references are quoted only for information additional to these
J16 044 reviews.
J16 045 *<*41. Therapeutic Agents*>
J16 046    |^*0The condition is readily treated, usually with a
J16 047 diphosphonate, calcitonin or a combination of both. ^However,
J16 048 at present, each requires a specialist prescription. ^The
J16 049 current New Zealand drug cost of an average 6-month course of
J16 050 etidronate disodium (the only approved diphosphonate) is about
J16 051 *+$750 and of calcitonin about *+$1400.
J16 052 *<1.1 Etidronate disodium*>
J16 053    |^Diphosphonates (biphosphonates) are pyrophosphate-like
J16 054 agents which are readily adsorbed to bone. ^The major mechanism
J16 055 of action of etidronate disodium is probably through inhibition
J16 056 of intracellular metabolic activities. ^However, it has poor
J16 057 cellular penetration. ^It may be that osteoclasts have
J16 058 increased vulnerability to the agent as they mobilise bone.
J16 059 **[FIGURE**]
J16 060    |^It is administered orally on an empty stomach and has a
J16 061 low absorption, between 1 to 10% of the dose. ^Extracellular
J16 062 fluid levels equilibrate between bone adsorption and renal
J16 063 excretion. ^The usual recommended dose is 5 {0mg/kg/day},
J16 064 although 10 {0mg/kg/day} is at least as effective and probably
J16 065 has no increase in toxicity in comparison with the lower dose.
J16 066 ^Initial studies used doses of 20 {0mg/kg/day} for prolonged
J16 067 periods but these levels were found to interfere with bone
J16 068 formation, giving a form of osteomalacia and an increased
J16 069 fracture rate in both Pagetic and non-Pagetic bone. ^The lower
J16 070 doses do not cause this problem if courses are restricted to 6
J16 071 months or less. ^The presence of predominantly osteolytic bone
J16 072 is a contraindication to beginning treatment with etidronate
J16 073 disodium, in case a fracture supervenes. ^Those subjects who
J16 074 have plasma alkaline phosphatase less than about 600 to 800
J16 075 {0U/L} (normal less than about 100 {0U/L}) commonly respond
J16 076 with a fall in level over 3 to 6 months. ^Values often plateau
J16 077 at about one-third to one-half of the initial value (\0fig. 2).
J16 078 ^Many of these patients have falls to near normal levels and
J16 079 experience a long term remission (Altman 1985). ^In others the
J16 080 biochemistry relapses after a period of months or years (\0fig.
J16 081 2).
J16 082    |^There are few side effects. ^Occasionally there is mild
J16 083 nausea, or an alteration in bowel habit. ^Occasionally,
J16 084 especially with active Paget's disease, there can be an
J16 085 increase in bone pain for a few weeks. ^Progressive bone pain
J16 086 may herald a developing fracture. ^Care is also required in
J16 087 subjects with clearly reduced renal function.
J16 088 *<1.2 Calcitonin*>
J16 089    |^Calcitonin is a peptide hormone which acts on osteoclasts
J16 090 to reduce cell number and activity. ^Long term treatment
J16 091 supports normal remodelling of bone.
J16 092 **[FIGURE**]
J16 093    |^Human, salmon and porcine preparations are available,
J16 094 each administered subcutaneously. ^Salmon calcitonin is more
J16 095 potent than the homologous hormone in various species. ^The
J16 096 porcine form is less potent than the other forms. ^The usual
J16 097 dose is 100 {0MRC} units for salmon or porcine calcitonin and
J16 098 0.5 \0mg for human calcitonin. ^Salmon calcitonin can be given
J16 099 daily for about 6 weeks, subsequently reducing to 3 days a
J16 100 week. ^Human calcitonin may be given on a similar regimen but
J16 101 should probably be continued at a daily dosage schedule until
J16 102 the biochemical response has plateaued. ^At these doses there
J16 103 is no proven benefit for one hormone over the other, although
J16 104 formal comparisons have not been performed.
J16 105    |^Calcitonin therapy has a comparable biochemical effect to
J16 106 etidronate disodium, although the fall in hydroxyproline values
J16 107 may not be as rapid. ^The reduction in alkaline phosphatase
J16 108 again occurs particularly in the first few weeks of therapy,
J16 109 with progressive change for 3 to 6 months. ^Levels fall to
J16 110 about half of the initial values (\0fig. 2). ^Symptomatic
J16 111 improvement is usually seen within 2 to 6 weeks. ^Relapse is
J16 112 common within months of stopping therapy (\0fig. 2). ^Some
J16 113 patients on human calcitonin may have a further response when
J16 114 treatment is continued at increasing dose.
J16 115    |^Calcitonin reduces the bone pain of Paget's disease over
J16 116 days or weeks. ^In part, this is associated with a reduction in
J16 117 bone vascularity. ^In addition there may be a direct analgesic
J16 118 effect. ^Pain from boney metastases may also be ameliorated.
J16 119 ^Calcitonin is specifically indicated with extensive lytic
J16 120 Paget's disease.
J16 121    |^Side effects are common on treatment, occurring in over
J16 122 one-third of patients. ^Nausea is frequent, starting 30 minutes
J16 123 to 2 hours after injection and sometimes persisting for several
J16 124 hours. ^The nausea can be preceded by an uncomfortable facial
J16 125 flushing or sweating. ^These symptoms commonly reduce after
J16 126 days or weeks of therapy but may not clear completely. ^They
J16 127 can be ameliorated by starting on lower doses, by using a
J16 128 subcutaneous rather than an intramuscular injection and by
J16 129 having the patient rest after injection *- all simple practices
J16 130 which reduce the rate of absorption. ^Symptomatic therapy for
J16 131 flushing ({0e.g.} clonidine) or nausea ({0e.g.} metoclopramide)
J16 132 taken before an injection, can also help. ^Calcitonin also
J16 133 induces a mild diuresis; this may be noticed by the patient but
J16 134 rarely causes difficulties. ^There is also a reduction in
J16 135 gastric acid secretion which is symptomless.
J16 136 *<1.3 Mithramycin*>
J16 137    |^Mithramycin is an antineoplastic agent with potent
J16 138 effects on osteoclasts. ^It is given by infusion in a few daily
J16 139 treatments for 5 to 10 days. ^It can produce a rapid reduction
J16 140 in bone pain (within days) and a rapid and deep fall in the
J16 141 biochemistry. ^There is a risk of renal, hepatic or bone marrow
J16 142 toxicity which is minimal provided doses are kept at 10
J16 143 {0*1\15m*0g/kg/day}. ^Treatment is best administered on an in
J16 144 patient basis with detailed supervision including renal and
J16 145 liver function tests and blood counts. ^Mithramycin is usually
J16 146 employed as a second-line agent in a subject with serious
J16 147 problems after an inadequate response to calcitonin and
J16 148 diphosphonates.
J16 149 *<1.4 Combined Therapy*>
J16 150    |^The effects of calcitonin are complementary to the
J16 151 diphosphonates. ^The use of both agents simultaneously will
J16 152 commonly reduce the alkaline phosphatase to normal over a 4- to
J16 153 6-month period, even in subjects with particularly high enzyme
J16 154 levels (\0fig. 2). ^Combination with mithramycin is still
J16 155 experimental but in specialist units may be worth using with a
J16 156 defined protocol to allow proper evaluation.
J16 157 *<1.5 Other Therapies*>
J16 158    |^A combination of calcium (1 \0g daily) and a thiazide
J16 159 diuretic in moderate dosage has been shown to reduce Pagetic
J16 160 activity, with a fall in alkaline phosphatase and frequently a
J16 161 reduction in bone pain. ^It is presumed that the
J16 162 diuretic-induced retention of calcium combines with the oral
J16 163 load to stimulate endogenous calcitonin and/or inhibit
J16 164 parathyroid hormone. ^Treatment is cheap and readily
J16 165 prescribed. ^However, it rarely reduces alkaline phosphatase to
J16 166 normal levels. ^While it can induce a further fall in
J16 167 biochemistry after treatment with the first-line agents, it has
J16 168 not yet been shown to prolong a medical remission.
J16 169    |^High dose etidronate disodium, 20 {0mg/kg/day}, has been
J16 170 shown to have similar biochemical effects after a monthly
J16 171 course as a 5 {0mg/kg/day} course for 6 months. ^The studies
J16 172 investigating this dosage regimen treated patients with
J16 173 moderate disease activity and alkaline phosphatase up to about
J16 174 600 {0U/L} (Gibbs {0et al.} 1986; Preston {0et al.} 1986). ^Its
J16 175 place as a standard therapy has not yet been defined.
J16 176    |^Calcium supplementation may be considered in patients on
J16 177 treatment, particularly in those with coincidental osteopaenia
J16 178 or a low calcium intake. ^Patients usually develop
J16 179 hypocalciuria and a minor fall in the serum calcium during
J16 180 effective treatment of Paget's disease, but this rarely causes
J16 181 symptoms. ^The calcium should not be taken at the same time as
J16 182 the etidronate disodium.
J16 183 *<*42. Treating Pagetic Symptoms*>
J16 184 *<*02.1 Bone Pain*>
J16 185    |^This is the usual indication for treatment. ^Typical
J16 186 Pagetic pain is a deep, diffuse, throbbing or aching, constant
J16 187 pain, increasing after exercise or at night (Harinck {0et al.}
J16 188 1986). ^This is not a diagnostic presentation and it can be
J16 189 difficult to distinguish Pagetic symptoms from those of
J16 190 degenerative disease in an adjacent joint. ^Low back and hip
J16 191 pain cause particular difficulty. ^At other sites there are
J16 192 often local signs of disease activity with warmth of
J16 193 **[TABLE**]
J16 194 the overlying skin, an increased volume in the adjacent
J16 195 superficial pulses and, occasionally, bone tenderness. ^If
J16 196 there is doubt as to whether pain is osteoarthritic in type, a
J16 197 trial injection of lignocaine in the joint will relieve
J16 198 arthritic pain for some hours without affecting a Pagetic
J16 199 component. ^A trial of calcitonin therapy for up to 6 weeks is
J16 200 useful *- almost all Pagetic pain will settle over this time.
J16 201 ^Any new, more acute symptoms, particularly in a deformed bone,
J16 202 can represent a developing pathological fracture.
J16 203    |^Mild bone pain may be treated with analgesics until there
J16 204 is clear progression of the disease. ^Often, however, it is
J16 205 reasonable to provide either a therapeutic trial of calcitonin
J16 206 or a complete course of either (or both) first-line agents.
J16 207 ^Commonly the pain does not recur until well after the
J16 208 biochemistry has relapsed.
J16 209 *<2.2 Progressive Boney Deformity*>
J16 210    |^Any deformity is generally slowly progressive over years.
J16 211 ^It occurs particularly in the weight-bearing bones, the tibia
J16 212 and the femur, which bend anteriorly and laterally. ^There can
J16 213 also be change in the shape of the femoral neck (a relative
J16 214 rise in the greater trochanter), in the pelvis (with protrusio
J16 215 acetabuli) or at the base of the skull (platybasia). ^Therapy
J16 216 can be expected to arrest progressive change, although this
J16 217 occurs so slowly it requires some care and objective assessment
J16 218 to show the effects.
J16 219 *<2.3 Very Active Disease*>
J16 220    |^There is a case to be made for the treatment of all
J16 221 subjects whose alkaline phosphatase is greater than 1000
J16 222 {0U/L}, even in the absence of symptoms (Ibbertson 1979). ^This
J16 223 is particularly so in subjects less than 50 years of age, as
J16 224 they may be more at risk of complications. ^There is a good
J16 225 fall in biochemistry, often into the normal range, when
J16 226 calcitonin and etidronate disodium are combined in a 6-month
J16 227 course. ^Such patients frequently report a nonspecific
J16 228 improvement in well-being, with improved concentration or
J16 229 cerebration and an improved exercise tolerance. ^Once admitted
J16 230 to this treatment, intermittent courses of one or both agents
J16 231 over 6 months every year may well be justified if the
J16 232 biochemistry relapses.
J16 233    |^It is useful to use a combined regimen in the initial
J16 234 course of therapy in subjects with alkaline phosphatase values
J16 235 over about 800 {0U/L}.
J16 236 *#
J17 001 **[311 TEXT J17**]
J17 002    |^*0Adolescents are experiencing sexual relationships at an
J17 003 earlier age and all too frequently this is resulting in
J17 004 unplanned pregnancies. ^The contraceptive needs of adolescents
J17 005 are not being met and doctors have a responsibility to improve
J17 006 this important area of health care.
J17 007    |^Adolescence is difficult to define. ^Taking a biological
J17 008 approach, it can be said to commence at puberty but there is no
J17 009 agreement on the end point. ^Socially it can be defined as the
J17 010 transition period from childhood to adulthood. ^Chronologically
J17 011 a {0WHO} expert committee (1965) proposed the age limits of 10
J17 012 to 20 years. ^This broad definition has been assumed in this
J17 013 paper. ^Sexually, adolescence is the period of attainment of
J17 014 sexual maturity and most young persons will have experienced a
J17 015 sexual relationship, either heterosexual or homosexual, by the
J17 016 age of 20 years.
J17 017    |^A recent study (1) of 389 15-year-old girls attending
J17 018 secondary school in the Hutt Valley, found 29% had already
J17 019 experienced sexual intercourse at least once and 10 had been
J17 020 pregnant. ^Knowledge of reproductive health was poor. ^The
J17 021 condom was the most frequent method of contraception used,
J17 022 followed by the pill and withdrawal. ^15% of the sexually
J17 023 experienced girls used no contraception.
J17 024    |^Providing contraception for adolescents raises a number
J17 025 of issues. ^Is it legal? ^Is it ethical? ^Is it practical? ^This
J17 026 paper discusses these issues.
J17 027 *<*5Is It Legal?*>
J17 028    |^*0In New Zealand it is now lawful for doctors to
J17 029 prescribe contraception for under-16-year-olds (Contraception,
J17 030 Sterilisation and Abortion Act 1977). ^Prior to 1977 the legal
J17 031 position was unclear. ^An under-16-year-old may consent to an
J17 032 abortion without parental consent, (Guardianship Amendment
J17 033 1977). ^There is no legislation covering the sterilisation of
J17 034 minors, nor of mentally handicapped persons, although this is
J17 035 being reviewed at the present time.
J17 036    |^For males there is no age of consent to heterosexual
J17 037 intercourse but for females it is 16 years. ^After a stormy and
J17 038 lengthy passage, the Homosexual Law Reform Act was passed in
J17 039 August 1986, decriminalising homosexual acts at 16 years.
J17 040    |^The age of consent to marriage for both sexes is 16 years
J17 041 with parental consent and 20 years without parental consent.
J17 042 ^Prior to 1933 the age of consent for females was 12 years and
J17 043 for males 14 years.
J17 044    |^Many doctors are unsure about the legality of providing
J17 045 contraception for an under-16-year-old girl when it is clearly
J17 046 unlawful for any male to be having intercourse with her. ^Is
J17 047 the doctor guilty of aiding and abetting a criminal offence?
J17 048 ^Providing contraception does not enable the act of intercourse
J17 049 to take place, it merely protects against a possible outcome.
J17 050 ^The intention of the law is to protect under-16-year-olds  and
J17 051 reporting an offence would be a breach of confidentiality
J17 052 unless the girl required protection from incest, violence or
J17 053 sexual abuse.
J17 054 *<*5It May Be Legal But Is It Ethical?*>
J17 055    |^Doctors providing contraceptive care for adolescents need
J17 056 to be clear about legal issues in order to deal constructively
J17 057 with the inevitable phone call from an angry parent who has
J17 058 discovered their daughter's pills. ^*'You have no right to do
J17 059 this without informing me. ^I am legally responsible for my
J17 060 daughter's welfare. ^What about the rights of parents?**'
J17 061    |^These are issues that were raised, in the end
J17 062 unsuccessfully, by \0Mrs Gillick in the {0UK}. ^There is no
J17 063 requirement to inform parents if contraception is provided for
J17 064 an under-16-year-old, even if this information is demanded by
J17 065 parents. ^This would be considered a breach of confidentiality
J17 066 if done without the consent of the young person and would
J17 067 destroy the trust of the doctor/ patient relationship. ^While
J17 068 parental involvement should be encouraged, it cannot be
J17 069 enforced.
J17 070    |^Listening to the parent's point of view, acknowledging
J17 071 the conflicts and discussing the issues fully, will in most
J17 072 cases enable a satisfactory resolution to occur. ^Most parents
J17 073 can understand that prevention of an unplanned pregnancy is an
J17 074 important priority and it is possible to help parents to see
J17 075 the issues more clearly without betraying the trust of the
J17 076 adolescent. ^The parents may feel rejected because their
J17 077 daughter has confided in someone else. ^They may feel guilty
J17 078 because she has chosen to be sexually active *- *'^Where did we
J17 079 go wrong?**' ^They may feel protective and find it difficult
J17 080 not to interfere when, in their eyes, the adolescent is making
J17 081 a grave mistake. ^They may feel resentful that they have so
J17 082 much responsibility and so little control. ^For parents who
J17 083 find reading helpful, books can be recommended (3,4). ^If the
J17 084 doctor finds it difficult to act in this intermediary role,
J17 085 {0e.g.} when the parents are also patients and there is a
J17 086 conflict of loyalties, then the doctor should explain the
J17 087 difficulty and suggest that the young person consult another
J17 088 doctor or Family Planning Clinic.
J17 089    |^Honesty is the best policy and this also applies in other
J17 090 areas. ^I have seen patients who have been prescribed oral
J17 091 contraceptive pills for menstrual problems and they have been
J17 092 told that this is not for contraception. ^I have seen patients
J17 093 who have been given a *'Depo-Provera**' injection without an
J17 094 explanation of what this was for.
J17 095    |^It is important for doctors to be aware of their own
J17 096 attitudes and feelings. ^Many doctors feel uncomfortable if a
J17 097 virgin asks for contraception, as if they are somehow
J17 098 responsible for removing the final barrier. ^Our attitudes are
J17 099 probably responsible to some extent, for the finding that first
J17 100 intercourse is so frequently unprotected. ^To tell a young
J17 101 woman to come back when she really needs it, may mean that she
J17 102 will come back pregnant. ^If an adolescent takes the
J17 103 responsible step of asking for contraception, they deserve more
J17 104 than a lecture on the dangers of sex, although this must be
J17 105 discussed, along with other issues.
J17 106    |^Many adolescents do not understand the risks of
J17 107 pregnancy, birth, abortion or the risk of contracting a
J17 108 sexually transmissible infection and therefore the possibility
J17 109 of impairment of future fertility or the risk of developing
J17 110 carcinoma of the cervix. ^The facts must be presented so that
J17 111 adolescents can make their own decisions and be responsible for
J17 112 the consequences.
J17 113    |^I believe that if more young people were presented with
J17 114 all the facts, there would be less sexual activity and more
J17 115 responsible behaviour.
J17 116    |^Adolescence, however, is a time for unpredictable
J17 117 behaviour as well as responsible decision-making. ^So often one
J17 118 hears *'^I didn't think it would happen to me**' or *'^I knew I
J17 119 was taking a risk**'. ^The consequences of behaviour cannot
J17 120 always be appreciated and this depends on the level of
J17 121 maturity.
J17 122    |^Sometimes parents are overconcerned about the risks that
J17 123 daughters may be exposed to. ^They demand that their daughter
J17 124 be put on the pill for protection. ^Such requests need to be
J17 125 handled sensitively but in most cases, a frank discussion about
J17 126 possible situations and information on emergency methods, will
J17 127 give both mother and daughter a greater sense of control.
J17 128 *<*5Asking for Contraception*>
J17 129 *<*4The Interview*>
J17 130    |^Adolescents often feel more comfortable with a supportive
J17 131 friend or relative, for the whole or part of the consultation,
J17 132 especially if it is a first visit. ^A flexible approach should
J17 133 be adopted depending on the circumstances. ^Boyfriends should
J17 134 be made to feel welcome. ^If a mother accompanies a daughter it
J17 135 is often appropriate to see them together, then separately.
J17 136    |^Time needs to be spent discussing what is important for
J17 137 them. ^This may include:
J17 138    |_Their knowledge of the body, male and female, and how it
J17 139 works
J17 140    |Menstruation
J17 141    |Masturbation
J17 142    |Sexual relationships
J17 143    |Having sexual intercourse for the first time, virginity
J17 144    |Enjoying or not enjoying sexual intercourse
J17 145    |Pressures to have or not have intercourse
J17 146    |Their feelings and emotions
J17 147    |Their relationships with boyfriends, girlfriends and
J17 148 family members
J17 149    |Information on sexually transmissible diseases
J17 150    |^A nurse or a social worker will often have more time than
J17 151 the doctor to discuss these issues and they do not need to be
J17 152 done at one session!
J17 153 *<*4Confidentiality*>
J17 154    |^*0Adolescents need assurance that any information is
J17 155 strictly confidential and will not be passed on to anyone,
J17 156 including their parents, without their consent (\0fig. 1). ^If
J17 157 they are under 16 years they are often confused about the law.
J17 158 ^Reassurance is needed that it is quite legal to prescribe
J17 159 contraception for under 16's and the doctor is only concerned
J17 160 for their welfare.
J17 161 *<*4The Examination*>
J17 162    |^*0Many young women are anxious about having an internal
J17 163 examination and doctors should be aware of ways and means of
J17 164 making this a more positive experience [5]. ^Vaginal
J17 165 examination can be offered at the first visit and many
J17 166 appreciate the reassurance that they are normal and healthy. ^A
J17 167 mirror can be offered for those interested in seeing for
J17 168 themselves. ^An explanation of what is done and why, is
J17 169 reassuring. ^However, examination on the first contraceptive
J17 170 consultation should not be obligatory and having an examination
J17 171 should not be used as a reason for withholding contraception.
J17 172 ^Unless there is a particular reason for conducting an
J17 173 examination, it can be deferred until a return visit, when the
J17 174 young woman feels more prepared. ^This will also be done if she
J17 175 is a virgin or if she is menstruating on the first visit.
J17 176 *<*4Choice of Contraception*>
J17 177    |^*0There is no ideal method for adolescents. ^The perfect
J17 178 contraceptive would be 100% safe, free
J17 179 **[TABLE**]
J17 180 from side effects, readily available without the need for
J17 181 medical supervision, unrelated to coitus, inexpensive and
J17 182 pleasant to use. ^The choice depends on age, health,
J17 183 lifestyle and frequency of intercourse. ^The advantages
J17 184 and disadvantages of the various methods will determine
J17 185 the choice.
J17 186    |^*1Abstinence: ^*0It is often said that *'no**' is the
J17 187 best contraceptive. ^While abstinence as a choice should be
J17 188 encouraged, it is not without problems. ^Many adolescents find
J17 189 it difficult to adhere when sexually aroused. ^Neither does it
J17 190 protect the adolescent when under the influence of drugs or
J17 191 alcohol or in situations of violent or sexual abuse.
J17 192 ^Programmes have been developed to help adolescents say *'no**'
J17 193 and postpone sexual involvement by an understanding of the
J17 194 pressures in society which influence behaviour (\0fig. 2).
J17 195 ^Pressures frequently result in adolescents engaging in
J17 196 intercourse without enjoyment.
J17 197    |^*1Sex Without Penetration: ^*0This is a variation of
J17 198 abstinence. ^The many ways of sexual pleasuring other than
J17 199 penile-vaginal intercourse should be presented as a positive
J17 200 alternative because they will be used by all couples at some
J17 201 time or another, for a variety of reasons. ^There is a
J17 202 continuum of activities from holding hands, dancing, hugging,
J17 203 kissing, fondling breasts, and massage to masturbation by self
J17 204 or partner, oral-genital sex and the use of stimulating
J17 205 devices. ^If there is close and moist apposition of the penis
J17 206 and vagina, conception can occur even without full ejaculation.
J17 207 ^If ejaculation occurs it is important that semen is not
J17 208 deposited at the entrance to the vagina.
J17 209    |^*1Condoms: ^*0These have many advantages for adolescents.
J17 210 ^They are available from chemists, other retail outlets and
J17 211 mail order, without the need for a doctor's visit. ^They are
J17 212 easy to use and provide the best protection against sexually
J17 213 transmissible infections. ^Time should be spent discussing how
J17 214 to use a condom properly. ^Coloured and textured condoms may
J17 215 have more appeal. ^For adolescents having irregular or
J17 216 infrequent sexual relations condoms are the first choice. ^They
J17 217 also allow males to share in the responsibility of
J17 218 contraception. ^However, they must be put on *1every *0time,
J17 219 not just most times. ^A girl may feel it is improper to be
J17 220 prepared and carry condoms but she should be reassured that
J17 221 this is the responsible thing to do. ^Adolescents often feel
J17 222 embarrassed buying condoms, carrying condoms and using them.
J17 223 ^Some young men refuse to wear them, especially if there is
J17 224 anxiety about maintaining an erection. ^A first time user can
J17 225 gain confidence by practising in private. ^If the condom bursts
J17 226 or leaks or is not used with care, young people should know
J17 227 about postcoital methods, especially the *'morning after**'
J17 228 pill. ^Condoms can be used with spermicides for greater
J17 229 reliability although some people do not like the messiness or
J17 230 taste of spermicides. ^Some brands of condom are now available
J17 231 which are spermicidally lubricated. ^A *'his**' and *'hers**'
J17 232 pack of condoms and pessaries reinforces the idea of joint
J17 233 responsibility.
J17 234    |^*1Postcoital contraception: ^*0Yuzpe's regimen of 2
J17 235 tablets of ethinyloestradiol 0.05\0mg plus levonorgestrel
J17 236 0.25\0mg followed in 12 hours by another 2 tablets, is an
J17 237 effective emergency method with a failure rate of 2 to 3%.
J17 238 *#
J18 001 **[312 TEXT J18**]
J18 002    |^*0This paper is concerned with the comparison of two
J18 003 database packages *"R:base 5000**" and *"dBase *=III Plus**".
J18 004 ^The reader should note the existence of *"R:base system
J18 005 *=V**", a significant improvement on *"R:base 5000**". ^We are
J18 006 not concerned with *"R:base System *=V**" here. ^In the
J18 007 remainder of the report, *"R:base 5000**" will be refered to as
J18 008 R:base, and *"dBase *=III Plus**" as dBase.
J18 009    |^The comparison is considered under the following
J18 010 headings: *"An Overview of the  Two Packages**", *"Language
J18 011 features**", *"Datatypes**", *"User Interface**", and
J18 012 *"Summary**" *- a table summarising the main features of the
J18 013 two packages.
J18 014    |^My conclusions, briefly, are that the major advantages of
J18 015 dBase over R:base appear to be its rich selection of functions,
J18 016 its access to assembly language and C, and its complete control
J18 017 of {0DOS} commands. ^Conversely, the advantages of R:base over
J18 018 dBase are that it is easier to set up relations *- which goes
J18 019 hand in hand with  understandability *- and its greater range
J18 020 of datatypes.
J18 021 *<*2INTRODUCTION*>
J18 022    |^*0A database is a collection of related information about
J18 023 a subject or subjects. ^This can be stored electronically (for
J18 024 example on a computer), on paper in filing cabinets, or in any
J18 025 other form; for example, a crate of fruit, each of which has a
J18 026 certain number of a type of bug in or on it. ^Obviously this
J18 027 last method is clumsy and takes up rather a lot of space. ^If
J18 028 someone were to count the number of bugs on each fruit the
J18 029 information could be placed on paper and filed somewhere (in a
J18 030 filing cabinet perhaps). ^Though this method is a great
J18 031 improvement on our bulk storage method it is nowhere near as
J18 032 efficient as our first method, that of electronic storage.
J18 033    |^At this point it would be fruitful to introduce some
J18 034 jargon. ^Strictly speaking, a *"database**" is a list of
J18 035 information, and a *"database scheme**" is the structure
J18 036 containing it, but we will refer to the database as being both.
J18 037 ^The *"application**" is the database together with menus and a
J18 038 program to access and manipulate the information.
J18 039    |^Some concepts would also be useful. ^There are three
J18 040 basic models from which databases are constructed. ^We will
J18 041 discuss two of these *- Relational and Network (do not confuse
J18 042 this with  dBase's *2\NETWORKING, *0or multiuser capability *-
J18 043 mentioned later). ^The third is Hierarchical, but we shall not
J18 044 concern ourselves with it. ^A relational database stores its
J18 045 data in the form of *"relations**", or tables. ^These represent
J18 046 both the entities ({0ie} the table) and the relationships.
J18 047 ^Networks, however, store data as separate entities and we
J18 048 define links or relationships between them. ^Relational models
J18 049 are much easier to understand and generally have better *"query
J18 050 languages**" {0ie} complex ad hoc queries are supported.
J18 051 ^Network models, however, are more efficient {0ie} searches are
J18 052 faster, but generally are more difficult to understand and use,
J18 053 with more restricted query languages.
J18 054    |^The two packages we look at are designed for use on
J18 055 microcomputers, though databases and database packages are
J18 056 certainly not limited to micros. ^The major advantage that
J18 057 mainframe packages, such as *2\INGRES, *0have over their micro
J18 058 counterparts is that of resources, including larger memory and
J18 059 more peripheral storage devices, hence much larger databases
J18 060 can be supported. ^It is also common for mainframe packages to
J18 061 have a *"logging**" facility or audit trail *- a record of all
J18 062 changes made over a certain time period, a day say. ^Then, in
J18 063 the event of a disaster such as a disk crash, any previous work
J18 064 is not lost. ^It also enables the *"manager**" to keep a watch
J18 065 on actions of users, {0ie} who is doing what and when. ^Note
J18 066 that neither R:base nor dBase has this feature.
J18 067    |^Both our databases have several facilities for data
J18 068 entry. ^These include from keyboard (via a user-defined form,
J18 069 or through a simple command), and from disk files (including
J18 070 conversion capabilities from other databases). ^There are
J18 071 certain restrictions on the format of disk files, but these can
J18 072 easily be  accommodated.
J18 073 *<*2AN OVERVIEW  OF THE TWO PACKAGES*>
J18 074    |^*0Conceptually, our two databases are quite different.
J18 075 ^R:base is a relational database, whereas  dBase is based on
J18 076 the Network model. ^R:base, hence, consists of a series of
J18 077 tables together in one file (this is actually stored as three
J18 078 files, but can be considered as one), each table consisting of
J18 079 columns and rows. ^The relationships between tables are
J18 080 implicit and are determined by columns of the same name
J18 081 occurring in different tables. ^dBase however, keeps things
J18 082 modular by having a file for each structure, each consisting of
J18 083 records and fields, with relationships defined explicitly using
J18 084 the *2{SET RELATION} *0command.
J18 085    |^The different concepts greatly affect the language
J18 086 structures. ^dBase is a complex language, and R:base much less
J18 087 so. ^Though dBase does appear to be more powerful, R:base is
J18 088 far more subtle in its abilities. ^dBase has at least two ways
J18 089 of doing everything, and it is sometimes difficult to tell the
J18 090 difference between commands, for example  *2{RTRIM()} *0and
J18 091 *2{TRIM()} *0are both  described: *"^Remove trailing blanks**".
J18 092    |^When working with dBase, one sets up an environment. ^If
J18 093 this is to be used repeatedly, it may be saved as a view
J18 094 ({.vue}) file. ^The environment includes any relationships that
J18 095 have been defined, and the order in which the information is to
J18 096 be accessed, {0ie} the indexing ({.ndx} file).
J18 097    |^The environment also includes the contents of the work
J18 098 areas. ^There are ten of these, though the tenth is used for
J18 099 the catalog file which contains the list of files available to
J18 100 the program. ^As a file is required, a work area is selected
J18 101 and the file opened, if a file is already open in that work
J18 102 area, it will automatically be closed.
J18 103    |^R:base is somewhat different in that it only allows one
J18 104 file to be open at one time, but this file can contain up to 40
J18 105 tables, hence the concept of work areas is meaningless. ^There
J18 106 are no index files, instead, a *"*2{SORTED BY}**" *0clause is
J18 107 used. ^The concept of environment is not required as
J18 108 relationships are implied, not defined.
J18 109 *<example:*>
J18 110    |^Consider our previous fruit and bug example, we may want
J18 111 to store the following information:
J18 112 |^*2\FRUITINF:
J18 113 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 1**]
J18 114 _*0crate code *-
J18 115 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J18 116 a number uniquely identifying the crate being used
J18 117 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J18 118 |fruit code *-
J18 119 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J18 120 a number uniquely identifying the particular fruit being used
J18 121 (say 4 if it was the 4th fruit to be taken out of the crate)
J18 122 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J18 123 |number of bugs alive
J18 124 |number of bugs found
J18 125 **[END INDENTATION 1**]
J18 126    |^As this is undoubtedly a part of a larger experiment,
J18 127 involving several crates, another table containing the
J18 128 following information may also be useful:
J18 129 |^*2\CRATEINF:
J18 130 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 1**]
J18 131 _*0crate code
J18 132 |where picked
J18 133 |treatment used
J18 134 |position in storage
J18 135 |time in storage
J18 136 |recorder *-
J18 137 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J18 138 the initials, say, of the person doing the counting
J18 139 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J18 140 **[END INDENTATION 1**]
J18 141    |^Obviously the two tables can be related by the field
J18 142 *"crate code**", and there will be several of *2\FRUITINF *0for
J18 143 each of *2\CRATEINF *0(a many to one relation). ^If we find
J18 144 that the proportion of live bugs is unusually high for crate
J18 145 10, say, we go to *2\CRATEINF *0and look up relevant details to
J18 146 try and see why, perhaps the treatment was ineffective.
J18 147    |^Note that we can create more tables such as details of
J18 148 treatments, *2\TREATINF; *0and details of recorders, *2\RECINF.
J18 149 ^*0If we want to find, say the treatment used on crates found
J18 150 to  have unusually high numbers of bugs, we have to access the
J18 151 three tables, *2{FRUITINF, CRATEINF}, *0and then *2\TREATINF.
J18 152 ^*0In  R:base, because it is based on the relational model,
J18 153 this is relatively easy, using only a few statements. ^Because
J18 154 dBase is based on the Network model, links must first be set up
J18 155 between each of the tables before any searching can be done *-
J18 156 quite a lot more work. ^Note that if another search path was to
J18 157 be initiated, all the relations would have to be redefined as
J18 158 only  one relation is allowed per work area.
J18 159    |^dBase assigns each record a number, R:base does not. ^The
J18 160 use of this may not be immediately obvious, as inside a program
J18 161 we are unlikely to know the value of the record we seek, but
J18 162 pseudo-random reads are facilitated. ^We are able to access say
J18 163 every ninth record by *2{GOTO RECNO() + 9}. ^*0However R:base
J18 164 allows similar actions by use of the *"*2{WHERE COUNT...}**"
J18 165 *0clause, without use of record numbers.
J18 166    |^dBase's whole philosophy appears to be *"*2THINK BIG**".
J18 167 *0It requires 384\0k as opposed to the minimum of 237\0k
J18 168 required by R:base. ^It allows us a maximum of 1 *2BILLION
J18 169 *0records per database file with a maximum of 2 *2BILLION
J18 170 *0bytes. ^This kind of space is certainly not available to
J18 171 floppy disk users, but in the (perhaps near) future, may be
J18 172 available to compact disk users. ^R:base modestly limits the
J18 173 user to the maximum allowed by {0DOS}. ^dBase's commands appear
J18 174 to be oriented around these huge mythical files (see duplicates
J18 175 below) with their seeming disregard for space. ^By resetting of
J18 176 defaults, you can recall up to 16000 previously entered
J18 177 commands *- that is approximately 640 pages! ^You are also
J18 178 allowed to typeahead up to 32000 characters, this is around 16
J18 179 pages of 80 character lines *- perhaps useful if you're reading
J18 180 off a peripheral device, but not many of us can type that fast!
J18 181    |^When R:base reads in an external ascii data file it
J18 182 expands it by approximately 1.6 times (this is an empirical
J18 183 figure only). ^No equivalent testing has been done with dBase.
J18 184    |^For the security conscious, dBase has no password
J18 185 facility except for multiuser environments (*2\NETWORKING),
J18 186 *0whereas R:base does (but does not cater for multiuser
J18 187 environments).
J18 188 *<*2LANGUAGE FEATURES*>
J18 189    |^*0Each of our languages is obviously influenced by the
J18 190 structure of the database. ^Functions and commands that dBase
J18 191 relies on are not necessary in R:base, and similarly commands
J18 192 and clauses indispensible in R:base are not required by dBase.
J18 193    |^dBase has a number of useful mathematical functions such
J18 194 as *2{ABS(),INT(),MOD(),LOG()} *0and  *2{EXP()}, *0even though
J18 195 it has no real *2\REAL *0datatype (see below). ^R:base does
J18 196 have a properly handled *2\REAL *0data type, but virtually no
J18 197 mathematical functions, just the clauses of the compute
J18 198 command: *2{AVE, COUNT, MAX, MIN,} *0and *2\SUM.
J18 199    |^*0As well as mathematical functions, dBase has a good
J18 200 range for strings. ^These include *2{CHR()} *0for *2ASCII *0to
J18 201 character conversion, *2{VAL()} *0for string to number
J18 202 conversion, *2{SUBSTR()} *0etc. ^It also includes *2{RTRIM()}
J18 203 *0and *2\TRIM *0which both remove trailing blanks. ^This is
J18 204 necessary because of what I consider a fault in dBase. ^When a
J18 205 string of length 10, say is entered into a *2\CHARACTER *0field
J18 206 of length 20 say, dBase pads out the end of the string with
J18 207 trailing blanks to make it up to 20 characters. ^It won't
J18 208 recognise variability of string lengths. ^R:base does not have
J18 209 this problem, but is frustrating in its lack of string handling
J18 210 capabilities.
J18 211    |^The two packages handle duplicates differently also. ^In
J18 212 this, R:base appears to have the upper hand. ^R:base has the
J18 213 statement *"*2{DELETE DUPLICATES}**" *0which removes all copies
J18 214 of any records. ^dBase allows suppression of duplicates, but
J18 215 does not have an easy facility for deletion of said. ^As we
J18 216 have mentioned previously, space may be of the essence, and
J18 217 hence something we will not want to waste with multiple copies
J18 218 of information. ^Note, however, that once R:base contains more
J18 219 than an hundred or so records, the *"*2{DELETE DUPLICATES}**"
J18 220 *0command becomes frustratingly slow, and should only be used
J18 221 when absolutely necessary.
J18 222    |^Because dBase considers a database as a file of records,
J18 223 each record is treated as an individual, with its own
J18 224 record number. ^R:base, however, considers its databases as a
J18 225 set of tables, each made up of rows and columns, and hence
J18 226 treats the information as being grouped. ^Because of this,
J18 227 R:base has easy access to whole columns, or selected portions
J18 228 thereof, and with one statement can do what requires a loop and
J18 229 a series of statements with dBase.
J18 230 *#
J19 001 **[313 TEXT J19**]
J19 002    |^*0This report surveys recent work on the Inverse Problem
J19 003 in saturated, single-phase reservoirs. ^After briefly outlining
J19 004 some relevant historical developments, the Inverse Problem is
J19 005 subdivided into the Direct Inverse Problem and the Indirect
J19 006 Inverse Problem. ^The classical formulation of the Direct
J19 007 Inverse Problem for steady isotropic reservoirs leads to a
J19 008 linear Cauchy Problem, while a weak formulation of the Direct
J19 009 Inverse Problem utilising Galerkin's method can lead to a
J19 010 non-linear weighted least squares problem.
J19 011    |^Some of the techniques available for treating the
J19 012 Indirect Inverse Problem are the trial and error approach;
J19 013 time-honoured approach; sensitivity matrix approach;
J19 014 variational approach; and the maximum likelihood approach.
J19 015 ^After briefly describing each of these approaches, our
J19 016 conclusions are listed in the Summary.
J19 017 *<*2INTRODUCTION*>
J19 018    |^*0Quantitative modelling of fluid flow in porous
J19 019 reservoirs began in 1856, when the French engineer Henry Darcy
J19 020 investigated the flow of water in vertical homogeneous sand
J19 021 filters in relation to the fountains of the city of Dijon.
J19 022 ^Darcy concluded that for steady flows the volumetric flux of
J19 023 water was proportional to the spatial gradient of pressure.
J19 024 ^This empirical result, and its subsequent generalisations, is
J19 025 referred to as Darcy's law.
J19 026    |^Formulation of a transient model of unsaturated flow in
J19 027 porous reservoirs was achieved in 1911 by the English physicist
J19 028 Buckingham (of dimensional analysis fame), who derived a
J19 029 non-linear parabolic equation which generalises the heat
J19 030 equation.
J19 031    |^It was noted that the equation for steady flow of water
J19 032 in hydrologic reservoirs was directly analogous to the equation
J19 033 for electrical potential associated with steady current flow
J19 034 through a resistive medium. ^Consequently, electrical analogues
J19 035 of hydrologic reservoirs were constructed, and it was deduced
J19 036 reservoir parameters such as permeability or transmissivity
J19 037 usually had to vary spatially across the reservoir (or aquifer)
J19 038 if electrical model predictions were to match head
J19 039 measurements.
J19 040    |^The first attempt to derive the spatial structure of
J19 041 reservoir transmissivity from head measurements is credited to
J19 042 Bennett and Meyer in 1952. ^Their approach was followed by
J19 043 Stallman (1956), who utilised a computer in his solution
J19 044 technique. ^Numerical results showed that the inverse problem,
J19 045 namely determining reservoir parameters from head measurements,
J19 046 was numerically unstable. ^Stallman partially overcame this
J19 047 instability problem by using larger grids, which constituted
J19 048 the earliest application of regularisation to the Inverse
J19 049 Problem.
J19 050    |^The first theoretical treatment of the Direct Inverse
J19 051 Problem occurred in 1960 by Nelson (Nelson, 1968). ^Steady
J19 052 fluid flow in an isotropic aquifer was assumed, with head
J19 053 measurements being assumed to be known exactly. ^This produced
J19 054 a hyperbolic equation leading to a standard Cauchy problem. ^To
J19 055 solve the problem, a value of transmissivity was required along
J19 056 each streamline, after which the transmissivity distribution
J19 057 could be determined.
J19 058    |^The formal solution of this Direct Inverse Problem showed
J19 059 that transmissivities depend on spatial gradients of heads,
J19 060 rather than directly on the heads. ^Since in general two
J19 061 functions can be arbitrarily close together, yet their
J19 062 derivatives can be arbitrarily far apart, the Inverse Problem
J19 063 is ill-posed in the classical sense of Hadamard (1932).
J19 064    |^It is generally acknowledged by groundwater modellers
J19 065 that the Inverse Problem may occasionally yield meaningless
J19 066 answers, such as negative and highly oscillatory transmissivity
J19 067 values. ^Sometimes it is claimed that the Inverse Problem is
J19 068 hopelessly ill-posed, and hence intrinsically unsolvable.
J19 069    |^The Inverse Problem is ill-posed in the sense of Hadamard
J19 070 (1932), when traditional methods of solution are used.
J19 071 ^According to Allison (1979,\0p. 10), Hadamard claimed that any
J19 072 meaningful mathematical problem should be *"correctly posed**"
J19 073 in that its solution must exist and be unique and stable with
J19 074 respect to small variations in the input data. ^However, it has
J19 075 been suggested that the Inverse Problems are meaningful,
J19 076 although these may not have unique solutions, nor may they be
J19 077 stable with respect to fluctuations in input data.
J19 078 ^Essentially, the completely deterministic approach of Hadamard
J19 079 must be replaced by statistical methods using random variables.
J19 080 ^Whether this is so still remains to be clearly resolved.
J19 081    |^During the 1980s an active research effort has been
J19 082 directed towards treating the Inverse Problem. ^We review some
J19 083 of the popular approaches below.
J19 084 *<*2MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES FOR A CONFINED AQUIFER*>
J19 085    |^*0This section briefly derives the flow equations needed
J19 086 in later sections. ^We shall consider saturated flows of
J19 087 (single phase) water through a heterogeneous porous medium.
J19 088    |^Darcy's Law is assumed to satisfy
J19 089 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 090 |where *1V*;a**; *0is volumetric flux of water in the *1a*0th
J19 091 direction; *1k*;ab**; *0the permeability tensor; *1\15m
J19 092 *0dynamic viscosity of water; *1\15r *0water density; *1g
J19 093 *0gravitational acceleration; *1\15R *0fluid pressure; *1\15Z
J19 094 *0is a vertical coordinate, directed vertically upwards; and
J19 095 *{*1x*;b**;*0*} is a Cartesian coordinate system, with
J19 096 **[FORMULA**].
J19 097    |^The equation of mass conservation is
J19 098 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 099 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 100 |where *1c *0is water compressibility; *1\15F *0is the time
J19 101 independent porosity; the summation over *1w *0refers to
J19 102 summation over all wells, located at position
J19 103 **[FORMULA**];
J19 104 *1\15d*/(.) *0is the three-dimensional Dirac delta function;
J19 105 and *1Q*;w**;(t) *0is the volumetric discharge rate from well
J19 106 *1w.
J19 107    |^*0In groundwater applications it is usual to use the
J19 108 hydraulic conductivity tensor, *1K*;ab**;,
J19 109 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 110 |*0instead of the permeability tensor, *1k*;ab**;. ^*0It is
J19 111 also usual to linearise (2) by cancelling out the density term
J19 112 in (2), and then to integrate vertically over the confined
J19 113 aquifer so that (2) becomes
J19 114 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 115 |where the aquifer has thickness *1H; x *0and *1y *0are
J19 116 horizontal coordinates; *1V*:+**:,V*:-**: *0denote volumetric
J19 117 fluxes of water out of the upper and lower aquifer surfaces;
J19 118 and *1\15d(.) *0is the two-dimensional delta function.
J19 119    |^Next, if pressures are approximately hydrostatic in the
J19 120 vertical, with fluid flows being primarily horizontal, we may
J19 121 assume
J19 122 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 123 |where *1h(x,y) *0denotes the head within the aquifer, and is
J19 124 defined to within an additive constant. ^Then (5) becomes
J19 125 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 126 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 127 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 128 |where
J19 129 **[FORMULA**];
J19 130 *1S *0is storativity; *1T*;ij**; *0transmissivity tensor; *1i
J19 131 *0and *1j *0denote horizontal indices; and we have ignored
J19 132 horizontal derivatives of the aquifer thickness, *1H.
J19 133 ^*0Equation (7) is a basic equation for hydrologic reservoirs.
J19 134 *<*2DIRECT AND INDIRECT CLASSIFICATION OF THE INVERSE
J19 135 PROBLEM*>
J19 136    |^*0Reservoir parameters are parameters associated with
J19 137 storativity, transmissivity, recharge (those terms in (7)
J19 138 involving *1V*:+**: *0and *1V*:-**:*0), and initial and
J19 139 boundary conditions. ^Existing methods for determining
J19 140 reservoir parameters can be classified as either direct
J19 141 methods, or indirect methods.
J19 142    |^Direct methods treat the time and spatial derivatives of
J19 143 head in (7) as known, which results in a relationship
J19 144 connecting the reservoir parameters. ^Conversely, indirect
J19 145 methods initially assume that all of the reservoir parameters
J19 146 are known. ^The partial differential equation for the heads in
J19 147 (7) is then solved, and after comparing the resulting model
J19 148 predicted heads with field measurements of heads, new reservoir
J19 149 parameters are selected which better match the available data.
J19 150 ^This is shown schematically in Figure 1.
J19 151 **[FIGURE**]
J19 152 *<*2THE CLASSICAL DIRECT PROBLEM*>
J19 153    |^*0In this section we briefly outline the classical direct
J19 154 solution to the Inverse Problem for isotropic steady reservoirs
J19 155 (see Nelson (1968)), which lack producing wells. ^Then (7)
J19 156 becomes
J19 157 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 158 |where spatial gradients are horizontal gradients.
J19 159    |^The characteristic equation
J19 160 |**[FORMULA**]
J19 161 |allows (10) to be rewritten as
J19 162 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 163 |and so
J19 164 |**[FORMULA**].
J19 165 |^Consequently, a solution for the distribution of
J19 166 transmissivities requires knowledge of transmissivities at some
J19 167 point along each characteristic.
J19 168    |^The characteristics in (11) are directed along the
J19 169 gradients of head, and since the reservoir is assumed to be
J19 170 isotropic, characteristics are streamlines. ^Positions where
J19 171 *?20*1h *0is zero will not allow characteristics to enter, and
J19 172 so transmissivity is not determined there. ^Note that (13)
J19 173 shows the classical Inverse Problem to be well posed provided
J19 174 the appropriate Cauchy data for *1T *0is defined, and provided
J19 175 *?20*1h *0and *?20*:2**:*1h *0are given (and non-zero almost
J19 176 everywhere).
J19 177    |^The same approach applies in principle for transient
J19 178 reservoirs, but then the domain of the Cauchy data may be time
J19 179 dependent, which motivates the method in the next section.
J19 180 *<*2WEAK FORMULATION FOR THE DIRECT PROBLEM*>
J19 181    |^*0Gradients of transmissivities in the equation for the
J19 182 Direct Problem show that transmissivities satisfy a first-order
J19 183 equation, and so some *"boundary values**" of transmissivity
J19 184 are required in the classical formulation of the Direct
J19 185 Problem. ^Such values will not be available, usually, which
J19 186 motivates consideration of the weak formulation of the Direct
J19 187 Problem.
J19 188    |^We shall assume that the reservoir is discretised using
J19 189 finite elements. ^For example, a 10 node, 12 element
J19 190 discretisation is shown in Figure 2. ^Triangular elements are
J19 191 depicted, but this is obviously immaterial to the following
J19 192 development.
J19 193    |^A basis function,
J19 194 **[FORMULA**]
J19 195 is defined for each node, *1i. ^*0The basis function is chosen
J19 196 to be unity at node *1i, *0and to decrease to zero at the outer
J19 197 boundary of the elements contacting node *1i. ^\15ps*0*1*;i**;
J19 198 *0is zero for all elements not in contact with node *1i. ^*0For
J19 199 example, the basis function at node *1f *0in Figure 2 is
J19 200 non-zero over elements 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; is unity at node *1f;
J19 201 *0and is zero for elements less than number 8.
J19 202 **[FIGURE**]
J19 203 ^Similarly, the basis function at node *1j *0is only non-zero
J19 204 over elements 4 and 5; is unity at node *1j; *0and is zero
J19 205 along lines *1b-e-i.
J19 206    |^*0The weak formulation for (7), utilising Galerkin's
J19 207 method, is obtained by multiplying (7) by
J19 208 **[FORMULA**],
J19 209 for each node *1k, *0and integrating over the whole area of the
J19 210 reservoir to yield
J19 211 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 212 |where *1\15G *0denotes the boundary of the reservoir, and
J19 213 *1ds*;i**; *0is directed around the boundary.
J19 214    |^Next, all unknown reservoir parameters are transferred to
J19 215 the left-hand side of (14), while known parameters are moved to
J19 216 the right-hand side. ^For example, suppose that *1S, T*;ij**;,
J19 217 V*:+**: *0+ *1V*:-**: *0are unknown; whereas *1Q*;w**; *0is
J19 218 known, and values of *1V*;i**; *0around the boundary are also
J19 219 assumed to be known. ^Then, all unknown reservoir parameters
J19 220 are expanded in terms of the basis functions
J19 221 **[FORMULA**],
J19 222 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 223 |where the summation over *1l *0contains the same number of
J19 224 terms as there are nodes. ^Substitution of (15) into (14) then
J19 225 yields
J19 226 |**[FORMULA**].
J19 227    |^By assumption, the parameters *1S*:l**: *0and
J19 228 **[FORMULA**]
J19 229 are time independent (being the values of storativity and
J19 230 transmissivity at node *1l*0), but the parameters *1V*:l**:
J19 231 *0may be time dependent, in which case (16) is indeterminant
J19 232 since then there are more unknowns than equations. ^(The number
J19 233 of unknowns *1V*:l**: *0precisely equals the number of
J19 234 equations in (16).) ^In order to proceed, it is necessary to
J19 235 reparametrise the parameters associated with *1V*:+**: *0+
J19 236 *1V*:-**:.
J19 237    |^*0One possible approach is to assume that recharge (or
J19 238 discharge?) occurs from leaky aquifers bounding our confined
J19 239 aquifer. ^For example, if the head *1h*/ *0in the leaky region
J19 240 above the aquifer satisfies
J19 241 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 242 |then
J19 243 **[FORMULA**],
J19 244 |for some function *1f*:+**:.
J19 245    |^*0From (17), *1V*:+**: *0depends linearly on *1K*//l*/,
J19 246 *0but non-linearly on
J19 247 **[FORMULA**],
J19 248 and so reparametrising the linear equation (16) can lead to
J19 249 non-linear equations. ^For simplicity, we shall assume that the
J19 250 recharge term can be simplified to
J19 251 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 252 |where the parameters *1V*/*:l**: *0are assumed to be time
J19 253 independent.
J19 254    |^Alternatively, if boundary conditions associated with the
J19 255 boundary fluxes
J19 256 **[FORMULA**]
J19 257 were to be estimated, then one approach is to assume
J19 258 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 259 |where *1n*;i**; *0is directed along the reservoir boundary,
J19 260 and *1\15a *0and *1\15b *0are assumed to be time independent.
J19 261 ^The value of *1h*?7 *0may or may not be known. ^The parameters
J19 262 *1\15a, \15a*0*1h*?7 *0and *1\15b *0can then be approximated by
J19 263 using the finite element basis functions,
J19 264 |**[FORMULA**],
J19 265 |where *1l*?7 *0is summed over all boundary nodes. ^Then
J19 266 |**[FORMULA**].
J19 267 |^It is always necessary, of course, that there be at least one
J19 268 non-zero contribution on the right-hand side of (16).
J19 269    |^Suppose there are *1N *0nodes, and (16) is defined for
J19 270 *1M*/ *0distinct values of time. ^Then (16) comprises *1NM*/
J19 271 *0equations. ^The number of unknowns in (16) and (18) is *1NM,
J19 272 *0where *1M *0is 3 for isotropic media (*1S, T, V*/ *0are the
J19 273 reservoir parameters), and 5 for non-isotropic media (*1S,
J19 274 T*;xx**;, T*;xy**;, T*;yy**;, V*/ *0are the reservoir
J19 275 parameters). ^Consequently, if sufficient transient
J19 276 measurements of heads are available, the reservoir parameters
J19 277 can be determined.
J19 278    |^From (16), storativity is associated with rates of change
J19 279 in head; transmissivity with spatial gradients in head; whereas
J19 280 additional parameters depend on how the recharge terms are
J19 281 defined. ^In particular, if rates of change of head averaged
J19 282 over each element contiguous with node *1l *0(and weighted by
J19 283 **[FORMULA**])
J19 284 is zero, then it is not possible to determine storativity at
J19 285 node *1l. ^*0(This seems unlikely, unless *1h *0is time
J19 286 independent.) ^In general, (16) and (18) will be an
J19 287 overdetermined systems**[SIC**] of equations, which can be
J19 288 solved, for example, by least squares.
J19 289 *#
J20 001 **[314 TEXT J20**]
J20 002    |^*0We wish to test a simple hypothesis against a family of
J20 003 alternatives indexed by a one-dimensional parameter, *1\15TH.
J20 004 ^*0We use a test derived from the corresponding family of test
J20 005 statistics appropriate for the case when *1\15TH *0is given.
J20 006 ^Davies (1977) introduced this problem when these test statistics
J20 007 had normal distributions. ^The present paper considers the case
J20 008 when their distribution is chi-squared. ^The results are applied
J20 009 to the detection of a discrete frequency component of unknown
J20 010 frequency in a time series. ^In addition quick methods for
J20 011 finding approximate significance probabilities are given for both
J20 012 the normal and chi-squared cases and applied to the two-phase
J20 013 regression problem in the normal case.
J20 014 *<1.*2INTRODUCTION*>
J20 015    |^*0We wish to test a hypothesis in the presence of a
J20 016 nuisance parameter, *1\15TH, *0which enters the model only under
J20 017 the alternative. ^In other words, *1\15TH *0is meaningless under
J20 018 the null hypothesis. ^Traditional methods for deriving hypothesis
J20 019 tests do not work in this situation.
J20 020    |^*1Example *01. ^Suppose
J20 021 **[FORMULA**]
J20 022 are independent normal random variables with constant known
J20 023 variance, or else *1n *0is very large so the variance can be
J20 024 estimated. ^Suppose under the hypothesis there is a constant
J20 025 linear trend, but under the alternative the linear trend changes
J20 026 at some unknown point, *1\15TH, *0but with the composite
J20 027 regression line remaining continuous. ^That is there is no jump
J20 028 at the point *1\15TH *0but there is a jump in the derivative.
J20 029 ^This is the two-phase problem of Hinkley (1969) and the
J20 030 continuous case of Hawkins (1980). ^See Worsley (1983) for a
J20 031 discussion of the discontinuous case and other references.
J20 032 ^Naturally, the parameter *1\15TH *0is meaningless under the
J20 033 hypothesis of no change in slope.
J20 034    |^*1Example *02. ^This is the same as Example 1, except that
J20 035 we observe several series subject to linear trend and the
J20 036 alternative is that at least one changes its trend at some
J20 037 unknown time, *1\15TH.
J20 038    |^Example *03. ^Here
J20 039 **[FORMULA**]
J20 040 are as in Example 1, except that the expectations are given by
J20 041 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 042 |^The hypothesis is
J20 043 **[FORMULA**]
J20 044 and the alternative is that at least one of *1\15x*0*;1**; and
J20 045 *1\15x*0*;2**; is nonzero. ^This corresponds to a discrete
J20 046 frequency component at an unknown frequency, *1\15TH. ^*0Again
J20 047 *1\15TH *0is meaningless under the hypothesis.
J20 048    |^Other examples are given by Davies (1977). ^Because *1\15TH
J20 049 *0cannot be estimated under the hypothesis, traditional large sample
J20 050 theory is not applicable. ^However, if *1\15TH *0were known it
J20 051 would be easy to find an appropriate test. ^Suppose
J20 052 **[FORMULA**]
J20 053 is the appropriate test statistic, with large values
J20 054 corresponding to the alternative being true. ^Then the test
J20 055 statistic we suggest for the case when *1\15TH *0is unknown is
J20 056 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 057 |where [*8L, U*0] is the range of possible values of *1\15TH.
J20 058 ^*0The test would be to reject the hypothesis for large values of
J20 059 *1M. ^*0Of course,
J20 060 **[FORMULA**]
J20 061 has to be normalized in some way, for example by having mean and
J20 062 variance independent of *1\15TH *0under the null hypothesis. ^The
J20 063 problem is to find the significance probability of the resulting
J20 064 test. ^Davies (1977) studied the case when
J20 065 **[FORMULA**]
J20 066 had a normal distribution for each value of *1\15TH *0and gave a
J20 067 sharp bound on the significance probability. ^This bound was
J20 068 calculated from the autocorrelation function of
J20 069 **[FORMULA**].
J20 070    |^One problem with this procedure is that of finding the
J20 071 autocorrelation function. ^It would not usually be realistic to
J20 072 do this in a *'once-off**' problem, particularly where the test
J20 073 is only part of the overall analysis. ^In *?13 2 we describe a
J20 074 very simple way of finding an approximation to the significance
J20 075 probability from the graph of
J20 076 **[FORMULA**]
J20 077 itself.
J20 078    |^In *?13 3 we consider the case when
J20 079 **[FORMULA**]
J20 080 has a chi-squared distribution rather than a normal distribution.
J20 081 ^This arises when testing the hypothesis that a vector is zero
J20 082 against the alternative that at least one component is nonzero.
J20 083 ^Examples 2 and 3 are instances. ^We derive a bound corresponding
J20 084 to that found by Davies (1977) for the normal case and an
J20 085 approximation corresponding to that found in *?13 2. ^Some
J20 086 properties of the chi-squared process used in this section are
J20 087 derived in Appendix 1.
J20 088    |^An important time series example of the chi-squared
J20 089 case is Example 3. ^The appropriate test is introduced in
J20 090 *?13 4. ^The derivation of the main formula is given in
J20 091 Appendix 2.
J20 092    |^Our significance levels are either bounds or approximations
J20 093 to the bounds and it is important to know how accurate they are.
J20 094 ^A series of computer simulations for Examples 1 and 3 are
J20 095 reported in *?13 5. ^In most instances our methods perform very
J20 096 well.
J20 097 *<2. *2QUICK CALCULATION OF SIGNIFICANCE: NORMAL CASE*>
J20 098    |^*0We test the hypothesis *1\15x *0= 0 against the
J20 099 alternative *1\15x *0> 0 in the presence of a nuisance parameter
J20 100 **[FORMULA**]
J20 101 which enters the model only when *1\15x *0> 0. ^Suppose that an
J20 102 appropriate test, if *1\15TH *0was known would be to reject the
J20 103 hypothesis for large values of
J20 104 **[FORMULA**]
J20 105 where, for each *1\15TH,
J20 106 **[FORMULA**]
J20 107 has a standard normal distribution under the hypothesis. ^We
J20 108 suppose further that
J20 109 **[FORMULA**]
J20 110 is continuous on [*8L, U*0] with a continuous derivative except
J20 111 possibly for a finite number of jumps in the derivative, and
J20 112 forms a Gaussian process. ^Davies (1977) recommends rejecting the
J20 113 hypothesis for large values of (1.2) and provides the bound
J20 114 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 115 |where \15F denotes the cumulative normal distribution function,
J20 116 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 117 |^The continuity condition given here is weaker than the one
J20 118 originally given by Davies (1977); see Marcus (1977) and Sharpe
J20 119 (1978).
J20 120    |^In some cases it will be reasonable to calculate (2.1)
J20 121 analytically. ^In others, one would prefer a quick rule for
J20 122 deciding whether the result is significant. ^Let
J20 123 **[FORMULA**].
J20 124 ^Then
J20 125 **[FORMULA**],
J20 126 so that
J20 127 **[FORMULA**].
J20 128 ^Our proposal is to estimate
J20 129 |**[FORMULA**]
J20 130 |from the total variation
J20 131 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 132 |where
J20 133 **[FORMULA**]
J20 134 are the successive turning points of
J20 135 **[FORMULA**].
J20 136 ^We presume *1n *0will be finite in practical problems.
J20 137    |^Hence if *1M *0denotes the maximum of
J20 138 **[FORMULA**],
J20 139 then our estimate of the significance probability is
J20 140 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 141 |Naturally, (2.4) is only approximate, but one would expect it to
J20 142 be much better than just \15F*0(*1-M*0). ^The second term in
J20 143 (2.4) will be important when
J20 144 **[FORMULA**]
J20 145 scans across a range of widely differing hypotheses and then
J20 146 values of
J20 147 **[FORMULA**]
J20 148 might tend to be independent for separated values of *1\15TH.
J20 149 ^*0In this case we would expect the law of large numbers to apply
J20 150 so that *1V *0would give a good estimate of (2.2). ^Simulations
J20 151 in *?13 5 bear this out. ^Formula (2.4) is for the one-sided
J20 152 case; for the two-sided case let *1M *0denote the maximum of
J20 153 **[FORMULA**]
J20 154 and then double (2.4).
J20 155 *<3. *2CHI-SQUARED CASE*>
J20 156    |^*0We suppose that for each value of
J20 157 **[FORMULA**],
J20 158 the test statistic appropriate for that value of *1\15TH *0is of
J20 159 the form
J20 160 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 161 where the
J20 162 **[FORMULA**]
J20 163 are continuous with continuous first derivatives, except possibly
J20 164 for a finite number of jumps in the derivatives, and form a
J20 165 vector Gaussian process. ^Suppose further that under the
J20 166 hypothesis the
J20 167 **[FORMULA**]
J20 168 have zero expectations and for each *1\15TH *0the random
J20 169 variables **[FORMULA**]
J20 170 are independent with unit variance. ^We will say that
J20 171 **[FORMULA**]
J20 172 is a chi-squared process. ^This is a generalization of the
J20 173 definition of Sharpe (1978). ^In vector notation
J20 174 **[FORMULA**],
J20 175 where
J20 176 **[FORMULA**]
J20 177 is the column vector composed of the
J20 178 **[FORMULA**].
J20 179 ^Here and elsewhere
J20 180 **[FORMULA**]
J20 181 denotes the *1L*0*;2**; norm of a vector, *1Z, *0and *1Z*?7
J20 182 *0denotes the transpose of a vector or matrix. ^Let
J20 183 **[FORMULA**].
J20 184 ^Then
J20 185 **[FORMULA**]
J20 186 and
J20 187 **[FORMULA**]
J20 188 are jointly normally distributed. ^Suppose that
J20 189 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 190 |^Let
J20 191 **[FORMULA**]
J20 192 be the eigenvalues of
J20 193 **[FORMULA**]
J20 194 and
J20 195 **[FORMULA**]
J20 196 be independent centred normal random variables with variances
J20 197 given by the
J20 198 **[FORMULA**].
J20 199    |^Then, according to Corollary A.1 in Appendix 1,
J20 200 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 201 |where
J20 202 |**[FORMULA**]
J20 203 |and
J20 204 **[FORMULA**]
J20 205 denotes a chi-squared random variable with *1s *0degrees of
J20 206 freedom.
J20 207    |^Sharpe (1978) shows that the number of high level
J20 208 upcrossings in the stationary independent case is approximately
J20 209 Poisson and we would expect the same to be true here and
J20 210 consequently the bound (3.2) should be sharp. ^An alternative
J20 211 definition of
J20 212 **[FORMULA**]
J20 213 is given in Appendix 1.
J20 214    |^To find the approximate form of the significance
J20 215 probability, let
J20 216 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 217 |where
J20 218 **[FORMULA**]
J20 219 are the turning points of
J20 220 **[FORMULA**].
J20 221 ^Let *1M *0denote the maximum of
J20 222 **[FORMULA**].
J20 223 ^Then it follows from Theorem A.2 that the estimate of the
J20 224 significance level corresponding to (2.4) is
J20 225 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 226    |^Alternatively, {0J. R.} Harvey in a North Carolina State
J20 227 University {0Ph.D.} thesis gives a number of analytic and
J20 228 approximate expressions for
J20 229 **[FORMULA**].
J20 230 ^One of these reduces to
J20 231 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 232 |^Look at two special cases. ^Suppose all the \15l*1*;i**; *0are
J20 233 all equal with common value \15l. ^Then
J20 234 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 235 |in agreement with Sharpe's (1978, formula (3.2)). ^If *1s *0= 2
J20 236 then, again following Harvey,
J20 237 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 238 |where
J20 239 **[FORMULA**]
J20 240 and *8E *0denotes a complete elliptic integral of the second kind
J20 241 (Abramowitz & Stegun, 1972, formula (17.3.3)).
J20 242    |^This ends our derivation of the extensions of the
J20 243 results of Davies (1977) and *?13 2 for the chi-squared
J20 244 situation. ^We now carry out some matrix manipulation which
J20 245 simplifies the evaluation of the eigenvalues
J20 246 **[FORMULA**]
J20 247 for a class of problems which includes the time series example of
J20 248 *?13 4.
J20 249    |^Suppose we observe
J20 250 **[FORMULA**]
J20 251 denoted collectively by the column vector *1X, *0where the
J20 252 *1X*;i**; *0are independently normally distributed with unit
J20 253 variances and
J20 254 **[FORMULA**]
J20 255 and where
J20 256 **[FORMULA**]
J20 257 is an *1s *0x *1n *0matrix of rank *1s, *0and *1\15x *0is an
J20 258 *1s*0-dimensional vector of unknown parameters. ^If *1\15TH
J20 259 *0were known, the most stringent test for testing *1\15x *0= 0
J20 260 against the alternative *1\15x *0=*?11 0 rejects the hypothesis
J20 261 for large values of
J20 262 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 263 |where
J20 264 **[FORMULA**].
J20 265 ^Write
J20 266 **[FORMULA**],
J20 267 where
J20 268 **[FORMULA**]
J20 269 is an *1s *0x *1n matrix with
J20 270 **[FORMULA**].
J20 271 ^Then setting
J20 272 **[FORMULA**]
J20 273 puts the problem in the form already discussed and identifies
J20 274 **[FORMULA**]
J20 275 as being a chi-squared process under the null hypothesis. ^Then
J20 276 **[FORMULA**]
J20 277 and so
J20 278 **[FORMULA**],
J20 279 **[FORMULA**],
J20 280 where for simplicity we are dropping references to *1\15TH.
J20 281    |^*0Write *1F *?27 G *0if matrices *1F *0and *1G *0have
J20 282 the same nonzero eigenvalues. ^Note that *1FG *?27 GF *0if both
J20 283 products are defined. ^Also note that *1A *0defined in (3.1) is
J20 284 skew-symmetric. ^We need to find the eigenvalues of
J20 285 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 286 |^Let
J20 287 **[FORMULA**].
J20 288 ^Then
J20 289 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 290 |^Thus
J20 291 **[FORMULA**]
J20 292 can be found as the nonzero eigenvalues of (3.7), (3.8) or (3.9).
J20 293 ^Formula (3.9) is particularly convenient if
J20 294 |**[FORMULA**]
J20 295 |are all diagonal because then (3.9) reduces to
J20 296 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 297 *<4. *2DETECTION OF A DISCRETE FREQUENCY COMPONENT*>
J20 298    |^*0We observe
J20 299 **[FORMULA**],
J20 300 where the *1X*;j**; *0are independently normally distributed with
J20 301 unit variances and with
J20 302 |**[FORMULA**].
J20 303 |^That is,
J20 304 **[FORMULA**]
J20 305 is a sequence of independent standard normal variables on to
J20 306 which has been superimposed a cyclic effect with period
J20 307 2*1\15p/\15TH. ^*0Formula (4.1) is just a change of
J20 308 parameterization of (1.1) to simplify the calculation. ^Now
J20 309 suppose we wish to test the hypothesis,
J20 310 **[FORMULA**],
J20 311 that is, there is no frequency component, against the alternative
J20 312 that at least one of *1\15x*0*;1**; and *1\15x*0*;2**; is
J20 313 nonzero. ^Traditionally (Hannan, 1960, \0pp. 76-83), this problem
J20 314 has been handled by looking at only the values of *1\15TH *0of
J20 315 the form 2*1\15p*0*1k/n, *0for
J20 316 **[FORMULA**].
J20 317 ^For these values of *1\15TH *0the corresponding values of (3.6)
J20 318 will be independent and so significance levels can be calculated.
J20 319 ^However a loss of power occurs if the true value falls between
J20 320 these values. ^We should emphasise that we are concerned with
J20 321 discrete frequency components. ^The method considered here has
J20 322 little relevance to the problem of detecting peaks in the
J20 323 frequency spectrum which have bandwidth greater than
J20 324 2*1\15p*0*1/n *0cycles per sampling interval.
J20 325    |^Now apply the theory of the previous section. ^The
J20 326 matrices (3.10) are derived in Appendix 2 and all turn out to be
J20 327 diagonal so (3.11) is applicable. ^Applying (3.6) and (4.1) we
J20 328 find
J20 329 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 330 |where
J20 331 **[FORMULA**].
J20 332    |^For the moment suppose
J20 333 **[FORMULA**],
J20 334 so that
J20 335 **[FORMULA**]
J20 336 is defined. ^Then it is shown in Appendix 2 that the eigenvalues
J20 337 \15l*0*;1**; and \15l*0*;2**; can be expressed
J20 338 |**[FORMULA**],
J20 339 |where
J20 340 **[FORMULA**],
J20 341 **[FORMULA**],
J20 342 **[FORMULA**]
J20 343 to give \15l*0*;1**; and -1 to give \15l*0*;2**;.
J20 344 *#
J21 001 **[315 TEXT J21**]
J21 002    |^*0Many bacterial groups are characterized by their
J21 003 serological reactions. ^In general, when the serological
J21 004 reactions between different members of a group are tested against
J21 005 each other, there are some, but not many, cross-reactions. ^An
J21 006 example of such a group is *1{6Escherichia coli}.
J21 007    |^*0The pioneering work of Kauffmann in the 1940s first led
J21 008 to the establishment of an internationally accepted serotyping
J21 009 scheme for strains of *1{6\0E. coli} *0(8-11). ^While initially
J21 010 only 20 different O antigens were described, the number has
J21 011 subsequently increased to over 160, with new types being
J21 012 described from time to time. ^The serology, chemistry, and
J21 013 genetics of these were reviewed by O*?11rskov {0et al.} (14), who
J21 014 brought together most of the recent studies on these antigens.
J21 015    |^While *1{6\0E. coli} *0organisms are present in the bowels
J21 016 of humans and most other warm-blooded animals, some types can
J21 017 also cause diseases including infantile gastroenteritis,
J21 018 traveler's diarrhea, and various similar illnesses of domestic
J21 019 animals (18). ^In addition, nonenteric human infections including
J21 020 urinary tract infections, meningitis, and wound infections have
J21 021 been documented (2, 7). ^To differentiate the pathogenic types
J21 022 from the nonpathogens, serotyping has been used. ^In addition,
J21 023 during outbreaks, serotyping is an invaluable tool for
J21 024 demonstrating the relationship between the different strains in
J21 025 the environment and the infected hosts (3).
J21 026    |^A streamlined method for identifying the serotype of an
J21 027 unknown strain of *1{6\0E. coli} *0was sought because large costs
J21 028 are involved in the production and maintenance of a serum
J21 029 collection. ^If significantly less serum were used in the
J21 030 serotyping process, these costs could be substantially reduced.
J21 031 ^In addition, the methods currently in use are relatively
J21 032 time-consuming.
J21 033    |^This paper describes how a new, faster serotyping routine,
J21 034 which uses on average one-fifth of the amount of serum used in
J21 035 the current routine, was devised. ^The investigations which led
J21 036 to the establishment of this new method and the steps which are
J21 037 required to implement it for a specific serum collection are
J21 038 detailed.
J21 039    |^A companion paper (4) describes the implementation and
J21 040 verification of this serotyping method.
J21 041 *<*6MATERIALS AND METHODS*>
J21 042    |^*0The current method of *1{6\0E. coli} *0identification
J21 043 involves the use of pools of sera to narrow the field of possible
J21 044 serogroups for the unknown strain (12; {0K. A.} Bettelheim,
J21 045 {0Ph.D.} thesis, University of London, London, England, 1969).
J21 046    |^*4The data. ^*0The data used were those pertaining to the
J21 047 159 standard O antigens of *1{6\0E. coli} *0and the 159 rabbit
J21 048 antisera raised against them which make up the *1{6\0E. coli} *0O
J21 049 serum collection held at the National Health Institute,
J21 050 Wellington, New Zealand. ^The levels of all possible
J21 051 agglutination reactions between these 159 O antigens and their
J21 052 159 antisera have been determined in extensive laboratory
J21 053 experiments. ^When the result of an individual experiment was
J21 054 positive, it was given as the titer of the agglutination
J21 055 reaction, {0i.e.}, the highest dilution at which a positive
J21 056 reaction could be detected, when the dilutions had been
J21 057 successively doubled. ^The lowest level of dilution used was
J21 058 1:100. ^Weaker reactions were deemed to be negative.
J21 059    |^A 159-by-159 response matrix was formed with a blank for a
J21 060 negative result and the reciprocal titer of the reaction for a
J21 061 positive result. ^Each column of the response matrix represents
J21 062 one serum, and nonblank entries are the reciprocal titer values
J21 063 for reactions between that serum and each antigen which reacts in
J21 064 it. ^Each row of the response matrix represents one antigen, and
J21 065 nonblank entries are the reciprocal titer values for reactions
J21 066 between the given antigen and each serum. ^Table 1 gives an
J21 067 8-by-8 subset of the data matrix used in the early stages of the
J21 068 investigation, showing the reactions of the standard antigens O1
J21 069 to O8 in the sera O1 to O8. ^This is simply the top left hand
J21 070 corner of the response matrix.
J21 071    |^The 159-by-159 matrix of the revised data to which our
J21 072 final solution applies had the following characteristics: (**=i)
J21 073 it was sparse (only 646 of the 25,281 positions were filled);
J21 074 (**=ii) the leading diagonal was full; and (**=iii) it was
J21 075 nonsymmetric.
J21 076    |^*4Other approaches considered. ^*0Before arriving at the
J21 077 final solution, I tried two other methods of analysis. ^While
J21 078 these did not solve the problem, their performance in this
J21 079 context is worth noting.
J21 080    |^*4(**=i) Cluster analysis. ^*0The data were studied by
J21 081 cluster analysis to investigate the taxonomic aspects of the
J21 082 current set of *1{6\0E. coli} *0sera. ^The cluster analysis
J21 083 routines available in the statistical package Genstat (19) were
J21 084 used. ^Any clusters which may have emerged would not, however,
J21 085 provide a basis for a simple identification scheme. ^Further
J21 086 studies of taxonomic interpretations after using cluster analysis
J21 087 on the *1{6\0E. coli} *0data set are in progress.
J21 088 **[TABLE**]
J21 089    |^*4(**=ii) Dissimilar pools. ^*0It was considered that the
J21 090 current pooling method could be improved by making use of the
J21 091 cross-reaction information presently ignored.
J21 092    |^Consider the serum material to be divided into *1g
J21 093 *0pools. ^Each pool will yield either a positive or a negative
J21 094 result after incubation with the unknown strain. ^There are
J21 095 2*1*:g**: *0possible outcomes of the experiment. ^If the pools
J21 096 were chosen such that each of these 2*1*:g**: *0experimental
J21 097 outcomes indicated a minimal set of possible antigens for the
J21 098 unknown strain, serum would be saved. ^Owing to the existence of
J21 099 cross-reactions, some sera could be dropped from the pools,
J21 100 saving further serum. ^A program was written in Burroughs Algol
J21 101 for use with a \0B6700 computer to sift through the possibilities
J21 102 for pool membership. ^The 159 sera were initially assigned to *1g
J21 103 *0= 8 pools in order of serum number. ^For each of the 256
J21 104 theoretically possible outcomes, the program sifted through the
J21 105 data, finding (if possible) the set of antigens which could yield
J21 106 the result being considered. ^The number of such possible
J21 107 antigens *1n*;i**; *0was found (for *1i *0= 1 to 256). ^The
J21 108 quantity
J21 109 |**[FORMULA**]
J21 110 |being a measure of the efficiency of the given pools
J21 111 arrangement, was calculated. ^Within the program, one at a time,
J21 112 sera were dropped from the pools and *1D *0was recalculated. ^If
J21 113 the new value of *1D *0was less than or equal to the previous
J21 114 value, the dropped serum was left out of the pools; otherwise it
J21 115 was returned. ^Following the dropping procedure, an exchange
J21 116 procedure was undertaken, shifting members from one pool to
J21 117 another to achieve a minimum *1D.
J21 118    |^*0A result was produced for 84 sera in eight pools, with
J21 119 the largest endpoint for the experimental outcomes having five
J21 120 members. ^Further computing yielded a solution with 85 sera in
J21 121 seven pools, with the largest endpoint having only four members.
J21 122 ^This was subjected to laboratory trials, but the results were
J21 123 disappointing, because reactions which had not been anticipated
J21 124 were appearing in mixtures. ^One possible explanation is that a
J21 125 low-level reaction, perhaps present in an individual serum at
J21 126 1:50 dilution, could be adding with another low-level reaction to
J21 127 show a positive reaction in the 1:100 dilution mixture. ^A
J21 128 further possibility could be interference of cross-reactions
J21 129 between sera of which very little is known. ^In the current
J21 130 pooling method, such misleading reactions were swamped by the
J21 131 presence of self-titer information in one of the pools. ^There
J21 132 was also the possibility of some inaccuracies in the data set,
J21 133 since the data had been gathered over a number of years and
J21 134 different operators had been used at different times. ^The method
J21 135 did not, however, look sufficiently promising to justify
J21 136 retesting all the sera against all the antigens at this stage.
J21 137    |^*4The approach used. ^*0The problems encountered with
J21 138 pools would be avoided by testing the unknown strain against
J21 139 individual sera. ^Therefore, I sought a method to find the sera
J21 140 which had the most information to discriminate amongst the
J21 141 antigens. ^Positive use could be made of the cross-reaction
J21 142 information which has until now been considered a major source of
J21 143 difficulty in such studies.
J21 144    |^The serotyping process can be considered a taxonomic
J21 145 identification process, in which the antigens are the taxa and
J21 146 the tests comprise observations of agglutination reactions in the
J21 147 sera. ^The 159 sera are the reagents, and the serological
J21 148 reactions are the test results. ^Several computer programs have
J21 149 been devised for constructing diagnostic keys to taxa (6, 13, 15-
J21 150 17). ^The program Genkey (17) is a computer program for
J21 151 constructing and printing diagnostic keys and tables. ^Genkey was
J21 152 chosen for further investigation because it allowed a great deal
J21 153 of flexibility.
J21 154    |^Genkey can classify responses to tests as positive,
J21 155 negative, not applicable, and variable. ^In this study, there
J21 156 were no not-applicable tests. ^Low-level reactions (100 and 200
J21 157 reciprocal titer) were defined as variable. ^Reactions with
J21 158 reciprocal titers of 400 and greater were considered definitely
J21 159 positive. ^In the application of Genkey to the identification of
J21 160 the yeasts (1), the response matrix had 14,520 definitely
J21 161 positive responses out of a total of 45,493. ^Our response matrix
J21 162 had only 329 definitely positive responses out of 25,281 test
J21 163 results. ^Table 2 gives a comparison of the two data sets in
J21 164 terms of the response matrices. ^Thus, given the nature of the
J21 165 data set, it was considered unlikely that the Genkey approach
J21 166 alone would solve the problem. ^It would, however, provide a
J21 167 starting point.
J21 168    |^The program selects a sequence of tests which divide the
J21 169 data into subsets successively until the subsets each contain
J21 170 only one taxon or until all the tests have been used. ^The best
J21 171 test is taken as that with a minimum value of some selection
J21 172 criterion function (16).
J21 173    |^A number of such functions are provided in the Genkey
J21 174 program. ^Because unequal input probabilities were being used,
J21 175 the appropriate selection criterion function was the Shannon
J21 176 entropy criterion function given by the following equation:
J21 177 |**[FORMULA**]
J21 178 |where the current subset is considered to be numbered from 1 to
J21 179 *1m, n *0is the number of levels of the test, and *1p*;ij**; *0=
J21 180 *1s*;i**;q*;ij**;,
J21 181 **[TABLE**]
J21 182 **[FIGURE**]
J21 183 *0where *1s*;i**; *0is the probability that a specimen at that
J21 184 node belongs to taxon *1i *0and *1q*;ij**; *0is the probability
J21 185 that a specimen of taxon *1i *0would give response *1j *0to the
J21 186 test. ^This is the expected entropy of the probabilities of the
J21 187 taxa after the test has been used.
J21 188    |^A pilot study was done by using Genkey to construct a
J21 189 diagnostic key to the 8-by-8 subset of the response matrix given
J21 190 in Table 1. ^Reactions with reciprocal titers of 100 were assumed
J21 191 to be 50% repeatable. ^Reactions with reciprocal titers of 200
J21 192 were assumed to be 75% repeatable. ^The resulting key, as
J21 193 produced by Genkey, is shown in \0Fig. 1a. ^A binary tree diagram
J21 194 of the same information is given in \0Fig. 1b.
J21 195    |^Since each test requires 24 \0h of elapsed time,
J21 196 sequential testing would not be appropriate in this application.
J21 197 ^However, the information given in this key can be presented as a
J21 198 table giving all possible reactions of the data to the test sera.
J21 199 ^The tests can then all be performed at once, and the results can
J21 200 be compared with the entries in the table to find the
J21 201 corresponding endpoint. ^In keeping with standard practice, all
J21 202 identifications are then confirmed by direct titration. ^To
J21 203 illustrate this, Table 3 is the diagnostic table for the pilot
J21 204 study data. ^Note that the third pattern from the top in this
J21 205 table has two serogroups associated with it. ^In the case for
J21 206 which the diagnostic table indicates two possible serogroups, two
J21 207 direct titrations are required for the final identification.
J21 208    |^Laboratory trials were performed to identify samples of
J21 209 *1{6\0E. coli} *0antigens O1 to O8 by using the pilot study
J21 210 diagnostic table given in Table 3. ^To use this table, the line
J21 211 which gives
J21 212 **[TABLE**]
J21 213 the exact pattern of positive and negative reactions obtained by
J21 214 the unknown strain in the test sera is located. ^This line then
J21 215 provides the possible serogroup(s). ^Once the possible antigen or
J21 216 antigens for the unknown strain have been ascertained from the
J21 217 table, direct titration(s) of the unknown strain against the
J21 218 serum or sera corresponding to the antigen(s) indicated by the
J21 219 diagnostic table are performed. ^This was done on a set of known
J21 220 strains which had been stripped of their true identity. ^In all
J21 221 cases, the diagnostic table pointed correctly to the one (or two)
J21 222 possible antigen(s).
J21 223 *#
J22 001 **[316 TEXT J22**]
J22 002 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J22 003 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J22 004    |^*0Sexual problems, too, are largely defined in male
J22 005 terms. ^Failure to arouse the woman to orgasm during
J22 006 intercourse is seen as a problem, either because of *"premature
J22 007 ejaculation**" in the male or because the woman is *"frigid**".
J22 008 ^Many *"sexual problems**" would simply disappear if
J22 009 stereotypes about what is a good sexual performance disappeared
J22 010 and were replaced by more realistic ideas based on an
J22 011 understanding of female sexuality. ^Some sex therapies
J22 012 unfortunately still have stereotyped goals. ^Women sex
J22 013 therapists, though, usually place a high importance on *1owning
J22 014 your own sexuality *0as a precondition for developing a more
J22 015 active, fulfilling sexuality. ^Sexual experience is about your
J22 016 own feelings, it is not just something someone else does to
J22 017 you. ^Women who have never orgasmed may have never learned to
J22 018 take control of their own sexuality. ^Many women who never
J22 019 orgasm have never masturbated, and if they learn to overcome
J22 020 feelings of guilt or distaste at the idea and teach themselves
J22 021 to masturbate, then they can teach someone else to make love
J22 022 with them.
J22 023    |^Learning to communicate with your partner is also
J22 024 important for a satisfying sex life. ^Your partner does not
J22 025 know what you like until you tell him or her. ^Also, learning
J22 026 to communicate your own expectations is important. ^It is not
J22 027 your partner's responsibility to give you an orgasm; if you
J22 028 want one, it is up to you to help make it happen. ^Many men
J22 029 take all the credit for their partner's orgasm and feel
J22 030 inadequate if it does not happen. ^This results in a power
J22 031 imbalance in the relationship where the woman has little
J22 032 control over how the sex goes.
J22 033    |^Many sexual relationships are, or become, unfulfilling
J22 034 because of lack of trust. ^The chapter on violence towards
J22 035 women documented male attitudes towards women as property. ^It
J22 036 is impossible to have a good sexual relationship with a man who
J22 037 rapes you; and it is hard to maintain sexual feelings for
J22 038 someone when they are always pressuring you to have sex with
J22 039 them. ^Women are not objects there for men to use and are under
J22 040 no obligation to have sex with a man, even if he is their
J22 041 husband. ^To have sex out of obligation helps kill sexual
J22 042 feelings.
J22 043    |^Some of the books on sex described in the resource list
J22 044 at the end of this book contain exercises on sexuality. ^To
J22 045 improve a sexual relationship and to learn better communication
J22 046 skills it is often good to spend a while with your partner
J22 047 learning to touch each other without having sexual intercourse,
J22 048 through massage and *"sensate focus**", which involves
J22 049 concentrating on the sensations of the moment and not having to
J22 050 worry about performance. ^This can remove anxieties which have
J22 051 built up around sexual intercourse and orgasm. ^Some of these
J22 052 books also teach you how to explore sexuality on your own. ^To
J22 053 end with Sheila Kitzinger again: *"^Each woman has a right to
J22 054 define her own sexual identity and the nature of her sexual
J22 055 fulfilment.**"
J22 056 **[END INDENTATION**]
J22 057 *<*1Women's friendships*>
J22 058 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J22 059 |^*0Women's friendships tend to be undervalued in New Zealand
J22 060 society. ^Men have *"mates**" and the virtues of *"mateship**"
J22 061 are extolled, but women in groups are often referred to
J22 062 contemptuously: a hen party does not have quite the same ring
J22 063 to it as a stag party. ^Women are said to gossip, or yack, and
J22 064 their conversations are ridiculed.
J22 065    |^Our needs for intimacy are expected to be met by a
J22 066 husband or boyfriend; at least that is the ideal presented to
J22 067 us. ^Becoming part of a couple, a woman may leave many of her
J22 068 woman friends behind, especially if her partner does not like
J22 069 them, and may instead start socialising with other couples.
J22 070 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 1**]
J22 071 |^Jennifer Crichton, an American college student, writes about
J22 072 her chief romantic notion:
J22 073 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J22 074 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J22 075 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J22 076 **[END INDENTATION 1**]
J22 077    |^Women's friendships have not always been undervalued. ^In
J22 078 earlier days it was expected that women would be close to each
J22 079 other, especially to their sisters and to women friends of the
J22 080 family. ^Research into women's lives in the nineteenth century
J22 081 has emphasised the importance of friendship. ^We know most
J22 082 about the personal lives of middle-class women because they
J22 083 were more likely than others to keep diaries, write letters,
J22 084 and write fiction which preserved their own attitudes. ^The
J22 085 intimacy and warmth of their letters to women friends is
J22 086 noticeable. ^Many women had romantic feelings for their friends
J22 087 and in an age when women's sexuality was often denied, the idea
J22 088 that romantic friendships might have a sexual component did
J22 089 not, as far as we know, arise. ^Women freely described hugging
J22 090 and kissing each other, and it was not unusual for the husband
J22 091 to remove himself to another room for the night when the wife's
J22 092 best friend came to stay so that the two of them could sleep
J22 093 together. ^The ideals of marriage then were different from now.
J22 094 ^Arranged marriages were the norm, and these were more formal
J22 095 and based less on notions of equality, love, and friendship
J22 096 than they are today. ^It was only in the twentieth century that
J22 097 romantic ideals surrounding marriage became so universally
J22 098 popular. ^Arranged marriages may have functioned in many
J22 099 respects just as well as marriages based on romantic love
J22 100 because not so much was expected of them *- there were fewer
J22 101 ideals to shatter.
J22 102    |^Some women have always valued friendships with other
J22 103 women, even when these friendships have been downgraded by
J22 104 society and the ideal was to seek everything in a husband.
J22 105 ^Especially for the woman working at home alone with her
J22 106 children in her house in the suburbs during the day,
J22 107 friendships with other women have at times been life-saving.
J22 108 ^Today, many women are re-experiencing the value of friendships
J22 109 with women.
J22 110    |^Friends are valuable for your mental health, as the
J22 111 literature on loneliness showed. ^Yet how often do we see
J22 112 advice on making and keeping women friends, compared with the
J22 113 amount of material that is written about sexual relationships?
J22 114 ^Indeed, we usually use the word *"relationship**" to indicate
J22 115 a sexual relationship, which seems to imply that friendships
J22 116 are not really relationships.
J22 117    |^Some writers on the psychology of women (such as Jessie
J22 118 Bernard, Jean Baker Miller and Carol Gilligan) have pointed to
J22 119 the ways in which friendships between women differ from those
J22 120 between men. ^Women's greater capacity for showing intimacy has
J22 121 already been mentioned, and they bring this capacity to their
J22 122 friendships. ^Jessie Bernard maintains that many women suffer
J22 123 from *"relational deficit**", that is, their needs for intimacy
J22 124 are not fully met because their relationships with men are
J22 125 mostly a poor substitute for the richness and intimacy of
J22 126 friendships with women. ^Men are not as good as women at
J22 127 offering emotional support or expressing affection. ^She cites
J22 128 a study which showed that about one-third of husbands responded
J22 129 to their wives expressing feelings of stress by criticising,
J22 130 rejecting, saying that the problems were unimportant, or
J22 131 listening passively; another common tactic was to give advice
J22 132 of the *"forget about it**" sort *- all unhelpful responses.
J22 133    |^Jean Baker Miller argues that our Western society has
J22 134 placed an undue emphasis on male styles of relating, and this
J22 135 has led, not only to women's friendships being undervalued, but
J22 136 also to men's intimacy needs being unfulfilled and to problems
J22 137 of male aggression and striving for power. ^She says:
J22 138 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J22 139 **[END INDENTATION**]
J22 140 *<*1Lesbian sexuality and relationships*>
J22 141 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J22 142 *<*2HOMOPHOBIA*>
J22 143 |^*0Lesbian relationships are widely disapproved of in our
J22 144 society. ^The strength of feeling against homosexuality became
J22 145 evident during the 1985-86 debate on the Homosexual Law Reform
J22 146 Bill. ^Although most of the Bill's provisions concerned male
J22 147 homosexual activities, the clause (now lost) which would make
J22 148 it illegal to discriminate in various ways against lesbians and
J22 149 gay men on grounds of sexual preference has meant that lesbian
J22 150 issues have been aired as well as issues concerning male
J22 151 homosexuality.
J22 152    |^Homophobia, or the irrational hatred of homosexuality, is
J22 153 rooted in traditional social prohibitions. ^Ours is a society
J22 154 where heterosexuality is virtually compulsory. ^A young teenage
J22 155 woman is expected to start showing an interest in men, though
J22 156 too much, as well as too little, is frowned on. ^She learns
J22 157 that she is expected to marry, and women who do not marry are
J22 158 often thought of as inadequate or still childish in some way.
J22 159 ^Not every woman is expected to engage in heterosexual
J22 160 activity; certain groups of women are excused but tend to be
J22 161 pitied (for example, widows, nuns, and *"spinsters**") because
J22 162 it is assumed that they have heterosexual feelings which they
J22 163 repress, perhaps having failed to find anyone to express them
J22 164 with.
J22 165    |^Homophobia, where it is strongly felt, is probably
J22 166 rooted in a person's inability to cope with their own
J22 167 sexuality. ^Sexual feelings towards a member of our own sex are
J22 168 extremely common, and many women find it threatening to
J22 169 acknowledge them in themselves.
J22 170    |^Psychologists and psychiatrists in the past wrote much
J22 171 about homosexuality from an uninformed and prejudiced
J22 172 perspective since, being people of their own era, they shared
J22 173 social prejudices against homosexuality. ^These professionals
J22 174 gained a distorted view since they did not see the average
J22 175 homosexual person, but those who were sent unwillingly by
J22 176 parents or courts and so on to be *"cured**" and those who
J22 177 sought help because of their own distress at recognising how
J22 178 socially unacceptable their sexuality was. ^Also, homosexual
J22 179 clients who came to therapists with many ordinary problems of
J22 180 living had these problems attributed to their homosexuality.
J22 181 ^The common view used to be that homosexuality was a neurosis,
J22 182 which may have been a faint improvement on the older idea that
J22 183 it was just plain evil.
J22 184    |^But over the years mental health professionals' attitudes
J22 185 have changed and now most investigators of human behaviour
J22 186 acknowledge that homosexuality is just as natural as
J22 187 heterosexuality and that lesbians and gay men are just as
J22 188 mentally healthy as heterosexuals. ^Gay rights activists have
J22 189 played an important role in criticising traditional attitudes
J22 190 of therapists, but unfortunately there is still a long way to
J22 191 go, especially with some die-hards.
J22 192 *<*2SEXUAL IDENTITY*>
J22 193 |^*0Sexual identity is a complex and individual matter. ^Alfred
J22 194 Kinsey, the American biologist who conducted comprehensive
J22 195 surveys of the sexual behaviour of ordinary people during the
J22 196 1940s, popularised the idea that women's and men's sexual
J22 197 preferences lie on a continuum, from the people who are
J22 198 entirely heterosexual to the people who are entirely
J22 199 homosexual. ^Most people are somewhere between the two
J22 200 extremes. ^Most heterosexual women can remember having some
J22 201 sexual feelings towards women, perhaps in dreams or fantasies
J22 202 or towards a real person. ^Many women who are usually
J22 203 heterosexual have had occasional sexual experiences with women.
J22 204 ^On the other hand, many lesbian women have had heterosexual
J22 205 experiences, although in a lot of cases, these occurred because
J22 206 the woman refused to accept her own sexuality and thought she
J22 207 should give heterosexuality a go (or sometimes as a result of
J22 208 rape).
J22 209    |^Kinsey's continuum acknowledges, from a sound basis in
J22 210 research, how ordinary and normal homosexual feelings and
J22 211 behaviours are. ^Where it can be criticised is in its
J22 212 implication that people are somehow fixed at one particular
J22 213 point on the continuum. ^This may be more true for male sexual
J22 214 than for female sexual behaviour, and of course most theories
J22 215 about psychology are devised by men and have men in mind. ^For
J22 216 women, this fixed continuum does not seem to fit, because
J22 217 sexual preferences seem to change over time. ^Some have had
J22 218 lesbian feelings as far back as they can remember and have
J22 219 never shown any interest in sexual relationships with men.
J22 220 ^Other lesbian women have always known that they were
J22 221 different, but refused to acknowledge their lesbianism and went
J22 222 ahead and got married, only to realise that they had made a big
J22 223 mistake. ^Other lesbian women have enjoyed heterosexual
J22 224 experiences in the past and then have decided that, although
J22 225 both can be appealing, lesbian sexuality feels best to them.
J22 226 ^Some women choose to become lesbians because they have a
J22 227 strong feminist commitment to building close ties to women and
J22 228 they feel that heterosexual women put their first loyalties
J22 229 with men.
J22 230    |^The interesting thing is that some lesbian women feel
J22 231 that they made a choice about their sexual preference and some
J22 232 lesbian women feel that they had no choice at all.
J22 233 *#
J23 001 **[317 TEXT J23**]
J23 002 |^*4Abstract: ^*0Personnel practitioners use a variety of methods
J23 003 to improve the accuracy of selection decisions amongst which the
J23 004 weighted application form is one of the best available.
J23 005 ^Predictive studies using application form information involve
J23 006 either differential item weighting, which ignores relationships
J23 007 between items, or multivariate techniques, which weight items
J23 008 according to the unique contribution they make to prediction. ^In
J23 009 the absence of evidence indicating which approach is better, the
J23 010 present study compared the efficiency of the horizontal percent
J23 011 method and linear discriminant analysis in an applied setting.
J23 012 ^Application forms completed by 159 nurse trainees were weighted
J23 013 using both methods to predict success in the first year of a
J23 014 training course leading to comprehensive registration. ^Results
J23 015 showed that linear discriminant analysis was more accurate than
J23 016 the horizontal percent method in classifying cases in the
J23 017 validation sample, but on cross validation there was no
J23 018 significant difference in classification accuracy.
J23 019 *<*4Introduction*>
J23 020 |^*0Selecting the right person for a particular job means making
J23 021 decisions about people. ^The task is to decide who of those
J23 022 available for a position best suit organizational requirements.
J23 023 ^To improve the accuracy of selection decisions, personnel
J23 024 practitioners use a variety of approaches such as psychological
J23 025 tests, reference reports, and the interview, usually in addition
J23 026 to an application form.
J23 027    |^The application form can act as a screening device,
J23 028 providing information to determine whether applicants meet
J23 029 minimum hiring requirements. ^It gives a biographical picture
J23 030 which can act as a supplement to and as preparation for an
J23 031 interview, and it is able to provide biographical data which can
J23 032 be weighted and combined to predict some form of job success.
J23 033    |^The weighted application form literature is extensive,
J23 034 involving a wide range of occupations from unskilled to
J23 035 professional workers, part-time and full-time positions in a wide
J23 036 range of occupational settings ({0e.g.}, Biersner & Ryman, 1974;
J23 037 Cascio, 1976; Colson, 1977). ^When compared to other selection
J23 038 tools such as interviews and psychological tests, research
J23 039 suggests weighted application forms are better predictors of
J23 040 tenure (Muchinsky & Tuttle, 1979) and job performance (Tenopyr &
J23 041 Oeltjen, 1982). ^Reilly and Chao (1982) reported a range of
J23 042 cross-validated coefficients for five types of criteria (tenure,
J23 043 training, ratings, productivity, and salary) between .32 and .46
J23 044 with an average over all criteria and occupations of .35.
J23 045    |^The methods used to weight application form information
J23 046 are many and varied (Freeburg, 1967). ^Earlier differential
J23 047 weighting approaches such as the horizontal percent method
J23 048 ({0HPM}) and correlational analysis weight items individually
J23 049 without considering other items on the form. ^{0HPM} as described
J23 050 by England (1961) involves a comparison of each item on the
J23 051 application form with the criterion. ^If a difference in the type
J23 052 of response between past successful and unsuccessful job holders
J23 053 is noted, a weight relative to the percentage difference is
J23 054 applied to that item. ^An applicant's score is obtained by the
J23 055 summing of scores on all items. ^This approach does not make any
J23 056 assumptions about the linearity of the items used nor does it
J23 057 take into account the relationship between items. ^Correlational
J23 058 weighting has also been used and involves assigning weights on
J23 059 the basis of item criterion correlations. ^Another method of
J23 060 weighting application forms is rare response scoring, an approach
J23 061 common in clinical diagnostic instruments (Telenson, Alexander, &
J23 062 Barrett, 1983). ^Weights are assigned to items based on the
J23 063 frequency with which they are responded to by the sample of
J23 064 applicants being studied. ^The less often responses to an item
J23 065 are made, the greater the weight assigned. ^The rare response
J23 066 technique was superior to other methods, but the group (\0N = 35)
J23 067 used to develop the criterion-related keys *"was not large enough
J23 068 to produce stable weights and this is one likely reason for their
J23 069 failure to validate**" (Telenson, {0et al.}, 1983, \0p. 79).
J23 070    |^Weighting methods which explore between item and
J23 071 item-criterion relationships typically involve multivariate
J23 072 analysis. ^Linear discriminate function ({0LDF}) analysis and
J23 073 multiple regression are used most often. ^Although these
J23 074 multivariate techniques are statistically similar, their aims are
J23 075 slightly different. ^Regression analysis is designed to predict a
J23 076 position on a criterion scale whereas {0LDF} is used to classify
J23 077 cases into categories. ^As selection decisions essentially
J23 078 involve separating applicants into successful and unsuccessful
J23 079 groups, the classification function of {0LDF} is particularly
J23 080 useful. ^Its objective is to weight and linearly combine a set of
J23 081 variables so the criterion groups are as statistically distinct
J23 082 as possible (Klecka, 1984). ^{0LDF} procedures give statistical
J23 083 descriptions of the discriminating power of the function,
J23 084 describing which independent variables are being used and what
J23 085 contribution they are making. ^Once a function has been formed it
J23 086 can be used to classify both the cases used in the analysis and
J23 087 new cases. ^The efficiency of classification is a further
J23 088 indication of the function's usefulness. ^In comparison to {0HPM}
J23 089 and correlational approaches, {0LDF} optimally weights each
J23 090 discriminating variable according to its unique contribution to
J23 091 separation of successful and unsuccessful groups. ^Each item is
J23 092 considered in terms of its relationship with the criterion and
J23 093 other items. ^Those items which offer redundant information are
J23 094 discarded.
J23 095    |^As there are substantial differences between weighting
J23 096 approaches it seems both the predictive efficiency and the
J23 097 descriptive information gained in an application form study may
J23 098 be dependent on the weighting methodology used. ^Research appears
J23 099 to offer little in the way of comparative investigation. ^Results
J23 100 obtained through various approaches are assumed equivalent in
J23 101 both efficiency and nature. ^Only two studies of those reviewed
J23 102 considered different weighting methods. ^One was based on a
J23 103 sample which was too small to give stable cross-validation
J23 104 results (Telenson {0et al.}, 1983), the other was in the form of
J23 105 a pilot study with only a conclusion and no results reported
J23 106 (Sands, 1978). ^While the predictive value of weighted
J23 107 application form information is generally accepted, investigation
J23 108 of the best way of weighting this information has been neglected.
J23 109    |^The aim of the present study is to investigate the
J23 110 comparative utility of weighting methods. ^Two approaches were
J23 111 chosen. ^First, {0HPM} was used as the most common of the
J23 112 traditional weighting methods which ignore inter-item
J23 113 relationships. ^It has been used extensively in applied settings
J23 114 (Owens, 1976), is well described, and the procedures applied
J23 115 consistently compared to the confusing range of approaches using
J23 116 correlational analysis. ^The second method chosen was {0LDF}. ^It
J23 117 is an appropriate multivariate technique as it predicts
J23 118 membership of categories (successful, unsuccessful) as in
J23 119 personnel selection decisions (Sands, 1978).
J23 120    |^The present investigation was to be carried out using a
J23 121 nurse-training program. ^The head of a polytechnic nurse training
J23 122 department wished to develop a weighted application form for
J23 123 student selection. ^As most students who dropped out of the
J23 124 course did so in the first year, successful completion of year
J23 125 one was used as a criterion. ^Given the statistical efficiency
J23 126 with which {0LDF} utilizes available variance, the present
J23 127 comparative study was based on the following hypothesis.
J23 128 ^Application form data weighted using {0LDF} will classify
J23 129 selected and unselected cases more accurately than those when the
J23 130 same data is weighted using the {0HPM}.
J23 131 *<*4Method*>
J23 132 *<*1Subjects*>
J23 133 |^*0Subjects were 159 student nurses admitted to a three-year
J23 134 comprehensive nurse training program at a polytechnic in New
J23 135 Zealand. ^Ages ranged from 17 to 47 years with 80% of the
J23 136 subjects falling into the 16 to 19-year-old age group. ^Four were
J23 137 male, 155 were female.
J23 138 *<*1Materials*>
J23 139 |*01. ^The application form was filled out by people applying to
J23 140 the comprehensive nursing course. ^The form required
J23 141 biographical, educational, and health-related information as well
J23 142 as responses to general questions on nursing.
J23 143 |2. ^A coding form developed by polytechnic staff was used to
J23 144 categorize application form items. ^The form assigned numbers to
J23 145 each level of each item, so allowing statistical analysis of the
J23 146 information.
J23 147 *<*1Procedure*>
J23 148 |^*0The criterion measure consisted of two categories,
J23 149 unsuccessful and successful. ^Successful cases were those who
J23 150 completed all course and practical requirements successfully in
J23 151 year one of the Comprehensive Nursing Course and were eligible to
J23 152 begin year two. ^Unsuccessful cases were those who had failed
J23 153 these requirements during their first year and were not eligible
J23 154 to begin year two of the course.
J23 155    |^The head of the nursing department at the polytechnic from
J23 156 which the cases were drawn was asked, based on her experience, to
J23 157 nominate those application form items she felt would show a
J23 158 difference between successful and unsuccessful first-year
J23 159 students. ^This was done to reduce the number of variables used
J23 160 in the analysis as a ratio of five subjects per variable is
J23 161 suggested as appropriate for multivariate analysis (Gorsuch,
J23 162 **[TABLE**]
J23 163 1974; Kerlinger & Pedhazur, 1973). ^To use the full set of 84
J23 164 items contained in the application form would have required a
J23 165 sample far larger than that available. ^The 19 items nominated
J23 166 formed the set of variables used in the analyses to create the
J23 167 weighted application forms (Table 1). ^Application form data was
J23 168 coded using the nursing department coding form.
J23 169    |^Subjects were randomly allocated to two groups, a
J23 170 validation sample of 108 subjects and a cross-validation sample
J23 171 of 51 subjects. ^Of the 108 in the validation sample 93 (86%)
J23 172 were successful cases and 15 (14%) were unsuccessful. ^In the
J23 173 cross-validation sample 42 (82%) cases were successful and 9
J23 174 (18%) cases unsuccessful. ^The {0HPM} weights and the {0LDF}
J23 175 weights developed on the first sample will be applied to the
J23 176 second. ^This procedure will give an indication of the accuracy
J23 177 with which the weighting procedures can predict group membership.
J23 178 *<*1Weighting*>
J23 179 |^*0Before applying {0HPM} weighting procedures the response
J23 180 categories of all items were examined. ^Items 1, 8 and 13 (Table
J23 181 1) each had a large number of categories which when
J23 182 cross-tabulated resulted in many empty cells. ^Such a lack of
J23 183 data does not allow a weight to be calculated for a particular
J23 184 category so no weight can be allocated on that item for
J23 185 individuals who exhibit that characteristic. ^To avoid this
J23 186 problem England (1971) suggests either combining weighting groups
J23 187 into classes with approximately equal numbers of individuals in
J23 188 each class (method of equal frequency), dividing the continuous
J23 189 variable into equal intervals (method of equal intervals), or
J23 190 depending on the responses or scores, dividing the item into
J23 191 broad categories that are meaningful (method of maximum weight
J23 192 classes).
J23 193    |^Yearly age categories in item one for the first four year
J23 194 groups were retained while the remaining 20% of the sample were
J23 195 combined into two categories. ^This use of the method of equal
J23 196 frequency was considered to be the most appropriate division of
J23 197 cases, given the spread of the sample. ^In items 8 and 13,
J23 198 examination marks were combined into grade categories as used by
J23 199 the New Zealand Education Department for these examinations *- an
J23 200 approach similar to that of the method of equal intervals.
J23 201    |^{0HPM} was applied to the validation sample following the
J23 202 approach outlined by England (1971). ^First, each variable was
J23 203 cross-tabulated with the criterion groups. ^The numbers within
J23 204 each criterion group at each level of a variable were converted
J23 205 into percentages. ^The category percentages of unsuccessful cases
J23 206 were subtracted from the percentages of successful cases to
J23 207 obtain a difference score for each category. ^These category
J23 208 difference scores were then converted to net weights using
J23 209 Strong's Tables of Net Weights for Differences in Percents
J23 210 (England, 1971), by simply recording the net weight specified for
J23 211 each difference score.
J23 212    |^A variety of weighting schemes is available at this point
J23 213 but *"available evidence shows little difference in predictive
J23 214 efficiency as the result of different weighting procedures**"
J23 215 (Weiss, 1976, \0p. 345). ^England suggests the net weights should
J23 216 be converted into *"assigned weights**" to simplify scoring and
J23 217 to reduce the impact of sampling fluctuations in percentages.
J23 218 ^Converting to assigned weights may result in the discarding of
J23 219 some variables if all categories of that variable had the same
J23 220 assigned weight and, as a result, no differential effect. ^The
J23 221 process of assigning weights to item categories resulted in seven
J23 222 variables being dropped from further analysis. ^In all instances
J23 223 the discarded items showed no differences in assigned weights
J23 224 across categories. ^The variables were Marital Status,
J23 225 Nationality, Age of Children, Average School Certificate Mark,
J23 226 School Certificate English, University Degree, and Time of
J23 227 Application Decision. ^The twelve variables remaining are listed
J23 228 in Table 2.
J23 229    |^Cases were scored according to the various item categories
J23 230 to which each case belonged.
J23 231 *#
J24 001 **[318 TEXT J24**]
J24 002    |^*0The recovery of nonverbal functions following brain
J24 003 damage is sparsely documented, especially when compared with the
J24 004 extensive literature on the treatment and recovery of the
J24 005 aphasias (Kertesz, 1979). ^Given that the debilitating effects of
J24 006 a language deficit are often more obvious than the problems
J24 007 caused by a spatial deficit, it is perhaps not surprising that so
J24 008 much research effort has gone into the understanding and treating
J24 009 of language deficits. ^However for many patients, spatial
J24 010 deficits such as hemineglect, topographical disorientation, or
J24 011 constructional apraxia can be very debilitating. ^For example,
J24 012 some studies have found that patients with left hemiplegia
J24 013 recover the use of their limbs more slowly than patients with
J24 014 right hemiplegia, and it has been suggested that this is a result
J24 015 of spatial-perceptual deficits and hemineglect suffered by the
J24 016 patients with right hemisphere damage (Cassvan, Ross, Dyer, &
J24 017 Zane, 1976; Knapp, 1957; Lawson, 1962). ^For people who rely
J24 018 heavily on spatial abilities in their work, a spatial disorder
J24 019 may be as debilitating as dyslexia is to most literate people.
J24 020    |^While spatial functions are by no means as clearly
J24 021 lateralized as verbal functions, there is ample evidence that the
J24 022 right hemisphere plays a major role in many spatial abilities
J24 023 (see De Renzi, 1982, for review). ^Although patients with left
J24 024 hemispheric lesions do quite commonly suffer from spatial
J24 025 deficits such as constructional apraxia (Arena & Gainotti, 1978)
J24 026 and visual hemineglect (Albert, 1973; Ogden, 1985a, 1985b), the
J24 027 range and severity of spatial disorders suffered by patients with
J24 028 right-hemispheric lesions tends to be much greater (Faglioni,
J24 029 Scotti, & Spinnler, 1971; Gianotti, Messerli, & Tissot, 1972;
J24 030 Levine, Warach, Benowitz, & Calvanio, 1986; Mack & Levine, 1981).
J24 031 ^There is also some evidence that the spontaneous recovery time
J24 032 for left hemineglect ({0i.e.}, patients with right-hemispheric
J24 033 lesions) is longer than that for right hemineglect (Zarit & Kahn,
J24 034 1974).
J24 035    |^The following case study of a young man with an interest
J24 036 in architecture, documents the degree to which higher spatial
J24 037 functions can differentially recover without extensive specialist
J24 038 rehabilitation in a matter of months following a
J24 039 right-hemispheric infarct.
J24 040 *<Case Report*>
J24 041 *<*1History and Neurological Findings*>
J24 042    |^*0{0R.G.}, an 18-year-old caucasian male university
J24 043 student, was seen at the Accident and Emergency Department
J24 044 following a motorbike accident. ^At the time of the accident he
J24 045 was wearing a crash helmet that covered his whole head. ^He was
J24 046 concussed for one to two minutes, and he had a minimal retrograde
J24 047 and anterograde amnesia of no more than a minute. ^Apart from a
J24 048 fracture of the right clavicle and a graze on the right side of
J24 049 his neck caused by the helmet strap, general and neurological
J24 050 examinations were normal. ^However, while he was waiting for
J24 051 X-ray, he experienced flashing lights in his left visual field
J24 052 accompanied by a drop of the left side of his face that resolved
J24 053 in a matter of minutes. ^He was sent home and he remained alert
J24 054 and appropriate for the next 24 hours until he experienced a
J24 055 further episode of flashing lights in his left visual field, this
J24 056 time lasting about 20 minutes. ^An hour after this he had a
J24 057 sudden onset of left facial and left arm weakness that steadily
J24 058 worsened over the next 30 minutes.
J24 059    |^On urgent admission to Auckland Hospital {0R.G.} was
J24 060 drowsy and confused, had developed a headache, and had vomited
J24 061 once. ^He had a marked weakness of the left face and left arm and
J24 062 a less marked weakness of the left leg. ^He demonstrated visual
J24 063 extinction on double simultaneous stimulation ({0DSS}). ^He had
J24 064 an impairment of all forms of sensation over the left side of his
J24 065 body. ^Carotid angiography showed a complete occlusion of the
J24 066 right internal carotid artery approximately 2\0cm from its
J24 067 origin. ^The appearances were those of dissection of the right
J24 068 internal carotid artery with subsequent thrombotic occlusion.
J24 069 ^This was probably the result of bruising of the internal carotid
J24 070 artery by the strap of the crash helmet on impact. ^Computerized
J24 071 Tomography ({0CT}) of his brain at this stage excluded a
J24 072 haemorrhage, but was suggestive of an early right parietal
J24 073 infarct. ^A second {0CT} scan five days later showed an extensive
J24 074 infarct in the posterior frontal/ anterior parietal region of the
J24 075 right hemisphere. ^The borders were well demarcated and there was
J24 076 a slight mass effect. ^He was treated conservatively with
J24 077 aspirin.
J24 078    |^Immediately following his stroke, {0R.G.} demonstrated a
J24 079 severe neglect of the left side of his body. ^For example, he
J24 080 seemed unable to move his left arm or leg, and believed they were
J24 081 completely paralysed. ^He depersonalized his left limbs and made
J24 082 comments such as *'^It doesn't want to move**'. ^He seemed
J24 083 unaware when his left limbs lay in awkward positions, and would
J24 084 not attempt to cover them even when they looked *'blue**' with
J24 085 cold. ^He preferred people to stand on his right side and said he
J24 086 felt uncomfortable talking to people to his left.
J24 087    |^His tendency to neglect the left side of his body was
J24 088 explained to him and his bed was pushed against the wall on his
J24 089 right side to encourage him to attend to people and objects on
J24 090 his left. ^He was also constantly reminded by staff and other
J24 091 patients to attend to his left limbs and try to use them. ^Over
J24 092 the next seven days his awareness of the left side of his body
J24 093 became almost normal, and he was able to move his left leg and
J24 094 walk with assistance.
J24 095    |^At the time of his discharge, three weeks after his
J24 096 stroke, he could walk a short distance with the aid of a stick,
J24 097 but still had a weak arm and slight left facial droop. ^Six weeks
J24 098 after his stroke he could walk and hop on either leg normally,
J24 099 his facial weakness was trivial, and he was left with a slight
J24 100 spasticity and clumsiness of his left arm with some impairment of
J24 101 two-point discrimination and joint position sensation. ^Nine
J24 102 months after his stroke his only neurological problems were a
J24 103 slight loss of sensation in the tips of his left fingers and at
J24 104 the left edge of his mouth, and some clumsiness of rapid
J24 105 alternating movement in the left hand with a spastic catch and
J24 106 some increase in the tendon reflexes. ^He also had difficulty
J24 107 identifying objects by touch with his left hand. ^These signs had
J24 108 not resolved two years following his stroke.
J24 109 *<*1Neuropsychological Assessments and Comments*>
J24 110    |^*0{0R.G.} was strongly right-handed, with a laterality
J24 111 quotient of 81.8 on the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (Oldfield,
J24 112 1971). ^If his school and university grades are taken as a
J24 113 guideline, his premorbid Intelligence Quotient ({0IQ}) would
J24 114 probably fall within the *'Superior**' range.
J24 115    |^According to family members, one of whom was an architect,
J24 116 {0R.G.} had since childhood shown a particular aptitude for tasks
J24 117 requiring spatial abilities ({0e.g.}, drawing, map reading,
J24 118 topographical orientation and memory). ^At the time of his
J24 119 accident he was 10 weeks into his second year at university
J24 120 taking first and second year undergraduate courses in the hope of
J24 121 qualifying for a place in a degree course in Architecture the
J24 122 following year. ^As any spatial deficits resulting from his
J24 123 right-hemispheric infarct might seriously disrupt his career
J24 124 plans, it was decided to document his progress by assessing him
J24 125 neuropsychologically soon after his stroke and six months later.
J24 126 ^At this follow-up he was reassessed on those tests on which he
J24 127 had previously shown a deficit relative to his global {0IQ}.
J24 128 *<*1Tests of memory and general intelligence *>
J24 129    |^*0Fifteen days after his stroke, on the Wechsler Memory
J24 130 Scale (Wechsler, 1945) he attained a Memory Quotient of 143, a
J24 131 score that placed him at the upper end of the *'Very Superior**'
J24 132 range. ^On the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ({0WAIS};
J24 133 Wechsler, 1955), he demonstrated a difference of 25 points
J24 134 between his Verbal and Performance {0IQ}. ^Such a pattern is
J24 135 consistent with right-hemispheric damage (Chase, Fedio, Foster,
J24 136 Brooks, Di Chiro, & Mansi, 1984; Lezak, 1983). ^At the six month
J24 137 follow-up he was given the Performance subtests and Arithmetic
J24 138 and Digit Span of the {0WAIS}, and on all of these subtests he
J24 139 bettered his performance by two to four scaled points. ^His
J24 140 Performance {0IQ} had in-
J24 141 **[TABLE**]
J24 142 creased by 18 points and the difference between his Verbal and
J24 143 Performance {0IQ} had decreased by 11 points. ^His test scores
J24 144 can be found in Table 1.
J24 145 *<*1Further tests of spatial function*>
J24 146    |^*0Fifteen days after his stroke {0R.G.} was also assessed
J24 147 for visual extinction, visual drawing neglect (see Ogden, 1985a,
J24 148 for a description of these tests), left-right orientation
J24 149 (Money's Road Map Test; Money, Alexander, & Walker, 1965), the
J24 150 two-dimensional mental rotation test from the Luria-Nebraska
J24 151 Neuropsychological Battery (Golden, Hammeke, & Purisch, 1980) and
J24 152 10 problems of mental folding from the Space Relations test of
J24 153 the Differential Aptitude Tests ({0DAT}; Bennett, Seashore, &
J24 154 Wesman, 1962). ^He demonstrated no visual extinction or neglect,
J24 155 and made no errors on Money's Road Map Test which he completed in
J24 156 the very fast time of 44 seconds. ^His scores and times were
J24 157 impaired on mental rotation (6/8 in 4 minutes), and on mental
J24 158 folding (6/10 in 45 minutes). ^At a six month follow-up he was
J24 159 given parallel versions of mental rotation and mental folding
J24 160 tests in order to assess any improvement. ^His performance at
J24 161 this assessment was flawless and exceptionally fast (26 seconds
J24 162 on mental rotation and 3.5 minutes on mental folding).
J24 163 *<*1Outcome*>
J24 164    |^*0On leaving hospital three weeks after his stroke, apart
J24 165 from attending physiotherapy clinic four times in total over the
J24 166 following four weeks, {0R.G.} had no further rehabilitation. ^He
J24 167 attended the occasional lecture at the university before deciding
J24 168 to drop five of the eight courses he had been taking before his
J24 169 accident. ^At the end of the university year (five months after
J24 170 his accident) he sat his final exams in the three courses he had
J24 171 continued with and passed them all. ^He took a job as a dish
J24 172 washer in a restaurant for the summer vacation, and also prepared
J24 173 a folio of sketches that was one of the requirements for entry
J24 174 into architecture school. ^On the basis of his grades and the
J24 175 standard of his folio of sketches, he gained a place in
J24 176 Architecture. ^Two years after his stroke he was still studying
J24 177 for his Architecture degree, but was experiencing difficulty with
J24 178 advanced courses that involved visualizing complex buildings in
J24 179 three dimensions.
J24 180 *<Discussion*>
J24 181    |^The young man described in this case report is of interest
J24 182 primarily because of the rapid improvement in his spatial
J24 183 abilities after sustaining an extensive right frontal-parietal
J24 184 infarct. ^His acceptance into Architecture School under very
J24 185 competitive circumstances, partly on the basis of a series of
J24 186 sketches he had drawn six months after his stroke, is practical
J24 187 evidence of the extent of his recovery, although it is unlikely
J24 188 that his spatial abilities recovered to premorbid levels.
J24 189    |^When his memory and verbal functions were assessed fifteen
J24 190 days after his stroke, his scores were all within the *'Very
J24 191 Superior**' range. ^This indicated that {0R.G.} was not by this
J24 192 stage suffering from significant problems of impaired retention,
J24 193 concentration, attention and fatigability that are often
J24 194 characteristic of an acute brain condition (Lezak, 1983). ^That
J24 195 is, any diffuse or generalized symptoms that may have been
J24 196 present immediately following the stroke (possibly as a result of
J24 197 oedema) appear to have resolved.
J24 198    |^While the timed nature of the {0WAIS} Performance subtests
J24 199 may in part have accounted for {0R.G.}'s significantly lowered
J24 200 scores on these visuospatial tests, his qualitative performance
J24 201 suggested that his difficulties were not primarily the result of
J24 202 motor slowing or problems of hand-eye coordination. ^For example,
J24 203 he had no difficulty physically manipulating the blocks when
J24 204 carrying out the Block Design subtest of the {0WAIS}, and he was
J24 205 completely unable to work out the tenth Block Design problem or
J24 206 the *'elephant**' problem of *'Object Assembly**' even when given
J24 207 unlimited time. ^Although he had a marked left-sided neglect of
J24 208 his body and a mild left-sided visual neglect immediately
J24 209 following his stroke, these had resolved by the time he was
J24 210 assessed on the {0WAIS}, and therefore hemineglect is unlikely to
J24 211 have contributed significantly to his lowered scores.
J24 212    |^Consideration must be given to the possibility that a
J24 213 practice effect may have contributed to {0R.G.}'s performance
J24 214 when he was retested on the {0WAIS} six months after his first
J24 215 assessment.
J24 216 *#
J25 001 **[319 TEXT J25**]
J25 002    |^*0In recent years there has been increasing interest in
J25 003 how the general public perceives the amount of crime,
J25 004 particularly how individuals assess their personal risk of
J25 005 becoming a victim ({0e.g.}, McPherson, 1978; Perloff, 1983;
J25 006 Tyler, 1984; Tyler & Cook, 1984; Warr, 1980, 1982). ^Research
J25 007 generally has revealed that some aspects of the incidence of
J25 008 crime are rather accurately perceived and some not. ^For example,
J25 009 McPherson (1978) found citizens perceive rather accurately the
J25 010 crime rate and probability of victimisation in their
J25 011 neighbourhood. ^Warr (1982) found good agreement between the
J25 012 perceived rates of commission of different crimes by Tucson
J25 013 adults and self-reported data on crimes committed by Tucson
J25 014 juveniles. ^On the other hand, Warr (1980) revealed perceived
J25 015 incidence of various crimes to differ quite markedly from their
J25 016 actual incidence: incidence of rarer crimes was generally
J25 017 overestimated while that of some common crimes was
J25 018 underestimated.
J25 019    |^One aspect of the rate of crime in the past few decades
J25 020 has been its steady increase in many countries. ^In New Zealand
J25 021 for example the number of crimes of all kinds reported to the
J25 022 police has increased exponentially over the last 30 years,
J25 023 approximately doubling every 11 or 12 years (New Zealand
J25 024 Department of Police, 1955-1985). ^The question of how accurately
J25 025 this increase over time is perceived by the public at large has
J25 026 both theoretical and practical significance. ^Theoretically the
J25 027 issue is interesting because other research has shown both that
J25 028 geometrically increasing sequences in the laboratory are
J25 029 misperceived in that the projected rate of increase is
J25 030 underestimated (Wagenaar & Sagaria, 1975; Wagenaar & Timmers,
J25 031 1979), and that the difference between past and present prices is
J25 032 underestimated (Kemp, 1984). ^On the basis of these results one
J25 033 might predict that the actual rate of increase in crime should be
J25 034 underestimated.
J25 035    |^Practically the issue is important since underestimation
J25 036 would suggest public complacency or ignorance in the face of a
J25 037 growing problem, while overestimation would suggest public
J25 038 hysteria. ^In either case, one would expect public support for
J25 039 inappropriate policy decisions about countering crime if public
J25 040 perception was greatly different to reality.
J25 041    |^The present study was primarily concerned with how
J25 042 accurately an urban sample perceived the increase in the rate of
J25 043 different crimes over the previous 20 years.
J25 044 *<Method*>
J25 045 *<*1Respondents and Procedures*>
J25 046    |^*0130 respondents were interviewed between September and
J25 047 November of 1985. ^Respondents were obtained by area sampling and
J25 048 were interviewed in their homes.
J25 049    |^The personal information collected suggests the sample to
J25 050 be representative of the adult Christchurch population. ^The
J25 051 sample consisted of 53 men and 76 women, and contained 68 married
J25 052 and 72 unmarried respondents. ^Information on the respondents'
J25 053 age, socioeconomic status, and political party supported showed
J25 054 no appreciable biases.
J25 055    |^All respondents were interviewed by one of two trained,
J25 056 paid interviewers who worked from an interview schedule.
J25 057 ^Responses to the question were recorded at the time. ^Interviews
J25 058 typically lasted twenty minutes.
J25 059 *<*1The interview*>
J25 060    |^*0The interviews followed a set format determined by the
J25 061 structure of the schedule. ^Most of the questions required
J25 062 respondents to estimate the number of crimes of different types
J25 063 reported in New Zealand in past years. ^Estimates of four
J25 064 categories of  crime were requested: murder, assault, burglary,
J25 065 and *"crimes of all kinds.**" ^Several factors influenced the
J25 066 choice of these four categories. ^It was felt necessary to choose
J25 067 crimes whose meaning was clear to the respondents and whose legal
J25 068 definition had not been dramatically altered over the previous 20
J25 069 years. ^In addition a continuous 20-year statistical record of
J25 070 actual numbers reported to the New Zealand Police was available
J25 071 for the categories chosen (New Zealand Department of Police,
J25 072 1965-1985).
J25 073    |^All questions relating to a particular category of crime
J25 074 were asked together. ^The first question relating to each
J25 075 category was of the form:
J25 076    |^*"How many (crimes of all kinds/ burglaries/ cases of
J25 077 assault/ murders) do you think were reported to the {0N.Z.}
J25 078 Police last year (1984)?**"
J25 079    |^Then followed five questions of a similar kind asking how
J25 080 many crimes of that category were committed in previous years.
J25 081 ^For burglary and crimes of all kind, numbers of crimes committed
J25 082 in 1983, 1979, 1974, 1969 and 1964 were requested; for assaults
J25 083 the previous years' questions were 1983, 1979, 1977, 1971, and
J25 084 1965; and for murders 1983, 1980, 1973, 1969, 1964. ^The reason
J25 085 behind this irregular choice of dates for assault and murder is
J25 086 the year-to-year variability in rates of occurrence of these
J25 087 crimes. ^Particularly for murder this variability is very great;
J25 088 there were, for example, 32 murders in 1974, 20 in 1975, and 40
J25 089 in 1976. ^Clearly variability of this kind creates difficulties
J25 090 in assessing the accuracy of the respondents' estimates. ^To
J25 091 combat this, exponential growth curves were fitted to the
J25 092 official statistics for murder and assault for the period 1964-
J25 093 1984 and years whose actual rate fell close to the curve were
J25 094 chosen for the questions. ^This procedure was not used for
J25 095 burglary or crimes of all kinds where the year-to-year
J25 096 variability was much less. ^The order of asking the five
J25 097 questions relating to previous years was varied: half the
J25 098 respondents were asked in order of recency ({0i.e.} 1983 first)
J25 099 **[TABLE**]
J25 100 and half in reverse order of recency ({0i.e.} 1964 or 1965
J25 101 first).
J25 102    |^The seventh question relating to a particular category
J25 103 requested respondents to estimate the number of crimes in the
J25 104 category that they thought would be reported in 1986. ^Finally,
J25 105 as an adjunct to the assault, burglary and crimes of all kinds
J25 106 sections, respondents were asked if they had been a victim of
J25 107 that crime in the previous five years.
J25 108    |^To avoid possible problems arising from a particular
J25 109 ordering of the categories within the schedule, all questions
J25 110 relating to each of the four categories were listed on one page.
J25 111    |^The order of these four pages was randomly varied for each
J25 112 interview. ^The schedule was completed by requests for some
J25 113 personal information.
J25 114 *<Results*>
J25 115    |^Table 1 shows the actual and estimated numbers of crimes
J25 116 in each category reported in 1984. ^Except for murder, where the
J25 117 median estimate was quite close to, and an overestimate of, the
J25 118 actual figure, the rates of occurrence were generally
J25 119 underestimated by the respondents. ^Application of the two-tailed
J25 120 sign test (*1\0p *0< .05) revealed that significantly more than
J25 121 half the respondents underestimated the 1984 assault, burglary,
J25 122 and all crime figures while significantly more than half
J25 123 overestimated the 1984 murder figures. ^In addition, as is clear
J25 124 from the quartile estimates, responses were very variable between
J25 125 respondents, indicating that the sample as a whole was uncertain
J25 126 about the number of assaults, burglaries, and crimes in general
J25 127 reported.
J25 128    |^To obtain a clearer picture of respondents' perception of
J25 129 the rate of increase, it is necessary to take into account and
J25 130 remove the marked variability in 1984 estimates. ^Hence for each
J25 131 respondent and category of crime, estimates relative to those of
J25 132 1984 were obtained by dividing the respondent's estimate for each
J25 133 year
J25 134 **[FIGURE**]
J25 135 by the 1984 estimate. ^Figure 1 shows these median relative
J25 136 estimates as a function of time, as well as the actual growth of
J25 137 crime obtained by dividing the actual numbers reported for each
J25 138 year by the appropriate 1984 statistics.
J25 139    |^Figure 1 suggests that in general respondents were rather
J25 140 accurate at estimating the increase in assaults and murders. ^For
J25 141 burglary, and to a lesser extent for crimes of all kinds,
J25 142 respondents perceived the increase in crime to be slower than it
J25 143 actually was. ^As is evident from Figure 1, however, the actual
J25 144 rate of increase in burglaries reported is faster than the rate
J25 145 of increase in the other crimes. ^Two further features of Figure
J25 146 1 deserve comment. ^Firstly, the quartile estimates clearly show
J25 147 considerable variation amongst respondents in perception of the
J25 148 rate of increase of crime. ^On the other hand, this variation is
J25 149 less marked than the variation in estimates of the number of
J25 150 crimes in 1984 evident in Table 1. ^Secondly, the median
J25 151 estimates resemble the actual increase in the rate of crime in
J25 152 displaying an exponentially increasing pattern of growth.
J25 153    |^To enable further analysis of estimation of the rate of
J25 154 increase in crime, a single summary measure for each respondent
J25 155 and crime category was created. ^A power function of the form:
J25 156 ^Perceived number of crimes =  \0A (Actual number of crimes) was
J25 157 fitted for each respondent and crime category, and the exponent n
J25 158 calculated. ^This exponent, the summary measure, is readily
J25 159 interpretable: ^The greater the exponent the greater the
J25 160 perceived rate of increase. ^Exponents less than one indicate
J25 161 that the rate of increase in a particular crime is underestimated
J25 162 by a respondent, exponents greater than one indicate
J25 163 overestimation. ^It should be remarked that this type of analysis
J25 164 is commonly used to examine the results of magnitude estimation
J25 165 in perceptual and social psychology as suggested by Stevens
J25 166 (1957, 1975). ^Average exponents for the sample were 1.08 for
J25 167 assault, 0.92 for murder, 0.63 for burglary, and 0.87 for crimes
J25 168 of all kinds. ^Application of the two-tailed sign test revealed
J25 169 that significantly more than half the sample produced exponents
J25 170 of less than one for burglary (80%) and crimes of all kinds
J25 171 (69%), but not for assaults (52%)
J25 172 **[TABLE**]
J25 173 or murder (61%). ^Clearly the interpretation of these exponents
J25 174 agrees with the results shown in Figure 1.
J25 175    |^Table 2 shows the correlations between the crime
J25 176 categories for the 1984 estimates and the exponents as well as
J25 177 the correlation between 1984 estimates and exponents for each
J25 178 crime category. ^Actual 1984 estimates were logarithmically
J25 179 transformed for this exercise because the distributions were
J25 180 markedly skewed (as is implied by the results shown in Table 1).
J25 181 ^It is clear from Table 2 that the 1984 estimates were strongly
J25 182 related; thus respondents who reported a high number of assaults
J25 183 also reported high numbers of burglaries, crimes of all kinds,
J25 184 and, to a lesser extent, murders. ^The lower correlations with
J25 185 the murder estimates may reflect the fact that these estimates
J25 186 were generally more accurate and less variable (see Table 1).
J25 187 ^The exponents were also positively correlated; thus respondents
J25 188 perceiving a high rate of increase in one crime tended to
J25 189 perceive high rates of increase in other crimes as well.
J25 190    |^Only one of the four correlations between 1984 estimate
J25 191 and exponent was significant. ^In general, respondents perceiving
J25 192 greater numbers of a crime in 1984 did not also perceive a high
J25 193 rate of increase of the crime. ^Perhaps surprisingly, perception
J25 194 of amount of crime and perception of its rate of increase were
J25 195 not strongly related.
J25 196    |^Analyses of variance carried out on the four
J25 197 (logarithmically transformed) estimates and the four exponents
J25 198 revealed no significant (*1\0p *0> .05) effects of age group,
J25 199 marital status, socioeconomic status, or political party
J25 200 supported on any of the exponents or estimates. ^Women estimated
J25 201 significantly more burglaries (Harmonic mean = 24,826) in 1984
J25 202 than men (Harmonic mean = 10,867; *1F*0(l, 125) = 4.78, *1\0p *0<
J25 203 .05) but there was no significant effect of sex on any other 1984
J25 204 estimate or exponent.
J25 205    |^Seven respondents reported that they had been a victim of
J25 206 an assault in the previous five years, 30 reported being a victim
J25 207 of a burglary, and 49 reported being a victim of a crime of any
J25 208 kind. ^Victims of assault estimated significantly more assaults
J25 209 (Harmonic mean = 16,838) occurred in 1984 than non-victims
J25 210 (Harmonic mean = 2,732; *1F*0(1, 122) = 4.52, *1\0p *0< .05).
J25 211 ^Victims of crime of any kind estimated more crime of all kinds
J25 212 (Harmonic mean = 82,490) occurred in 1984 than non-victims
J25 213 (Harmonic mean = 25,604; *1F*0(1, 125) = 6.01, *1\0p *0< .05).
J25 214 ^Victims of burglary, however, did not estimate significantly
J25 215 more burglaries to occur in 1984 than non-victims; nor did
J25 216 victims of a crime perceive a significantly different rate of
J25 217 increase in that crime than non-victims.
J25 218 *<Discussion*>
J25 219    |^In general respondents underestimated the numbers of
J25 220 crimes committed in 1984 but they overestimated the number of
J25 221 murders. ^This result is similar to that found by Warr (1980).
J25 222 ^It also resembles the findings of Lichtenstein, Slovic,
J25 223 Fischoff, Layman, and Combs (1978) on the judged frequency of
J25 224 causes of death: deaths from common causes or unspectacular
J25 225 events were underestimated while those from rare causes and
J25 226 dramatic events were overestimated.
J25 227 *#
J26 001 **[320 TEXT J26**]
J26 002 ^*0Punches in the face or kicks in the groin are readily suffered
J26 003 in such circumstances.
J26 004    |^Today, most of the problems arise when a resident has been
J26 005 drinking or smoking cannabis. ^Some of them become very
J26 006 aggressive and are extremely hard to manage. ^Unfortunately,
J26 007 underage youngsters find it very easy to get hold of alcohol, and
J26 008 all the rules in the world are of little avail. ^If the person
J26 009 has a recognised drink problem, rather than the occasional
J26 010 excessive use of alcohol, he or she is required to undergo
J26 011 therapy and be on a strict no-alcohol regime, as long as we keep
J26 012 them in our care. ^Otherwise staff and residents as well as
J26 013 property come in for a battering.
J26 014    |^At times some residents can be extremely provocative and
J26 015 give staff a very hard time. ^They can goad, tease or insult a
J26 016 given staff member, trying to provoke their anger. ^Staff must
J26 017 have a great deal of self-control, and not be over-stressed, for
J26 018 them to cope with such provocations. ^A list of policies has been
J26 019 devised for the guidance of staff in these cases.
J26 020    |^They are summed up in the Staff Manual. ^Briefly, they are
J26 021 as follows: ^No member of staff may physically hit or push a
J26 022 resident. ^If physical restraint of a resident becomes absolutely
J26 023 necessary to protect someone or to safeguard House property, it
J26 024 must be limited to the minimum for the purpose. ^Physical
J26 025 restraint is forbidden where non-co-operative behaviour is
J26 026 involved. ^Other strategies must be used.
J26 027    |^Any of the following events must be recorded in a log book
J26 028 kept in each House: physical restraint of a resident; violence by
J26 029 a resident; violence by a staff member; any punishments of
J26 030 residents, noting date, nature of behaviour, and consequence
J26 031 meted out; any criminal behaviour, including action taken as a
J26 032 result; any involvement with the police. ^The Director or Deputy
J26 033 must be shown the book each week at the individual meetings with
J26 034 administrators.
J26 035    |^So that this policy is adhered to, staff must ensure that
J26 036 their own stress levels are attended to, by taking reasonable
J26 037 breaks and seeking whatever support is necessary. ^The Director
J26 038 cannot support actions that are not reported as required, or
J26 039 where procedures are not followed. ^Any complaint by a resident
J26 040 or staff member regarding physical violence must be recorded, and
J26 041 the administrator of the House, as well as the Director,
J26 042 notified.
J26 043    |^The problem lies in what *'other restraints**' can be used
J26 044 that are effective and do not violate our policy. ^Some
J26 045 institutions have a *'time out**' place where an out-of-control
J26 046 young person is placed until they have calmed down or are open to
J26 047 reason. ^This is usually a secure room that the youth cannot
J26 048 damage.
J26 049    |^Some people oppose this practice, regarding it as
J26 050 primitive. ^There is another technique known as *'the Michael
J26 051 Whiting Holding**' strategy. ^This involves one or two adults
J26 052 holding a boy or girl with his or her arms crossed in front of
J26 053 them and held by the adult, while they are restrained between the
J26 054 adult's knees. ^At times this holding can last for two hours or
J26 055 more. ^During this time, the adult does not speak with the child
J26 056 or youth. ^In my experience, this method of control has very
J26 057 positive effects. ^Above all, it produces a bonding of the
J26 058 difficult youngster to the adult concerned with the strategy, and
J26 059 it does change inappropriate behaviour. ^It appears more damaging
J26 060 to the individual's pride, initially, than to the body.
J26 061    |^However, there are a number of problems with this
J26 062 strategy. ^One is the physical demand on the person doing the
J26 063 holding. ^Women should normally hold females, and men males. ^It
J26 064 is time-consuming, especially since it can be required at the
J26 065 most inconvenient times, such as when meals are about to begin;
J26 066 or there may be no suitable staff around, or not enough to allow
J26 067 the holding to take place. ^Also the initial noise the youngster
J26 068 makes in their struggle to free themselves or gain control can be
J26 069 unnerving for others unaware of what is happening. ^Even if they
J26 070 are aware, it can be distressing.
J26 071    |^When a resident physically assaults a staff member, very
J26 072 serious consideration is given as to whether or not that person
J26 073 can be allowed to stay on in the House. ^Where there has been
J26 074 evidence of provocation by a staff member, then this can be an
J26 075 ameliorating factor. ^It is very difficult if those who work with
J26 076 youth feel physically at risk in their job. ^For this reason,
J26 077 physical abuse of staff is grounds for dismissal.
J26 078    |^Over the years it has become clear that violence, even
J26 079 from just one resident, can unsettle the whole House and make for
J26 080 widespread acting out. ^It is like one fire cracker setting off a
J26 081 whole lot of others. ^Most of the youngsters have lived with
J26 082 violent backgrounds for many years, and have sought an escape
J26 083 from that within our Homes. ^It seems that one violent resident
J26 084 acting out triggers off other people's neuroses, and there are
J26 085 real problems to deal with as a result.
J26 086    |^The answer has been to create an environment that is
J26 087 affectionate, with plenty of caring, touching and respectful
J26 088 treatment of one another. ^It also means staff maintaining a calm
J26 089 stance and manner, so that the residents are able to respond to
J26 090 that, rather than an aggressive, loud approach. ^A further
J26 091 requirement is to ensure that each young person gets adequate,
J26 092 consistent attention. ^When this does not happen, then problem
J26 093 behaviours inevitably result.
J26 094    |^Our policy for residents who use violence depends on the
J26 095 nature of the assault and to what extent it was provoked.
J26 096 ^Unprovoked attacks are followed up immediately by suspension,
J26 097 while the future of the aggressor is considered. ^He or she is
J26 098 usually placed temporarily in a different House; but if the
J26 099 attack is a serious one, the police are involved, charges are
J26 100 laid, and the person responsible may be placed in a welfare
J26 101 institution.
J26 102    |^In cases where there is evidence of provocation by someone
J26 103 else, then the parties are brought together, degrees of
J26 104 responsibility are worked out, and appropriate consequences are
J26 105 decided on for either or both, as the case warrants. ^Angry and
J26 106 aggressive acts are part of most family life, unfortunately, so
J26 107 it is not surprising that we should experience these reactions in
J26 108 Houses with large groups of people who have been used to dealing
J26 109 with frustration through physical attacks.
J26 110    |^Simon was a Maori youth who came to Greys Avenue when he
J26 111 was fourteen years old. ^For the first six months, he seemed to
J26 112 have little respect for me. ^When he got into trouble, he used to
J26 113 say to me, *'^Hit me, go on, hit me!**' ^When I answered that I
J26 114 did not believe in hitting people, he would reply with some
J26 115 scorn, *'^What sort of head are you? ^Fathers have to hit, if they
J26 116 are the bosses. ^You are no good if you don't use capital
J26 117 (meaning corporal) punishment. ^You're no father.**' ^He grew to
J26 118 think differently over the six years he lived with us.
J26 119    |^When I have asked adults what we should do regarding
J26 120 *'pot**' smoking among residents, the answers are varied. ^Many
J26 121 say there is nothing you can do about it, as its use is
J26 122 widespread in the community. ^It is a difficult problem, not so
J26 123 much because of its criminal connotations, but because of the
J26 124 psychological effects produced on the users. ^Most of our
J26 125 residents have emotional problems, and we have found over many
J26 126 years that marijuana exacerbates these.
J26 127    |^Many youths in our care have not benefited the way we
J26 128 would have wished, because of their pre-occupation with smoking
J26 129 *'grass**'. ^They are unable to concentrate at school or work,
J26 130 miss out on appointments, commit criminal acts under its
J26 131 influence, and develop a *'couldn't care less**' attitude. ^Good
J26 132 resolutions about all kinds of changes in their lives last only
J26 133 until the next smoke, and then all resolutions go overboard.
J26 134 ^Many of them have admitted, at a later stage, that pot smoking
J26 135 was their undoing.
J26 136    |^We had one girl who was warned about smoking marijuana and
J26 137 how fragile she was. ^These cautions were ignored and she ended
J26 138 up on one occasion directing traffic in a city street; on another
J26 139 she held up people with an air rifle for fun. ^In this case the
J26 140 armed offenders squad was called out, and the girl got a heavy
J26 141 custodial sentence. ^I think that cured her of her smoking
J26 142 behaviour.
J26 143    |^Regarding drugs, it has always been our policy not to take
J26 144 heavy drug users who were still caught up with their habit.
J26 145 ^Special controlled facilities are needed if proper care is to be
J26 146 given to such people. ^Over the years we have had many who have
J26 147 given up drugs or nearly worked through their drug problems, and
J26 148 we have been able to provide a supportive environment for them.
J26 149 ^Some of our most successful rehabilitations have been with such
J26 150 young people.
J26 151    |^We tell residents that marijuana is illegal and therefore
J26 152 cannot be allowed in or used in the Houses. ^We also require that
J26 153 staff do not use marijuana, since the models they present to
J26 154 residents are extremely important. ^Any dealing will be reported
J26 155 to the police, and there will be no support from the Houses if it
J26 156 is proven. ^From time to time we run educational programmes on
J26 157 drug abuse, but we try to be positive in our approach. ^We
J26 158 emphasise the importance of being concerned about what goes into
J26 159 one's body, and taking care of oneself.
J26 160    |^On one occasion we found that a staff member, who had come
J26 161 to us well recommended, was using hard drugs, and her husband
J26 162 turned out to be a dealer. ^On occasion she invited a few
J26 163 residents around to her home, and allowed them to smoke pot
J26 164 there. ^It was not surprising she had considerable influence over
J26 165 some of the more difficult residents.
J26 166    |^As soon as I found out what was going on, I went round to
J26 167 her home and dismissed her. ^But some damage continued after
J26 168 this. ^Not every resident could appreciate the grounds for her
J26 169 dismissal. ^I explained what had happened and the action I took.
J26 170 ^A few of her closest admirers revolted against the dismissal,
J26 171 and refused to co-operate in the House. ^Eventually they had to
J26 172 go too, as they continued in their drug activity. ^It took some
J26 173 months to recover from that disaster.
J26 174    |^In more recent times, glue sniffing has become commonplace
J26 175 among the younger set. ^Few residents under seventeen coming to
J26 176 our Homes will not have tried sniffing. ^It is not, however, a
J26 177 problem within our Houses. ^We have so far managed to keep it in
J26 178 check, by the use of two things *- peer pressure, and individual
J26 179 resolution of problems. ^Glue sniffing or solvent abuse are seen
J26 180 as childish and irresponsible behaviours by most residents, so
J26 181 there is no status to be gained from boasting of being a sniffer.
J26 182 ^Former glue sniffers have been very effective in persuading the
J26 183 newer residents who are users to give up the habit. ^As soon as
J26 184 the newcomer gains security in the House and gets individualised
J26 185 attention, a change takes place, and the former user rarely
J26 186 lapses.
J26 187    |^Theft has increased in our society in recent years, and
J26 188 this is shown in the number of locks we now have to have on doors
J26 189 and cupboards. ^When we started, nothing was locked up; now most
J26 190 things are, as thieving becomes a way of life. ^A colleague of
J26 191 mine lives in a long Auckland suburban street, in which every
J26 192 house has been burgled, including his own *- some several times.
J26 193 ^While videos have been the thief's bait, even those who don't
J26 194 own one cannot feel secure about their property. ^Manufacturers
J26 195 of burglar alarms have made a fortune, but have failed to stem
J26 196 the rise in thefts.
J26 197    |^Many youngsters in need of residential care have been well
J26 198 schooled in the art of breaking and entering or car conversion.
J26 199 ^For quite a number, it has been a way of punishing their
J26 200 parents. ^Since none of our Homes are prisons or secure lock-ups,
J26 201 we have trouble making sure that this type of criminal behaviour
J26 202 ceases on arrival.
J26 203 *#
J27 001 **[321 TEXT J27**]
J27 002 ^*0This is usually a substantial cooked meal, distinguished from
J27 003 cold food or hot snacks. ^What is eaten, when it is eaten, and
J27 004 who partakes of the food *- all the rituals involved in the meal
J27 005 *- tell us about divisions and connections between the public and
J27 006 the private domains.
J27 007    |^Food preparation and meals are areas where women have
J27 008 control; they are illustrative of the woman's domestic realm of
J27 009 expertise, and an opportunity for a wife and mother to
J27 010 demonstrate her love for her family. ^The meal is a significant
J27 011 symbol of family unity. ^It shows the success of the family in
J27 012 getting together, of the father being with his family, despite
J27 013 the demands of the shiftwork schedule.
J27 014    |^But paradoxically, while meals are ostensibly under
J27 015 women's control, they are also prepared and served in deference
J27 016 to the man's timetable, shaped by external forces. ^The
J27 017 organisation of the meal indicates how a wife's domestic work is
J27 018 structured by her husband's occupation. ^For example, on the
J27 019 evening shift, the main meal is often served at lunchtime, or in
J27 020 the afternoon when the children have returned from school, and
J27 021 before the husband leaves for work. ^One woman explained:
J27 022 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 023 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 024 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 025 |^Another woman expressed how she felt obliged to fit in with her
J27 026 husband's work schedule:
J27 027 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 028 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 029 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 030 |^The obligatory nature of the wife's work reveals not only the
J27 031 way it benefits industrial production in sustaining the male
J27 032 worker but also the way in which it is a service to the husband,
J27 033 done as part of the woman's duties as wife. ^Although some
J27 034 husbands cooked their own meals, most expected their wives to
J27 035 have food ready *'on call**'. ^In this context the main meal can
J27 036 be seen as a symbol of hierarchical gender divisions of power and
J27 037 status. ^The wife's deferential status is revealed in her role;
J27 038 she cooks as a service for her husband. ^Meals are organised
J27 039 around his comings and goings, and made to his taste. ^Women and
J27 040 children can make do with snacks, but a man needs a filling
J27 041 cooked meal to prepare him for work or to replenish him
J27 042 afterwards.
J27 043    |^Cooking for the husband is a marital expectation that is
J27 044 seldom questioned, and the actions of two wives who refused to be
J27 045 at the beck and call of the industrial timetable are unusual.
J27 046 ^One husband ate many meals at the work canteen. ^The other woman
J27 047 insisted that everyone in her household prepare their own meals.
J27 048 ^The behaviour of these women challenges deep-seated ideas about
J27 049 the association of women with nurture and service (the canteen
J27 050 meal can be seen as the antithesis of the nourishing home-cooked
J27 051 meal). ^But these two were very much in the minority. ^Most wives
J27 052 did not question that they would cook for their husbands in
J27 053 compliance with their timetables. ^This not only required the
J27 054 provision of a proper cooked meal, but also snacks and cut
J27 055 lunches when required.
J27 056    |^Wives ensure their husbands' material wellbeing by
J27 057 providing meals. ^Wives' efforts to ensure the health and
J27 058 emotional wellbeing of their spouses are equally important.
J27 059 ^Research indicates that nightwork and the regular change of
J27 060 shifts can result in physical problems and mental stress for the
J27 061 shiftworker. ^Wives cope with these problems in their attempts to
J27 062 make a soothing and comfortable home life, so that their husbands
J27 063 can relax after work.
J27 064    |^The wife is often required to minimise conflict arising
J27 065 from the male worker's routines and requirements, and those of
J27 066 other family members. ^This is especially acute when the children
J27 067 are young. ^Children have their own *'shifts**' and routines
J27 068 which can be only partially accommodated to the shiftworker's
J27 069 timetable. ^One woman recalled her experience when the children
J27 070 were young:
J27 071 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 072 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 073 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 074 |^Accommodating the needs of children with the demands of
J27 075 shiftwork was not the only problem the women identified, though
J27 076 it was certainly a major one. ^There were others, well summed up
J27 077 by this woman whose husband had been on shiftwork for over twenty
J27 078 years:
J27 079 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 080 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 081 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 082 |^The constraints and demands of shiftwork rest heavily on the
J27 083 wife, and she must deal with these in her role as custodian of
J27 084 the family's welfare. ^Less obvious are any advantages the wife
J27 085 derives from shiftwork, or any ways in which its pressures are
J27 086 eased for her. ^However, some wives discover a certain freedom
J27 087 within its confines. ^For women with older children the evening
J27 088 shift offers time relatively free from domestic duties, and from
J27 089 their spouse's expectations of companionship. ^Many of the women
J27 090 implied that when the husband was at home, he determined how the
J27 091 couple would spend their time. ^One wife compared the relative
J27 092 freedom of the evening shift with the freedom of *'pleasing
J27 093 herself**' she had experienced as a young woman before marriage.
J27 094 ^Another woman described how she used the evening shift for both
J27 095 individual and social activities:
J27 096 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 097 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 098 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 099 |^Although shiftwork takes precedence in so many ways, some wives
J27 100 have made their own personal spaces within its demands.
J27 101    |^Some women found other advantages in shiftwork. ^For them
J27 102 it opened up possibilities in reorganising childcare and
J27 103 housework. ^Several mentioned that their husbands did household
J27 104 chores and cooked meals when they were off work in the daytime.
J27 105 ^Most women also mentioned how shiftwork gave fathers the
J27 106 opportunity of spending more time with their children. ^One young
J27 107 mother considered that in this way shiftwork had considerably
J27 108 benefited her family:
J27 109 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 110 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 111 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 112 |^Another woman reported how her return to work when the children
J27 113 were small had been facilitated by her husband's shiftwork:
J27 114 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 115 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 116 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 117 |^Yet the husband's opportunities to be with the children are
J27 118 curtailed when the children start school, and shiftwork
J27 119 encroaches on family time at the weekend. ^Most wives found that
J27 120 they still took on the major responsibility of childrearing, and
J27 121 some insisted that shiftwork made it easier for fathers to opt
J27 122 out of some duties, such as disciplining the children. ^Nor does
J27 123 shiftwork necessarily promote a greater sharing of housework
J27 124 between spouses. ^The two women who commented that they were only
J27 125 able to remain in paid work throughout most of their married
J27 126 lives because of shiftwork were unusual. ^For other men, the
J27 127 shiftwork routine justified a lack of domestic involvement, and
J27 128 reinforced a traditional sexual division of labour. ^Even those
J27 129 husbands who did domestic work and childcare helped rather than
J27 130 took full responsibility. ^The fact that domestic
J27 131 responsibilities are still largely women's, although the actual
J27 132 tasks may be divided more evenly in some families, indicates that
J27 133 the traditional sexual division of labour remains predominant.
J27 134    |^A wife may change the impact of shiftwork on her in a
J27 135 personal way by persuading her husband to go on to day work. ^But
J27 136 this does not affect the structure of shiftwork in the workplace.
J27 137 ^Shiftwork is a feature of the organisation of the public world
J27 138 beyond the wives' control. ^As such, it illustrates the dominance
J27 139 of industrial production over domestic activities.
J27 140    |^Shiftwork is an everyday feature of the workplace that is
J27 141 routinely dealt with in the home. ^In contrast, an industrial
J27 142 dispute is a sudden event, intensely disruptive to both public
J27 143 and private life. ^Industrial disputes are salient, though
J27 144 infrequent features, of this town that make everyone acutely
J27 145 aware of the mill's effect on their lives. ^Most of the women in
J27 146 this study have experienced their husbands being off work because
J27 147 of an industrial dispute. ^The loss of a job for a male worker
J27 148 and loss of family income led the women to question their
J27 149 accepted understandings of marital roles and the power of public
J27 150 events to prescribe private lives. ^The domestic sphere is not an
J27 151 autonomous world in which individuals remain uninfluenced by
J27 152 outside events.
J27 153    |^The women described the effects of a six-week dispute in
J27 154 the autumn of 1978. ^They detested industrial disputes because of
J27 155 their immediate and personal effects on the family. ^One of the
J27 156 most shattering consequences is economic hardship. ^The women
J27 157 viewed the dispute as directly threatening their ability to be
J27 158 competent housekeepers. ^As the managers of the household budget,
J27 159 they were confronted with the problem of how to provide for their
J27 160 family's daily needs, and how to honour long-term financial
J27 161 commitments, without regular funds. ^One woman expressed it like
J27 162 this:
J27 163 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 164 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 165 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 166 |^The wives who received union welfare felt the public stigma
J27 167 attached to their position. ^While priding themselves on their
J27 168 abilities as domestic managers, they became acutely aware of
J27 169 their vulnerable position. ^Public events were exerting a
J27 170 forceful influence on their domestic realm.
J27 171    |^Lack of money was not the only problem faced by wives.
J27 172 ^The dispute also disrupted the household routine. ^At first the
J27 173 women enjoyed not having to accommodate shiftwork. ^But having a
J27 174 husband at home all day, and perhaps a bad tempered one at that,
J27 175 meant further unwelcome unpredictability for the women. ^It is
J27 176 difficult to get away from a dispute, in the town where the
J27 177 mill's employees make up over 60 per cent of the local workforce.
J27 178 ^Spouse, neighbours, friends, relatives *- all are directly or
J27 179 indirectly involved. ^In such a situation a wife becomes
J27 180 especially sensitive to her husband's emotional state.
J27 181    |^One woman, whose husband belonged to the union at the
J27 182 centre of the dispute, commented that she felt bitter about him
J27 183 being off work, but acknowledged the pressures he must have felt
J27 184 from workmates, the family and other quarters:
J27 185 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 186 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 187 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 188 |^This woman wanted information about the dispute from her
J27 189 husband, but in seeking it she was aware that she risked
J27 190 upsetting the already precarious atmosphere of the household.
J27 191 ^She observed that talk about the dispute *'just caused
J27 192 arguments, it was pretty counterproductive**'. ^Another woman had
J27 193 a similar experience:
J27 194 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 195 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 196 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 197 |^Although some women could talk about the dispute with their
J27 198 husbands, the experiences of wives quoted above were more
J27 199 typical. ^Being physically and symbolically distanced from their
J27 200 husbands' workplace, most wives did not have access to reliable
J27 201 and accurate information. ^Their view of events was particularly
J27 202 influenced by the news media, which tended to provide only
J27 203 superficial coverage. ^One wife summed up the frustrations of
J27 204 many:
J27 205 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 206 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 207 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 208 |^A few wives accepted the imposition of the dispute; it was
J27 209 something they had no power or business to challenge. ^But others
J27 210 vehemently resented its disruption, and wanted to express their
J27 211 dissatisfaction publicly.
J27 212 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 213 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 214 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 215 |^The women aimed their frustrations at the unions. ^Blaming the
J27 216 union upset personal relations less than blaming a husband, and
J27 217 it was more accessible than the company. ^On the whole, the women
J27 218 did not support unions. ^There were several reasons for this.
J27 219 ^They had little direct experience of union activities, owing to
J27 220 their own fragmented labour force participation, and their
J27 221 involvement in jobs which had typically weak unions. ^In
J27 222 addition, they regarded their husbands' unions as part of the
J27 223 work site and thus part of the masculine sphere beyond their
J27 224 usual concerns.
J27 225    |^The women believed the unions to have excessive power.
J27 226 ^Several expressed bitter resentment at what they saw as union
J27 227 control over their lives. ^One wife commented:
J27 228 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 229 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 230 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 231 |^Newspaper reports of the dispute encouraged such a view by
J27 232 casting the unions as the powerful party, poised to do
J27 233 irreparable damage to the industry and, inevitably, to the
J27 234 community which relied on the mill for its existence.
J27 235    |^There were real fears for the women. ^They questioned the
J27 236 actions of the unions, but were far less critical of the company.
J27 237 ^Yet the company had suspended a large number of the mill
J27 238 workforce and, furthermore, there was government interference in
J27 239 negotiations. ^Both company and government had influenced the
J27 240 course of the dispute, and were in a more powerful economic and
J27 241 political position than the unions.
J27 242    |^Some wives who wanted to contribute to public debate about
J27 243 the dispute sought inclusion in union stopwork meetings. ^As
J27 244 justification for their involvement, they referred to the
J27 245 separate family responsibilities of husbands and wives. ^In
J27 246 normal circumstances these separate responsibilities would
J27 247 reinforce a distinction between the women's world of domesticity
J27 248 and the men's world of work and politics. ^But in this crisis,
J27 249 they argued that wives' domestic responsibilities provided a good
J27 250 reason for inclusion in public debate:
J27 251 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J27 252 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J27 253 **[END INDENTATION**]
J27 254 |^Suggestions concerning the involvement of wives in union
J27 255 meetings were not welcomed by union officials. ^One to whom I
J27 256 spoke was scathing of wives' criticisms of unions.
J27 257 *#
J28 001 **[322 TEXT J28**]
J28 002 ^*0Nevertheless, the continued and systematic impoverishment of
J28 003 women in New Zealand is a damning indictment of a state which
J28 004 presents itself as committed to ensuring equal opportunities and
J28 005 dignity for all its citizens. ^All indicators of wealth show
J28 006 women to be disadvantaged relative to men. ^In 1981 over 60 per
J28 007 cent of adult women in New Zealand had incomes of less than
J28 008 *+$5000 a year. ^Of adult men only 24.8 per cent suffered the
J28 009 same fate. ^These figures reflect the large proportion of married
J28 010 women who have no independent incomes and are totally dependent
J28 011 on their husbands for economic support, the large proportion of
J28 012 women engaged in part-time paid labour, and the inequalities of
J28 013 earning power between men and women in full-time paid labour. ^In
J28 014 1981 women earned a median income only 65 per cent of the male
J28 015 median income despite the enactment of equal pay legislation
J28 016 almost a decade before.
J28 017    |^The income differentials are mirrored in disparities
J28 018 between the accumulated wealth of women and men. ^The average
J28 019 value of estates left by women was only 79 per cent of the
J28 020 average value of male estates in 1982-83. ^Indeed, while 52 per
J28 021 cent of estates in that year valued less than *+$30 000 were
J28 022 female estates, the situation was reversed with estates valued
J28 023 over *+$50 000, 63 per cent of which were left by men.
J28 024    |^This impoverishment is directly connected to a sexual
J28 025 division of labour in which women are primarily associated with
J28 026 unpaid labour in the home and are expected to be dependent on a
J28 027 family income earned and controlled by their husbands. ^The state
J28 028 benefits from this directly. ^As long as women are co-habiting
J28 029 with men, either as legal or de facto wives, the state is
J28 030 safeguarded from the potential burden of supplementing the
J28 031 incomes of half the adult population.
J28 032    |^The state's overt commitment to ensure through the social
J28 033 security system that the income of individuals is not merely the
J28 034 minimum to *'sustain life and health**' but at a level which
J28 035 allows people *'to enjoy a standard of living much like that of
J28 036 the rest of the community**' was established in 1972. ^Benefit
J28 037 rates since have ostensibly been based on this principle and are
J28 038 indicative of the yearly income the state regards as necessary to
J28 039 adults.
J28 040    |^Even using the lowest rate of benefit (the youth rate),
J28 041 the cost of dignity according to the state appears to be in the
J28 042 region of a yearly income of *+$4390 after-tax. ^Almost 48 per
J28 043 cent of adult women in 1981 had yearly incomes of less than half
J28 044 this amount. ^The state avoids dealing with this by restricting
J28 045 its responsibilities to maintaining the incomes of those who
J28 046 would be *1expected *0to earn an income on the labour market.
J28 047 ^Because married women are assumed to be non-earners and, even
J28 048 more significantly, the responsibility for their standard of
J28 049 living is defined as resting with their husbands, the state can
J28 050 and does abstain from any responsibility for them.
J28 051    |^The Royal Commission on Social Security in 1972 may assert
J28 052 that ensuring that *'everyone can live with dignity**' is a
J28 053 *'community responsibility**' and that it is *'a legitimate
J28 054 function of the State to redistribute income**', but for the most
J28 055 impoverished group in our society, married women, no such
J28 056 redistribution is even attempted. ^The state in practice eschews
J28 057 any liability for the condition of women co-habiting with men and
J28 058 their dignity remains part of the grace and favour of men.
J28 059    |^Not only are married women or those living in de facto
J28 060 relationships ineligible for income maintenance when engaged as
J28 061 full-time wives and mothers, but they are also denied
J28 062 unemployment and sickness benefits if their husbands are in paid
J28 063 labour. ^Married women's ineligibility for the sickness benefit
J28 064 reveals both the real fiscal interests of the state and women's
J28 065 vulnerability. ^In 1975, in recognition of the increasing
J28 066 proportion of married women engaged in paid labour, the sickness
J28 067 benefit was extended to all married persons who had lost their
J28 068 employment through illness, regardless of the earnings of their
J28 069 spouses. ^These payments were restricted to a period of three
J28 070 months and were half the rate paid to a married person with a
J28 071 dependent spouse. ^Eight years later in 1983 the scheme was
J28 072 withdrawn as part of government attempts to trim its expenditure.
J28 073    |^The regulations concerning eligibility for sickness and
J28 074 unemployment benefits ratify the separation of the public and
J28 075 private spheres and the dependency of the private on the public.
J28 076 ^A similar affirmation of that structure may be found in the
J28 077 rules regulating the taxation system which has frequently been
J28 078 used, in preference to direct payments through social security,
J28 079 to maintain incomes.
J28 080    |^Peggy Koopman-Boyden and Claudia Scott, in their extensive
J28 081 analysis of the development of family policy in New Zealand, show
J28 082 that the taxation system has traditionally disadvantaged married
J28 083 women in paid labour, particularly those with husbands earning
J28 084 incomes above the median wage. ^This is not because the tax
J28 085 system has specifically over-taxed married women but because it
J28 086 has consistently supported one-income families in preference to
J28 087 two-income families. ^In other words, the taxation system is
J28 088 biased towards a family structure which not only encapsulates a
J28 089 division between the public and private but also the exchanges
J28 090 between those two spheres which underpin women's dependency in
J28 091 the family and their exploitation inside and outside it.
J28 092    |^Those exchanges are recognised explicitly by the state in
J28 093 the continued availability of tax rebates for family dependants
J28 094 to married paid workers and to those employing paid housekeepers.
J28 095 ^These legitimate the dependency of adults working in the private
J28 096 sphere on those working in the public sphere. ^They also confirm
J28 097 the notion that labour carried out in the private sphere *-
J28 098 housework and child-rearing *- cannot be expected of persons
J28 099 employed in the public sphere. ^This concept, of course, informs
J28 100 not only the taxation system, but also the {0DPB}, the Widow's
J28 101 Benefit and a variety of other state policies such as the state's
J28 102 consistent refusal to provide a comprehensive public childcare
J28 103 system.
J28 104    |^The state's *'no-policy policy**' on childcare is
J28 105 rationalised by sex role stereotypes and has a severe impact on
J28 106 women's opportunities on the labour market, particularly for
J28 107 married women and solo mothers, especially those living in 
J28 108 low-income households for whom paid labour is both a household and a
J28 109 personal necessity. ^The state's failure to ensure adequate and
J28 110 easily accessible childcare facilities forces women into piece-work,
J28 111 part-time and casual paid labour, forms of paid employment
J28 112 characterised by low wages, lack of union representation and
J28 113 vulnerability to the boom-recession cycles inherent in a 
J28 114 market-driven capitalist economy.
J28 115    |^The tendency for the state to couch its welfare and
J28 116 taxation regulations in gender-neutral terms has been cited by
J28 117 the right as indicative of the state's intent to destroy the
J28 118 gender-based separation of the public and private spheres. ^In
J28 119 reality gender-neutral policy, such as the state policy regarding
J28 120 childcare, is a type of double-speak which safeguards the state
J28 121 from charges of sex discrimination while veiling the 
J28 122 gender-loaded implications of its policies.
J28 123    |^Past tax rebates for dependent spouses and children have
J28 124 not been contingent on the sex of the claimant. ^Likewise,
J28 125 rebates for paid housekeepers are available to wage and salary
J28 126 earners of either sex. ^Sickness and unemployment benefits are
J28 127 available to a spouse of either sex as long as their husband or
J28 128 wife is not engaged in paid labour. ^Even the {0DPB}, which is
J28 129 popularly believed to be a *'woman's benefit**', is available to
J28 130 any man engaged in full-time care of a child or sick relative who
J28 131 has no spouse or other income to support him. (^There is an
J28 132 exception to the gender-neutrality of the {0DPB} which I will
J28 133 discuss later. ^The Widow's Benefit is also not gender-neutral;
J28 134 it is restricted entirely to women.)
J28 135    |^The state associates life in the private sphere with
J28 136 dependency on a breadwinner. ^But the state does not prescribe
J28 137 that the tasks which make up the mother-wife role should be
J28 138 undertaken by women, merely that undertaking those tasks requires
J28 139 full-time commitment. ^State income policies, then, affirm
J28 140 women's status as secondary income earners and dependants not
J28 141 because its policy is gender-specific but because state policies
J28 142 operate within a context that identifies the woman's role as that
J28 143 of mother-wife.
J28 144    |^Consequently only a little more than 40 per cent of women
J28 145 under retirement age fully supported by the state received
J28 146 unemployment sickness or other labour force-related benefits in
J28 147 1981. ^In that year 58.9 per cent of women supported by the state
J28 148 received the Widow's Benefit or {0DPB}. ^The former represents
J28 149 not the complete exclusion of women but the marginality of women
J28 150 to paid labour. ^Similarly, the fact that in the same year less
J28 151 than 3 per cent of men under retirement age fully supported by
J28 152 the state received the {0DPB} reflects not men's exclusion but
J28 153 the inconsistency of this type of dependency with male gender
J28 154 roles.
J28 155    |^Men may accept dependency on the state, and the state may
J28 156 provide men with support, but this generally occurs only if men's
J28 157 ability to earn an income is disrupted through illness or
J28 158 unemployment. ^Women, however, are already considered dependants,
J28 159 or at least potential dependants, of men. ^It is not the loss of,
J28 160 or lack of access to, paid employment which provides the context
J28 161 for the most significant welfare relationship between women and
J28 162 the state, but the loss or lack of a man! ^The state compensates
J28 163 women for the loss of a breadwinner through the Widow's Benefit
J28 164 or the {0DPB}.
J28 165    |^The state's provision of women with support through the
J28 166 {0DPB} is the most important and controversial aspect of welfare
J28 167 both for women and for the state. ^More than any other policy it
J28 168 epitomises the contradictions inherent in the state's position.
J28 169 ^The {0DPB} represents most graphically the acceptance, indeed
J28 170 encouragement, of women's dependency. ^It encourages women to see
J28 171 their security in terms of marriage and yet it also provides them
J28 172 with an escape from marriage while undertaking full-time
J28 173 childcare. ^For women the {0DPB} represents both a mere transfer
J28 174 from one set of dependency relations to another and a release
J28 175 from dependency on men and a threat to patriarchal power.
J28 176    |^This poses a real problem for the state. ^On the one hand,
J28 177 if the {0DPB} is a more attractive alternative for women with
J28 178 children than co-habitation with a man, this is clearly going to
J28 179 confront the state with a large expenditure. ^On the other hand,
J28 180 if the state refuses to support mothers who leave their husbands,
J28 181 are deserted by their husbands, who are unmarried or widowed,
J28 182 then there will be tremendous pressure on the state to provide
J28 183 childcare facilities so these women can be engaged in full-time
J28 184 paid labour.
J28 185    |^In terms of state expenditure, the socialisation and
J28 186 support of children through a family, even if subsidised through
J28 187 social security, is considerably cheaper than socialised
J28 188 childrearing. ^Within families it is expected that the expense of
J28 189 childcare for the state will be offset by parents who, because of
J28 190 emotional ties, will lower their own standard of living and
J28 191 transfer expenditure from themselves to their children. ^This is
J28 192 clearly expressed in the difference between the support the state
J28 193 provides to parents receiving various benefits compared with the
J28 194 state's support of orphan children under the care of guardians.
J28 195    |^Parent beneficiaries receive a relatively large sum for
J28 196 the first child and a smaller sum for each child thereafter. ^In
J28 197 the case of the guardian caring for orphans, there is no similar
J28 198 decrease in support. ^Until October 1986, then, a solo parent
J28 199 with two children would receive a total of *+$200.18 a week,
J28 200 *+$82.47 of which is the state's payment for child support. ^The
J28 201 guardian caring for two orphan children would, in comparison,
J28 202 receive *+$116 a week for child support. ^Moreover, while the
J28 203 former's eligibility is governed by a means test, the guardian
J28 204 will receive payment regardless of his or her income although the
J28 205 orphan's personal income will be means tested.
J28 206    |^If, as the Orphan's Benefit rate implies, it costs in real
J28 207 terms *+$58.05 a week to raise a child, then the solo parent with
J28 208 two children is subsidising her or his children by *+$33.63 a
J28 209 week and living on a personal income of just *+$4000 a year.
J28 210 *#
J29 001 **[323 TEXT J29**]
J29 002 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J29 003 |^*4There are many schemata of occupational classification.
J29 004 ^One of the more satisfactory is the Smith scheme which
J29 005 classified white-collar occupations into six groups. ^This
J29 006 schema was adapted by Hill and Brosnan to include blue-collar
J29 007 occupations and used to compare the occupational distribution
J29 008 of New Zealand's major ethnic groups as at the 1981 census.
J29 009 ^This article uses that revised schema to examine and compare
J29 010 changes in the Maori and non-Maori occupational distributions
J29 011 over 1956-1981. ^Males and females are treated separately. ^The
J29 012 article also presents median incomes for each group of the
J29 013 Smith data and draws the implications for policy of the uneven
J29 014 distribution of Maoris and non-Maoris between the occupation
J29 015 groups.
J29 016 **[END INDENTATION**]
J29 017 |^*0It is well established that Maoris have lower incomes than
J29 018 other New Zealanders (Macrae, 1975; Brosnan, 1982; Gould, 1982;
J29 019 Brosnan and Hill 1983a; Brosnan and Hill 1983b; Easton, 1983).
J29 020 ^Furthermore, these differences persist when we control for age
J29 021 and education (Brosnan, 1984). ^However, if we take data drawn
J29 022 with sufficient fineness, and control for additional variables,
J29 023 such as occupation, hours worked, experience and location, we
J29 024 find that Maori-*1pakeha *0differences disappear (Macrae, 1976;
J29 025 Brosnan, 1985). ^The implication is that the substantial
J29 026 differences in income which exist at the aggregate level (19
J29 027 per cent for males and 12 per cent for females (Brosnan and
J29 028 Hill, 1983a) are due to the crowding of Maoris into lower paid
J29 029 occupations (Ritchie, 1968; Hill, 1979; Hill and Brosnan,
J29 030 1984).
J29 031    |^While few would contest that Maori occupational crowding
J29 032 does occur, the extent of it and the trend over time has
J29 033 received little attention. ^Some authors (Macrae, 1975; Gould
J29 034 1982; Pearson and Thorns, 1983) have compared the occupations
J29 035 of the Maori and non-Maori populations, while Moir (1977)
J29 036 computed indices of race and sex segregation for the censuses
J29 037 1956 to 1971. ^This latter work was expanded upon in a
J29 038 conference paper by Mila Hill (1979) which extended the
J29 039 analysis to the 1951 and 1976 censuses. ^Aside from their
J29 040 brevity, these studies suffer from two fundamental weaknesses.
J29 041 ^First, the census classification of occupations changed
J29 042 substantially over the period 1951 to 1971 and comparisons
J29 043 between censuses based on unadjusted census tables are of
J29 044 doubtful validity (Smith, 1981). ^Secondly, the one-digit
J29 045 {0NZSCO} data used in these studies is a very crude system
J29 046 which groups occupations rather more by industry than by
J29 047 occupation.
J29 048    |^The aim of this paper is to compare the Maori and 
J29 049 non-Maori occupational distributions over 1956-1981. ^In doing so,
J29 050 we will present a considerably fuller analysis than the 
J29 051 above-mentioned studies. ^Equally importantly, we will present the
J29 052 data in such a way as to overcome the problems of the changing
J29 053 classification system.
J29 054    |^The method is based on that adopted by Smith (1981) in a
J29 055 previous paper published by this journal. ^Smith's (1981) paper
J29 056 analysed the growth of a white-collar workforce in New Zealand
J29 057 over the period 1956-1976 and utilised four-digit census data.
J29 058 ^For purposes of analysis, Smith regrouped those data into
J29 059 seven occupational groups which were standard between censuses
J29 060 (despite the four-digit data not being standard). ^This schema
J29 061 has a long pedigree. ^Originally, it had been devised by Routh
J29 062 (1965) for an analysis of occupation and pay in Britain between
J29 063 1906 and 1960. ^It was subsequently modified by Bain (1970) for
J29 064 a study of white-collar unionism in the same country and then
J29 065 remodified by Smith (1981, 1983, 1984), for a similar study in
J29 066 New Zealand. ^Hill and Brosnan (1984) further developed this
J29 067 scheme. ^Their contribution was to divide Smith's large Manual
J29 068 Worker group into Skilled and Unskilled since, as Braverman
J29 069 (1974) and others ({0e.g.}, Blackburn and Mann, 1979) point
J29 070 out, the amount of skill required in so-called semi-skilled
J29 071 occupations is greatly exaggerated.
J29 072    |^We saw the Smith-Hill-Brosnan schema as having two
J29 073 principal strengths: first, its long pedigree permits
J29 074 comparisons between studies. ^Secondly, it is based on what
J29 075 people do at work. ^Thus the same schema can be used for
J29 076 different races or sexes. ^This makes it preferable to
J29 077 alternative schema such as the Elley-Irving (1972, 1976, 1985)
J29 078 and Irving-Elley (1977) socio-economic indices which are based
J29 079 on income and education level and therefore change between
J29 080 censuses.
J29 081    |^This is not to say that the schema does not have its
J29 082 weaknesses. ^Criticism could be directed at details of Smith's
J29 083 allocation of occupations. ^For example, he classifies
J29 084 veterinarians (0651) as Lower Professionals while economists
J29 085 (0901), who have no recognised entry qualification, shorter
J29 086 training, lower income and, arguably, less responsibility, are
J29 087 classified as Higher Professionals. ^Members of religious
J29 088 orders (1412 and 1419) are classified as Higher Professionals
J29 089 even though many of them would be performing manual labour.
J29 090 ^Alternatively, policemen are classified as manual workers
J29 091 though many perform clerical work. ^Additionally, the sales
J29 092 worker group is little changed from the census thus
J29 093 stockbrokers are in this category even though it would seem
J29 094 desirable to include them among the professional groups. ^A
J29 095 further anomaly is university teachers who are classified as
J29 096 Lower Professionals while many of the people they train such as
J29 097 scientists, engineers, lawyers, accountants, \0etc., are
J29 098 classified as Higher Professionals. ^We did not see these
J29 099 weaknesses as fatal since, in much of our analysis, we are
J29 100 forced to work with two-digit data where the division of
J29 101 Professionals into Higher and Lower is not possible. ^More to
J29 102 the point, the purpose of the analysis is to make comparisons
J29 103 over time and between population groups and thus consistency of
J29 104 classification is more important than marginal classification
J29 105 decisions. ^This being so, we preferred not to interfere with
J29 106 Smith's classification.
J29 107 *<*4Limitations of Data*>
J29 108 |^*0Occupational data for the Maori population have been
J29 109 available at the two-digit level since 1956. ^They have not,
J29 110 however, been available by employment status. ^Four-digit data
J29 111 are available, in unpublished form, for 1971, 1976, and 1981.
J29 112 ^In view of the restricted data available for 1956, 1961 and
J29 113 1966, we were forced to use the Smith Classification schema at
J29 114 the two-digit level. ^The problems which this implied were
J29 115 discussed in Hill and Brosnan (1984). ^In general, we gave a
J29 116 two-digit category the classification of the majority of its
J29 117 constituents. ^While this caused some problems between the two
J29 118 professional categories, causing us to condense them into
J29 119 one, it did not produce any major differences for the other
J29 120 groups. ^This can be verified by comparing Tables 1 and 4 and 2
J29 121 and 5 below. ^Although we regard the categorisations presented
J29 122 in Tables 4 and 5 based on four-digit data, as the more
J29 123 accurate, in the discussion of historical trends we will use
J29 124 the categorisations presented in Tables 1 and 2 based on 
J29 125 two-digit data.
J29 126 *<*6RESULTS*>
J29 127 *<*4Broad Trends*>
J29 128 |^*0The broad trends in occupational distribution are revealed
J29 129 in Tables 1 and 2. ^It will be seen that in general the 
J29 130 non-manual occupations increased their proportion of the labour
J29 131 force in the quarter century between 1956 and 1981. ^The major
J29 132 exception is sales workers who have declined in proportion
J29 133 since 1966. ^The movement in the share of the small Supervisor
J29 134 group is ambiguous. ^Improvements in the {0NZSCO} from 1971
J29 135 enabled this group to be more readily identified in the later
J29 136 period. ^It is likely that the proportion of supervisors is
J29 137 understated in the earlier periods and it appears that their
J29 138 share of total employment has remained more or less the same
J29 139 over the whole period.
J29 140    |^The trends which we identified hold in most cases for
J29 141 both males and females. ^The major differences in the trends
J29 142 are the decline in male Clerical employment since 1966 and the
J29 143 decline in female Sales Workers over the whole period. ^It will
J29 144 be seen by comparing Tables 1 and 2 that most of the
J29 145 **[TABLES**]
J29 146 decline in the share of Sales Workers in total employment is
J29 147 due to the decline of female employment in those occupations.
J29 148    |^Although the broad trend of male and female employment
J29 149 change is the same, Table 2 highlights the substantial
J29 150 differences in the occupational distribution of males and
J29 151 females on which Smith (1981, 1983, 1984) and Moir (1977) have
J29 152 commented. ^Females are much less inclined to be found in the
J29 153 manual occupations; if they are however, they are more likely
J29 154 to be in the Unskilled group. ^Among the non-manual
J29 155 occupations, males are more likely to be found among
J29 156 Administrators and Managers and Supervisors. ^Females are more
J29 157 likely to be found among Professionals, Clerical Workers and
J29 158 Sales Workers.
J29 159    |^If we separate Professionals into Higher and Lower
J29 160 Professionals, as we do in Tables 4 and 5, we find that males
J29 161 are more likely to be in the Higher Professional group.
J29 162 ^Roughly 40 per cent of male Professionals belong to the Higher
J29 163 group compared with only about 5 per cent of female
J29 164 Professionals. ^As Smith (1983) points out, female
J29 165 Professionals are most likely to be nurses or primary teachers
J29 166 *- classified as Lower Professionals. ^Males are more likely to
J29 167 be engineers or accountants and classified as Higher
J29 168 Professionals. ^As it happens, the extent of female membership
J29 169 of the Higher Professional group may be a little exaggerated
J29 170 since journalists who account for a significant proportion of
J29 171 females among the Higher Professionals could arguably be
J29 172 classified among the Lower Professional Group.
J29 173    |^Smith (1981, 1983, 1984) did not examine the manual
J29 174 occupations. ^These account for over 60 per cent of male
J29 175 employment and between 34 and 41 per cent of female employment.
J29 176 ^It is useful to briefly examine these groups. ^In line with
J29 177 Smith's findings for the non-manual group, we find a high
J29 178 degree of concentration among female workers. ^Over half of the
J29 179 female Skilled Manual group can be found in three occupations;
J29 180 women's hairdresser, dairy farmer and sewing machinist. ^The
J29 181 latter occupation accounted for 40 per cent of skilled female
J29 182 employment in 1971 although the proportion had dropped to 32
J29 183 per cent by 1981. ^The distribution of the Unskilled Manual
J29 184 group is more diverse but three occupations, nurse aid, cleaner
J29 185 and food packer, account for more than 12 per cent of the
J29 186 group's female employment.
J29 187 **[TABLE**]
J29 188    |^A summary measure of the different occupational
J29 189 distribution of the two sexes is provided by the segregation
J29 190 indices presented in the first row of Table 3. ^The index for
J29 191 each census shows the proportion of the male (female) labour
J29 192 force that would have to be redistributed to achieve the same
J29 193 distribution as the female (male) labour force (Duncan and
J29 194 Duncan, 1955). ^The index fluctuates without any noticeable
J29 195 trend and we may conclude that the male and female occupational
J29 196 distributions were as dissimilar in 1981 as in 1956. ^Smith
J29 197 (1983) found the value of the index to be increasing over the
J29 198 period. ^However his index was computed for the non-manual
J29 199 occupations only. ^Thus, the increasing segregation of the 
J29 200 non-manual occupations would appear to be offset by the changes in
J29 201 the manual occupations. ^Smith (1983) followed Gibbs (1965),
J29 202 Moir (1977) and Hill (1979) in also computing a so-called
J29 203 standardised index which adjusted the number in each category
J29 204 to be of equal size and thus control for structural changes.
J29 205 ^While this might have some appeal in certain circumstances, it
J29 206 gives undue weight to small categories and produces an index
J29 207 which has no sensible interpretation. ^We do not propose to
J29 208 produce such an index.
J29 209 *<*4Maori/ non-Maori Data*>
J29 210 |^*0Immediately apparent from the first three tables is the
J29 211 very different occupational distributions of Maoris and 
J29 212 non-Maoris. ^We determine from a comparison of the segregation
J29 213 indices in Table 3 that the differences between Maoris and
J29 214 others is greater than the difference between males and
J29 215 females. ^We also see from Table 3 that while both the racial
J29 216 segregation indices tend to fluctuate, the male index has
J29 217 tended to increase over the 1956-1981 period.
J29 218 *<*1Male data*>
J29 219 |^*0Two things stand out in Table 1. ^First Maoris are 
J29 220 under-represented in every occupational group except Unskilled
J29 221 Manual. ^In fact Maoris are more than twice as likely to be
J29 222 found in this group. ^Secondly, the proportion of Maoris who
J29 223 fail to state their occupation in the census is much higher *-
J29 224  at least three times higher *- than for non-Maoris.
J29 225 *#
J30 001 **[324 TEXT J30**]
J30 002    |^*0Despite relatively short public memories, riots are not
J30 003 new to New Zealand. ^During the nineteenth century there were
J30 004 several riots in the more populated South, in which religion
J30 005 played an important part. ^Economic and social causes were more
J30 006 obvious in Twentieth Century rioting. ^The waterfront strike of
J30 007 1913 saw several clashes in Wellington between mounted
J30 008 *"specials**" and strikers. ^In 1932 thousands took part in
J30 009 Depression marches in the main centres. ^In Auckland
J30 010 particularly, there were serious confrontations and hundreds of
J30 011 injuries. ^Details of the wartime *"Battle of Manners Street**"
J30 012 (1944), by contrast, remain obscure. ^Post-1945 saw prison riots
J30 013 in Auckland and Christchurch, the 1951 waterfront strike, the
J30 014 largely forgotten Hastings Blossom Festival affray and the later
J30 015 anti-Vietnam war protests provide some indication of social
J30 016 discord during a period many remember with nostalgia.
J30 017    |^Like some of its predecessors, the Queen Street riot of 7
J30 018 December 1984 received widespread publicity. ^Its aftermath
J30 019 witnessed angry recriminations, calls for punitive action against
J30 020 youth, and rival social diagnoses of society's ills. ^The Labour
J30 021 government, with the support of Opposition parties, hurriedly
J30 022 passed the Local Government Amendment Act. ^This Act gave local
J30 023 authorities greater discretionary powers in banning liquor from
J30 024 public venues, while the Police had their powers of search
J30 025 without warrant extended. ^Memories of the riot, the most serious
J30 026 since 1932 found expression in a popular movie, *4Queen City
J30 027 Rocker, *0and in some of the recommendations made by the
J30 028 Commission on Violent Crime (Roper Commission), 1987.
J30 029    |^While the Queen Street riot should not be lightly
J30 030 dismissed as a non-event, it is argued here that the reaction to
J30 031 it on the part of the press, the politicians and the public was
J30 032 not only disproportionate to the incident, but that it was also
J30 033 an inappropriate one. ^Collectively, the strong condemnation,
J30 034 together with the attempt at explanation and the resultant
J30 035 legislation can be viewed as a *"moral panic**". ^Through its
J30 036 particular set of assumptions and style of reporting, the media
J30 037 amplified the riot, bequeathing in the process, a specific
J30 038 reconstruction of riot-reality. ^One result was the creation of
J30 039 folk-devils in a manner similar to that which followed the Mods
J30 040 and Rockers clashes in the United Kingdom during the 1960s,
J30 041 analysed by Cohen (1980).
J30 042    |^Media amplification was also crucial in the case of
J30 043 society's control agents: the police; the courts; and
J30 044 legislators. ^These agencies cannot and do not operate in a
J30 045 social vacuum. ^As a major transmitter of moral panics, the media
J30 046 supplies them, as they do us, with the modes and models for
J30 047 explaining and reacting to deviance. ^Amplification is insidious
J30 048 in that the modes and models also can become part of apparently
J30 049 rival belief systems, both of which, in the aftermath of the
J30 050 riot, came to legitimate particular forms of social control
J30 051 through state action. ^The consequences, however, reach far
J30 052 beyond mere legislative reaction. ^What Hall *1{0et.al.} *0(1978)
J30 053 have termed, *'the British crisis**', consists of successive
J30 054 stages. ^Moral panics and the extent to which these are seen to
J30 055 amalgamate, thereby giving rise to public perceptions of a
J30 056 growing, many-faceted, yet indivisible threat, indicate the
J30 057 distance Britain has already travelled towards a *"soft**"
J30 058 law-and-order society. ^In New Zealand, the creation of the
J30 059 street kids as newsworthy items, the rising concern over violence
J30 060 and crime, increasing unease about social disharmony and
J30 061 *"imported**" modes of behaviour, the power of community myths of
J30 062 a socially untroubled past, all suggest that the Hall *1{0et.al.}
J30 063 *0model may have some application here.
J30 064    |^Not only public, but also subsequent official and legal
J30 065 reaction to the Queen Street riot was greatly influenced by
J30 066 media-based concepts. ^Here, newspapers are of particular
J30 067 significance both because of New Zealand's high consumption of
J30 068 newspapers, and because relevant overseas research on the way
J30 069 newspapers deal with violent crime, particularly riots, is
J30 070 available for comparison.
J30 071    |^How then, did the press, particularly the Auckland press,
J30 072 portray the riot? ^The morning after the event, the *4Auckland
J30 073 Herald *0carried riot news with a front page headline that was to
J30 074 set the tone for much of the subsequent media coverage. ^*2*'THE
J30 075 BATTLE OF QUEEN STREET**' *0typified a *"war-dispatch**" style of
J30 076 reporting which was continued in the story which followed it.
J30 077 ^The story claimed, ^*'Police and Youth fight pitched
J30 078 battles...after a bloody riot erupted during a free rock
J30 079 concert**'. (8 {0Dec.} 1984: 1)
J30 080    |^A second headline asserted, ^*2*'THANK GOD IT'S ALL
J30 081 OVER!**' *- *0a phrase borrowed from the original theme slogan
J30 082 for the abandoned concert. ^The covering story conveyed powerful
J30 083 images: glimpses of *'weary police officers**', *'frightened
J30 084 staff**' (of Queen Street shops), of *'marauding groups of
J30 085 youths**'. ^We are told how, ^*'A group of street youths sat in
J30 086 front of one store totally unconcerned about the large rubbish
J30 087 bin they had just thrown through the plate glass window**', about
J30 088 a group of Christians who *'ambled into the melee... asking
J30 089 people to *"turn to Jesus**"**'. ^We hear an incredulous young
J30 090 visitor from Melbourne asking, ^*'Does this happen all the time
J30 091 in Auckland?**'
J30 092    |^The way overseas visitors saw the riot, was a theme taken
J30 093 up elsewhere in the *4Auckland Herald. ^*0The American freelance
J30 094 writer Mike Field provided an eyewitness account. ^He stressed
J30 095 that as New Zealand lacked the ghettos common to many {0U.S.}
J30 096 cities, an awareness of riot behaviour overseas constructed from
J30 097 media reports might have influenced youth behaviour. ({0Ibid}:2)
J30 098 ^This concern to portray New Zealand as a country without major
J30 099 social problems, especially after violent confrontations have
J30 100 occurred, is of long standing, and was noted by Noonan (1969:83)
J30 101 in her study of the 1932 Depression riot in Auckland.
J30 102    |^Despite such concerns, sensationalism was often utilised
J30 103 by the press, particularly in early reports on the riot. ^The
J30 104 evening paper, the *4Auckland Star, *0headlined; ^*2*'POLICE
J30 105 BATONS FACE GUN-TOTING RIOTERS**', *0though the report which
J30 106 followed mentioned only that police had been rushed to a
J30 107 location, *'where a man carrying a rifle was seen... but could
J30 108 not find him**'. ^Elsewhere the report stressed the menacing
J30 109 nature of the *'mob**', and the essentially defensive nature of
J30 110 police operations, including an incident where police were forced
J30 111 to release some prisoners *'by a mob brandishing firebombs and
J30 112 handkerchiefs dipped in petrol**'. (8 {0Dec.} 1984:1) ^Our
J30 113 sympathies are drawn to the police, who are heavily outnumbered
J30 114 and are ill-equipped to face a *'gun-toting mob**' who are in
J30 115 complete control. ^A similar emphasis on the mad fury of the
J30 116 rioters is evident in a {0TVNZ} news bulletin run later that same
J30 117 evening in which it was claimed that police were attacked by
J30 118 scores of rioters. ^This bulletin stressed that the loud music
J30 119 detectable in the {0TV} coverage of bottle-throwing youths lent
J30 120 support to police claims that the riot had actually begun prior
J30 121 to the police calling off the concert. ({0TVNZ} News, 8 {0Dec.}
J30 122 1984) ^This point was to be contradicted, however, in the
J30 123 official report.
J30 124    |^Early reports especially, concentrated on the numbers of
J30 125 police injured, and on damage done to police vehicles and inner
J30 126 city businesses. ^We learn that forty-two police were injured,
J30 127 but there were few references to non-police casualties. (Auckland
J30 128 Star, 8 {0Dec.}:A3) ^In the *4Auckland Star, *0the alliterative
J30 129 headline; ^*2*'TEARS, TERROR AT CONCERT THAT MADE HISTORY**'
J30 130 *0was followed by a report from Star reporter, Wendyl Nissen,
J30 131 whose eyewitness account provided evocative images *- *'screaming
J30 132 children**', *'bloody head wounds**', *'protective strangers**'.
J30 133 ({0Ibid}) ^According to the *4Sunday News *0(9 {0Dec.} 1984),
J30 134 Auckland hospital sources confirmed that seventy-five people had
J30 135 been treated in the hospital's Accident and Emergency Department
J30 136 by mid**[ARB**]-day Saturday. ^There were no stretcher cases and
J30 137 everyone had apparently *'made it under their own steam**'. ^The
J30 138 *4Auckland Star *0estimated that there was *'hundreds of
J30 139 thousands of dollars worth of damage**'. ^This figure indeed
J30 140 seems to confirm the ferocity of the riot. ^In a later report on
J30 141 the aftermath, however, the *4New Zealand Herald *0(10 {0Dec.}
J30 142 1984:5) seemed to suggest that most of the damage was in the form
J30 143 of shattered windows, especially on Wakefeld Street. ^The same
J30 144 report quoted a Winston Glass \0Ltd estimate that, on average, a
J30 145 single broken pane would cost *+$400 to replace and that Winstons
J30 146 had received about sixty calls to replace glass by mid-Saturday
J30 147 morning.
J30 148    |^Both the *4Auckland Herald *0and the *4Auckland Star
J30 149 *0utilised a device employed subsequently by other papers; namely
J30 150 reporting the riot from several different angles over a number of
J30 151 pages, maximising the riot's impact on readers. ^The *4Auckland
J30 152 Star *0promised, *'more riot pictures and stories, A3, A15,**'
J30 153 while the *4Auckland Herald *0advertised ^*'More reports, more
J30 154 pictures, \0pp. 2-3 and back**'.
J30 155    |^Although several Auckland papers were affected by a strike
J30 156 on Saturday, headlines on Monday were, if anything, even more
J30 157 dramatic. ^The *4Auckland Herald *0(10 {0Dec.} 1984:1) captured a
J30 158 quote, allegedly from Auckland Mayor Cath Tizard; ^*'People
J30 159 Dancing like Dervishes in an Inferno**'. ^Even at this stage, few
J30 160 newspaper reports gave any logical indication of sequence *- the
J30 161 mob looted, burned and attacked police at the same time. ^As
J30 162 early as the 1960s, however, Graham and Gurr (1969:420) concluded
J30 163 that United States commodity riots had a *'natural history**',
J30 164 where the attention of rioters shifted from police, to window
J30 165 smashing, then, to selective, rather than *'mindless**' looting.
J30 166 ^It was also postulated that United States urban riots developed
J30 167 in the context of a disturbed social atmosphere in which,
J30 168 typically, a series of tension heightening incidents over a
J30 169 period of weeks or months became linked with a shared network of
J30 170 underlying grievances on the part of rioters. ({0NACCD},
J30 171 1968:110) ^As Cohen (1980:249) puts it, riots are only
J30 172 *'mindless**' if one accepts that one cannot think about the
J30 173 police *- that the police can only be supported.
J30 174    |^The Queen Street riot was acutely perceived as a threat to
J30 175 cherished ideals of social harmony; as a dislocation of the
J30 176 social structure in a manner reminiscent of the perception of
J30 177 Mods and Rocker violence in Britain. ({0Ibid}:49) ^In both
J30 178 instances, there were attempts to make sense of what had
J30 179 happened, not only on the part of the press, but also on the part
J30 180 of prominent local and national politicians and administrators.
J30 181 ^In the aftermath of the Queen Street riot, two types of
J30 182 explanations were offered, one of which will be labelled here
J30 183 *"conservative**", the other, *"liberal**". ^While these were to
J30 184 an extent, rival social analyses, leading to rather different
J30 185 remedies, they also shared some common characteristics.
J30 186    |^The liberal explanation attempted to place the riot in a
J30 187 limited social context, rather than simply focus on the behaviour
J30 188 of the rioters as *"criminal**". ^Although liberals did not
J30 189 necessarily share the same political beliefs, they nevertheless
J30 190 shared a conviction that New Zealand society had only
J30 191 deteriorated within the last decade, with social harmony being
J30 192 replaced by social discord. ^There was little or no attempt to
J30 193 critically examine economic and social structures from a
J30 194 historical perspective. ^Instead, the catalysts which had finally
J30 195 brought on the Queen Street riot were identified, variously, as
J30 196 being the 1981 Springbok tour, the introduction of centralised
J30 197 policing, and the alienation of youth, particularly Maori and
J30 198 Pacific Island youth. ^Likewise, after the Brixton riots, British
J30 199 liberals saw the violence as a collective demonstration of social
J30 200 despair in the face of racism, unemployment and police
J30 201 harassment, rather than as an act of criminality, or as a
J30 202 reflection of economic and political marginalisation of the inner
J30 203 city. (Lea and Young, 1982:6-7)
J30 204    |^Some two months after the riot, the two liberal
J30 205 periodicals, the *4New Zealand Listener *0and *4Metro *0sought
J30 206 alternative views on the causes of the riot. ^Psychotherapist
J30 207 Kathie Torpie claimed that only ten years ago New Zealand had no
J30 208 unemployment and little violent crime; ^*'Before it was us New
J30 209 Zealanders together in an egalitarian society**'. ^*'Now it's us
J30 210 against them**'. (Listener, 19 {0Jan.} 1985:10) ^Lesley Marx, a
J30 211 *4Metro *0contributing writer believed that within living memory,
J30 212 there had been unison, harmony, and togetherness. ^He hoped for a
J30 213 reassertion of *'middle New Zealand**' rather than let things
J30 214 *'be shared between the political malcontents of the radical left
J30 215 with their questionable agenda, and the ultra-conservatives
J30 216 pining for a return to God, Queen and Lash**'. (Metro, {0Feb.}
J30 217 1985:72)
J30 218 *#
J31 001 **[325 TEXT J31**]
J31 002    |^*0An additional problem arises when the short-term
J31 003 migration data are used, relating to the fact that since 1979
J31 004 only a sample of the arrival and departure cards for people
J31 005 moving for less than 12 months have been coded by the Department
J31 006 of Statistics. ^Between 1 April 1979 and 31 March 1986 the
J31 007 sampling fraction was 25 percent; it has recently been reduced to
J31 008 20 percent and consideration is being given to reducing it
J31 009 further to 1 card in 6 being coded. ^Where small numbers of
J31 010 short-term arrivals or departures are involved in particular
J31 011 occupation categories, the sampling errors can throw considerable
J31 012 doubt on the utility of the data. ^In the case of data on
J31 013 permanent and long-term migrations the sampling error problem
J31 014 does not arise because all arrival and departure cards for these
J31 015 categories of movement are coded.
J31 016    |^In several of the tables relating to the occupation
J31 017 composition of New Zealand residents contained in the data set
J31 018 compiled for the Population Monitoring Group, information on a
J31 019 composite group encompassing permanent, long-term and short-term
J31 020 categories is presented. ^Given the problem of category jumping
J31 021 these data are more useful when assessing the aggregate effect of
J31 022 trans-Tasman movement by residents on the population of New
J31 023 Zealand, but they are subject to sampling error. ^In this case
J31 024 the errors are small because short-term movers comprise a small
J31 025 proportion of the aggregate flows of New Zealand residents who
J31 026 are included in the trans-Tasman migrant universe in this study
J31 027 (the definition of a trans-Tasman move is discussed below).
J31 028 *<*4The Maori Population*>
J31 029    |^*0Because of the considerable interest in Maori population
J31 030 dynamics, tables on the permanent and long-term migration of
J31 031 Maoris have been included in the data set. ^Very few data on the
J31 032 international migration of Maoris are available and, as from late
J31 033 1986, it is not possible to monitor trends in the migration
J31 034 behaviour of this group. ^The question on the arrival and
J31 035 departure cards that sought a self-declaration on Maori ethnicity
J31 036 has been deleted from the latest versions of the cards.
J31 037    |^Data on permanent and long-term migration of Maoris
J31 038 between 1981 and 1986 must be interpreted with caution for two
J31 039 reasons. ^In the first place, it is not known how many Maoris
J31 040 responded to the relevant question. ^There is a suspicion that
J31 041 many Maori international migrants travelling away from and back
J31 042 to New Zealand may simply have failed to complete this question,
J31 043 especially after it was relegated to the bottom of the cards in
J31 044 1982. ^Secondly there is the problem of assessing whether it is
J31 045 essentially a New Zealand resident Maori population that is being
J31 046 recorded in the trans-Tasman migration data, or whether there are
J31 047 considerable numbers of Maori Australian residents who are in the
J31 048 arrival and departure groups. ^There is a sizeable Maori
J31 049 population in Australia and there is no reason to suspect that
J31 050 members of this population are not travelling to New Zealand as
J31 051 visitors, or as long-term migrants.
J31 052    |^Despite some uncertainty over the composition of the Maori
J31 053 migrant universe, it has been assumed for the purposes of this
J31 054 study that the great majority are New Zealand residents reporting
J31 055 on movement intentions and experiences overseas when they
J31 056 complete their arrival and departure cards in New Zealand. ^In
J31 057 other words, they are a subgroup of the New Zealand resident
J31 058 migrant universe.
J31 059 *<*6TRANS-TASMAN MIGRATION*>
J31 060 *<*4The Conventional Definition*>
J31 061    |^*0When compiling a data set on international migration
J31 062 between New Zealand and a specific country (or countries) an
J31 063 important decision that has to be made concerns the definition of
J31 064 the places of origin and destination of the movers. ^The
J31 065 information collected on arrival and departure cards allows for
J31 066 several alternatives in this regard. ^Data are recorded on the
J31 067 birthplace, nationality, country of last or next permanent
J31 068 residence, and country of embarkation or disembarkation for each
J31 069 traveller. ^All of these reference points have their uses in
J31 070 inter-country analyses of international migration, and the one
J31 071 that is used most commonly in the case of trans-Tasman movement
J31 072 is the country of last or next permanent residence.
J31 073    |^The conventional definition of trans-Tasman migration
J31 074 encompasses the flow into New Zealand of people who cite
J31 075 Australia as the country where they last spent 12 months or more
J31 076 in permanent residence, and the flow out of New Zealand
J31 077 of people who state that Australia will be the next country where
J31 078 they will spend 12 months or more in residence. ^The birthplace
J31 079 and nationality criteria are used sometimes to isolate particular
J31 080 subgroups in the trans-Tasman flow defined in terms of country of
J31 081 last/ next permanent residence, but they are rarely used on their
J31 082 own to isolate the relevant migrant universe.
J31 083    |^The main reason for this is that Australia's population
J31 084 has significant components of people born in, or retaining
J31 085 citizenship rights in, other countries who would be excluded from
J31 086 migrant universes defined solely on the basis of Australia as
J31 087 country of birth or nationality. ^This can be illustrated with
J31 088 reference to the numbers of arrivals in and departures from New
J31 089 Zealand who cited Australia as either their country of birth, or
J31 090 their country of nationality, or their country of last/ next
J31 091 permanent residence in a particular year (Table 2).
J31 092 **[TABLE**]
J31 093    |^The smallest migrant universe in this case is the group
J31 094 citing Australia as their birthplace; this group had over 80,000
J31 095 fewer people as arrivals or departures in the year ended 31 March
J31 096 1984 than the corresponding group citing Australia as country of
J31 097 last/ next permanent residence. ^The latter group comprised
J31 098 people with a wide range of birthplaces and nationalities, but
J31 099 they fulfilled the basic requirement for most studies of
J31 100 trans-Tasman migration: their last (arrivals) or next
J31 101 (departures) place of permanent residence was Australia.
J31 102 *<*4A Refinement*>
J31 103    |^*0The data set compiled for the Population Monitoring
J31 104 Group has been derived using the conventional definition of
J31 105 trans-Tasman migration with one important refinement. ^In
J31 106 addition to defining the migrant universe in terms of Australia
J31 107 as the country of last or next permanent residence, the country
J31 108 of embarkation (for arrivals in New Zealand) and country of
J31 109 disembarkation (for departures from New Zealand) was taken into
J31 110 consideration. ^It was decided to restrict the migrant universe
J31 111 to those people who were known to have arrived in New Zealand
J31 112 from Australia or landed in Australia after departure from New
J31 113 Zealand.
J31 114    |^This refinement was added for several reasons. ^In the
J31 115 first place, the term trans-Tasman migration is quite specific in
J31 116 a spatial sense, and it was considered desirable to produce a
J31 117 migrant universe which literally *"crossed the Tasman**". ^This
J31 118 level of spatial specificity seemed desirable because the
J31 119 Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement requires that people with
J31 120 permanent residence status in Australia who are not Australian
J31 121 citizens, *"travel directly to New Zealand from Australia**" if
J31 122 they are to be exempted from visa and permit requirements in New
J31 123 Zealand.
J31 124    |^Another reason for restricting the universe to people who
J31 125 actually crossed the Tasman was to facilitate direct comparison
J31 126 between data on international migration collected in New Zealand
J31 127 and Australia. ^At present there are quite marked variations in
J31 128 the numbers termed trans-Tasman migrants in the statistics for
J31 129 the two countries. ^A factor contributing to this lack of
J31 130 uniformity is the fact that some thousands of the arrivals in and
J31 131 departures from New Zealand, who cite Australia as their country
J31 132 of last or next permanent residence, do not go to or come from
J31 133 Australia directly. ^This is illustrated in Table 3 where the
J31 134 origins of arrivals and destinations of departures are listed by
J31 135 broad region for people citing Australia as country of last/ next
J31 136 permanent residence during the year ended 31 March 1986.
J31 137 *<*4The Problem of Short-term Visitors*>
J31 138    |^*0While the more precise spatial definition of
J31 139 trans-Tasman migration identifies that group of people who
J31 140 actually cross the Tasman, there is one major limitation of the
J31 141 incorporation of country of embarkation/ disembarkation into the
J31 142 definition. ^This is evident in Table 3 where it can be seen that
J31 143 a significant number of people departing from New Zealand, who
J31 144 cited Australia as their country of next permanent residence, did
J31 145 not state what their immediate destination was. ^The great
J31 146 majority of these people (94 percent) were short-term visitors to
J31 147 New Zealand, many of whom could have been tourists from Australia
J31 148 travelling to other destinations.
J31 149 **[TABLE**]
J31 150    |^The short-term visitor category in the trans-Tasman
J31 151 migrant universe creates analytical problems with both the
J31 152 conventional and the refined definitions of movement between New
J31 153 Zealand and Australia. ^In the case of the conventional definition,
J31 154 the statistics on short-term visitor arrivals and departures
J31 155 aggregated over the period 1 April 1978 and **[SIC**] 31 March
J31 156 1986 show a net loss to New Zealand of 13,519 people aged between
J31 157 15 and 59 years, a loss which has the effect of exaggerating the
J31 158 flow of people from New Zealand to Australia. ^In reality this
J31 159 net loss of short-term visitors is a function of the way New
J31 160 Zealand is used as a transit point in international tourist flows
J31 161 of Australians returning after, or embarking on, trips to other
J31 162 parts of the world.
J31 163    |^In the case of the refined definition of trans-Tasman
J31 164 migration, the short-term visitor category, aggregated over these
J31 165 eight years, shows a substantial net gain of people to New
J31 166 Zealand (100,759) which is even more unrealistic than the net
J31 167 loss recorded using the conventional definition. ^This *"gain**"
J31 168 simply reflects the fact that large numbers of non-residents who
J31 169 cite Australia as their next country of permanent residence, do
J31 170 not cite Australia as their place of disembarkation when they
J31 171 leave New Zealand. ^The statistics in Table 3 for the year ended
J31 172 31 March 1986 show how a net loss of 20,720 people (232237
J31 173 arrivals minus the 252957 departures) on the basis of the
J31 174 conventional definition of trans-Tasman migration becomes a net
J31 175 gain of 188 people (219081 arrivals minus 218893 departures) when
J31 176 the refined definition is used.
J31 177    |^The problems created by short-term visitors in the
J31 178 assessment of net gains and losses to New Zealand's population as
J31 179 a result of trans-Tasman migration are essentially removed when
J31 180 this category of migrants is deleted from the data set. ^The more
J31 181 precise spatial definition of trans-Tasman migration has
J31 182 considerable utility in the case of permanent and long-term
J31 183 migration of residents and non-residents. ^As noted earlier, it
J31 184 is these groups which are of particular relevance for a data set
J31 185 on the occupation composition of trans-Tasman population flows.
J31 186 ^The numbers of permanent and long-term arrivals and departures
J31 187 aged between 15 and 59 years in the major occupation groups for
J31 188 the two definitions of trans-Tasman migration are shown in Table
J31 189 4. ^In all cases the refined definition captures over 90 percent
J31 190 of the people included in each occupation group when the
J31 191 conventional definition is used.
J31 192 *<*6OCCUPATION GROUPS*>
J31 193 *<*4The Occupation Classification*>
J31 194    |^*0All people arriving in and departing from New Zealand
J31 195 are requested to state their usual occupation on the appropriate
J31 196 travel document. ^The Department of Statistics codes the
J31 197 responses using a New Zealand Standard Classification of
J31 198 Occupations ({0NZSCO}). ^The {0NZSCO} is a hierarchical
J31 199 classification which allows for several levels of generality with
J31 200 regard to the specification of occupation. ^In the base of the
J31 201 declarations about occupations recorded on arrival and departure
J31 202 cards, the Department of Statistics uses the three digit code in
J31 203 the {0NZSCO} which permits up to 999 categories of occupation to
J31 204 be specified. ^From the three digit codes a two digit
J31 205 classification (*"minor**" occupation groups) and a single digit
J31 206 classification (*"major**" occupation groups) can be derived
J31 207 directly.
J31 208    |^Most of the data published on the occupation composition
J31 209 of trans-Tasman migration is for the *"major**" and *"minor**"
J31 210 groups. ^In the Population Monitoring Group's data report more
J31 211 detailed information on selected occupations specified at the
J31 212 three digit code level is provided. ^Data at this low level of
J31 213 aggregation are required to isolate nurses, teachers and
J31 214 particular groups of construction workers whose international
J31 215 movements may be of particular interest in the context of the
J31 216 often cited *"skills drain**" to Australia.
J31 217 *#
J32 001 **[326 TEXT J32**]
J32 002 |^*0The practice, however, was not extended to the examples
J32 003 illustrating the use of words and, in general, early Maori texts
J32 004 did not indicate vowel quantity. ^The 1887 edition of the Bible
J32 005 was exceptional in that it marked long vowels which have
J32 006 grammatical function ({0e.g.} marking plural forms of nouns, or
J32 007 passive forms of verbs), as well as a few others that distinguish
J32 008 words minimally from other words. ^The first Bible Revision
J32 009 Committee took a giant step backward and had the distinction
J32 010 removed in the 1952 edition.
J32 011    |^In 1958 I began a campaign to have phonemic vowel length
J32 012 marked everywhere, on the grounds that the distinction between
J32 013 long and short vowels carries a very high functional load and
J32 014 that it is impossible to pronounce *1any *0Maori word correctly
J32 015 unless one knows the length of the vowels. ^The two arguments
J32 016 most frequently advanced against this were 1) that if you are a
J32 017 Maori speaker you know the length of all vowels so there is no
J32 018 need to mark them and 2) that there are several degrees of
J32 019 length. ^The first claim is untrue, as can be heard on any Maori
J32 020 language radio programme, when proper names, in particular, are
J32 021 frequently mispronounced because the correct vowel quantities are
J32 022 unknown to the native-speaking announcer. ^A notorious example is
J32 023 *1Taamaki, *0regularly mispronounced as Tamaki on the Maori news
J32 024 programme. ^Again, one of Maoridom's few remaining exponents of
J32 025 oral genealogical recital, who has apparently gained much of his
J32 026 knowledge from written sources that did not mark vowel quantity,
J32 027 frequently mispronounces ancestral names by getting vowel
J32 028 quantities wrong and so marring his otherwise impressive
J32 029 performances.
J32 030    |^The second argument, that there are more than two degrees
J32 031 of length, rests on a confusion between non-contrastive
J32 032 (non-significant) and contrastive (significant) differences of
J32 033 length. ^As there are never more than two words minimally
J32 034 distinguished by the length of a vowel, it follows that there is
J32 035 only one contrastive difference in vowel length, and all
J32 036 phonemically different Maori words can be distinguished by an
J32 037 orthography which marks long vowels (by whatever method), and
J32 038 leaves short vowels unmarked.
J32 039    |^After being accused of murder (of the Maori language) by a
J32 040 Bishop of the Anglican Church, and surviving combat (verbal) with
J32 041 an armed warrior on the *1marae, *0I now take some satisfaction
J32 042 in noting that most recent Maori text marks vowel length,
J32 043 although not always by the method I prefer.
J32 044    |^While indicating vowel length ensured that differently
J32 045 pronounced words were spelled differently, it did not solve the
J32 046 problem of knowing where to stress Maori words. ^In what follows
J32 047 I want to take it for granted that written Maori cannot indicate
J32 048 correct pronunciation unless vowel length is marked, and
J32 049 concentrate on showing that word divisions must also be marked in
J32 050 order to indicate the position of word-stress.
J32 051    |^In the late fifties I recognised that at least two kinds of
J32 052 stress must be recognised for Maori *- I called them contour
J32 053 stress and primary stress *- but failed to find any general rules
J32 054 applying to either. ^The discovery, by Pat Hohepa in 1960, of
J32 055 ordered rules for determining primary word stress did the trick,
J32 056 however. ^It transpired that essentially the same rules could be
J32 057 applied to predict contour stress (now called phrase stress).
J32 058    |^As word boundaries are usually marked by space it might
J32 059 seem that there is no further problem. ^Difficulties occur,
J32 060 however, with forms which are conventionally written as single
J32 061 words but are actually concatenations of two or more. ^The rest
J32 062 of this paper deals with those difficulties and suggests a
J32 063 solution. ^It is concerned entirely with the placing of word
J32 064 stress, whose domain is the spoken-word.
J32 065    |^Phrase stress, whose domain is the (spoken) phrase, may or
J32 066 may not occur on a syllable that bears word stress. ^Its position
J32 067 differs according to the type of phrase (final or non-final) and
J32 068 is determined to a certain extent by the content of the phrase.
J32 069 ^Rather complicated rules can be devised to cover these points
J32 070 but, as phrase boundary itself depends partly on speech style,
J32 071 the position of phrase stress in real utterances is variable. ^In
J32 072 any case, as spelling is concerned with words, phrase stress
J32 073 plays no part in it.
J32 074 *<The Problem of Word Stress in Compound Words*>
J32 075 |^First we must distinguish written-word from spoken-word. ^Let
J32 076 us define written-word as a meaningful sequence of symbols
J32 077 bounded by spaces. ^By symbol I mean the letters of the
J32 078 conventional Maori alphabet plus hyphen. ^Let us define a
J32 079 spoken-word as a sequence of sounds bearing no more than one word
J32 080 stress. ^This definition is hardly adequate but it will serve its
J32 081 present purpose.
J32 082    |^Now let us turn to the rules for placing the stress in the
J32 083 correct position on spoken words. ^These we will call the word
J32 084 stress rules. ^As phrased they apply to words in the orthography
J32 085 which writes the letter twice to indicate vowel length and counts
J32 086 a long vowel as two vowels. ^I will leave it to proponents of
J32 087 macrons to re-phrase them for their orthography.
J32 088    |^The word stress rules, which must be applied in the order
J32 089 given, are as follows:
J32 090 |1.
J32 091 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J32 092 ^Word stress must fall no more than four vowels from the end of a
J32 093 word.
J32 094 **[END INDENTATION**]
J32 095 |2.
J32 096 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J32 097 ^If the written-word contains just one short vowel it is
J32 098 unstressed.
J32 099 **[END INDENTATION**]
J32 100 |3.
J32 101 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J32 102 ^If it contains a non-final long vowel, stress that.
J32 103 **[END INDENTATION**]
J32 104 |4.
J32 105 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J32 106 ^If there is no non-final long vowel, stress a non-final
J32 107 diphthong.
J32 108 **[END INDENTATION**]
J32 109 |5.
J32 110 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J32 111 ^If there is no non-final diphthong, stress the first vowel (or
J32 112 the fourth vowel from the end in long words).
J32 113 **[END INDENTATION**]
J32 114 |^Generally speaking words are set off by spaces in Maori
J32 115 orthography, so by applying the word stress rules, we can
J32 116 correctly stress *1wikitooria *0as *1wiki*3TOO*1ria *0(rule 3),
J32 117 *1raukawa *0as *3RAU*1kawa *0(rule 4) and *1rangatira *0as
J32 118 *3RA*1ngatira *0(rule 5). ^But what does one do with the long
J32 119 place names found on our maps and road signs?
J32 120 |Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauatamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahu
J32 121 |^Applying the rules for placing word stress on this orthographic
J32 122 monstrosity we render the last four vowels as *3TA*1natahu.
J32 123 ^*0How one is expected to deal with the rest of it boggles the
J32 124 mind! ^It is no wonder the Japanese tourist in the {0TV}
J32 125 commercial falls over backwards every time he attempts it.
J32 126    |^Moreover, *3TA*1natahu *0is incorrect. ^The sequence
J32 127 actually contains two word stresses and is pronounced *3TA*1na
J32 128 *3TA*1hu. ^*0It is, in fact, two spoken-words, but we had no way
J32 129 of knowing this. ^It appears that our word stress rules cannot be
J32 130 applied successfully to all forms conventionally written as
J32 131 words.
J32 132    |^Now, if *1tanatahu *0is two (spoken) words, it seems likely
J32 133 that the rest of New Zealand's longest place name contains other
J32 134 hidden words. ^If we knew where those words began and ended the
J32 135 apparent impossibility of pronouncing the whole thing might be
J32 136 relieved. ^As it happens, and unlike many proper names in Maori,
J32 137 our monster's anatomy is relatively obvious. ^Here it is, word by
J32 138 word, in phonemic spelling and meaning *'ridge of Tamatea the
J32 139 wanderer's flute-playing to his wife**':
J32 140 |^*1Taumata whakatangihanga kooauau a Tamatea pookai whenua ki
J32 141 tana tahu
J32 142 |^*0Now, by applying the word stress rules to each word we get:
J32 143 |^*3TAU*1mata whaka*3TA*1ngihanga koo*3AU*1au a *3TA*1matea
J32 144 *3POO*1kai *3WHE*1nua ki *3TA*1na *3TA*1hu
J32 145    |^*0The point I am making here is not that it becomes easier
J32 146 to read off the correct pronunciation of long proper names if
J32 147 they are divided up in accordance with their internal
J32 148 composition, but the much stronger one that it is *1impossible
J32 149 *0to read off the correct pronunciation of long names unless they
J32 150 are so divided.
J32 151    |^It is unclear why the National Geographic Board chose not
J32 152 to indicate word-division in Maori place-names. ^They have no
J32 153 objection to multi-word place-names in English, as witness Grey
J32 154 Lynn, Mount Roskill, Lower Hutt, Top o' the Bruce, Three Kings
J32 155 and so on. ^One assumes that they got bad advice.
J32 156    |^With the current emphasis on reasonably correct renderings
J32 157 of Maori names, and a campaign to replace long-established
J32 158 English names by even longer-established Maori ones, it seems
J32 159 essential to provide authoritative guides to pronunciation. ^For
J32 160 practical reasons most such guides will be written documents
J32 161 (which does not of course rule out the provision of sound
J32 162 recordings as well). ^It is not possible, however, to provide a
J32 163 written guide to pronunciation unless one has an unambiguous
J32 164 orthography. ^As conventionally written, Maori orthography is not
J32 165 such but it becomes adequate if, in addition to vowel length,
J32 166 spoken-word boundaries are marked in some way. ^It becomes
J32 167 adequate because it will now write differently all words that are
J32 168 pronounced differently, and in a way that can be read back with
J32 169 word stress placed correctly.
J32 170    |^Most common ({0i.e.} non-proper) words are marked off by
J32 171 spaces when they are written, so the written-word indicates
J32 172 unambiguously where it should be stressed, provided, of course,
J32 173 that vowel length is also marked. ^There remain, however, very
J32 174 many written-words that are pronounced as two or more (spoken)
J32 175 words but are conventionally written as one. ^This includes most
J32 176 long proper names, which are usually written as one word,
J32 177 although their pronunciation and/or their apparent composition
J32 178 indicates that they are compound. ^As we have seen, unless we
J32 179 know where the (spoken) word boundaries occur, we will be unable
J32 180 to decide from the written compound word its correct
J32 181 pronunciation.
J32 182    |^What to do? ^It is clear that spoken-word boundaries
J32 183 should be marked in some way. ^The obvious solution seems to be
J32 184 to make use of that sadly neglected symbol, the hyphen, which can
J32 185 maintain the unity of compound written-words and, at the same
J32 186 time, indicate spoken-word boundaries.
J32 187    |^Let us call a sequence of symbols set off by spaces and
J32 188 appearing (because of its length or its apparent derivation) to
J32 189 contain two or more simple words, a compound word. ^Examples of
J32 190 compound words taken from Williams's *1Dictionary of the Maori
J32 191 Language *0are: *1mutuwhenua, piipiiwharauroa, pirikahu,
J32 192 manawa-nui, waipuke, raukawa, tangiwai, tuutaekeehua,
J32 193 waewae-koukou. ^*0Much longer compounds are found, by official
J32 194 decree, in place-names ({0e.g.} *1Taumata-whatsit *0above), and
J32 195 in personal names by convention ({0e.g.} Maniauruahu,
J32 196 Ruaputahanga, Atairangikaahu).
J32 197    |^If we had a principle for discovering (spoken) word
J32 198 boundaries in such compounds we could mark them, by hyphens, for
J32 199 example, and then apply our word stress rules to each component.
J32 200 ^Is there such a principle?
J32 201    |^It would be nice if the apparent derivation of a compound
J32 202 word also decided its spoken-word boundaries, so let us
J32 203 try that first. ^The word *1waipuke *'*0flood**' seems obviously
J32 204 derived from the words *1wai *'*0water**' and *1puke *'*0well up,
J32 205 rise**'. ^We might be justified then in hyphenating the word as
J32 206 wai-puke and, giving it two word stresses, pronounce it *2WAI
J32 207 PU*0ke (by Rule 5). ^This, however, would be an error. ^The
J32 208 derivation may be right, but the pronunciation is wrong. ^The
J32 209 compound is pronounced, with just one heavy stress, *3WAI*1puke,
J32 210 *0like *'*2FLOOD*0water**', not like *'*2FLOOD TIDE**'. ^*0This
J32 211 defines it as a single word pronounced in accordance with Rule 4
J32 212 of the Word Stress Rules.
J32 213    |^Now let us look at the Northland place-name officially
J32 214 spelled Pukenui. ^Again, its derivation seems obvious. ^*1Puke
J32 215 *'*0a hill**', *1nui *'*0big**', and that, of course, is the name
J32 216 of \0Mt. Camel, the true locus of the place-name which is now
J32 217 applied to the settlement across the Houhora Harbour. ^Warned by
J32 218 the last example we decide to pronounce the compound as one word
J32 219 *2PU*0kenui. ^Wrong again, I am afraid. ^The pronunciation
J32 220 requires two word stresses (*3PU*1ke-*3NU*1i*0), exactly as if we
J32 221 were saying *2MOUNT CA*0mel. ^So, while *1waipuke *0is one
J32 222 (spoken) word, Pukenui is two. ^If the pronunciation distinction
J32 223 I am discussing eludes you, compare it to the difference between
J32 224 *'a greengrocer**' (a man who sells vegetables) and *'a green
J32 225 grocer**' (a grocer who is green). ^In Maori pronunciation
J32 226 *1waipuke *0and *1Wairoa *0and *1Waikato *0are each one word,
J32 227 (like greengrocer), but *1Pukenui *0and *1Awanui *0are two (like
J32 228 green grocer).
J32 229    |^It is apparent that dividing compound Maori words
J32 230 according to their perceived derivation fails us in determining
J32 231 spoken-word division and hence as a guide to the placing of
J32 232 stress.
J32 233 *#
J33 001 **[327 TEXT J33**]
J33 002 |^*0Finally, in 1986, as the time of his release on parole
J33 003 approached after three years in prison, the label reappeared
J33 004 along with another variation:
J33 005 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 006 |the self-styled cancer doctor
J33 007 |jailed cancer therapist Milan Brych.
J33 008 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 009    |^The example shows both the deterioration of Brych's image
J33 010 in the media as the labellings became increasingly negative and
J33 011 the power of the original pseudo-title to persist for over a
J33 012 decade even in different countries. ^In New Zealand the
J33 013 pseudo-title had become uniquely his, to the extent that the mere
J33 014 phrase *1controversial cancer therapist *0was sufficient
J33 015 identification without the need to mention Brych's name. ^In this
J33 016 case, the deterioration in titling is parallelled by a shift from
J33 017 *1\0Dr. Brych *0initially to *1\0Mr. Brych *0after his medical
J33 018 qualifications became suspect, and finally to plain *1Brych *-
J33 019 *0the conventional reference to convicted criminals by last name
J33 020 alone.
J33 021    *|^*2COMPLEXITIES. ^*0The typical structure which favors
J33 022 determiner deletion in New Zealand news English is brief like the
J33 023 titles which it imitates: a single noun, perhaps with one
J33 024 preposed modifier. ^But the rule can still apply when the
J33 025 constituent {0NP}'s reach a high or even uninterpretable degree
J33 026 of syntactic complexity. ^There may be coordination within the
J33 027 first, descriptive {0NP}:
J33 028 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 029 |Prime Minister and Minister of Finance Sir Thomas Davis
J33 030 |Dominion transport reporter and motoring writer Russell Scoular.
J33 031 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 032 |^Deletion in this context is no great problem when the
J33 033 coordinated {0NP}'s are semantically like, such as ministerial
J33 034 positions. ^But it can result in bizarre effects when unlikes are
J33 035 coordinated:
J33 036 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 037 |Australian and favourite Rob \de Castella.
J33 038 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 039 |^Coordinations may also occur in the second, name {0NP} *-
J33 040 sometimes with the familiar journalistic detail of age and place:
J33 041 **[BEGIN INDENTATION ONE**]
J33 042 |runaway sweethearts Colin Alabaster, 22, and 14-year-old Ann
J33 043 Schofield of
J33 044 **[BEGIN INDENTATION TWO**]
J33 045 |Wellingborough, Northants
J33 046 **[END INDENTATION TWO**]
J33 047 |Middlesex Polytechnic {0BA} in performance arts students Sally
J33 048 Parkinson and
J33 049 **[BEGIN INDENTATION TWO**]
J33 050 |Tracy Bernhardt.
J33 051 **[END INDENTATION TWO**]
J33 052 **[END INDENTATION ONE**]
J33 053 |^Descriptive {0NP}'s may be simultaneously apposed both before
J33 054 and after a name {0NP}, with the determiner deleted from the
J33 055 preceding {0NP}:
J33 056 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 057 |ex-convict Jack Cody, self-confessed thief and a gambler.
J33 058 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 059 |^Double preceding apposition of descriptive {0NP}'s is possible,
J33 060 with at least one determiner deletion necessary to make the
J33 061 structure workable:
J33 062 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 063 |proud dad, deputy Labour leader Geoffrey Palmer
J33 064 |husband, journalist David Robie
J33 065 |wife, dancer Anna Scarpova.
J33 066 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 067 |^Such expressions tend to sound bizarre in isolation, and it is
J33 068 notable that, to make them comprehensible, the comma has been
J33 069 inserted between the two descriptive nouns. ^Note also that the
J33 070 three examples just above involve deletion of a possessive
J33 071 determiner from the first descriptive {0NP} (the noun of family
J33 072 relationship), followed by article deletion with the following
J33 073 occupational noun.
J33 074    |^The determiner can be deleted from an expression which is
J33 075 acting as a preposed genitive to another {0NP}. ^In such cases,
J33 076 deletion even seems to be favored, as retaining the determiner
J33 077 hinders interpretation of the full expression:
J33 078 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 079 |State Minister Frank O'Flynn {0QC}'s former firm
J33 080 |guerilla leader Robert Mugabe's men.
J33 081 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 082 |^The wide applicability of the rule is shown where the
J33 083 determiner is deleted in a preposed genitive. ^Here the
J33 084 determiner had in fact governed the possessive noun of the
J33 085 descriptive {0NP} and not the head noun:
J33 086 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 087 |Hussars officer's daughter Stella Quekett
J33 088 |boxer's wife, Jackie Magri.
J33 089 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 090 |^The determiner can also be deleted when there is an increased
J33 091 amount of structure in the descriptive {0NP}, preferably preposed
J33 092 before the head noun but in some cases postposed. ^The shift to
J33 093 acceptance of the rule by New Zealand media is perhaps most
J33 094 remarkable at this point. ^Expressions where deletion would have
J33 095 been severely deviant ten years ago are now increasingly
J33 096 occurring without determiners:
J33 097 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 098 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J33 099 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 100 |^Determiner deletion typically occurs before the names of
J33 101 persons, but nonpersonal names are now adopting the rule. ^Names
J33 102 of animals, and entities like firms and sports teams, are
J33 103 following personal names into determiner deletion:
J33 104 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 105 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J33 106 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 107 |^Note that most of the head nouns of the descriptive {0NP}'s in
J33 108 the examples immediately above normally apply to persons *-
J33 109 *1newcomers, hopeful, rival, leader. ^*0This eases the path to
J33 110 determiner deletion, while nonperson nouns like *1firm *0or
J33 111 *1team *0would inhibit deletion (but note *1group *0in the second
J33 112 of these examples).
J33 113    |^When the determiner deletion operates on complex
J33 114 structures, or where many expressions with deletion follow each
J33 115 other closely, the density of information makes for structures
J33 116 which are very hard to decode. ^Note the triple preceding
J33 117 apposition in the first of the following examples, and the
J33 118 complete sentence cited in the second, with its repeated
J33 119 appositions and determiner deletions, culminating in the almost
J33 120 undecipherable final phrase:
J33 121 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 122 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J33 123 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 124    *|^*2A VARIABLE RULE. ^*0The number of structures where
J33 125 determiner deletion is categorically inadmissible in New Zealand
J33 126 English is rapidly shrinking. ^However, a few do seem to remain.
J33 127 ^Where the head noun is semantically vacuous, deletion is
J33 128 unacceptable; one finds *1the man, \0Mr. Fred Berryman, 22, *0but
J33 129 not */*1man, \0Mr. Fred Berryman, 22. ^*0However, where the
J33 130 pseudo-title adds information, deletion will be acceptable:
J33 131 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 132 |Waipawa boy Timothy Story, 10
J33 133 |schoolboy Timothy Story
J33 134 |*/boy Timothy Story.
J33 135 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 136 |^Certain expressions with numerals do not permit deletion *-
J33 137 *1the two *0has anaphoric reference while *1two *0does not.
J33 138 ^Pseudonumerals may also be included, as in:
J33 139 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J33 140 |the two other girls, Denise Clayton and Jackquie Wakelin
J33 141 |the pair, Richard Balmforth of Reuters and Liz Thurgood of the
J33 142 Guardian.
J33 143 **[END INDENTATION**]
J33 144    |^The squishiness of what expressions are acceptable as
J33 145 titles, and therefore what structures determiner deletion can
J33 146 apply to, is reflected in the fact that this is a variable rule,
J33 147 subject to differential linguistic constraints (see Labov 1980).
J33 148 ^Without presenting any detailed analysis on this, suffice to
J33 149 note that there seem to be three main groupings of variable
J33 150 constraints, already hinted at in the discussion of
J33 151 acceptability:
J33 152    |1. ^The type of determiner affects the frequency of
J33 153 deletion, with articles *1the *0and *1a *0favoring deletion, and
J33 154 possessives disfavoring (except for first-person *1our
J33 155 *0referring to the news medium itself, as in *1[our] business
J33 156 editor Ron Quennell*0).
J33 157    |2. ^Limited premodification favors deletion, but multiple
J33 158 premodification in the descriptive {0NP} and any postmodification
J33 159 inhibit deletion.
J33 160    |3. ^Finally, the co-occurrence of deletion with first name
J33 161 (\0F), \0M-term, or null term preceding the last name (\0L)
J33 162 affects the frequency of deletion. ^Null term inhibits deletion
J33 163 strongly, since using \0L-only implies full titleness in the
J33 164 descriptive noun. ^With \0M-term, deletion is more acceptable,
J33 165 and it is favored with \0F *- partly because the informality of
J33 166 referring to someone by first name co-occurs readily with the
J33 167 less formal style with which determiner deletion is identified.
J33 168    *|^*2GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFERENTIATION. ^*0Application of the
J33 169 determiner deletion rule varies according to (at least) three
J33 170 sets of extralinguistic factors: geographical, social and
J33 171 historical.
J33 172    |^Geographically, there is a clear polarization between
J33 173 media in Britain and in the United States. ^Table 1 shows
J33 174 determiner deletion in prestige news media in both countries: in
J33 175 the United States, on {0CBS} and {0ABC} network television news,
J33 176 and in the *1New York Times *0and *1Washington Post; *0in
J33 177 Britain, on {0BBC}-1 television's *1Nine O'clock News, *0and on
J33 178 the Independent Television News program *1News at Ten, *0together
J33 179 with *1The Times *0and *1The Guardian *0newspapers. ^The table
J33 180 shows the number of cases in which the rule was actually applied
J33 181 as a percentage of all cases where it could have been applied,
J33 182 that is, where the structural description was met.
J33 183    |^The dichotomy between British and American prestige media
J33 184 is absolute. ^All four British media delete a maximum of ten
J33 185 percent of determiners *- that is, they hold to semicategorical
J33 186 retention of the determiner.
J33 187 **[TABLE**]
J33 188 ^Three of the American media delete about ninety percent of
J33 189 determiners, with the *1New York Times *0a little below at
J33 190 seventy-five percent. ^For the American media, then,
J33 191 semicategorical deletion is the norm. ^This signifies that in the
J33 192 United States, the rule has little social force. ^It is not
J33 193 identified with any class of media.
J33 194    *|^*2SOCIAL VARIATION. ^*0With such polarization between the
J33 195 two main international varieties of English, it becomes possible
J33 196 that different media within a country may adopt one or the other
J33 197 model as their target. ^In both New Zealand and the United
J33 198 Kingdom, this is the case.
J33 199    |^Table 2 shows the proportion of deletion in seven of
J33 200 Britain's national daily newspapers. ^The split into two camps is
J33 201 strikingly similar to that between British and {0U.S.} media in
J33 202 table 1. ^The three national lower-circulation, *"quality**"
J33 203 papers *- *1Times, Guardian, *0and *1Telegraph *- *0delete at low
J33 204 levels. ^The *1Daily Telegraph *0is highest at twelve percent.
J33 205 ^Then there is a leap to the four so-called *"popular**" dailies,
J33 206 with the *1Daily Mail *0using the least determiner deletion
J33 207 (73%). ^The mass press has gone over to what it sees as the less
J33 208 formal, more popular American style using determiner deletion.
J33 209 ^The prestige papers remain with the older retention of the
J33 210 determiner, now regarded *- evidently with only partial
J33 211 justification *- as characteristic of British-versus-American
J33 212 news style. ^Note also that while the structure of table 2 is
J33 213 very similar to table 1, it is less severely polarized. ^I take
J33 214 this to result from the fact that the British popular media are
J33 215 imitating American norms. ^As with most reflections, the image is
J33 216 a little less sharp than the original.
J33 217    |^Also shown in table 2 are the data for deletion of
J33 218 articles only, excluding the possessives, which permit deletion
J33 219 much less frequently. ^All four mass newspapers delete the
J33 220 articles at semicategorical levels (90% plus). ^The *1Sun *0has
J33 221 pushed the rule to completion for articles, with 100 percent
J33 222 deletion, although the number of tokens (35) is too small to say
J33 223 that this is absolute.
J33 224    |^The ranking of newspapers in table 2 for their degree of
J33 225 determiner deletion corresponds almost exactly to the social
J33 226 status of their readerships. ^The National Readership Surveys
J33 227 conducted in Britain during 1980
J33 228 **[TABLE**]
J33 229 ({0JICNARS} 1980) rank the newspapers by the social grade of
J33 230 their readership: the *1Times *0at the top, then the *1Telegraph
J33 231 *0and *1Guardian; *0then a considerable drop to the *1Mail,
J33 232 *0followed by the *1Express, Mirror, *0and *1Sun. ^*0Only the
J33 233 *1Guardian *0breaks the perfect correlation between social grade
J33 234 and determiner deletion, and then by just one percentage point.
J33 235    |^A similar socially determined structure is evident for New
J33 236 Zealand radio stations. ^In a 1984 sample (table 3), two stations
J33 237 with lower status audience had high determiner deletion *- the
J33 238 middle-of-the-road Community Network of Radio New Zealand (the
J33 239 public broadcasting corporation), and the Auckland privately
J33 240 owned rock music station Radio Hauraki. ^By contrast, Radio New
J33 241 Zealand's prestigious National Radio network deletes less than a
J33 242 fourth of determiners.
J33 243    |^The polarization of radio stations reflects very
J33 244 accurately their orientation towards British or American cultural
J33 245 and linguistic norms. ^The rule of determiner deletion turns out
J33 246 to be diagnostic of New Zealand media orientations, just as it
J33 247 was for British media. ^And as with the British newspapers, the
J33 248 correlation of determiner deletion with the social standing of
J33 249 the audience is strong.
J33 250    *|^*2HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. ^*0Media polarize according to
J33 251 what I take to be an original, British nondeleting norm and a
J33 252 newer, American norm of high deletion. ^Table 3 shows how this
J33 253 rule has spread over time. ^When I collected my original sample
J33 254 in 1974, all these radio stations had a rather low level of
J33 255 determiner deletion. ^Radio Hauraki *- the young-audience rock
J33 256 station, was predictably the highest, but still reached only
J33 257 twenty-one percent deletion.
J33 258    |^But ten years later, a resampling showed that all stations
J33 259 had shifted towards the higher levels of deletion we have already
J33 260 noted. ^In the case of the Community Network and Radio Hauraki,
J33 261 that shift is seventy or eighty percent in just ten years *- a
J33 262 rapid and massive leap in the normally slow timetable of
J33 263 linguistic change. ^Even National Radio has edged up to an
J33 264 appreciable number of deletions *- twenty-three percent *- and
J33 265 away from its traditional model, the {0BBC} Overseas Service news
J33 266 (table 3). ^{0BBC} news is rebroadcast several times daily on the
J33 267 highbrow Concert Programme and
J33 268 **[TABLES**]
J33 269 in 1984 remains as committed as in 1974 to absolute nondeletion.
J33 270 ^The correlation of audience status with the linguistic variable
J33 271 holds in both 1974 and 1984 (see Bell 1982a), with remarkably
J33 272 little shift in the social composition of the station's audiences
J33 273 in the ten years (although new stations have drawn off audience
J33 274 *2NUMBERS *0from the existing stations, they have not changed the
J33 275 demographic *2STRUCTURE *0of those audiences).
J33 276 *#
J34 001 **[328 TEXT J34**]
J34 002 |^*4W*0hen I began my study of language and linguistics in
J34 003 London in the early 1960s none of my university teachers, I
J34 004 recall, showed the slightest interest in the subject of how
J34 005 children learnt their mother tongue. ^But in the years since,
J34 006 there has been a steadily increasing flow of books, articles
J34 007 and ideas on the subject. ^It has been an extremely popular
J34 008 area for research, and one where the ideas and theories taught
J34 009 10 years ago need constant revision and sometimes need to be
J34 010 discarded in the light of new work. ^Of course there have
J34 011 always been a few people who have been interested in this
J34 012 topic. ^There were those who kept diaries of their children's
J34 013 language development but, in general, children's early speech
J34 014 was seen simply as an imperfect version of adult speech, and
J34 015 therefore not really a worthy subject for study and research.
J34 016    |^The change in attitude to this subject came about as the
J34 017 result of an academic debate between the Harvard behavioural
J34 018 psychologist {0B. F.} Skinner and the American linguist Noam
J34 019 Chomsky. ^The debate centred on the question of whether
J34 020 language was an innate human ability or not. ^Skinner, who had
J34 021 done years of research on rats and pigeons, concluded that
J34 022 language was not an innate ability, nor did it require any
J34 023 special mental mechanisms, but it was a set of habits which
J34 024 were built up gradually over the years. ^It came about as a
J34 025 form of learning occurring as a response to a stimulus. ^This
J34 026 position was set out in a book by Skinner called *1Verbal
J34 027 Behaviour, *0published in 1957. ^He felt that what he had
J34 028 understood about learning from his experiments with rats and
J34 029 pigeons could also be applied to human language. ^He believed
J34 030 that if we knew all the *'controlling variables**' we would
J34 031 actually be able to predict what people would say in any given
J34 032 circumstance.
J34 033    |^The linguist Noam Chomsky responded to Skinner's
J34 034 explanation for human language in a review he wrote of *1Verbal
J34 035 Behaviour. ^*0Chomsky roundly attacked Skinner, saying that
J34 036 while Skinner might know about the behaviour of rats and
J34 037 pigeons, this knowledge was quite irrelevant when it came to
J34 038 explaining human language. ^He pointed out that humans did not
J34 039 necessarily behave predictably. ^The kind of argument he used
J34 040 was that while rats could be trained to push a lever when they
J34 041 saw a flashing light, a human presented with a picture of a
J34 042 bowl of fruit might say ^*'What a nice picture**' or ^*'I hate
J34 043 apricots**' or ^*'Who put that picture there?**'. ^Also,
J34 044 Chomsky pointed out that the rats were always rewarded when
J34 045 they did what was required of them, but children were not
J34 046 rewarded every time they made a correct utterance. ^In fact,
J34 047 for much of the time parents were ignorant of the kind of
J34 048 grammatical development taking place in their children's
J34 049 speech.
J34 050    |^The one thing that Chomsky felt that Skinner could not
J34 051 explain in terms of conditioning was creativity. ^He pointed
J34 052 out something which any parent could observe *- namely, that
J34 053 little children can produce sentences they have never heard
J34 054 before, and understand sentences they have never heard before.
J34 055 ^In 1969 Chomsky said, in an interview:
J34 056 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J34 057 |**[LONG QUOTATION**].
J34 058 **[END INDENTATION**]
J34 059    |^So Chomsky allied himself with the 17th century
J34 060 rationalist philosopher Descartes, who believed that a child
J34 061 was born with innate ideas, an innate language ability.
J34 062 ^Chomsky suggested that a child was pre-programmed before birth
J34 063 to talk, just as the same child was pre-programmed to walk, and
J34 064 this ability was a specific human ability. ^Just as spiders
J34 065 built their webs, and beavers built their dams, so humans could
J34 066 use language, and it was this ability that set them apart from
J34 067 the other animals. ^This language ability was not dependent
J34 068 upon race, wealth, intelligence or any other social factor. ^A
J34 069 normal hearing child, when he or she heard language being
J34 070 spoken, would have this innate language ability triggered off.
J34 071    |^I have described the Chomsky/ Skinner debate in a little
J34 072 detail because it was crucial to the kind of research into
J34 073 children's language acquisition which followed. ^While Skinner
J34 074 could point to all his experimental data about rats and
J34 075 pigeons, Chomsky's position was far more mystical and,
J34 076 therefore, much harder to prove.
J34 077    |^One area of research which followed was into the higher
J34 078 primates. ^Various chimps (and a gorilla) were trained to use
J34 079 sign language to see if they could learn human language, the
J34 080 argument being that if language were a unique human ability, it
J34 081 would be impossible for these animals to learn human language.
J34 082 ^Some of the chimps, and Koko the gorilla, seem to have shown a
J34 083 degree of creativity in their use of language, and those
J34 084 carrying out this kind of research have complained that the
J34 085 linguists were constantly redefining *'language**' to exclude
J34 086 the animals.
J34 087    |^Even so, there was a major difference in the way these
J34 088 animals learnt sign language. ^One chimp called Washoe, for
J34 089 example, had to be taught to make the signs by having her hand
J34 090 moulded into the required shape, and when she made the
J34 091 appropriate sign she was rewarded in some way. ^Human children
J34 092 learn language without conscious instruction and without
J34 093 constant rewards.
J34 094    |^The other area of research which developed out of this
J34 095 debate was into the way in which children acquire their
J34 096 language. ^If language were an innate human ability, then it
J34 097 could be compared to other biologically determined forms of
J34 098 behaviour. ^It could be compared, for example, with the ability
J34 099 to walk. ^As with walking, talking appears in a child very
J34 100 early, and before it is really needed. ^The child is still
J34 101 small enough to be cared for constantly, and this would happen
J34 102 if it didn't walk or talk. ^Both forms of behaviour come about
J34 103 without any conscious decision on the part of the child that it
J34 104 will walk or talk at a particular moment; nor are these
J34 105 activities triggered off by any external event.
J34 106    |^Talking is like walking in another way. ^No matter how
J34 107 much a parent may try to encourage or coerce the child, it will
J34 108 neither walk nor talk until such time as it is ready. ^Nor does
J34 109 intensive practice seem to be of major importance. ^At one time
J34 110 it was thought that children might practise their language
J34 111 skills in *'pre-sleep monologues**'. ^A linguist, Ruth Weir,
J34 112 observed her child talking to himself in bed at night before he
J34 113 fell asleep, and so she made a study of this language. ^It
J34 114 appeared that he was repeating certain sounds and constructions
J34 115 that he was trying to learn at the time. ^However, when Ruth
J34 116 Weir's second child was born she found it did not engage in any
J34 117 pre-sleep monologues. ^So, from this evidence it seems that
J34 118 this kind of practice is not a necessary feature of a child's
J34 119 language acquisition.
J34 120    |^Perhaps the two most interesting tests for biologically
J34 121 controlled behaviour are the idea that there is a critical
J34 122 period for its acquisition, and that this behaviour involves a
J34 123 regular sequence of developmental milestones.
J34 124    |^The idea of a critical period for the acquisition of
J34 125 certain forms of behaviour is one which is familiar in the
J34 126 biological sciences. ^Some birds will never learn to sing if
J34 127 they are not exposed to the songs of their own species at a
J34 128 critical stage of their development. ^It has been suggested
J34 129 that the same theory can be applied to children learning
J34 130 language. ^When they are young, provided that they have normal
J34 131 hearing, children seem to be able to learn languages very
J34 132 easily and without any formal instruction. ^After puberty this
J34 133 ability changes; children can still learn languages, but it is
J34 134 very rare that they gain native speaker fluency. ^This can be
J34 135 demonstrated among immigrant families in New Zealand. ^The
J34 136 youngest children can become quite quickly indistinguishable in
J34 137 their speech from their contemporaries in primary school
J34 138 classes. ^Teenagers may become fluent in grammar and
J34 139 vocabulary, but they will almost always keep some trace of
J34 140 their foreign accent.
J34 141    |^Obviously it is not possible to carry out experiments on
J34 142 children to test the notion of a critical period for language
J34 143 acquisition. ^But occasionally, sad strange cases come to light
J34 144 where children have been isolated from human contact and speech
J34 145 throughout their childhood. ^One such child is Genie, who was
J34 146 discovered in a suburb of Los Angeles in 1970. ^When she was
J34 147 found she was aged 13 years 7 months, and was past puberty.
J34 148 ^From the age of 20 months she had been kept imprisoned in an
J34 149 upstairs room with the curtains drawn, and was either tied into
J34 150 a home-made sleeping bag in a cot covered with a wire mesh, or
J34 151 strapped into a potty-chair. ^Because of a congenital hip
J34 152 disorder, Genie had been slow to walk, and her father, thinking
J34 153 that she was hopelessly retarded, kept her in this isolated
J34 154 state. ^Because her father could not stand noise of any kind,
J34 155 there was no radio or television in the house, and if Genie
J34 156 made any noise she was likely to be beaten. ^Her mother came
J34 157 into her room for a few minutes each day and fed her on tinned
J34 158 baby food, but did not speak to her. ^When Genie was found, she
J34 159 could understand a few words and some simple commands (probably
J34 160 learnt from the period before her imprisonment). ^She had
J34 161 normal hearing, normal hand-eye coordination, and she was not
J34 162 autistic. ^But she could not talk.
J34 163    |^If it is true that there is a critical period for
J34 164 language acquisition, it would seem that Genie provides a very
J34 165 strong test for it, because she was acquiring language after
J34 166 she had passed puberty. ^She was transferred to a loving foster
J34 167 home and treated as the other children, without any formal
J34 168 language instruction. ^Eventually she did learn to speak to
J34 169 some extent, although she did not progress as quickly as normal
J34 170 children. ^She still has difficulty with some grammatical
J34 171 constructions *- wh- questions, for example; those beginning
J34 172 with where or when. ^And she also has trouble with
J34 173 pronunciation. ^However, she seems to have no problems learning
J34 174 vocabulary items. ^When she is compared with children at a
J34 175 similar stage of grammatical development, she has learnt many
J34 176 more single words than they.
J34 177    |^Because of Genie's early experiences we must be careful
J34 178 with the conclusions we draw. ^It is possible that her early
J34 179 deprivation, and probable malnutrition could have affected her
J34 180 in many ways. ^However, the evidence from Genie's language
J34 181 development so far, suggests that there is a critical period
J34 182 for the acquisition of pronunciation. (^Which can be also
J34 183 demonstrated with children learning a second language before
J34 184 puberty.) ^There may be a critical period for the acquisition
J34 185 of syntax without special instruction. ^But there is no
J34 186 critical period for the learning of vocabulary. ^We can go on
J34 187 learning new words all our lives.
J34 188    |^From this evidence, it seems surprising to me that most
J34 189 New Zealand children who learn a second language at school
J34 190 begin in the third form, at exactly the time when the
J34 191 indications are that second language learning, especially
J34 192 pronunciation, is going to become more difficult. ^Efforts to
J34 193 teach the Maori language to very young children should be
J34 194 assisted by the children's natural ability at this age to learn
J34 195 language.
J34 196    |^The second test for biologically controlled behaviour is
J34 197 the belief that this behaviour involves a regular sequence of
J34 198 developmental milestones.
J34 199    |^In the 1960s and 70s there was a great deal of interest
J34 200 in the subject of developmental linguistic milestones.
J34 201 ^Research was carried out in a number of places in which
J34 202 children were observed at regular intervals, their speech
J34 203 recorded and their language studied. ^A very famous study was
J34 204 carried out at Harvard University by Roger Brown, involving two
J34 205 children who, for the purposes of the study, were named Adam
J34 206 and Eve. ^From this study, and others, it was demonstrated that
J34 207 all children pass through a series of more or less fixed stages
J34 208 as their language develops. ^The actual ages at which
J34 209 individual children reach those stages can vary considerably,
J34 210 but the stages are arrived at in the same order.
J34 211    |^This was well illustrated by my own children. ^One spent
J34 212 about four months in the single-word stage, another was only
J34 213 about three weeks in this stage before she began making 
J34 214 two-word combinations.
J34 215 *#
J35 001 **[329 TEXT J35**]
J35 002 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 003 |^*1This study explores ways of defining one aspect of the formal
J35 004 content of English language learning and teaching in the context
J35 005 of the semantic framework of quantification. ^Analysis of a small
J35 006 corpus of written English from journalistic and academic sources
J35 007 identified 14 subcategories of quantification which accounted for
J35 008 over 14 per cent of the words in the corpus. ^Non**[ARB**]-
J35 009 specific quantification was more than twice as frequent as
J35 010 specific. ^One particular subcategory, approximation, was
J35 011 explored in greater detail. ^A comparison of three different ways
J35 012 of identifying how approximation is expressed produced a total of
J35 013 117 different linguistic devices. ^The relative frequencies of
J35 014 these types were then established in the *'learned**' sections of
J35 015 the Brown and {0LOB} corpora. ^It is suggested that the
J35 016 information which the study provides on an important semantic
J35 017 category and on the linguistic devices which express this
J35 018 category can be used for more informed language-teaching
J35 019 materials development.
J35 020 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 021 *<*01. *2INTRODUCTION*>
J35 022 |^*0Among the influences on language pedagogy, two in particular
J35 023 stand out. ^First, knowledge or beliefs about how the formal
J35 024 systems of vocabulary, grammar, and usage function and interact
J35 025 lead to assumptions about the desirable pedagogical sequencing of
J35 026 linguistic material, usually based on a simplicity criterion
J35 027 modified by an analysis of the purposes for which a language is
J35 028 being learned. ^Second, knowledge or beliefs about how languages
J35 029 are learned, informed by observations on the interaction of
J35 030 psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic variables, lead to varying
J35 031 emphasis on the role of the teacher either as an organizer of
J35 032 linguistic input or as an organizer of contexts for learning.
J35 033 ^Pedagogy should, of course, be influenced both by what the
J35 034 learner has to learn and by how the learner learns.
J35 035    |^In recent years, emphasis on the importance of
J35 036 authenticity in learning materials and of interaction in
J35 037 language-learning contexts has strongly influenced 
J35 038 language-teaching practices. ^There has tended to be less emphasis on
J35 039 language form, and more on content. ^At its most extreme, some
J35 040 teachers have presented learners with unanalysed spoken or
J35 041 written texts on the grounds of authenticity, while others have
J35 042 concentrated almost entirely on organizing *'activities**', on
J35 043 the grounds that learners know how to learn if given
J35 044 opportunities to communicate under favourable conditions.
J35 045 ^Teachers of English who are themselves native speakers have
J35 046 seemed particularly disposed to resist analysis of the language
J35 047 being learned, or emphasis on it as form. ^At a recent major
J35 048 international conference on English studies, Sinclair (1985)
J35 049 expressed concern over neglect of the study of English by
J35 050 teachers of English.
J35 051 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 052 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J35 053 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 054 |^He concluded that *'an absence of interest in what one is
J35 055 teaching is surely a perilous condition**'.
J35 056    |^Similarly, Rutherford and Sharwood Smith (1985) are among
J35 057 those who have questioned the widespread current assumption that
J35 058 the formal system of the language has a *'minimal or even
J35 059 non-existent role to play in language pedagogy**'. ^So-called
J35 060 *'communicative**' approaches to the teaching of language, which
J35 061 have found widespread support, have often resulted in the
J35 062 abandonment of quite fundamental insights from an earlier era.
J35 063 ^The importance of frequency of occurrence for the teaching and
J35 064 learning of vocabulary is a case in point.
J35 065    |^Nevertheless, there can be little doubt that teaching a
J35 066 language as communication, as an applied or functioning system,
J35 067 has an intuitive appeal for teachers and learners alike.
J35 068 ^Teachers  recognize that their learners need to be able
J35 069 to do things with words *- to understand and express the
J35 070 language of causation, duration, generalization, obligation,
J35 071 and so on. ^It is less clear, however, what the words and
J35 072 phrases are which English uses in any particular register to
J35 073 express these and other important notions which reflect what
J35 074 Bierwisch (1970) called *'the basic dispositions of the
J35 075 cognitive and perceptual structure of the human organism**',
J35 076 or what Chomsky (1965) referred to as *'attainable
J35 077 concepts**'.
J35 078 *<2. *2QUANTIFICATION*>
J35 079 |^*0The present study describes an attempt to discover how one
J35 080 semantic category, namely *1quantification, *0is expressed in
J35 081 written English. ^It also explores in greater detail how one
J35 082 subcategory of quantification, namely *1approximation, *0is
J35 083 expressed. ^The purpose of the research has been to seek ways of
J35 084 defining the formal content of language courses within a
J35 085 semantically coherent framework; in other words, the categories
J35 086 of meaning a learner might need to be able to express, and the
J35 087 linguistic devices used to realize these meanings.
J35 088    |^Quantification was selected as the semantic category
J35 089 because many different branches of linguistic study, both
J35 090 theoretical and applied, have recognized that one of the
J35 091 important things we do with language is to measure or estimate
J35 092 quantity. ^Hintikka (1974) wrote:
J35 093 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 094 |^The syntax and semantics of quantifiers are of crucial
J35 095 significance in current linguistic theorizing for more than one
J35 096 reason.
J35 097 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 098 |^He went on to refer to discussions of quantifiers by Lakoff (on
J35 099 global constraints), Partee (meaning-preservingness of
J35 100 transformations), Chomsky (the role of surface structure in
J35 101 semantic interpretation), and Montague and many logicians
J35 102 concerned with semantic representation. ^A striking
J35 103 characteristic of this research in linguistic theory was how much
J35 104 attention was paid to so few words. ^Four words: *1all, some,
J35 105 many, *0and *1few, *0received most attention, but sometimes *1no,
J35 106 both, little, each, every, any, more, less, several, much, none,
J35 107 only, *0and some cardinal numbers received mention also *- a mere
J35 108 16 or so words in all. ^Partee (1970), however, also makes
J35 109 mention of semantically related words such as *1numerous *0and
J35 110 *1scanty, *0which she calls *'quantificational adjectives**'.
J35 111    |^In most recent descriptive grammars, quantifiers are
J35 112 described as a group of determiners and pronouns which denote
J35 113 quantity or amount, and degrees thereof. ^Their formal
J35 114 grammatical description has been relatively difficult, partly
J35 115 because of their relationship with count and mass nouns, and
J35 116 grammatical number. ^Descriptions of quantifiers in semantic
J35 117 rather than collocational terms have been attempted by Close
J35 118 (1963), Leech and Svartvik (1975), and, in French, by Brunot
J35 119 (1953), who devoted some ten chapters of his great grammar to the
J35 120 wider field of quantification. ^A study by Ba"cklund (1973) of
J35 121 the collocations of 93 adverbs of degree in English was based on
J35 122 newspapers and novels and was organized into ten subcategories on
J35 123 such semantic grounds as *'adverbs expressing a low degree**'
J35 124 ({0e.g.} *1slightly, somewhat*0). ^However, semantic
J35 125 classifications have sometimes had difficulty with such issues as
J35 126 synonymy, for example whether *1a few *0can be a synonym of
J35 127 *1several.
J35 128    |^*0There is another quite different tradition, a more
J35 129 philosophical one, however, which focuses not on a small group of
J35 130 *1quantifiers, *0but on *1quantification, *0arguing that
J35 131 quantification is one of the cornerstones of language. ^From
J35 132 Aristotle, through Kant up to more recent times, we find
J35 133 statements such as the following from Cassirer (1953):
J35 134 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 135 |...it becomes evident that concepts of space, time and number
J35 136 are the essential framework of objective intuition as it develops
J35 137 in language.
J35 138 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 139 |^Such a view sees much of the structure and elements of language
J35 140 as being devoted to communicating about such basic conceptual
J35 141 categories. ^It is Cassirer's third category of number which
J35 142 concerns us here.
J35 143    |^Whereas the linguistic tradition has tended to focus on
J35 144 the grammatical category of quantifiers, it is the semantic
J35 145 notion of quantification and the way it is realized with
J35 146 linguistic devices which has particular significance for applied
J35 147 linguistics. ^It has been suggested (Kennedy, 1978, 1979) that
J35 148 even a cursory analysis of text in a task analysis will support
J35 149 Cassirer's view and show that there is a great deal of *'quantity
J35 150 language**', especially in journalistic and academic contexts.
J35 151 ^By way of illustration, three native speakers of English were
J35 152 asked to underline any morphemes and collocations which they felt
J35 153 were expressing quantity or degree in the following two extracts
J35 154 from the British newspaper *1Guardian Weekly *0(10 November 1985,
J35 155 page 3). ^There was some disagreement (as, for example, whether
J35 156 *1donation *0and *1pay *0implied a quantity of money) but
J35 157 substantially the same parts of the text were underlined as
J35 158 expressing quantification.
J35 159 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 160 |**[LONG QUOTATIONS**]
J35 161 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 162 *<3. *2CATEGORIES OF QUANTIFICATION*>
J35 163 |^*0The first part of the study is a text-based analysis of how
J35 164 quantification is expressed in a corpus of 63,176 running words
J35 165 of English, made up from journalistic and academic sources.
J35 166 ^About 56 per cent of the corpus (35,086 words) was made up of
J35 167 every fifth page of *1Newsweek *0magazine over four consecutive
J35 168 weekly editions in April 1980. ^The remainder of the corpus
J35 169 (28,090 words) was made up of 70 pages of a textbook on the
J35 170 economic and physical geography of New Zealand (Dent and McEwan
J35 171 1981). ^*1Newsweek *0was selected because it is widely read
J35 172 internationally, and it was nominated by a group of foreign
J35 173 teachers of adult learners of English as being a reading target
J35 174 for their learners. ^Further, in the 36 pages of text selected,
J35 175 there was a wide variety of writers and topics, with 86 named
J35 176 writers covering some 47 topics, including the Australian
J35 177 economy; the Japanese auto industry; Jesse Owens; Itzhak Perlman;
J35 178 chemical warfare; medical ethics; Japanese cinema; Bronze Age art
J35 179 in China; the political situation in Iran; relationships within
J35 180 the {0EEC}; Ronald Reagan and the United States elections;
J35 181 unemployment in Spain; a volcanic eruption.
J35 182    |^The geographical text was selected for analysis because it
J35 183 is widely used in New Zealand schools and because its subject
J35 184 matter, like much of *1Newsweek'*0s, seemed relevant in the light
J35 185 of an astute observation by Schumacher (1973: 34):
J35 186 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 187 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J35 188 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 189 |^The amount of running text from each of the two sources was not
J35 190 large enough to make it worthwhile to treat them separately.
J35 191 ^Informal comparisons, however, did not reveal major differences
J35 192 between the journalistic and academic sources in the amount of
J35 193 quantification. ^A corpus made up of texts from other domains
J35 194 such as imaginative writing or biography may well, of course,
J35 195 contain quite different proportions of quantification types than
J35 196 were found in this study.
J35 197 *<3.1 *1Method*>
J35 198 |^*0The author recorded under a headword every occurrence of a
J35 199 word or construction which seemed to be quantifying in a
J35 200 particular context. ^Thus, *1^He won a fistful of prizes in 1977
J35 201 *0has the word *1fistful *0recorded as the headword or *'type**'.
J35 202 ^The criterion used was whether a particular linguistic device in
J35 203 context answered the question *1How many/ how much/ to what
J35 204 extent?
J35 205    |^*0No attempt was made to distinguish *1quantity *0from
J35 206 *1degree, *0although grammarians have sometimes attempted to do
J35 207 so. ^The difficulty of sustaining a distinction can be seen in
J35 208 examples such as the following:
J35 209 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 210 **[TABLE**]
J35 211 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 212    |^Although each headword was recorded on cards
J35 213 alphabetically, along with the context in which the word
J35 214 occurred, it is not suggested that a headword has a single
J35 215 semantic value. ^For example, the word *1poor *0was found ten
J35 216 times in the corpus with four different but related meanings:
J35 217 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J35 218 **[TABLE**]
J35 219 **[END INDENTATION**]
J35 220 |^Whenever meanings were related in this way, they were treated
J35 221 together and categorized as a single type. ^In the case of the
J35 222 type *1poor, *0there were ten tokens. ^*1Poor *0was categorized
J35 223 as one of the linguistic devices found to express *'small
J35 224 quantities or degrees**'.
J35 225    |^At the outset it was clear that a number of decisions
J35 226 would be needed as to what would be included in the analysis.
J35 227 ^The following linguistic devices which are clearly associated
J35 228 with quantification were somewhat arbitrarily excluded on the
J35 229 grounds of their pervasiveness:
J35 230 **[LIST**]
J35 231 |^In making the analysis, it was of course necessary to take note
J35 232 of how words or phrases functioned. ^Thus, some words in the
J35 233 corpus were apparently not quantifying terms except in particular
J35 234 contexts. ^For example, *1insipid *0(lacking spirit, taste, or
J35 235 interest; boring) or *1modest *0(humble; not ostentatious) could
J35 236 be used as quantification devices to mean *'a small amount**'
J35 237 when used in the context of *1an insipid total *0or *1a modest
J35 238 increase. ^*0The pervasiveness of such metaphorical ways of
J35 239 expressing fundamental concepts has been discussed by Kennedy
J35 240 (1978) and by Lakoff and Johnson (1980).
J35 241    |^Some more obviously quantifying devices in the corpus were
J35 242 sometimes used in ways which were unexpected. ^For example, *1so
J35 243 many *0and *1so much *0were sometimes used to mean *1some *0(an
J35 244 indeterminate amount of) rather than *1very many/ very much, *0as
J35 245 in *1^Let us assume there were so many people in the room; ^I'll
J35 246 only put up with so much trouble. ^*0Similarly, the word *1some
J35 247 *0was sometimes used to express approximation (*1^He lived there
J35 248 some sixty years*0), and sometimes to express unspecified
J35 249 quantity/ degree (*1^He lived for some years in London; ^Some
J35 250 measurements were made*0).
J35 251 *#
J36 001 **[330 TEXT J36**]
J36 002 *<*1Transport*>
J36 003 |^*0Sixteen parents used their own car to take their child to the
J36 004 preschool, one mother used a bicycle, three walked and one
J36 005 collected the child by bus. ^A stationwagon operated by the
J36 006 Crippled Children Society took one mother as well as her child.
J36 007 ^The special group teacher, the head teacher, another mother or
J36 008 an early childhood education officer sometimes provided
J36 009 transport, in which case the mothers could go to the preschool
J36 010 too. ^Four mothers reported that they were not permitted to go in
J36 011 the taxi with the child. ^Another four said that they could
J36 012 accompany the child in the taxi once a fortnight, one went on the
J36 013 first day only, one used it on the days she was rostered to help
J36 014 at playcentre, and another could go with her child provided she
J36 015 let the taxi firm know beforehand. ^Three mothers had cars which
J36 016 they could use even though they could not go in the taxi. ^In
J36 017 some areas Education Board approval had not been given for
J36 018 transport by taxi. ^Transport is a problem. ^Teachers' comments
J36 019 on taxis included:
J36 020 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 021 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J36 022 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 023 *<*1Ideas for Home Use*>
J36 024 |^*0It seemed that mothers appreciated really practical
J36 025 suggestions that would help them or their child to cope.
J36 026 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 027 |^My child was in splints and had boots with a bar across them.
J36 028 ^They showed me how to put his trousers on.
J36 029 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 030    |^The advisers and teachers for the deaf were praised by all
J36 031 the mothers who had contact with them. ^They went into homes and
J36 032 visited children in preschool. ^They played a major role in
J36 033 helping parents to take advantage of the services available for
J36 034 testing hearing and fitting hearing aids, and they saw that
J36 035 children got to the services available.
J36 036    |^Speech therapists operate from clinics and it was evident,
J36 037 even from our small sample, that some mothers did not go because
J36 038 of difficulties with transport and the general organization of
J36 039 younger children that such visits often entail.
J36 040    |^In one kindergarten the special group teacher and the
J36 041 mother worked together. ^The mother said:
J36 042 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 043 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J36 044 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 045    |^Another mother had learned about Total Communication
J36 046 through the kindergarten and was using this successfully with her
J36 047 child. ^Others had gained ideas for activities to keep children
J36 048 interested and occupied at home, for example, by providing dough,
J36 049 a sandpit, a trampoline, a climbing frame.
J36 050    |^Some special group teachers had extensive collections of
J36 051 carefully chosen books and toys which could be taken home by the
J36 052 special group children. ^These materials, on loan to the family,
J36 053 were mentioned by several mothers as providing ideas for things
J36 054 to do.
J36 055    |^On the other hand, a sizeable proportion of the mothers
J36 056 said that they had not got any ideas from kindergarten. ^The
J36 057 reasons were various: ^*'There hasn't been any need**', ^*'Kindy
J36 058 things are separate and different**', ^*'We do family things and
J36 059 most things my child does anyway**'.
J36 060 *<*1Help for the Mother*>
J36 061 |^*0There is not the slightest doubt about the benefits of the
J36 062 child's attendance for the mother. ^Many of the mothers used the
J36 063 word *'peace**'. ^They also referred to *'a break**' and *'time
J36 064 for myself**', and they used the word *'relax**'. ^These
J36 065 quotations speak for themselves:
J36 066 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 067 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J36 068 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 069    |^The special group scheme is a contribution to the mental
J36 070 health of mothers. ^Many mothers said that they felt happier
J36 071 because the child had progressed and that he or she had
J36 072 *'responded**' or had *'learned**'. ^It was also clear, although
J36 073 not said quite so directly, that the mothers were very anxious
J36 074 for their children not to appear different or be treated
J36 075 differently from other children.
J36 076    |^The number of helping *'agencies**' with which the mothers
J36 077 came into contact varied from none to five. ^Four parents
J36 078 reported no other help, 8 reported 1, 14 reported 2, 7 reported
J36 079 3, 3 reported 4 and 3 reported 5. ^These were all services in
J36 080 addition to the special needs group.
J36 081    |^The agency mentioned most often was a speech therapist
J36 082 (21), and then, in order, came medical practitioners of varying
J36 083 kinds (16), psychologists (14), deaf advisors, Plunket, and
J36 084 visiting and occupational therapists (4 each), and
J36 085 physiotherapists (2). ^These were followed by a miscellaneous
J36 086 group of services, each mentioned only once, such as horse riding
J36 087 for the disabled, acupuncture, and swimming for the physically
J36 088 disabled. ^A few children went to gym classes, to sensory
J36 089 integration centres, or to a preschool for the deaf, and one was
J36 090 helped by the Correspondence School Special Needs Section. ^A few
J36 091 attended kindergarten or playcentre on the days they did not
J36 092 attend the special group.
J36 093    |^There are some very good things about the speech therapy
J36 094 service. ^Any mother can seek its help. ^There is no stigma
J36 095 associated with seeking help, and knowledge of the speech
J36 096 therapist's services circulates around a neighbourhood.
J36 097 ^Consequently, the speech therapist is often the first specialist
J36 098 to treat a child and may then refer a child on to other services.
J36 099    |^The mothers were asked their opinion of each of the
J36 100 agencies that helped their child and these were classified
J36 101 according to whether the mother saw them as being helpful, not
J36 102 helpful, or neutral. ^In many areas there were no specialized
J36 103 centres other than the preschool special group.
J36 104    |^Although there were only four parents of those interviewed
J36 105 who had contact with advisers of the deaf or a teacher of the
J36 106 deaf, all were full of praise for these people. ^This impression
J36 107 was confirmed by teachers and by other parents whom we met
J36 108 casually during our observations. ^Indeed the services for the
J36 109 deaf appear to be the best organized, the most widely available
J36 110 and with the clearest set of techniques of all the services that
J36 111 parents encounter. ^I am aware that those working within the
J36 112 service for the deaf desire improvement; nevertheless, they are
J36 113 dealing with a condition that is relatively clear cut and for
J36 114 which mothers are not blamed. ^Other specialists often have to
J36 115 deal with more intractable conditions or with sets of conditions
J36 116 that they cannot control.
J36 117    |^Two-thirds of the mothers whose children attended speech
J36 118 therapy clinics said speech therapy was helpful, and over half of
J36 119 those who mentioned psychologists had found them helpful. ^One
J36 120 teacher said:
J36 121 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 122 |^Parents may not like the idea of going to a psychologist. ^It's
J36 123 the stigma *- it's very threatening. ^A problem.
J36 124 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 125 |^Exactly half of those who mentioned pediatricians and other
J36 126 medical specialists found them helpful.
J36 127    |^More interesting than whether the mothers were satisfied
J36 128 or not with the services are the reasons they gave for their
J36 129 judgement. ^One major cause of dissatisfaction was an inability
J36 130 to get service:
J36 131 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 132 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J36 133 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 134 |^Another frequent cause of dissatisfaction was the inability of
J36 135 a specialist to get a true picture of the child:
J36 136 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 137 |^The psychologist came to kindy and really got to know him; the
J36 138 pediatrician saw him in the office and really doesn't understand.
J36 139 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 140 |^A fourth cause of dissatisfaction was that some specialists
J36 141 seemed to have preconceived ideas about the child's problem and
J36 142 were judgemental in their approach to the mother. ^A fifth was
J36 143 the provision of inappropriate treatment. ^For example, at the
J36 144 time the survey was carried out, family therapy seemed to be
J36 145 being used for an extraordinary range of problems.
J36 146    |^Some specialists canvassed the mother's views and
J36 147 opinions, shared their own views with her and treated her as an
J36 148 equal partner in the treatment of her child. ^Such persons were
J36 149 found in every kind of service. ^Others treated the mother's
J36 150 opinions as of little value, gave her the impression that she was
J36 151 *'just another neurotic mother**', and tried to assess the child
J36 152 away from its mother. ^Underlying the specific complaints was the
J36 153 basic one that some people did not treat the mothers with
J36 154 consideration *- a human relations issue.
J36 155    |^At the end of the interview mothers were invited to make
J36 156 comments and some of them did so. ^The topic most often mentioned
J36 157 was the value of a combination of services and the need for
J36 158 co-operation between them. ^Some felt that more publicity could
J36 159 be given to let parents know of the special groups in
J36 160 kindergarten and playcentre. ^One parent belonged to a parent
J36 161 support group started by the kindergarten and she was full of
J36 162 praise for this. ^Another advised other parents to be assertive
J36 163 in getting the best for their children.
J36 164    |^There was often mention of the fact that the groups
J36 165 operated only three days of the week, and that if children came
J36 166 from outside the area of the kindergarten in which the group was
J36 167 situated, they were discriminated against because they could not
J36 168 attend on the remaining two days. ^In practice, the policy on
J36 169 attendance varied. ^At the time of the study the special group
J36 170 teacher was employed, and transport provided, on only three days.
J36 171 ^There were three patterns of attendance:
J36 172 |(a)
J36 173 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 174 ^The child attended the kindergarten on five mornings because he
J36 175 or she was in the catchment area.
J36 176 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 177 |(b)
J36 178 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 179 ^The child attended his or her own home kindergarten on the two
J36 180 days when not attending the kindergarten with the special group.
J36 181 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 182 |(c)
J36 183 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J36 184 ^The child did not live in the catchment area but attended the
J36 185 same kindergarten if his or her family could provide the
J36 186 transport.
J36 187 **[END INDENTATION**]
J36 188 |^Playcentres operate for three sessions in the week for all
J36 189 children.
J36 190    |^When the child was present on days when the special group
J36 191 teacher was not there, the other teachers had increased
J36 192 opportunities to make contact with parents. ^Mostly though, the
J36 193 children did not attend more than the three half days for which
J36 194 the special group teacher was employed.
J36 195 *<*1Contact Between Teacher and Parent*>
J36 196 |^*0Every special group teacher had contact with the mothers of
J36 197 the children she had responsibility for. ^Typically, she visited
J36 198 homes before the children were enrolled, talked to the mothers
J36 199 when they came to the kindergarten or playcentre, and telephoned
J36 200 them from time to time. ^Some teachers sent daily comments and
J36 201 other forms of take-home material. ^The parent interviews showed,
J36 202 as already reported, that most mothers referred to the special
J36 203 group teacher by her first name and that they felt free to
J36 204 telephone her at the preschool, and usually at home too, if
J36 205 anything was troubling them.
J36 206    |^In nearly all preschools the special group teacher had the
J36 207 greatest contact with the parents of the children. ^However in
J36 208 one, the special group teacher considered herself one of a team
J36 209 of three and all teachers had contact with the parents. ^In
J36 210 another, the special group teacher did the home visits. ^In four,
J36 211 the head teacher and special group teacher shared the work.
J36 212    |^Some special group teachers had organized a parent support
J36 213 group, had organized, or been involved in, case conferences
J36 214 bringing together all the professionals dealing with the child
J36 215 and the parent, had arranged for the parents to get help from
J36 216 medical and social agencies, or had provided a programme for
J36 217 mothers to carry out at home with the child. ^One teacher
J36 218 organized a unified programme to be carried out by herself in the
J36 219 preschool, by a tutor employed to work with the child for a short
J36 220 time every day, and for the mother to follow also.
J36 221    |^Mothers, too, made their contributions by telling the
J36 222 special group teachers things that had worked well with their
J36 223 children. ^In one kindergarten I saw four children playing a 
J36 224 co-operative dice game with equipment made by a mother and donated
J36 225 to the kindergarten.
J36 226    |^Despite a high degree of contact with, and knowledge
J36 227 about, the families on the part of the special group teacher and
J36 228 the other teachers, some families slipped through the net. ^In
J36 229 such families, mothers were never at home or they had their own
J36 230 intellectual, emotional and medical problems. ^Some mothers had
J36 231 themselves been special class children. ^Some special group
J36 232 children had been moved from one foster home to another. ^Some
J36 233 mothers deliberately excluded outsiders, and other mothers, even
J36 234 with transport provided, still had difficulty ensuring that the
J36 235 children attended regularly. ^Marriage breakdown and unemployment
J36 236 were taking their toll, particularly in some areas, at the time
J36 237 of the study.
J36 238    |^Although the special group teacher had the most contact
J36 239 with parents, in only one instance (where the head teacher was
J36 240 new) did the head teacher not know the mothers, the family
J36 241 circumstances and the child very well indeed. ^All teachers could
J36 242 tell me exactly how to get to a particular mother's home when I
J36 243 asked for directions.
J36 244 *#
J37 001 **[331 TEXT J37**]
J37 002 ^*0This face-to-face contact seemed very effective. ^Where
J37 003 information was made available only in written form, it appeared
J37 004 that less use was made of it.
J37 005 *<*1Effectiveness*>
J37 006    |^*0In the schools in these case studies, an enormous effort
J37 007 is made to obtain useful information about new third formers. ^It
J37 008 has already been pointed out that it is used to place students so
J37 009 that the best available schooling provisions can be made for
J37 010 them, and to tell teachers about students. ^The first of these
J37 011 seems very effective indeed in each case study. ^Whoever collects
J37 012 the data *- usually the Third Form Dean or Guidance Counsellor *-
J37 013 ends up with very detailed information on each student. ^But the
J37 014 real test of effectiveness is whether the second step occurs *-
J37 015 teachers getting and using the information. ^Evidence from
J37 016 interviews and questionnaires indicates that there is
J37 017 considerable variation among individual teachers as to the use
J37 018 made of information.
J37 019    |^First, there is a wide range of opinion among teachers
J37 020 themselves about how much they *1ought *0to know about a new
J37 021 student. ^Some believe too much information is dangerous because
J37 022 it can lead to unfairly labelling a student (especially so in
J37 023 negatively-labelled students); or because it is up to the Third
J37 024 Form teacher to determine what a student is capable of, not the
J37 025 teacher of Form 2. ^A small number of teachers said they had
J37 026 little faith in the information they received; it was subject to
J37 027 error; students' behaviour and performance did not necessarily
J37 028 match what they were told. ^Some mentioned that while a student
J37 029 might behave and achieve in certain ways at primary school, there
J37 030 was no surety that the same would happen at secondary school.
J37 031    |^Less than a quarter of teachers said the information they
J37 032 received was unsatisfactory. ^A variety of reasons was given,
J37 033 some of which have been mentioned in the previous paragraph. ^The
J37 034 most frequent additional reasons were a desire to know more about
J37 035 *"problem**" pupils, have more detail about subject performance,
J37 036 and comments that important information about particular pupils
J37 037 was not made available when it should (or could) have been and
J37 038 teachers were left to find out for themselves.
J37 039    |^Over three-quarters of the teachers saw the information
J37 040 they received as satisfactory. ^This was, however, a *"yes-no**"
J37 041 question that invited reasons to be added. ^Some of these
J37 042 teachers might have been saying that although they did not get
J37 043 much information, they did not mind. ^Others however, did say
J37 044 that they had access to information if they wanted it.
J37 045    |^Every Third Form Dean talked about another category of
J37 046 information, namely, that which ought to remain confidential to
J37 047 the Dean and only be relayed to other teachers if needed. ^For
J37 048 example, it might be sensitive information about family
J37 049 circumstances. ^If the student is making steady progress, there
J37 050 is no need to pass on the information.
J37 051    |^A second related factor is whether the information
J37 052 actually gets to teachers. ^A few teachers said they received no
J37 053 information, but this appeared to be a break-down in
J37 054 communication or they failed to look at the information. ^In all
J37 055 secondary schools steps were taken to make information available
J37 056 to all Form 3 teachers. ^Some teachers of subjects commented that
J37 057 the form teachers got full information but they did not. ^Perhaps
J37 058 those responsible for getting information to teachers should look
J37 059 at the system used, to see whether it gives adequate detail, and
J37 060 whether there is ready access to information that would improve
J37 061 teaching. ^Several remedial reading teachers felt they had
J37 062 insufficient information on students and would have liked more;
J37 063 one suggested she ought to have the chance to talk to Form 2
J37 064 teachers as well as others like the Dean.
J37 065    |^A problem for some secondary teachers is that Form 3
J37 066 students arrive with (naturally) variable standards in any
J37 067 subject. ^One head of subject said that no assumptions could be
J37 068 made about what pupils had learnt in Science because the teaching
J37 069 at Form 2 level varied a lot, as did the assessments. ^It was
J37 070 difficult to plan for such a mixed group. ^This kind of comment
J37 071 again reinforces the need for primary and secondary teachers to
J37 072 inform each other about their teaching, and to discuss matters
J37 073 such as assessment, topics, standards, and expectations.
J37 074    |^The reactions of Form 2 teachers who provide the
J37 075 information are very important. ^If the teachers feel they are
J37 076 indeed providing information that will be taken notice of and
J37 077 used, then they are more likely to feel like putting extra effort
J37 078 into it. ^Conversely, if they feel little use is made of what
J37 079 they supply, then they are likely to regard their efforts as
J37 080 wasted. ^Looking at the reactions of Form 2 teachers across case
J37 081 studies, several observations need to be made.
J37 082    |^First, there was general satisfaction about the kind of
J37 083 information supplied to the secondary schools in five case
J37 084 studies. ^In the case study where a higher proportion of teachers
J37 085 were less happy with the information they gave, almost no
J37 086 face-to-face consultation took place between Form 2 teachers and
J37 087 secondary staff collecting it. ^There *1was *0consultation with a
J37 088 senior intermediate school staff member, but it appeared that
J37 089 teachers felt as if they supplied information and had little idea
J37 090 about what happened to it later. ^In all other case studies, some
J37 091 form of face-to-face discussion about each student occurred *- or
J37 092 certainly those pupils where discussion was felt necessary. ^It
J37 093 seems to the researcher that this procedure is reflected in the
J37 094 widespread satisfaction expressed by teachers about the kind of
J37 095 information they supplied. ^Therefore for Form 2 teachers to feel
J37 096 that their information is worth giving, any written forms need to
J37 097 be supported by discussions with secondary staff. ^One case study
J37 098 provided an ideal comparison. ^Two intermediate schools each sent
J37 099 students to the same two secondary schools. ^One secondary school
J37 100 sent staff to each intermediate to collect information forms
J37 101 *1and *0discuss them with Form 2 teachers. ^The other secondary
J37 102 school asked for forms to be filled in, a senior staff member
J37 103 went to collect the forms, and while limited discussion took
J37 104 place with the intermediate principal, there was none with Form 2
J37 105 teachers. ^The reactions of the Form 2 teachers was plain; they
J37 106 were satisfied when discussion occurred, and dissatisfied where
J37 107 it did not. ^It seems that *1effectiveness is increased *0when
J37 108 face-to-face discussion about Form 2 students occurs.
J37 109    |^Second, the *1quality *0of information supplied by Form 2
J37 110 teachers seemed to be enhanced when it was supported by
J37 111 discussion because clarification and explanation of what was
J37 112 written was possible. ^It became obvious from teachers' comments
J37 113 that taking information solely from a written form can lead to
J37 114 misinterpretation. ^Perhaps even more importantly, spoken
J37 115 comments can be made that a Form 2 teacher might prefer not to
J37 116 write on a form, and yet would be useful for secondary staff to
J37 117 know.
J37 118    |^Third, most Form 2 teachers believed that the secondary
J37 119 schools in these case studies *1did *0take notice of the
J37 120 information they supplied although this was usually an assumption
J37 121 rather than a certainty. ^Most did not know what use was made of
J37 122 it beyond the placement of students into Form 3 classes and a
J37 123 minority even said they did not know what happened to their
J37 124 information once it left them. ^Most teachers felt they had some
J37 125 *1right *0to know how it was used *- after all, a lot of effort
J37 126 goes into providing it. ^For secondary schools, there is a need
J37 127 to *1better inform *0Form 2 teachers of the use made of the
J37 128 information.
J37 129    |^Fourth, the most positive responses about the transfer of
J37 130 information came from those case studies where most had been done
J37 131 to get both secondary and Form 2 teachers to work out the kind of
J37 132 information to be recorded and transferred. ^Some schools have
J37 133 regularly reviewed their forms. ^By way of contrast, numerous
J37 134 Form 2 teachers were somewhat negative about secondary schools
J37 135 outside these clusters to which they supplied information. ^It
J37 136 was usually a case of receiving forms by mail and being asked to
J37 137 fill them in and return them. ^There was, of course, no
J37 138 discussion and no chance to comment on the kind of information
J37 139 requested. ^To be *1effective *0as a means of supplying useful
J37 140 information, forms need to be worked out by agreement between the
J37 141 primary and secondary schools where transfer of students occurs.
J37 142 *<*1E19/22 Progress Cards*>
J37 143    |^*0These cards record a student's progress and achievement
J37 144 and certain other information during primary schooling. ^It is
J37 145 expected that they be transferred into the care of the secondary
J37 146 school when a student leaves Form 2. ^In the case studies, there
J37 147 was considerable variation in the way the cards were used by the
J37 148 secondary school.
J37 149    |^Generally, greater emphasis was placed upon the
J37 150 information form each school cluster had devised as a means of
J37 151 deciding on the placement of students in Form 3 classes.
J37 152 *<*1Follow-up on Form 3 students*>
J37 153    |^*0It was unusual for Form 2 teachers to have any further
J37 154 contact with secondary teachers about their students once they
J37 155 began their Form 3 year. ^Most case study secondary schools
J37 156 reported that if something *"blew-up**" over a child, the primary
J37 157 school might be contacted. ^But by and large, it was expected
J37 158 that the school would deal with the matter itself. ^Most Form 2
J37 159 teachers agreed that this should be the case. ^However, most also
J37 160 said they would appreciate some communication about how their
J37 161 ex-students had adjusted and their achievement *- probably
J37 162 towards the end of the first term. ^They reported that quite a
J37 163 number of their ex-students would return to visit early in the
J37 164 Form 3 year, but the visits soon fell away as they came to
J37 165 consider themselves secondary students. ^In one rural area,
J37 166 several ex-students sat in with Form 2 classes during their
J37 167 vacation week when primary schools were open.
J37 168 *<2. *3TRANSFER: FAMILIARISING STUDENTS WITH SECONDARY SCHOOL*>
J37 169    |^*0In all case studies, steps were taken to *1inform *0Form
J37 170 2 students about the secondary school. ^Most students from the
J37 171 primary schools in the clusters went on to the *"local**"
J37 172 secondary school in their zone.
J37 173 *<*1Information*>
J37 174    |^*0How necessary is it to inform students? ^Evidence cited
J37 175 in Chapter 2 *- from various countries *- shows that students who
J37 176 transfer from one school sector to the next, have fears and
J37 177 anxieties about the change. ^They are unsure of the unknown.
J37 178 ^Even where they have older brothers or sisters at the school,
J37 179 there are *"mythologies**" about secondary school life that pass
J37 180 *"down the line**" to younger students. ^Apart from fears about
J37 181 rituals and rites of initiation (most prove to be false), there
J37 182 is much to be learnt about course choices, school rules and
J37 183 procedures, new subjects, new learning experiences such as
J37 184 science laboratories, and much more. ^It is then, *1extremely
J37 185 important *0that students be fully informed about their new
J37 186 school.
J37 187    |^In every case study this importance was recognised. ^The
J37 188 following procedures had been adopted in all schools.
J37 189 |1.
J37 190 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J37 191 ^A secondary school *1prospectus *0was given to every Form 2
J37 192 pupil (and consequently the family). ^Usually, it was delivered
J37 193 by a secondary teacher who sometimes spoke to Form 2 classes when
J37 194 it was issued.
J37 195 **[END INDENTATION**]
J37 196 |2.
J37 197 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J37 198 ^Secondary personnel (often the Third Form Dean and sometimes the
J37 199 Principal and Guidance Counsellor) spoke to Form 2 pupils at the
J37 200 primary school.
J37 201 **[END INDENTATION**]
J37 202 |3.
J37 203 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J37 204 ^Supplementary information was provided about matters such as
J37 205 school uniforms, sports gear, and other equipment (if it was not
J37 206 already in the Prospectus).
J37 207 **[END INDENTATION**]
J37 208    |^In addition some schools included Form 2 students and
J37 209 their families in the circulation of *1newsletters *0and school
J37 210 *1newspapers *0(where they existed) which was a very effective
J37 211 way of keeping them informed.
J37 212 *<*1Orientation*>
J37 213    |^*0All secondary schools took steps to run some form of
J37 214 *1orientation *0for Form 2 students to familiarise them with
J37 215 their new secondary school. ^In four of the case study schools, an
J37 216 orientation tour was conducted near the end of the Form 2 year,
J37 217 lasting about half-a-day. ^One school ran such a half-day for its
J37 218 rural primary schools, but not urban intermediate pupils because
J37 219 it was believed that they already knew the school reasonably
J37 220 well.
J37 221 *#
J38 001 **[332 TEXT J38**]
J38 002    |^*0The following data comes from Wellington Teachers'
J38 003 College and Palmerston North Teachers' College.
J38 004    |^It's disheartening *- the numbers of final year trainees
J38 005 taking science as their special area of study have been 2, 0,
J38 006 1, 1 and 1 in last 5 years at Wellington Teachers' College and
J38 007 there were 5 at Palmerston North Teachers' College last year.
J38 008 (Figure 3).
J38 009    |^The implication is that only a low proportion of primary
J38 010 teachers have more than a superficial knowledge of any
J38 011 scientific or technical field and I have heard members of
J38 012 primary teaching selection panels express the view that
J38 013 prospective trainees with scientific and mathematical skills
J38 014 were, because of those skills, not likely to make good
J38 015 **[TABLE**]
J38 016 teachers. ^Quite properly, the same selection panel looks with
J38 017 disfavour upon prospective trainees with hostile attitudes to
J38 018 taha Maori but no such disfavour falls upon the candidate with
J38 019 hostile attitudes to science and technology which are integral
J38 020 parts of our culture.
J38 021    |^Of course, I am not suggesting that you can't be an
J38 022 excellent primary teacher without higher mathematics or
J38 023 science. ^What I am suggesting, is that if children are to get
J38 024 a balanced education then each moderately sized primary school
J38 025 needs at least one teacher whose special area is science (and
J38 026 another for mathematics) to function as a resource for other
J38 027 teachers and so that attitudes to science in the primary
J38 028 schools are kept positive.
J38 029 *<*4Secondary schools*>
J38 030    |^*0Science and mathematics in New Zealand secondary
J38 031 schools are dominated by the shortage of and lack of
J38 032 appropriately qualified teachers. ^This is a problem that has
J38 033 been around for 30 years.
J38 034    |^Mathematics always has the highest number of shortages
J38 035 but science is not far behind. ^In the last two years there has
J38 036 also been a big rise in the number of pupils and whole classes
J38 037 taking mathematics at the Correspondence School.
J38 038    |^In this situation it is nothing short of bizarre that
J38 039 applicants competent in mathematics and science are still being
J38 040 turned away from teachers' college. ^If a prospective applicant
J38 041 is not a *"people person**" or if they engage in *"loner
J38 042 sports**" they might as well not apply.
J38 043    |^The shortages, however, do not excite me as much as
J38 044 qualifications. ^It is
J38 045 **[TABLE**]
J38 046 qualifications of mathematics teachers that cause the greatest
J38 047 concern. ^New Zealand compares unfavourably with most of the 20
J38 048 other countries in the 1981 {0IEA} study in this regard.
J38 049 (Figure 4).
J38 050    |^The situation in science is more complex. ^Basically
J38 051 there is a serious and continuing imbalance in areas of subject
J38 052 specialisation which results in an acute shortage of physics
J38 053 teachers and an oversupply of biology teachers.
J38 054    |^What does this add up to?
J38 055    |^Well, in a typical state secondary school of 1000
J38 056 students, there will be approximately 17 3rd and 4th forms.
J38 057 ^One will have no regular mathematics teacher. ^Two or three
J38 058 more will be taught mathematics by a teacher with no
J38 059 post-secondary mathematics. ^Two or three will be taught
J38 060 science by a teacher with no science major. ^More than half
J38 061 will be taught science by a teacher with no post-secondary
J38 062 physics. ^The school is unlikely to have more than one teacher
J38 063 with a physics major.
J38 064    |^What slender resources we do have in this area are
J38 065 draining away rapidly. ^Of 14 candidates recently interviewed
J38 066 for a position in an Auckland industrial research laboratory
J38 067 eight were physics
J38 068 **[TABLE**]
J38 069 teachers from Auckland secondary schools. ^The salary offered
J38 070 was *+$20,000-*+$24,0000 *- yet most of the teacher applicants
J38 071 were already earning in excess of *+$30,000.
J38 072    |^Some of the reasons for this are found in the conditions
J38 073 of service that exist for these teachers.
J38 074 *<*4Conditions*>
J38 075    |^*0There are good points about the science curriculum in
J38 076 New Zealand schools but adequate resources have just not been
J38 077 made available to support it.
J38 078    |^In New Zealand we have an average of one half a
J38 079 technician per school of 1000 pupils compared with averages of
J38 080 two in secondary schools in Victoria and the {0UK}. ^In recent
J38 081 years the cost of equipment and materials has soared and many
J38 082 schools are now unable to contain this cost within the
J38 083 allowances provided.
J38 084    |^In 1964 the average science department grant/pupil was
J38 085 *+$2. ^In 1986 it was *+$3.68. ^Over this period the cost of
J38 086 chemicals, glassware \0etc has risen by 1300 percent. ^So the
J38 087 grant per pupil has less than one-eighth the buying power it
J38 088 had 22 years ago. ^Delivery of other resources has been
J38 089 delayed, reducing their effectiveness. ^For example, in 1986 a
J38 090 brand new mathematics course was available in the 7th form
J38 091 which required all teachers to break new ground. ^The guide
J38 092 notes for teachers (essential material) came out 18 months
J38 093 later. ^They apparently received low publication priority.
J38 094 ^These are the sorts of stresses that drive young mathematics
J38 095 teachers into the arms of sympathetic computer companies.
J38 096    |^Likewise there has been an extraordinary six year delay
J38 097 in publishing the results of the 1981 {0IEA} mathematics study
J38 098 *- yet the results are alarming. ^Third formers performed very
J38 099 badly in
J38 100 **[TABLE**]
J38 101 **[TABLE**]
J38 102 basic areas like arithmetic and measurement and action was
J38 103 needed promptly; 7th formers performed well, for the somewhat
J38 104 negative reason that only a very small proportion of New
J38 105 Zealanders go on to the upper secondary level, and so the lost
J38 106 ground is able to be made up. ^But 30 percent of 7th form
J38 107 mathematics teachers were heads of departments in other
J38 108 subjects and thus unlikely to offer adequate support to junior
J38 109 mathematics teachers.
J38 110    |^It is my view that the requirements of science and
J38 111 mathematics courses have never been fully accepted or provided
J38 112 for *- leading to poor performance and high teacher stress.
J38 113 *<*4Student flow into science and technology courses*>
J38 114    |^*0Let me give you some background to the small and
J38 115 declining number of students entering technical courses at
J38 116 technical institutes and universities.
J38 117    |^The 1960s saw a rapid rise in the numbers of students
J38 118 entering forms 5-7 and proceeding from there into tertiary
J38 119 institutions. ^This was because cohort sizes were increasing
J38 120 and also a higher proportion of the cohort was going on into
J38 121 upper secondary and tertiary education. ^This growth has
J38 122 continued but more slowly into the 70s and early 80s.
J38 123    |^Now cohort sizes are declining but social change
J38 124 continues with the numbers in form 6, and form 7, still
J38 125 increasing especially the numbers of females. ^But we still lag
J38 126 behind comparable changes in most {0OECD} countries.
J38 127    |^The following are participation rates in the final year
J38 128 of secondary school *- notice our extremely low participation
J38 129 rate at this level. ^Sixth form science enrolments by year and
J38 130 subject are shown on the facing page.
J38 131    |^The very different profiles for males
J38 132 **[TABLE**]
J38 133 **[TABLE**]
J38 134 and females show up clearly. ^Notice the generally declining
J38 135 proportion of males enrolling in physics and chemistry and a
J38 136 lack of any substantial compensating increases in the
J38 137 proportion of females.
J38 138    |^Even in 1985 it was still the case that there were more
J38 139 girls taking biology in form 7 than mathematics and more than
J38 140 twice as many taking biology as physics (with boys the figures
J38 141 are approximately reversed).
J38 142    |^Lower down the school approximately 35 percent of female
J38 143 students in 5th form close off many occupational options by not
J38 144 taking general science. ^They cut themselves off from careers
J38 145 in pharmacy, food technology, radiography, laboratory
J38 146 technology, water technology, and the like. ^Indeed they are
J38 147 even cutting themselves off from the air**[ARB**]-force.
J38 148    |^At the Central Institute of Technology they became
J38 149 concerned that they couldn't fill full-time courses in
J38 150 electronic technology and computer engineering *- courses with
J38 151 virtually guaranteed employment on completion. ^These courses
J38 152 require at least 6th Form Certificate in mathematics and
J38 153 physics with a grade of 5 or better, and it was suggested that
J38 154 perhaps this requirement was too restrictive. ^So the {0CIT}
J38 155 analysed data on subject combinations at school.
J38 156    |^They found that the proportion of
J38 157 **[TABLE**]
J38 158 **[TABLE**]
J38 159 males offering maths, physics and chemistry for the bursaries
J38 160 exam dropped 4 percent from 1983 to 1985. ^Proportions offering
J38 161 maths, accountancy and economics rose 5.5 percent in the same
J38 162 period.
J38 163    |^The figures for females are rises of 1 percent and 2.5
J38 164 percent respectively.
J38 165    |^This suggests increasing competition between disciplines
J38 166 for the relatively limited numbers of mathematically able
J38 167 students.
J38 168    |^Taken together with: *- decreasing cohort sizes, *- the
J38 169 shrinking proportion of males with traditional science
J38 170 combinations, and *- the lack of significant increases in
J38 171 female numbers, we can expect a bleak future for technology
J38 172 with numbers dropping and within this available pool, a decline
J38 173 in scientific and mathematical skills.
J38 174    |^The end results of these secondary school patterns are
J38 175 that 85 percent school leavers do not go to universities or
J38 176 technical institutes and that few females are adequately
J38 177 prepared to train for any technological occupation.
J38 178    |^Similar patterns are occurring in 1st year university
J38 179 enrolments *- two-thirds science degree students are men and in
J38 180 last few years their numbers are slowly but steadily falling.
J38 181 ^But it is the technical institutes that have been hardest hit
J38 182 with a drop of over 55 percent in numbers embarking on
J38 183 technicians' certificates. ^(See Figure 7).
J38 184    |^Whilst not wishing to underrate the importance of the
J38 185 tourist industry in New Zealand, the increase of 319 in this
J38 186 group of applicants compared with 47 in the technological
J38 187 basket must be a cause for alarm. ^Things are not improving.
J38 188    |^A new, out-of-phase, pilot course running this year in
J38 189 electronic engineering with relaxed requirements (just 6th Form
J38 190 Certificate in anything) attracted just 14 students *- all
J38 191 pakeha males with similar qualifications to the usual ones *-
J38 192 the target group of females, Maoris and unskilled males, was
J38 193 not tapped at all.
J38 194 *<*4Communication*>
J38 195    |^*0There is clearly a problem with the communication of
J38 196 employment opportunities. ^Pupils, teachers, parents and
J38 197 society at large seem unaware of the nature of jobs in a modern
J38 198 society. ^Even the New Zealand Planning Council in 1985
J38 199 published a planning paper on *"Young People, Education and
J38 200 Employment**" which has no mention of technicians or technician
J38 201 training at all.
J38 202    |^There is an extraordinary lack of concern with science
J38 203 exhibited in the recent curriculum review. ^It is obvious that
J38 204 many students need better and earlier advice about job
J38 205 opportunities and career paths if they are not to close off
J38 206 options by unfortunate subject choices.
J38 207    |^The awareness level in industry, commerce, teaching and
J38 208 government of technicians and their value seems very low.
J38 209    |^There is no system in New Zealand for developing a
J38 210 person's abilities to fill a technician role *- there is just a
J38 211 loose network of bodies with uncoordinated activities. ^There
J38 212 is no authority to ensure that the parts of the network *-
J38 213 employers, Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards, technical
J38 214 institutes, Department of Education \0etc, are integrated at
J38 215 all. ^And the performance of the network is not monitored.
J38 216 ^No-one, it seems, is responsible for ensuring that the quality
J38 217 and quantity of the technicians we train is appropriate for the
J38 218 development of New Zealand.
J38 219    |^Employers are showing little concern that the traditional
J38 220 *"hand-maiden**" aspect of the technician's job and the lack of
J38 221 proper career structure and opportunities must mean that the
J38 222 occupation remains unattractive to entrepreneurial and
J38 223 ambitious young people. ^Where does this leave us?
J38 224    |^We are already seeing big problems with staff
J38 225 recruitment. ^In 1981 the Auckland Hospital Board had 150
J38 226 applicants for 40 medical laboratory technicians' jobs. ^In
J38 227 1986 they had 18 applicants for 40 jobs.
J38 228    |^There is a move to raising retention rates at school *-
J38 229 our 17 percent in 7th form looks rather bad against the state
J38 230 of Victoria's 46 percent. ^Unfortunately concerns for
J38 231 scientific and technological education are often seen as
J38 232 conflicting with current educational ideas. ^But concern for
J38 233 educationally ill-served groups should include concerns for
J38 234 science education.
J38 235    |^The long-term cost to the nation of a lack of technicians
J38 236 in the meat, wool and dairy industries, medical laboratories,
J38 237 and industrial research laboratories, is obvious. ^And there
J38 238 are other costs to be borne as a result of an anti-science
J38 239 climate of opinion such as the inevitable results of the
J38 240 current low levels of vaccination in the community.
J38 241    |^Underlying all this is the poor public image of science
J38 242 which must be improved. ^New Zealand's future depends on the
J38 243 existence of a well-educated public. ^We must not again fail to
J38 244 adapt to change as we did in the 1970s.
J38 245 *#
J39 001 **[333 TEXT J39**]
J39 002    |^*0Children exempt from school attendance because they
J39 003 were taught at home included children whose parents had engaged
J39 004 tutors or governesses, or had made systematic educational
J39 005 efforts themselves, and others whose parents had simply spun
J39 006 the school committee, teacher or truant officer a convincing
J39 007 tale. ^The numbers were small and declined: there were 7348
J39 008 *'educated at home**' at the 1881 census and 4591 in 1906, but
J39 009 girls were always in a majority. ^The numbers attending Sunday
J39 010 School were much larger: 78891 in 1881 and 119479 in 1906, the
J39 011 last year in which these figures were recorded.
J39 012    |^Enrolment is one thing: regular attendance is another,
J39 013 and folklore has it that girls did not attend as regularly as
J39 014 boys. ^This, too, is not an easy question to settle.
J39 015 ^Departmental reports of the period give attendance rates, but
J39 016 not by sex; and there were two ways of calculating attendance:
J39 017 the *'strict average**' and the *'working average**' which
J39 018 ignored days on which fewer than half the children were
J39 019 present. ^Nineteenth century Departmental reports, however, do
J39 020 enable one to compare attendance in the final quarter of the
J39 021 year, by sex, with the schools' closing rolls. ^Table *=III
J39 022 shows small but persistent differences between the sexes in
J39 023 rates of attendance.
J39 024 **[TABLE**]
J39 025    |^Twentieth century reports were in a revised format and do
J39 026 not permit this comparison, but education boards' reports gave
J39 027 quarterly rolls and attendance by school and sex. ^Table *=IV
J39 028 gives attendance rates by sex at North Canterbury schools for
J39 029 two years in the early twentieth century. ^One notes the same
J39 030 small, consistent differences as in the earlier, national data.
J39 031    |^Two sets of hypotheses regarding these differences
J39 032 present themselves.
J39 033    |(**=i) ^Certain districts may have contributed
J39 034 disproportionately to the girls' over all lower rate. ^Gross
J39 035 rural-urban differences can be seen clearly enough. ^In the
J39 036 last quarter of 1908, for example, the rates of attendance in
J39 037 one- or two-teacher schools were 84.9% for boys and 83.3% for
J39 038 girls. ^In schools with three or more teachers they were 89.3%
J39 039 for boys and 87.5% for girls. ^But were there sex differences
J39 040 by district, {0e.g.} between working class and middle class
J39 041 urban areas, between newly subdivided rural districts with many
J39 042 recent smallholders and other districts? ^These matters run
J39 043 **[TABLE**]
J39 044 beyond the scope of this paper, but could be pursued by working
J39 045 from a good sample of education boards' full reports.
J39 046    |(**=ii) ^Certain age-groups may have been more irregular
J39 047 attenders than others; little girls, perhaps, because their
J39 048 parents were more likely to keep their daughters home when the
J39 049 weather was rough and the ways were foul; older girls, perhaps,
J39 050 because they were kept home to help. ^These possibilities could
J39 051 only be tested by going back to schools' registers of
J39 052 attendance which record ages and classification.
J39 053    |^Did girls' lower attendance rate, over all, mean that
J39 054 their progress was slower at primary school? ^Hogben's answer
J39 055 was *1{au contraire}, *0and he was right. ^Again, Departmental
J39 056 reports do not present the data one would wish for. ^They do
J39 057 not give ages by class and sex until 1911; they give pass rates
J39 058 in inspectors' examinations in the nineteenth century, but do
J39 059 not distinguish between the sexes. ^However, individual
J39 060 inspectors on rare occasions report pass rates in standard
J39 061 examinations by sex.
J39 062    |^The most detailed data of this sort are to be found in
J39 063 some of Henry Hill's reports on his district: they are
J39 064 presented in Table *=V and show a higher pass rate for girls in
J39 065 all but one year.
J39 066    |^Only two other districts provided such information in the
J39 067 nineteenth century, and then only for single years; but these
J39 068 scraps of information are worth noting. ^In 1881 68.9% of
J39 069 Auckland boys passed their examinations and 72.4% of the girls.
J39 070 ^In 1884 64.9% of Wanganui boys passed their examinations as
J39 071 did 65.7% of the girls.
J39 072    |^Although they were not cross-tabulated until 1911, ages
J39 073 by sex and classes by sex were given in Departmental reports
J39 074 from the late 1870s, and Hogben's analysis was, of course,
J39 075 based on these figures. ^Table *=VI extends Hogben's analysis.
J39 076    |^The difference which Hogben noted between the ratios of
J39 077 boys to girls over all and boys to girls aged five or six is
J39 078 only to be seen in 1910 and in 1880 and 1885.
J39 079 **[TABLES**]
J39 080 ^What is much more noteworthy, and much more enduring, is the
J39 081 relatively low ratio of girls to boys in primer classes. ^From
J39 082 1885 onwards there were considerably fewer girls in these
J39 083 classes than one would have expected, given the ratio of girls
J39 084 to boys aged five or six. ^Girls, on average, got through the
J39 085 primers a bit faster. ^At the other end of the school, from
J39 086 1890 onwards, there were more girls in Standard *=V and *=VI
J39 087 than one would have expected, given the ratio of girls to boys
J39 088 aged 13-14.
J39 089    |^The changing ratio of boys to girls aged 13-14 demands
J39 090 explanation. ^That explanation lies, I think, in the very small
J39 091 numbers at school after 13 in the 1880s. ^Of those who did
J39 092 stay, nearly half were girls, many of them seeking to become
J39 093 pupil-teachers. ^The lower ratio of girls to boys in the early
J39 094 twentieth century reflects the raising of the leaving age in
J39 095 1901 and of the standard of exemption so that more boys stayed
J39 096 on until they turned 14.
J39 097    |^Thus, in so far as there were sex differences in progress
J39 098 through primary school, girls did better. ^They got through the
J39 099 primers a little faster and they were more likely to reach
J39 100 Standard *=V or *=VI by ages 13-14. ^Their reward for this was
J39 101 that they could leave school earlier than boys, having reached
J39 102 the standard of exemption, set at Standard *=IV in 1878 and at
J39 103 Standard *=V in 1899.
J39 104    |^After 1911 it is possible to compare boys' and girls'
J39 105 ages in classes. ^Table *=VII shows that boys were more likely
J39 106 than girls to be nine or more and still in Standard *=I or to
J39 107 be 13 or more and still in Standard *=V.
J39 108 **[TABLE**]
J39 109    |^While the readily available national data on primary
J39 110 schools tell a clear and consistent story, post-primary
J39 111 schooling was another, and more complex matter.
J39 112    |^Girls were, as Table *=I indicates, less likely to
J39 113 proceed to state secondary schools. ^They were over-represented
J39 114 in district high schools and technical high schools, but these
J39 115 had fewer pupils than the standard secondary schools so that,
J39 116 over all, there were fewer girls than boys in post-primary
J39 117 schools. ^And there were marked differences in the numbers
J39 118 gaining certain qualifications or passing the most esteemed
J39 119 examinations.
J39 120    |^As Table *=I indicates, girls at secondary schools were
J39 121 always less likely than boys to be there on an education board
J39 122 scholarship awarded by competitive examination. ^In 1896 the
J39 123 Otago Education Board published useful summary statistics on
J39 124 its scholarships since 1878. ^Between 1878 and 1895 768 boys
J39 125 entered for the junior scholarship examination compared to 531
J39 126 girls: 446 boys sought a senior scholarship compared to 218
J39 127 girls. ^And boys were more successful: 14.2% of boy candidates
J39 128 were awarded a junior scholarship and 9.8% of the girls; 28.9%
J39 129 of boys were awarded a senior scholarship as against 26.6% of
J39 130 girls.
J39 131    |^Unfortunately, one cannot present the results of the
J39 132 major, national examinations in these terms. ^The Department
J39 133 reported the total number of candidates for the examinations it
J39 134 conducted and it listed successful candidates by name, but it
J39 135 did not give the numbers of males and females entering. ^One
J39 136 can, therefore, calculate pass rates over all, and working from
J39 137 lists of the successful, one can determine how many boys and
J39 138 how many girls gained certain qualifications, but one cannot
J39 139 determine pass rates by sex.
J39 140    |^Hogben's scheme of free places in secondary schools
J39 141 created a formidable array of examinations and awards at the
J39 142 end of primary schooling. ^Subject to certain age restrictions
J39 143 and regulations regarding priority, pupils could gain a free
J39 144 place by passing the Standard *=VI *'Proficiency**' examination
J39 145 or the Department's special Junior Free Place Examination, or
J39 146 by gaining an education board scholarship. ^And after 1903 the
J39 147 Junior National Scholarships Examination provided high-fliers
J39 148 with a free place and further financial assistance.
J39 149    |^Candidates for Junior National Scholarships in each board
J39 150 district were ranked by aggregate mark and boards allocated
J39 151 their quotas of scholarships by working down from the top. ^At
J39 152 the same time, those who failed to win a scholarship but
J39 153 reached a specified standard were awarded free places.
J39 154 **[TABLE**]
J39 155    |^From 1906 onwards those passing the examinations were
J39 156 listed by their full names so that boys and girls can be
J39 157 identified. ^Table *=VIII shows the number and average mark of
J39 158 boys and girls passing this examination in three different
J39 159 years. ^Girls' average marks were uniformly lower than boys',
J39 160 and in 1914 were significantly lower (t = 3.43, {0df} = 889,
J39 161 *1\0p *0< 0.001).
J39 162    |^The number of girls passing the examination was markedly
J39 163 lower than the number of boys and much lower than one might
J39 164 have expected on the basis of the sex ratio in the senior
J39 165 primary school. ^In 1910, for example, there was a highly
J39 166 significant difference between the numbers of boys and girls
J39 167 passing this examination and the numbers in Standard *=VI
J39 168 (chi*:2**: = 20.425, {0df} = 1, *1\0p *0< .001).
J39 169    |^The published results of the competitive Junior Civil
J39 170 Service Examination, established in the 1880s, lend themselves
J39 171 to a similar, although unfortunately limited analysis. ^The
J39 172 full names of those passing were published in order of merit
J39 173 and suitable vacancies in the public service were filled by
J39 174 working down from the top. ^Considerable numbers of persons who
J39 175 did not seek positions in the public sector also came to sit
J39 176 this examination in the later nineteenth century to gain a
J39 177 general, vocational qualification, and the Department asked
J39 178 candidates to state whether they actually sought a government
J39 179 billet.
J39 180    |^In the nineteenth century the Junior Civil Service
J39 181 Examination was taken by a good number of children in the
J39 182 Standard *=VII classes which flourished in some cities before
J39 183 free places in secondary schools. ^By the early twentieth
J39 184 century, however, the Junior Civil Service Examination had
J39 185 become very much a junior secondary examination taken in one's
J39 186 second or third year at high school, and the Department of
J39 187 Education, which conducted the examination, instituted a 
J39 188 non-competitive version, the Intermediate Examination, on the basis
J39 189 of which senior free places were awarded.
J39 190    |^The Junior Civil Service Examination, however, remained
J39 191 popular as a general qualification and there were large numbers
J39 192 of candidates. ^Table *=IX is based on analyses of published
J39 193 lists of persons passing this examination in five different
J39 194 years. (^The table does not run to 1915 because in 1912 girls
J39 195 were barred from sitting on the grounds that there were no
J39 196 public service jobs for them anyway.)
J39 197 **[TABLE**]
J39 198    |^The general pattern is very much as for the scholarship
J39 199 examination: far fewer girls passed, but while their average
J39 200 ranking was generally lower than boys' none of the differences
J39 201 in average rank generate statistically significant *'ts**'.
J39 202    |^The most valuable secondary school qualification sought
J39 203 by significant numbers of pupils was the university's
J39 204 Matriculation Examination. ^The results of this examination
J39 205 were not published in official papers, but all candidates in
J39 206 the early twentieth century were sent a booklet giving the full
J39 207 names of successful candidates and their marks by subject.
J39 208 ^Again, while one can determine the sex of the successful, one
J39 209 cannot determine pass-rates because the unsuccessful were
J39 210 discreetly listed only by examination code number.
J39 211 **[TABLE**]
J39 212    |^Table *=X presents an analysis of the 1914 examination,
J39 213 based on one of the few surviving booklets. ^Over all, there
J39 214 was no significant difference between successful boys and
J39 215 girls. ^The girls took 1006 papers with an average mark of
J39 216 52.7: the boys took 1953 papers with an average mark of 51.8.
J39 217 ^There were, however, interesting differences in specific
J39 218 subjects, some of them statistically significant. ^Girls did
J39 219 better than boys in English (t = 6.996, {0df} = 511, *1\0p *0<
J39 220 .001) and in French (t = 4.957, {0df} = 390, *1\0p *0< .001):
J39 221 the boys did significantly better in mathematics (t = 3.980,
J39 222 {0df} = 511, *1\0p *0< .001), physical science (t = 3.459,
J39 223 {0df} = 17/230, *1\0p *0< .01) and drawing (t = 1.991, {0df} =
J39 224 134, *1\0p *0< .05).
J39 225 *#
J40 001 **[334 TEXT J40**]
J40 002 ^*0Majority governments do not normally fear defeat on
J40 003 legislation; bills are rarely withdrawn as a result of
J40 004 parliamentary pressure and successful amendments to government
J40 005 legislation are not numerous. ^Yet governments may still be
J40 006 prepared to listen to, and accept, parliamentary advice. ^As a
J40 007 legislature the New Zealand House of Representatives rates highly
J40 008 for the level of inputs into the system. ^Not only are {0MP}s in
J40 009 close touch with their electorates, but the parliamentary
J40 010 committee system, with easy accessibility for submissions even *-
J40 011 unlike Westminister *- on bills, has much to recommend it.
J40 012 ^Nevertheless, when it comes to the effect such submissions may
J40 013 have, much depends upon the nature of the legislation being
J40 014 considered and the circumstances surrounding it.
J40 015 *<*2THE PRE-LEGISLATIVE STAGE: GOVERNMENT BILLS*>
J40 016 |^*0Proposals for legislation largely originate outside the
J40 017 House, frequently in the public service, interest groups or
J40 018 parties, but whatever their origin, all have to be drafted into
J40 019 legal form before submission. ^This is the task of a specialised
J40 020 group of lawyers, the Parliamentary Counsel (formerly known as
J40 021 the Law Draftsmen), who work within the House itself. ^This is
J40 022 where the advantages of governments begin to emerge. ^The
J40 023 parliamentary counsel are there primarily to draft public bills
J40 024 and although their expertise is available for private bills,
J40 025 private members' bills (officially at least) enjoy no such
J40 026 advantage, and there can be little doubt that the skill of the
J40 027 Parliamentary Counsel in drafting legislation is an important
J40 028 advantage.
J40 029    |^A group such as the parliamentary counsel tends to build
J40 030 up its own informal rules or traditions in the drafting of
J40 031 legislation. ^The tradition in New Zealand is what might be
J40 032 called *'lawyers' legislation**', designed primarily for
J40 033 interpretation by lawyers and the courts, rather than for
J40 034 comprehensibility by the public at large. ^It tends to be very
J40 035 detailed and specific (and so likely to require frequent
J40 036 amendment) rather than dedicated to the expression of broad
J40 037 principles, as is often the case elsewhere.
J40 038    |^It has been argued that the result is *'too many examples
J40 039 in our law of obscure language and over-elaboration in the
J40 040 illusory desire for certainty**'. ^The counter argument is that
J40 041 our laws are complicated through necessity, because simplifying
J40 042 legislation by concentrating on principles, instead of detailing
J40 043 its applications in many circumstances, would inevitably place a
J40 044 greater burden of interpretation on the courts which, it has been
J40 045 alleged, have a poor record in this area. ^This, then, is a
J40 046 problem not just for parliamentary counsel and the House, but
J40 047 involves a much wider understanding about the form which law
J40 048 should take and how it may be interpreted. ^Another problem is
J40 049 that of delay caused by a worldwide shortage of skilled
J40 050 parliamentary counsel. ^Although the New Zealand counsel were
J40 051 increased from 7 to 9 in 1985, this number was still insufficient
J40 052 to deal with the annual workload which included 345 regulations
J40 053 and 200 public acts, in addition to reports on private and local
J40 054 acts.
J40 055    |^The course followed by a proposal for a government bill
J40 056 before its introduction to the House runs something like this.
J40 057 ^Most of the proposals for legislation originate before the start
J40 058 of the session when the cabinet office requests Ministers to
J40 059 submit proposals for legislation. ^The various departments submit
J40 060 outlines of bills to the Cabinet Legislation Committee, pointing
J40 061 out the reasons for their introduction, a summary of their
J40 062 content and likely areas of opposition (namely pressure groups,
J40 063 individuals and others). ^These are then discussed by the cabinet
J40 064 committee with the Minister concerned and the permanent head or
J40 065 another senior officer of the department. ^Parliamentary counsel
J40 066 are also in attendance so that they may have a full appreciation
J40 067 of what is proposed. ^At the same time the committee will decide
J40 068 the likely priority of the bill, which may result in it being
J40 069 deferred to a future year. ^Major policy proposals may then be
J40 070 sent to cabinet although most will be referred back to the
J40 071 originating department which may wish to discuss the proposals
J40 072 with relevant pressure groups before giving the Parliamentary
J40 073 Counsel Office detailed instructions. ^The proposal will also
J40 074 have to go on to both caucus and a caucus committee. ^At any
J40 075 point the bill may be referred back to one of the earlier bodies
J40 076 but after the final approval by caucus, it will be printed and
J40 077 distributed for the introduction and first reading. ^The
J40 078 opposition, of course, is wholly excluded from these often
J40 079 protracted pre-parliamentary discussions, usually being presented
J40 080 with a copy of the bill only upon its introduction into the
J40 081 House.
J40 082 *<*2PUBLIC BILLS AND THE PARLIAMENTARY STAGES*>
J40 083 |^*0A bill, as a proposal for legislation to be enacted, becomes,
J40 084 when passed by parliament and approved by the Governor-General,
J40 085 part of the statute law of the land as an Act of Parliament. ^It
J40 086 may fall into one of three broad types: public, local or private.
J40 087 ^Public bills make up by far the largest proportion of
J40 088 legislation in the early 1980s, constituting 86% of the total.
J40 089 ^These, mainly introduced into the House by the government
J40 090 (78.5%), also include what is known as private members'
J40 091 legislation, which is the only form of legislation which can be
J40 092 said to originate from within the chamber (although it may well
J40 093 represent the interests of an outside body). ^Judged in terms of
J40 094 its output, it is one of the less significant parts of the work
J40 095 of present-day parliaments, amounting to only 7.5% of the total
J40 096 legislation introduced.
J40 097    |^Many countries, including New Zealand, follow the British
J40 098 practice of having three readings of a bill, although there is
J40 099 nothing sacrosanct about this. ^A number of parliaments, such as
J40 100 Japan or Syria and most of those in Western Europe, have only one
J40 101 or two readings. ^The first reading in New Zealand serves as an
J40 102 introduction. ^It is supposed to be confined to matters of
J40 103 clarification, what the bill is about and why it is required, but
J40 104 it has, inevitably, tended to develop into a political debate on
J40 105 the merits of the legislation proposed. ^The result is that the
J40 106 distinction between the first reading (theoretically devoted to
J40 107 matters of clarification) and the second reading (theoretically a
J40 108 debate on the principles of the bill) has become blurred. ^The
J40 109 second reading should be the key stage, involving more detailed
J40 110 discussion of the main principle of the bill and a close
J40 111 examination of its clauses on the basis of a committee's report.
J40 112    |^There is apt to be some confusion about the second reading
J40 113 too. ^In New Zealand practice, after the introductory first
J40 114 reading, all public bills, except finance bills or bills upon
J40 115 which urgency has been taken, are automatically sent to the
J40 116 appropriate select committee. ^Following this, the second reading
J40 117 debate deals first with the general principles of the bill in
J40 118 detail. ^Then, in the committee stage *- meaning this time the
J40 119 Committee of the Whole House where the Speaker leaves the chair
J40 120 and is replaced by the Chairman of Committees *- the House
J40 121 proceeds to examine the adequacy of the individual clauses of the
J40 122 bill in the light of the general principles already discussed,
J40 123 together with the report of the select committee. ^This stage
J40 124 also includes the debate on the short title. ^In this mini-debate
J40 125 {0MP}s are not restricted to any one clause but can range more
J40 126 widely. ^It is not, however, another second reading debate for it
J40 127 relates more to the drafting than to the principles of the bill.
J40 128 ^Members are allowed to speak less frequently, but for slightly
J40 129 longer, than in the debates on individual clauses.
J40 130    |^When this is complete the members reconvene at the House
J40 131 to debate the second reading and when this has been agreed the
J40 132 bill moves to the third reading. ^This is concerned with the
J40 133 final consideration of the general principles of the bill and its
J40 134 passage into law. ^The only permissible amendment is a wrecking
J40 135 one, that this bill be read *'this day three months**' (or other
J40 136 specified time extending beyond the end of the session) which, if
J40 137 carried, effectively kills the bill. ^This, however, is rare and
J40 138 on many bills there is no debate at all at the third reading.
J40 139    |^Buried within these arcane stages are assumptions which
J40 140 are very important for the nature of the legislative process.
J40 141 ^For example, much depends upon whether a bill is debated first
J40 142 on the floor of the chamber or is sent to a parliamentary
J40 143 committee. ^If it is debated first on the floor (as is usual in
J40 144 New Zealand), the House is, in effect, setting the terms of
J40 145 reference which restrict the select committee to the details
J40 146 rather than principles. ^Where a bill goes first to a committee,
J40 147 in what is frequently referred to as a pre-legislative stage,
J40 148 that committee is endowed with much greater freedom of debate and
J40 149 consequently much greater influence. ^This difference can be of
J40 150 considerable significance in a country like New Zealand where
J40 151 there is a strong party influence in the chamber but where the
J40 152 select committees adopt a less partisan approach.
J40 153    |^Curiously, there is nothing in the Standing Orders of the
J40 154 New Zealand House of Representatives to prevent a bill first
J40 155 being referred to a select committee; yet this has occurred only
J40 156 once when the Public Finance Bill 1977 was successfully referred
J40 157 to the Public Expenditure Committee. ^Despite a recommendation
J40 158 from the 1979 Standing Orders Committee that this procedure was
J40 159 suitable for complex or technical bills, it has not recurred.
J40 160 ^Failure to proceed in this way reflects successive governments'
J40 161 determination to keep a tight grip upon their legislation
J40 162 throughout the various stages of the parliamentary process, but
J40 163 it also implies the jealously guarded dominance of the chamber
J40 164 over its committees.
J40 165    |^It is clear from the reports of successive committees set
J40 166 up over the past twenty-five years to review the Standing Orders
J40 167 of the House (1962, 1967, 1972, 1979 and 1984-7), that the
J40 168 existing procedures, despite some important changes, still do not
J40 169 work as well as might be hoped. ^There continue to be
J40 170 difficulties at the first reading stage, for example. ^The 1972
J40 171 Standing Orders Committee had complained that these debates were
J40 172 overly extensive, resembling second reading debates, but resisted
J40 173 setting time limits and suggested self-restraint on the part of
J40 174 {0MP}s. ^The 1979 Committee, concerned about the same problem,
J40 175 did establish a two-hour time limit for the debate but with only
J40 176 limited success. ^There appears to be no real readiness yet to
J40 177 avoid the problem completely and opt for the more radical
J40 178 solution of referring bills directly to select committees as can
J40 179 happen with local bills during a recess. ^Such a move would avoid
J40 180 the present intransigent problems altogether, as well as having
J40 181 other advantages. ^This seems to be the only logical solution for
J40 182 the complaint voiced by successive Standing Orders Committees.
J40 183 ^Any opposition worth its salt is not going to pass up such an
J40 184 opportunity since the first formal introduction of a bill is
J40 185 bound to attract publicity. ^Complaints by {0MP}s reflect the
J40 186 widespread misunderstanding of, or lack of readiness to accept, a
J40 187 rule which contains within itself the seeds of unnecessary
J40 188 conflict. ^There has been pressure for the earlier distribution
J40 189 of bills to {0MP}s and the 1985 Standing Orders Committee went so
J40 190 far as to endorse
J40 191 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J40 192 ^The result is a continuing and confusing tendency to convert the
J40 193 first reading into a full-scale debate, a seemingly inevitable
J40 194 result unless the decision is taken to refer a bill first to a
J40 195 select committee.
J40 196    |^At the committee stage after the second reading the House
J40 197 has, since 1979, adopted the eminently sensible procedure of
J40 198 accepting as the subject of debate a bill as amended by a select
J40 199 committee, instead of, as previously, laboriously reading into
J40 200 the original text proposed amendments suggested by the select
J40 201 committee. ^But all too often the effect has been to transform
J40 202 the committee stage debate into yet another more general debate.
J40 203 ^Moreover, as the 1979 Standing Orders Committee pointed out,
J40 204 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J40 205 ^Accordingly, the 1979 Committee seriously considered abandoning
J40 206 the Committee of the Whole House, only deciding against it on the
J40 207 dubious ground that it would have the effect of *'shifting
J40 208 vehement political and policy debates from the floor of the House
J40 209 to select committees**'.
J40 210 *#
J41 001 **[335 TEXT J41**]
J41 002 ^*0Otherwise, the certainty of their survival *- and thus the
J41 003 certainty of freedom being maintained *- will be undermined. ^For
J41 004 this reason, agreement can only be obtained in respect of
J41 005 *1conduct, *0not ends; and the conduct agreed upon must be
J41 006 conduct which upholds the free society. ^In other words, only
J41 007 conduct which is likely to destroy freedom by impinging on the
J41 008 legitimate pursuits of another free individual may be proscribed.
J41 009 ^Such limitations on personal freedom, if they are to avoid the
J41 010 accusation of being arbitrary or partial must be absolutely
J41 011 general in nature and of equal application to all individuals.
J41 012    |^What is thus constructed is an objective code of conduct
J41 013 which will apply regardless of particular circumstances. ^The
J41 014 motivation of the individual in a particular case can be a matter
J41 015 only of subjective knowledge and to mould the moral code on such
J41 016 a selective basis would amount to an arbitrary and quite
J41 017 unpredictable system. ^The matter of predictability is important.
J41 018 ^Whilst we have seen that the free society is, for its
J41 019 participants, an uncertain and insecure society as far as
J41 020 outcomes are concerned, it is of the utmost importance that the
J41 021 rules of conduct are, to the greatest extent possible, certain
J41 022 and predictable. ^If free individuals are to pursue their own
J41 023 interests (to the greatest benefit of society as a whole), they
J41 024 must be able to act confidently in the knowledge that certain
J41 025 rules apply to all players. ^If the code of conduct is subject to
J41 026 quite arbitrary and unpredictable suspension or alteration
J41 027 without general agreement, then no risks will be taken, and no
J41 028 market will be able to operate. ^An individual can apply his
J41 029 reason to the best of his ability only if the rules of conduct
J41 030 which bind all players are equally enforced.
J41 031    |^It is in this sense that freedom itself takes on an almost
J41 032 moral quality. ^It is a value which cannot be suspended on an
J41 033 *1{ad hoc} *0basis to suit particular circumstances such as the
J41 034 entreaties of individuals who have met with a less-than-favourable 
J41 035 outcome to their endeavours. ^To seek, by way of the
J41 036 suspension of rules, a *"better**" outcome in the eyes of an
J41 037 individual player than would otherwise have eventuated, is to
J41 038 strike at the very heart of freedom.
J41 039    |^Thus far we have spoken of a system of morality or values
J41 040 and rules of conduct. ^We now need to distinguish between those
J41 041 *"rules**" which are actually crystallised as formal law, and
J41 042 those which form an unwritten but universally accepted code of
J41 043 conduct. ^One of the most remarkable aspects of free societies is
J41 044 that they have maintained their stability and freedom through a
J41 045 body of rules which are in many cases not crystallised as written
J41 046 law. ^If the only rules which can apply in a free society relate
J41 047 to the maintenance of conduct which is compatible with
J41 048 maintaining a free order, then there is little difference between
J41 049 the sorts of rules which are written and unwritten. ^The
J41 050 unwritten rules (or morals) are those which have evolved, quite
J41 051 organically, over time and which general acceptance has found to
J41 052 be most advantageous to the securing of a free order. ^Those
J41 053 which have evolved further *- to written, formal, legal status *-
J41 054 differ only in that they carry sanctions which reinforce their
J41 055 injunctions in the case of a breach of the rules. ^Naturally, the
J41 056 enforcement of legal rules can only be justified in respect of
J41 057 conduct which affects the freedom and private domain of others.
J41 058 ^Actions which affect none but the individual who performs them
J41 059 cannot attract legal sanctions in the same way. ^We will have
J41 060 more to say about private morality later on.
J41 061    |^It is important that the social, organic nature of moral
J41 062 rules be underlined. ^In most cases, formal laws are not obeyed
J41 063 because of the legal injunctions addressed to the citizens: they
J41 064 are obeyed because the same rule forms part of the prevailing
J41 065 morality of society. ^People do not refrain from murder or theft
J41 066 because a law proscribes such activities; rather, they are
J41 067 conforming to inherited rules of conduct which have been evolved
J41 068 as being the best means of maintaining order in a free society.
J41 069 ^In stressing the organic nature of these moral rules it is not
J41 070 suggested that they belong to some code of *"natural**" law.
J41 071 ^These moral injunctions as to conduct are *1of society *- *0not
J41 072 imposed by rational design from without or some sort of cosmic
J41 073 order which has always been there.
J41 074    |^The evolutionary nature of the unwritten moral code raises
J41 075 a caveat in respect of the desirability of codifying these rules
J41 076 and elevating them into law. ^The moment that happens, they are
J41 077 crystallised and not easily changed. ^In other words, the
J41 078 evolutionary approach is discarded. ^Whilst absolute certainty is
J41 079 achieved, the possibility for modification is reduced; a
J41 080 modification may well, in some unforeseen circumstances, be
J41 081 desirable. ^Under the evolutionary approach to the formation of
J41 082 moral codes, experimentation with alternatives will be possible.
J41 083 ^Any challenge to the moral code which is fundamentally opposed
J41 084 to it is likely to be eschewed *- mistakes are dealt with very
J41 085 effectively in the marketplace of society. ^But a respectful
J41 086 challenge which proves its worth may well be adopted as a useful
J41 087 modification to the code of general rules currently adhered to by
J41 088 everyone. ^Experimentation will be outlawed and subject to
J41 089 sanction if particular conduct is expressly illegal; the
J41 090 likelihood of beneficial change through the agency of Parliament
J41 091 is uncertain to say the least.
J41 092    |^This cannot, of course, become an argument for no legal
J41 093 rules and sanctions; clearly, some activities (such as murder,
J41 094 assault, theft and suchlike) are *1absolutely *0contrary to the
J41 095 maintenance of a free order and must be dealt with by the law.
J41 096 ^But other areas may well be open to future amendment and for
J41 097 that reason it is probably wise to leave the crystallising effect
J41 098 of the law only for the most serious and fundamental moral
J41 099 principles. ^As much as anything else, such an approach would be
J41 100 consistent with the liberal tradition of admitting our inability
J41 101 to foresee all outcomes or predetermine the future. ^It has been
J41 102 noted by Hayek that, like language, morals are *"equipment for
J41 103 unknown contingencies**". ^They will be an indispensable guide in
J41 104 most cases but there will inevitably be new situations,
J41 105 previously unconsidered, which may need to be dealt with in a
J41 106 fresh way, though always in a manner consistent with the
J41 107 maintenance of freedom.
J41 108    |^Against this, the moral code of a closed, or
J41 109 deterministic, society is almost unrecognisable as such.
J41 110 ^Starting from the premise that man is perfectible and that
J41 111 rational enquiry and analysis (quite independent of those
J41 112 inherited, cultural values of which morals are part) will discern
J41 113 the *"correct**" goal to be pursued, any necessary rules of
J41 114 conduct must be imposed if the goal is to be reached. ^This is
J41 115 the opposite of what we have seen in the free society where
J41 116 morals evolve as part of the society. ^Here they are imposed from
J41 117 without. ^Thus, in the absence of agreement, it will be quite
J41 118 impossible to tolerate free will in a deterministic society. ^And
J41 119 if there is no free will, then individuals cannot, by definition,
J41 120 be responsible for their actions. ^Only the coercive state can be
J41 121 responsible for the actions of those it directs; as such there is
J41 122 an appalling decay of all personal moral responsibility. ^It is
J41 123 assumed to be a matter for the state to determine. ^And, as the
J41 124 passage from Hayek quoted at the beginning of this section makes
J41 125 clear, there is no morality beyond the personal realm, only the
J41 126 exercise of power.
J41 127    |^Such a social order, built upon the pursuit of certain
J41 128 ends, will quickly rationalise particular means to justify those
J41 129 ends. ^Unwritten morals will be easily bypassed. ^But even formal
J41 130 law will soon be in tatters as the basis for judging conduct
J41 131 ceases to be objective ({0ie}, quite uninterested in the
J41 132 motivation of individuals) and becomes subjective *- prepared to
J41 133 justify conduct on the basis of the ends sought. ^Such partiality
J41 134 leaves the stability and certainty law is supposed to provide in
J41 135 ruins. ^Thus, if the elimination of wealth is the stated aim of a
J41 136 particular society, theft which can be claimed to be consistent
J41 137 with that aim starts to wear a *"moral**" gloss. ^The squeamish
J41 138 politician, discomforted by the unruly nature of such Robin Hood
J41 139 activity will, in all likelihood, take unto the state the sole
J41 140 power to expropriate wealth. ^In this way, the people of a
J41 141 socialist society transfer to the state certain vices which are
J41 142 then sanitised and applauded as being in the *"common good**".
J41 143    |^It will be apparent from the foregoing that the moral
J41 144 *"climates**" sustained by the two ethics we have been discussing
J41 145 are profoundly different. ^Most striking about the free society's
J41 146 reliance on agreed rules of conduct to maintain a free order is
J41 147 the incentive which it provides for excellence. ^Since the rules
J41 148 are objective, then individuals are judged not by their
J41 149 particular ambitions (which may be completely private) but by
J41 150 their conduct. ^An egalitarian, socialist society has grave
J41 151 difficulty in encouraging that same excellence. ^If individuals
J41 152 are not finally responsible for their actions then they will be
J41 153 judged less by their conduct than by their obedience to the
J41 154 pursuit of the particular goals society has set itself. ^There is
J41 155 nothing *"good**" or *"praiseworthy**" about working hard to
J41 156 bring about the millennium when one's part in that task is
J41 157 carried out under threat of coercion. ^It is no different than
J41 158 the payment of tax being completely amoral in a free society.
J41 159 ^Which brings us back to Hayek's nostrum that there can be no
J41 160 morality outside the sphere of individual responsibility.
J41 161    |^The attitudes which individuals hold are all-important for
J41 162 the peaceful and fruitful functioning of any social order. ^The
J41 163 two views of humanity we have been tracing have quite different
J41 164 attitudinal effects. ^The collectivist or determinist view is
J41 165 that people are inherently good; it is only *"the system**" which
J41 166 is wrong. ^Therefore, fighting the system which prevents that
J41 167 goodness being realised is the key aim and object of life. ^So it
J41 168 is that an idealistic philosophy engenders a negative approach to
J41 169 society. ^And since social utopia is not achievable in this
J41 170 world, frustration and negativism can only flourish, sometimes in
J41 171 the extreme manifestation of a Baader-Meinhof or Red Army Faction
J41 172 terrorist movement. ^The individualist, liberal view on the other
J41 173 hand does not set up unattainable expectations: it stands for the
J41 174 knowledge that people are weak. ^Thus, if things are wrong, they
J41 175 are so because of individual failing *- there is no appeal to
J41 176 structuralism to rationalise the problem. ^If the individual is
J41 177 thus the author of his own misfortunes (or success) then there is
J41 178 a strong incentive to stress the need for personal virtues and
J41 179 conduct which will win the approval of other individuals. ^And so
J41 180 it is that from a wordly view of human fallibility there springs
J41 181 a strong motivation for positive, socially valuable actions. ^It
J41 182 is no accident that tolerance, respect for the person, property
J41 183 and opinions of others, generosity and the independence of mind
J41 184 and moral courage necessary to defend fundamental principals are
J41 185 all attitudes which have suffused free societies. ^All are
J41 186 spontaneous emotional and moral responses which spring from
J41 187 responsibility for one's own actions. ^Spontaneity, the
J41 188 wellspring of a free society's adaptiveness, social cohesion and
J41 189 liberty, is inimical to the mind-set of the deterministic 
J41 190 world-view. ^At the same time, inherited morality will be a check on
J41 191 the potential damage one person's unrestrained rationalism can
J41 192 wreak.
J41 193    |^If the delineation of the two moral universes outlined
J41 194 thus far seems clear enough, it in no way reflects common
J41 195 understanding of the place of morality in our basically free
J41 196 societies or indeed the liberal view of morality. ^In few areas
J41 197 of public debate is there so much confusion. ^In the first place,
J41 198 liberalism as a word has been debased to the point where it is
J41 199 commonly interchangeable with the notion of permissiveness.
J41 200 ^Liberalism is of course anything but permissive in the sense of
J41 201 believing that *"anything goes**". ^Such a *1{laissez-faire}
J41 202 *0approach would quickly verge on the anarchic.
J41 203 *#
J42 001 **[336 TEXT J42**]
J42 002 ^*0Despite this, however, manufacturing output at the end of 1985
J42 003 was still about 10% below its level at the time of the 1979
J42 004 election. ^Perhaps the most disturbing statistics relate to
J42 005 employment growth and the level of unemployment. ^Notwithstanding
J42 006 the growth in output since 1981, employment has expanded only
J42 007 slowly and unemployment has risen steadily during the 1980s to
J42 008 stand at well over 3 million, or 13% of the workforce, in
J42 009 mid-1986 (see Table 2).
J42 010    |^As noted earlier, the broad macroeconomic stance adopted
J42 011 by the New Zealand Labour Government has much in common with that
J42 012 of the Thatcher Government. ^Labour has committed itself to much
J42 013 more restrictive monetary and fiscal policies. ^For example, it
J42 014 has declared that it will gradually reduce the size of the Budget
J42 015 deficit, that the deficit will be fully funded through an active
J42 016 programme of debt sales, and that inflationary wage and non-wage
J42 017 supply shocks will not be accommodated. ^Further, it has removed
J42 018 all interest rate controls, as well as the ratio requirements on
J42 019 financial institutions and financial service pricing controls.
J42 020 ^It has abolished exchange rate controls, floated the New Zealand
J42 021 dollar and embarked upon a major liberalization of the banking
J42 022 industry. ^It has also initiated radical tax reforms: the
J42 023 introduction of a comprehensive, single-rate Goods and Services
J42 024 Tax ({0GST}), a reduction in average and marginal income tax
J42 025 rates and significant changes in the area of business taxation.
J42 026 ^Both the speed and magnitude of these reforms have been
J42 027 remarkable.
J42 028    |^In keeping with the approach of the Thatcher Government,
J42 029 Labour's monetary policy has been designed to fix a stable path
J42 030 for monetary growth, rather than attempt to peg the exchange rate
J42 031 or interest rates at some supposedly appropriate level. ^Unlike
J42 032 the Thatcher Government, however, it has avoided any commitment
J42 033 to precise targets for particular monetary aggregates, at least
J42 034 to date. ^There appear to have been two main reasons for this.
J42 035 ^First, the Government's economic advisers were mindful of the
J42 036 problems encountered by the British authorities in achieving such
J42 037 targets. ^If similar difficulties arose in New Zealand then there
J42 038 was a danger that the credibility of the policy would be
J42 039 undermined. ^Second, as Keenan explains, there was an awareness
J42 040 that, given the magnitude of the reforms implemented in the
J42 041 finance sector after July 1984, *"financial asset portfolio
J42 042 behaviour and relative competitive advantage amongst different
J42 043 classes of financial institutions were likely to be changing
J42 044 rapidly**" producing a wide divergence in the growth rates of the
J42 045 main monetary aggregates. ^In these circumstances, the *"meaning
J42 046 or relevance**" of the movement in particular aggregates would
J42 047 probably be *"obscure**". ^In fact, such has been the case. ^For
J42 048 example, in the year to June 1985, \0M3 grew by 22.5% whereas
J42 049 \0M1 increased by 9.2% and \0M2 by -2.4%. ^This divergence
J42 050 parallels the British experience in the early 1980s and can be
J42 051 attributed partly to reintermediation effects and changes in
J42 052 velocity.
J42 053    |^Rather than specify targets for certain monetary
J42 054 aggregates, Labour's monetary policy has focussed on achieving a
J42 055 low or zero-trend growth rate in the monetary base (or primary
J42 056 liquidity) by means of fully funding the deficit. ^The Government
J42 057 also gave prominence in mid-1985 to its intention of reducing the
J42 058 growth in nominal national income from an expected range of
J42 059 10-13% in 1985-86 to about 7-9% in 1986-87. ^For some reason,
J42 060 these targets have not been extended subsequently to cover the
J42 061 period beyond 1986-87.
J42 062    |^Despite its best intentions, Labour's approach to the
J42 063 conduct of monetary policy has met with several problems. ^For
J42 064 one thing, the initial definition of the monetary base chosen in
J42 065 December 1984 was flawed and has subsequently been amended. ^For
J42 066 another, the main indicators of monetary conditions have
J42 067 presented policy makers with a very confusing picture. ^On the
J42 068 one hand, the wider monetary aggregates continued to grow rapidly
J42 069 in the period after the 1984 election, at least until mid-1986.
J42 070 ^In the year to March 1986, for instance, \0M1 grew by 21.3% \0M3
J42 071 by 23.7% and Private Sector Credit ({0PSC}) by 19.1%. ^Such
J42 072 growth was clearly much faster than had been expected or deemed
J42 073 desirable. ^By contrast, most of the other indicators during
J42 074 1985-86 pointed to tight monetary conditions: high nominal and
J42 075 real interest rates, a firm exchange rate, falling consumption
J42 076 and investment, and a decline in the underlying rate of
J42 077 inflation. ^Again, conflicting signals of this nature were a
J42 078 feature of the British experience in the early 1980s. ^What
J42 079 impact such developments have had on inflationary expectations
J42 080 and price-fixing behaviour remains unclear. ^What is more certain
J42 081 is that Labour's counter inflationary strategy has so far
J42 082 resulted in somewhat smaller adjustment costs *- in terms of lost
J42 083 output and employment *- than feared by many of its critics or
J42 084 encountered during the early years of the Thatcher Government.
J42 085 ^The costs have nonetheless been significant: registered
J42 086 unemployment, for example, rose from a low point of just under
J42 087 50,000 in early 1985 to more than 73,000 in September 1986, with
J42 088 the rate of unemployment exceeding 10% of the workforce in
J42 089 certain provincial regions hard hit by the downturn in the rural
J42 090 sector.
J42 091    |^In early 1985 the Labour Government published three-year
J42 092 forecasts of revenue and expenditure which had been prepared by
J42 093 the Treasury in late 1984. ^According to these forecasts, it was
J42 094 expected *- on the basis of current policy setting *- that there
J42 095 would be a fall in Government expenditure as a percentage of
J42 096 {0GDP} from over 41% to 39% by 1987-88, and a reduction in the
J42 097 fiscal deficit from an average of about 7% of {0GDP} in the three
J42 098 years to 1984-85, to less than 4% of {0GDP} during 1986-87 and
J42 099 1987-88. ^So far events have not gone entirely according to plan.
J42 100 ^For example, the 1985-86 Budget deficit was initially forecast
J42 101 to be about *+$1.3 billion or roughly 2.8% of {0GDP}. ^The actual
J42 102 outrun, however, was in the vicinity of *+$1.8 billion or about
J42 103 4.1% of {0GDP}. ^The Budget deficit for 1986-87 is expected to be
J42 104 about *+$2.45 billion or around 5% of {0GDP}, again higher than
J42 105 originally forecast. ^Part of the reason for this lies in the
J42 106 huge growth in public sector wage costs (approximately 25%)
J42 107 arising from the 1985-86 wage round. ^In this regard the Labour
J42 108 Government has been afflicted with the same problem as
J42 109 encountered by the Thatcher Government during 1979-80. ^Another
J42 110 reason relates to the tax changes introduced in October 1986 and
J42 111 the Government's commitment to ensuring that the inflationary
J42 112 effects of {0GST} were more than offset by the reduction in
J42 113 direct income tax rates. ^The economic downturn during 1985-86
J42 114 also contributed to the widening of the deficit.
J42 115    |^Because of the failure to reduce the fiscal deficit as
J42 116 rapidly as hoped, the Government undertook a major review of
J42 117 public expenditure in early 1986. ^The expenditure cuts and
J42 118 savings arising out of this review are expected to reduce net
J42 119 Government expenditure by about *+$900 million in 1986-87 and
J42 120 *+$1200 million in 1987-88. ^A substantial part of these savings
J42 121 are essentially cosmetic, however, in that they are the result of
J42 122 the Government requiring state trading organizations, such as the
J42 123 Housing Corporation, to raise most of their finance from the
J42 124 private sector rather than through the public account.
J42 125 *<*6SUPPLY-SIDE MEASURES*>
J42 126 |^*0As noted, both Rogernomics and Thatcherism involve a
J42 127 commitment to reducing the level of governmental interference in
J42 128 the economy and relying to a greater extent on competitive
J42 129 markets. ^According to its advocates, this *"more-market**"
J42 130 strategy will not only extend the domain of human liberty, but
J42 131 equally significant, will encourage efficiency and better
J42 132 resource allocation, thereby enhancing the overall performance of
J42 133 the economy. ^In keeping with this broad policy thrust, both
J42 134 Governments have initiated measures to liberalize financial,
J42 135 product and labour markets, reform the taxation system (including
J42 136 corporate taxation, indirect taxes and personal income taxes),
J42 137 and improve the efficiency of the state sector. ^Given the
J42 138 particular features of the New Zealand economy, the Labour
J42 139 Government has also undertaken measures to reduce the level of
J42 140 state assistance to the agricultural and manufacturing sectors
J42 141 and to lower frontier protection. ^Such action has included the
J42 142 phasing out of export incentives, the removal of input subsidies,
J42 143 the elimination of interest rate subsidies, a reduction in
J42 144 quantitative controls on imports and a lowering of tariffs. ^Yet
J42 145 although both Governments have stressed the importance of
J42 146 appropriate supply-side measures and the need for structural
J42 147 adjustment, the specific policies they have adopted are by no
J42 148 means identical. ^The differences in approach are particularly
J42 149 evident in the areas of state sector and labour market reform.
J42 150 *<*4Public Sector Reform*>
J42 151 |^*0In both Britain and New Zealand the state has been involved,
J42 152 in one form or another, in a diverse range of economic activities
J42 153 for many decades ({0eg.} transportation, telecommunications,
J42 154 mining, energy production and distribution, tourism and
J42 155 manufacturing). ^Because of the size and scope of the state
J42 156 sector, the efficiency of its operation obviously has important
J42 157 implications for the economy as a whole.
J42 158    |^On taking office in 1979 the Thatcher Government embarked
J42 159 upon a two-prong strategy to improve the performance of the state
J42 160 sector: the commercialization of state-owned enterprises
J42 161 ({0SOE}s) and the sale of publicly-held assets. ^Needless to say,
J42 162 both strategies have proved controversial and have aroused the
J42 163 wrath of the labour movement.
J42 164    |^With respect to its commercialization objectives, the
J42 165 British Government has focussed on trying to increase the
J42 166 profitability and the overall efficiency of the main {0SOE}s such
J42 167 as British Gas, British Leyland, British Rail, the British Steel
J42 168 Corporation and the coal mining industry. ^Tactics here have
J42 169 included the imposition of greater financial discipline, the
J42 170 extension of managerial incentives, the recruitment of leading
J42 171 businessmen from the private sector to run the {0SOE}s, a major
J42 172 assault on overmanning and other inefficient labour practices,
J42 173 and the contracting out of many of the services traditionally
J42 174 performed by public agencies, such as health service laundry and
J42 175 dustbin collection. ^Despite the industrial unrest which such
J42 176 policies have generated, especially in the coal industry, the
J42 177 Government has been at least partially successful in achieving
J42 178 its objectives.
J42 179    |^The programme to transfer public assets to the private
J42 180 sector, which gathered momentum following the 1983 general
J42 181 election, has been justified on at least three grounds: the
J42 182 belief that private organizations are inherently more efficient
J42 183 than their public sector counterparts; the assumption that
J42 184 *"market failures**" are less severe and less widespread than
J42 185 *"government failures**" (as long as barriers to competition are
J42 186 removed); and the desirability of reducing the economic borders
J42 187 of the state. ^As mentioned previously, another important
J42 188 motivation for the privatisation drive has been the desire to
J42 189 reduce the fiscal deficit and provide additional scope for tax
J42 190 cuts. ^In practice, political considerations of this nature have
J42 191 tended to take precedence over the broader philosophical
J42 192 objectives underpinning the Government's strategy.
J42 193    |^In Britain the evidence suggests that the average rate of
J42 194 return on capital employed in the private sector has been
J42 195 consistently higher over a long time span than in the public
J42 196 sector. ^Why this should be the case is obviously debatable. ^To
J42 197 some extent it may be due to the fact that some {0SOE}s are
J42 198 virtual monopolies and therefore characterized by monopolistic
J42 199 production and pricing decisions. ^This state of affairs is also
J42 200 likely to have strengthened the bargaining power of organized
J42 201 labour with the result that unit labour costs have probably been
J42 202 higher than would otherwise have been the case. ^In addition, the
J42 203 performance of {0SOE}s has doubtless been harmed by *1{ad hoc}
J42 204 *0governmental intervention in financial decision-making and by
J42 205 inadequate managerial incentives. ^Of course, transforming a
J42 206 public sector monopoly into a private sector monopoly does not
J42 207 necessarily ensure improved efficiency. ^Indeed, in the absence
J42 208 of an appropriate regulatory environment such a change of
J42 209 ownership may only make things worse. ^Although considerations of
J42 210 this kind have certainly exercised the minds of British policy
J42 211 makers over the past seven years, they have not deterred the
J42 212 Thatcher Government in its quest to sell off large sections of
J42 213 the public sector.
J42 214 *#
J43 001 **[337 TEXT J43**]
J43 002 ^*0The two sides acknowledge the need to *'exert every effort to
J43 003 avert the risk of outbreak of such a war, including measures to
J43 004 guard against accidental or unauthorised use of such weapons**'.
J43 005 ^Each party is to notify the other immediately if accidental,
J43 006 unauthorised or any other unexplained incidents occur involving
J43 007 the possible detonation of a nuclear weapon. ^The errant
J43 008 super-power is to make every effort to render such a weapon
J43 009 harmless.
J43 010    |^Other bilateral accords *- the 1973 Prevention of Nuclear
J43 011 War Agreement, the 1972 Statement of Basic Principles and several
J43 012 agreements to establish and upgrade the *'Hot Line**' *- derive
J43 013 similarly from a recognition of the need to reduce the risk of
J43 014 nuclear war. ^And in a very recent development, the two sides in
J43 015 April 1987 agreed to the installation of crisis control centres
J43 016 in their countries to minimise the risk of misunderstanding
J43 017 during times of tension.
J43 018 *<*4Nuclear theology*>
J43 019 |^*0It is clear that neither super-power wishes, or intends,
J43 020 nuclear war. ^The theology developed over the years is that
J43 021 nuclear weapons are there to prevent aggression without being
J43 022 used. ^If they are used they will have failed their mission. ^In
J43 023 strict theological terms, the world faces not so much the risk of
J43 024 nuclear war breaking out as the risk of deterrence strategy
J43 025 failing and a nuclear conflict occurring. ^As with all finer
J43 026 points of theology the difference to the real world is
J43 027 vanishingly small, but it explains a good deal of super-power
J43 028 behaviour. ^For while the two sides expend considerable effort at
J43 029 reducing the risk of nuclear war, they expend equal effort *- led
J43 030 by the United States but brilliantly imitated by the Soviet Union
J43 031 *- at perpetuating and perhaps promoting that risk through a
J43 032 continued adherence to nuclear deterrence.
J43 033    |^Despite their efforts at arms control, with disarmament
J43 034 the stated end-goal, the weapon modernisation programmes of each
J43 035 side guarantee the retention of strategic nuclear forces well
J43 036 into the twenty-first century. ^The critical question of our
J43 037 time, of all time, is whether the two leading nations of our
J43 038 planet will, jointly or separately, change their national
J43 039 policies before the risk of nuclear conflict is realised.
J43 040 *<*4Intrinsic paradox*>
J43 041 |^*0What, then, is the level of risk? ^The risk of nuclear
J43 042 conflict rests fundamentally on the paradox that is intrinsic to
J43 043 nuclear deterrence strategy itself. ^It is that, although the
J43 044 proclaimed objective is to avoid the use of nuclear weapons, that
J43 045 objective can only be achieved by making the prospect of their
J43 046 use most credible. ^Without a policy of credible use, the utility
J43 047 of nuclear weapons in a tough world diminishes. ^Yet while 
J43 048 no-one wishes to see them used, our value system at the
J43 049 international level remains predicated on force and nuclear
J43 050 weapons retain their utility as the ultimate symbol of that
J43 051 force. ^Thus, the belief runs, we cannot have the existence of
J43 052 nuclear weapons concomitantly with a policy that minimises the
J43 053 likelihood of their being used, and especially a total non-use
J43 054 policy.
J43 055    |^These are the reasons why the Western nuclear powers have
J43 056 retained a policy of first-use, maintained a strategic force
J43 057 posture for first-use, and pursued political courses of action in
J43 058 times of crisis that correspond to first-use *- such as threats
J43 059 to use nuclear weapons and the upgrading of their strategic
J43 060 forces to full alert on occasion. ^Great effort is invested in
J43 061 safety precautions to ensure the avoidance of an unintended
J43 062 nuclear conflict and a global catastrophe. ^But in policy terms
J43 063 this is equally designed to maximise the efficiency of the
J43 064 strategic machine and thus to buttress the credibility of
J43 065 deterrence *- the prospect of an authorised first use of nuclear
J43 066 weapons if and when the occasion requires. ^The theory of nuclear
J43 067 deterrence demands nothing less: the game of chicken cannot be
J43 068 played by agreeing beforehand not to crash.
J43 069    |^Thus it is that we in the West have threatened the use of
J43 070 nuclear weapons some 27 times over the past 40 years *- the
J43 071 necessary price of maintaining the credibility of deterrence.
J43 072 *<*4Allied wisdom*>
J43 073 |^*0Establishment allied wisdom in the West maintains that
J43 074 notwithstanding this *- or because of it *- the risk of nuclear
J43 075 conflict is very low since the act would not be rational. ^The
J43 076 risk nonetheless came close to realisation in October 1962 when
J43 077 the {0US} President at the height of the Cuban missile crisis
J43 078 rated the odds at *'somewhere between one out of three and
J43 079 even**'. ^That of course means that the risk of nuclear conflict
J43 080 over the past 40 years (taking the presidential assessment) has
J43 081 been of that degree, since the risk over a finite period equates
J43 082 with the highest risk at any one moment within it.
J43 083    |^But official canon on the subject, in terms of strategic
J43 084 deterrence theory, is that the risk is very low. ^The United
J43 085 States asserts, for example, that *'deterrence should never fail
J43 086 for the simple rational reason that the horrors and costs of
J43 087 nuclear war would be so overwhelming that no advantage could be
J43 088 gained from it**'. ^The same belief is reflected in the view of
J43 089 our own ally, Australia, which makes the judgement that 
J43 090 *'super-power conflict is most unlikely**' and *'the risk of nuclear
J43 091 conflict should not... be a determinant in our defence
J43 092 planning**'. ^The Soviet Union does not embrace deterrence theory
J43 093 with the same stated conviction, being more sceptical of its
J43 094 durability; but not to the extent of unilaterally changing course
J43 095 in strategic policy.
J43 096    |^None of this, so far as public documentation is concerned,
J43 097 is based on any systematic and thorough exercise in risk
J43 098 assessment. ^Our fundamental political relationships and military
J43 099 strategies of modern times turn on official estimates of the
J43 100 nuclear risk that are at best optimistic and at worst arbitrary
J43 101 and dismissive. ^Our governments owe it to our peoples *- we owe
J43 102 it to ourselves *- to offer something better.
J43 103 *<*4Experts' views*>
J43 104 |^*0Outside of government the issue has caught the attention of
J43 105 some analysts in recent years, though it is not without
J43 106 contention in these circles either. ^Some specialists argue that
J43 107 an assessment of the risk of nuclear conflict cannot be made, or
J43 108 rather that we are deluding ourselves if we purport to assign a
J43 109 specific level of risk. ^The most we can do, they maintain, is to
J43 110 recognise that the risk is significant and that in light of
J43 111 modern strategic trends it is increasing.
J43 112    |^It is, however, possible to go further than this, and
J43 113 there is good reason for doing so. ^Estimating the risk of
J43 114 nuclear conflict can be compared with estimating the probability
J43 115 of life elsewhere in the cosmos, which exobiologists have been
J43 116 doing in recent years. ^No-one claims certainty of knowledge or
J43 117 judgement in the exercise. ^Its value is heuristic: it aids the
J43 118 thinking of the scientists involved in the business. ^It assists
J43 119 them to isolate the relevant factors, and shows them where to
J43 120 devote greater attention and resources in their exploratory
J43 121 research. ^It helps them decide what to do.
J43 122 *<*4Intuitive assessment*>
J43 123 |^*0Similarly with modern military strategy. ^No-one can claim
J43 124 special insight or knowledge in assessing the risk of nuclear
J43 125 conflict in the future. ^But it is possible to undertake the
J43 126 exercise *- to isolate the relevant categories that bear upon the
J43 127 matter, assess their interrelationships and to emerge with an
J43 128 overall assessment of risk. ^That assessment will be intuitively
J43 129 based, but that does not disqualify it from serious attention.
J43 130 ^We have progressed beyond the belief that wisdom, and even
J43 131 knowledge, is contained exclusively in the scientific method.
J43 132 ^What is the purpose? ^As for the scientists at {0NASA}, the
J43 133 exercise helps us order our affairs, tells us whether we are on
J43 134 the right course, properly devoting our resources *- and are
J43 135 likely to remain alive.
J43 136    |^In 1978 the 30th Pugwash Symposium was held in Toronto,
J43 137 with the subject theme *'The Dangers of Nuclear War by the Year
J43 138 2000: An Attempt at Assessment**'. ^The meeting was attended by
J43 139 26 participants from eleven countries including the Soviet Union
J43 140 and the final session was attended by Canadian Prime Minister
J43 141 Pierre Trudeau. ^The participants did not assign a specific level
J43 142 of risk, but in a Statement at the end of the symposium concluded
J43 143 that
J43 144 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J43 145 *<*4Two conferences*>
J43 146 |^*0It is a sign of the increasing concern over the possibility
J43 147 of accidental nuclear war that two conferences were held on the
J43 148 subject over the past year. ^In May 1986, a private Canadian
J43 149 institute held a conference on the risk of accidental nuclear war
J43 150 in Vancouver, attended by participants from the United States,
J43 151 Canada, Western Europe, the Soviet Union and New Zealand. ^It
J43 152 also stopped short of a specific assessment, concluding that
J43 153 *'the danger of accidental nuclear war is substantial and
J43 154 increasing**'. ^The main reasons cited were a deteriorating
J43 155 global political situation, development of destabilising weapon
J43 156 systems, increasingly complex command and control systems, and
J43 157 increasing reliance on automated decision-making systems. ^The
J43 158 participants *- academics and computer specialists rather than
J43 159 policy-makers *- warned particularly against the increasing
J43 160 reliance on automated decision-making in nuclear command systems.
J43 161    |^In December, the 14th Pugwash Workshop on Nuclear Forces,
J43 162 held in Geneva, Switzerland, had as its subject *'Accidental
J43 163 Nuclear War**'. ^The Workshop, attended by scientists and
J43 164 military figures from fifteen countries including the Soviet
J43 165 Union, specifically explored ways to reduce the danger of nuclear
J43 166 war. ^It offered no precise estimate of risk, but made the
J43 167 observation that *'the most probable initiators of nuclear war
J43 168 are irrational acts, mistakes and malfunctions**'. ^Given the
J43 169 likely long-term presence of nuclear weapons, it was held, it is
J43 170 essential to understand the hazards of accidental nuclear war.
J43 171 *<*4{0UNIDIR} study*>
J43 172 |^*0The only detailed and thorough analysis of the risk of
J43 173 nuclear war is the study commissioned in 1982 by the {0UN}
J43 174 Institute for Disarmament Research ({0UNIDIR}) on the *1Risks of
J43 175 Unintentional Nuclear War. ^*0The {0UNIDIR} study used an
J43 176 analytical rather than a case-oriented approach to the subject.
J43 177 ^The study perceived two major factors which, together, causally
J43 178 constitute the risk. ^The first is the *'predisposition of the
J43 179 system**', {0ie}, the forces at work in the system of strategic
J43 180 deterrence that make it more, or less, likely to produce an
J43 181 unintentional nuclear conflict. ^Strategic stability, or
J43 182 instability, is the inherent propensity of the system to move
J43 183 back from conflict or forward towards it. ^It is probably the
J43 184 most central concept in strategic super-power relations and,
J43 185 ironically, one of the most potent factors that drives the arms
J43 186 race.
J43 187    |^A derivative of this is crisis stability or instability *-
J43 188  the inherent tendency of the system under conditions of
J43 189 political crisis to encourage a first strike if war is perceived
J43 190 as a real possibility. ^Crisis stability exists if each side
J43 191 feels free to wait, in time of crisis, without incurring major
J43 192 disadvantage in the event the other side strikes first. ^Crisis
J43 193 instability encourages pre-emption, thereby reducing the time
J43 194 allowed for political leaders to undertake action to defuse the
J43 195 crisis itself. ^Such conditions of stability or instability
J43 196 depend largely upon the relationship between the strategic force
J43 197 postures of the two super-powers, but human factors such as
J43 198 clarity and efficiency of the command structures and capabilities
J43 199 of the communication networks are also relevant.
J43 200 *<*4Catalytic cause*>
J43 201 |^*0The second factor is a catalytic cause that might trigger the
J43 202 system to produce a nuclear conflict at any one time. ^This could
J43 203 be of a political or technical nature *- a major issue between the
J43 204 super-powers or some third party behaviour that produces a crisis
J43 205 between them; or a nuclear weapon accident or malfunction in the
J43 206 early-warning system. ^The nature and frequency of these kinds of
J43 207 events are well documented, but it does not follow that either
J43 208 one will necessarily lead to nuclear conflict. ^That depends on
J43 209 the previous factor identified *- the level of strategic and
J43 210 crisis stability.
J43 211    |^Although nuclear accidents and incidents are quite
J43 212 frequent, the {0UNIDIR} study assesses the risk of nuclear
J43 213 conflict arising from this cause as very low, because of the
J43 214 extreme safety precautions and redundancy procedures maintained
J43 215 by all nuclear powers. ^The study, it might be noted, pre-dated
J43 216 the Chernobyl and *1Challenger *0tragedies.
J43 217 *<*4Probability assessment*>
J43 218 |^*0At the end of the {0UNIDIR} study, the authors entered a
J43 219 probability assessment of a nuclear conflict occurring within a
J43 220 five year period.
J43 221 *#
J44 001 **[338 TEXT J44**]
J44 002 ^*0The Muldoon administration introduced some competition into
J44 003 transport when it began to deregulate road transport, thus
J44 004 reducing the privileged position of the railways. ^More recently
J44 005 the domestic position of Air New Zealand has been altered by the
J44 006 licensing of another main route airline. ^However, the problem of
J44 007 state enterprises has been seen largely as one of increasing
J44 008 the degree of efficiency by requiring the enterprises to make
J44 009 profits in an unprotected and unsubsidised environment.
J44 010 ^Corporatisation rather than privatisation has been the
J44 011 government's preference, in pronounced contrast to other
J44 012 liberalising ventures such as Thatcher's Britain, Chirac's France
J44 013 and Japan. ^The economic problems that were partly the reason for
J44 014 the state's involvement in the first place, for example,
J44 015 existence of natural monopoly and divergences between social and
J44 016 private costs, still remain, and large sunk costs in each of
J44 017 transport, communications and energy make contestability unlikely
J44 018 to prevail reliably enough to enforce competitive pricing. ^Even
J44 019 in the present laissez-faire climate, all three industries are
J44 020 likely to remain regulated, a result Adam Smith would surely
J44 021 support.
J44 022    |^Despite much debate, little has been done to deregulate
J44 023 the labour market (see Chapter 9). ^Controlled entry into
J44 024 professions and occupations has not been touched, although the
J44 025 fee structures of the services of lawyers and estate agents have
J44 026 become more flexible and possibly even competitive. ^Most labour
J44 027 market issues are still dominated by the aims of distributional
J44 028 equity and stabilisation, although efficiency arguments are not
J44 029 entirely absent. ^The intense concern in New Zealand throughout
J44 030 the 1980s with the issues of trade union rights and membership,
J44 031 and the precise form of legally supported wage bargaining, could
J44 032 well be isolated from realities, at least in the private sector
J44 033 of the economy. ^There is some evidence that actual real
J44 034 remuneration (through bargaining over money rates and payments in
J44 035 kind) is quite sensitive to excess demand pressures in the
J44 036 private sector (especially at managerial and other skilled
J44 037 levels), and also that real remuneration is eroded, although
J44 038 somewhat slowly, in periods of excess supply (especially at
J44 039 unskilled levels). ^It is thus possible that there is already as
J44 040 much flexibility in the determination of real remuneration in the
J44 041 private sector as the economy needs. ^The real problem could be
J44 042 in the public sector, and there the long run solution could well
J44 043 lie in the financial independence of the new state corporations.
J44 044 ^Of course, this reading of the present overall situation does
J44 045 not deny the desirability of raising allocative efficiency in
J44 046 particular occupations and industries by deregulation or other
J44 047 removal of privilege and monopoly, and the government, in
J44 048 establishing the Economic Development Commission, has perhaps
J44 049 shown that it intends to investigate these aspects of the labour
J44 050 market. (^Otherwise, what is the Commission to do?)
J44 051    |^It should be noted, if only in passing, that the impact of
J44 052 deregulation and other types of change on *'inputs**' like
J44 053 financial services, transport, communications and energy, will
J44 054 not in every case result in lower costs for, say, farmers and
J44 055 manufacturers. ^In so far as the prices of these inputs have in
J44 056 the past been subsidised or have suffered price control, the
J44 057 economic revolution can result in more efficiently produced
J44 058 inputs at higher prices. ^Overall efficient allocation of
J44 059 resources is improved, but particular firms and industries will
J44 060 suffer. ^The removal of controls over interest rates is the most
J44 061 striking (unpopular) example, but there are others arising in all
J44 062 the industries mentioned. ^This phenomenon reflects the deep
J44 063 extent to which price and cost distortions had become entrenched
J44 064 in the New Zealand economy. ^It was almost impossible to find out
J44 065 in the early 1980s except by very rough guesswork, just what
J44 066 economic activities were really the most profitable for New
J44 067 Zealanders to adopt. ^The regulatory revolution has altered that.
J44 068    |^The change with the widest immediate public impact has
J44 069 been the large 1986 reduction in income tax rates (especially at
J44 070 the top of the scale) and the introduction of a value-added tax,
J44 071 {0GST} (goods and services tax), with no exempted categories of
J44 072 domestically sold goods or services. ^This fiscal revolution,
J44 073 recommended by official committees of inquiry since 1968, was
J44 074 introduced to further the aim of an efficient allocation of
J44 075 resources, although it has substantial distributional effects.
J44 076 ^Some of its inegalitarian effects have been redressed by
J44 077 increased social welfare payments to groups likely to be affected
J44 078 (see Chapter 15). ^The reform has no stabilisation purpose
J44 079 (although variations in the rate could achieve that purpose) and
J44 080 its effect on the fiscal deficit is slight.
J44 081 *<1.3 *2THE PROBLEMS*>
J44 082 |^*0There is a fundamental problem hanging over and interfering
J44 083 with the entire process of New Zealand liberalisation and its
J44 084 coincidence is mainly accidental. ^Yet unless the problem is
J44 085 solved the liberalisation revolution is probably doomed to
J44 086 failure. ^The problem is government overspending which has been
J44 087 going on since the middle of the 1970s, and reflects the use of
J44 088 fiscal deficits to attempt to stabilise the economy in the
J44 089 sense of maintaining real incomes over the last decade in the
J44 090 face of a severe downturn in the terms of trade, itself the
J44 091 result of rises in oil prices. ^The problem could be defined as
J44 092 undertaxing, and indeed by international standards New Zealand
J44 093 has not been overtaxed. ^However, in so far as both the present
J44 094 international tax climate and the views of all New Zealand
J44 095 politicians point to the desirability of reducing the total tax
J44 096 burden, our problem must be defined as government overspending
J44 097 (see Chapter 13).
J44 098    |^The effects of overspending since the early 1980s have
J44 099 been government borrowing on the domestic capital market to
J44 100 finance the fiscal deficit, and consequent pressure on domestic
J44 101 interest rates. ^Obviously, government borrowing is not the only
J44 102 cause of high interest rates; if domestic savings had been
J44 103 higher, or private borrowing lower, or the rate of inflation
J44 104 lower, interest rates would have been lower. ^But the rate of
J44 105 government net borrowing in relation to the rate of private
J44 106 savings has undoubtedly been a major factor in causing high
J44 107 interest rates. ^With the abandonment of controls over interest
J44 108 rates after July 1984 a large interest rate differential emerged
J44 109 between New Zealand and other countries like Australia, the
J44 110 United States, Japan and those of Western Europe. ^New Zealand
J44 111 firms started to borrow off**[ARB**]-shore, and with the removal
J44 112 of controls over capital movements to and from other countries at
J44 113 the end of 1984, foreigners started to invest in New Zealand
J44 114 securities. ^Consequently after the freeing of the exchange rate
J44 115 in March 1985 this inflow of capital resulted in a strong New
J44 116 Zealand dollar.
J44 117    |^The effects of the strong dollar are the heart of the
J44 118 problem (see Chapter 11). ^The case for floating the dollar (like
J44 119 the case for the earlier devaluation) was that the early 1984
J44 120 dollar was overvalued and hence penalised exporters and
J44 121 encouraged importers: production of New Zealand's tradeable goods
J44 122 was unprofitable. ^Devaluation and a weaker dollar would correct
J44 123 this and also make the bitter medicine of reduced export and farm
J44 124 subsidies and reduced protection to manufacturers more palatable.
J44 125 ^A free market would select the correct rate. ^In the trendy talk
J44 126 of the times, *'the rate of exchange would give the economy the
J44 127 correct price signals.**' ^A strong dollar has made nonsense of
J44 128 all that, and virtually removed the case for floating at all.
J44 129 ^Instead of the exchange rate reflecting real cost advantages
J44 130 (which had been the hope), it now reflects interest rate
J44 131 differentials due to government overspending.
J44 132    |^The analysis set out above seems clear enough, but is
J44 133 considerably muddled by recent monetary developments and the
J44 134 coincidence of high rates of inflation. ^As always, money and
J44 135 inflation remain controversial, and what is said here must be
J44 136 tentative and open to contradiction by others. ^The ending of
J44 137 wage and price controls after July 1984 inevitably resulted in a
J44 138 burst of inflation which the devaluation would have reinforced.
J44 139 ^However, the regime of high interest rates and the strong dollar
J44 140 would have had offsetting effects: the strong dollar directly and
J44 141 immediately on the prices of imported goods, and high interest
J44 142 rates indirectly and longer term on capital values and economic
J44 143 activity. ^Some analysts suspect high interest rates and the
J44 144 strong dollar were deliberately chosen to do just that *- have an
J44 145 anti-inflationary effect.
J44 146    |^The plot thickens when we consider monetary policy. ^The
J44 147 deregulation of the finance industry, and in particular of the
J44 148 banks, has resulted in a radical change in the control of the
J44 149 stock of money and credit, which most analysts now characterise
J44 150 as being through the effect of high interest rates curbing
J44 151 demand, {0i.e.} an application of free market ideas to money.
J44 152 ^Some (see Chapter 12) believe that the government may even have
J44 153 lost control over the money stock. ^But whether or not this is
J44 154 so, there is no doubt that the money supply, and credit
J44 155 generally, has risen in line with the rate of inflation since
J44 156 1984. ^As there is no evidence of a policy of tight monetary
J44 157 control, it is difficult to imagine that monetary controls are
J44 158 either restraining inflation or raising real interest rates. ^The
J44 159 rate of inflation is still dominated by cost-push factors
J44 160 initiated by the ending of the freeze and the money supply has
J44 161 expanded sufficiently to prevent the high rate of inflation from
J44 162 having any serious effects on activity. ^This admittedly cursory
J44 163 glance at monetary policy and inflation seeks to reinforce the
J44 164 view expressed above that government borrowing drives the
J44 165 exchange rate through its effect on real interest rates.
J44 166 ^Monetary policy, we suspect, has had to be accommodating to
J44 167 avoid a collapse of economic activity. ^What control there is
J44 168 over inflation comes from the overvalued exchange rate, and of
J44 169 course the old broken reed of exhortatory wage policy.
J44 170    |^The fundamental problem thus resolves itself into two
J44 171 issues for the future. ^First, if the exchange rate is to reflect
J44 172 long-term real costs and opportunities of profit for New Zealand
J44 173 business people, it will have to cease being dominated by
J44 174 interest rate differentials. ^Floating is magnificent, but it is
J44 175 not economics. ^The foreign exchange market does not arrive at
J44 176 the correct long-term exchange rate. ^Instead it acts rationally
J44 177 and balances momentarily supply and demand for funds, dominated
J44 178 by interest rate differentials. ^Second, those politicians who
J44 179 attach importance to *'getting New Zealand's rate of inflation
J44 180 down to the level of our trading partners**' should realise that
J44 181 the economic revolution of recent years has added nothing to our
J44 182 ability to control inflation. (^That observation has to be
J44 183 addressed to politicians because few economists attach the same
J44 184 significance to inflation, and fewer still think that reducing
J44 185 inflation levels permanently can be done except at great cost in
J44 186 terms of bankruptcy and unemployment. )
J44 187    |^The problem and the issues discussed above are closely
J44 188 related to what is nowadays referred to as *'sequencing**': the
J44 189 best sequence in which to undertake a series of policy reforms,
J44 190 particularly liberal reforms like those of New Zealand, so as to
J44 191 produce the best sequence of results. ^New Zealand's revolution
J44 192 is not unique. ^Buckle (Chapter 11) tellingly quotes an American
J44 193 economist Ronald McKinnon who wrote that *'the development
J44 194 landscape is littered with liberalisation programmes that achieve
J44 195 only partial success before the country regresses into a more
J44 196 repressed state**'. ^Most economists would prefer to see foreign
J44 197 trade freed and the fiscal deficit removed *1before *0the foreign
J44 198 exchange market and capital flows are freed. ^The reasons have
J44 199 been set out above: interest rates arising from the fiscal
J44 200 deficit (or a tight monetary policy) result in an overvalued
J44 201 exchange rate and reduced profits in the export industries. ^As
J44 202 Buckle points out, New Zealand's present farming and other
J44 203 exporters' difficulties have been matched in similar
J44 204 liberalisation experiments in Argentina, Chile and Uruguay (to
J44 205 which could possibly be added the United States and Australia).
J44 206    |^The costs of liberalisation to date have been borne by
J44 207 industries which have lost subsidies or protection and have
J44 208 together with borrowers been severely affected by the
J44 209 overvaluation of the exchange rate. ^The pastoral farming and
J44 210 related service industries (such as meat freezing) have been
J44 211 quite severely affected, with severe unemployment (by New Zealand
J44 212 standards) emerging in small provincial towns.
J44 213 *#
J45 001 **[339 TEXT J45**]
J45 002    |^*0The basic idea is that in a free market, consumers will
J45 003 not pay a higher price for any product than it is worth to them.
J45 004 ^But producers will not produce it unless the price at least
J45 005 covers their cost of production. ^Thus in the free market, prices
J45 006 make sure that nothing is produced unless its value to consumers
J45 007 is at least as much as the cost of producing it. ^Simply, the
J45 008 market ensures that we are getting value for money in every
J45 009 industry. ^This is regarded as the most *'efficient**' economic
J45 010 system, in the sense that there is no way we could be better off
J45 011 by producing less of one product and more of another.
J45 012    |^Yet a regulation or subsidy which holds down the price of
J45 013 any product does affect what we produce. ^At the lower price,
J45 014 consumers are prepared to buy more of the product. ^But its value
J45 015 to them *- the price *- is now less than the unsubsidised cost of
J45 016 producing it. ^We have made ourselves worse off by putting more
J45 017 workers and capital into that industry than the value we are
J45 018 getting out of it.
J45 019    |^Roger Douglas's domestic economic policy has, therefore,
J45 020 aimed to remove virtually all regulations and subsidies. ^Freed
J45 021 from controls, prices will rise to reflect the real value of the
J45 022 product to consumers. ^This will give producers higher profits,
J45 023 and allow them to pay higher wages. ^So rising prices, profits
J45 024 and wages act as *'signals**' to attract capitalists and workers
J45 025 into industries where consumer demand is growing, while falling
J45 026 prices are a signal that consumers no longer value a product as
J45 027 highly, and people should move out of it. ^The *'shift of
J45 028 resources**' into areas of growing consumer demand means that,
J45 029 overall, we get a higher standard of living.
J45 030    |^There is also a more direct logical connection between
J45 031 opening up the economy to the world and deregulating the home
J45 032 market. ^When import barriers are removed, we depend much more
J45 033 than before on efficient exporters and local industries which can
J45 034 compete with foreign products and survive. ^But to compete
J45 035 effectively, they can't afford to pay too much for local raw
J45 036 materials and services. ^So the whole economy *- even the service
J45 037 sector *- needs to become more efficient to help the industries
J45 038 which have to compete internationally. ^And Douglas believes that
J45 039 the best way to produce efficiency is to inject a bit of
J45 040 competition.
J45 041    |^The rest of this chapter looks at how he has removed
J45 042 regulations and controls which either held prices down or
J45 043 restricted competition in various industries.
J45 044    |^The next two chapters will look at how he has also removed
J45 045 incentives and subsidies which *'distorted**' price *'signals**',
J45 046 both in the private sector and in the state apparatus itself.
J45 047 *<*2PRICE CONTROLS CUT BACK*>
J45 048 |^*0Price controls were the most obvious form of market
J45 049 distortion which Roger Douglas faced when he took office. ^Sir
J45 050 Robert Muldoon had officially lifted his price freeze early in
J45 051 1984, but prices of staple commodities which had been regulated
J45 052 for years were still controlled: eggs, sugar, butter, flour,
J45 053 canned food, frozen vegetables, medicines and others. ^Douglas
J45 054 has gradually freed them all, except for milk, natural gas and
J45 055 the products of New Zealand Steel.
J45 056    |^In some cases, this led to immediate price increases.
J45 057 ^Watties, for instance, raised its prices for canned and frozen
J45 058 foods by 5% five days after price control was lifted in April
J45 059 1986 (with a further 5% increase in August). ^But this may be a
J45 060 good thing if it means that consumers were not paying the full
J45 061 cost of production of canned foods before. ^We may be better off
J45 062 to switch to cheaper fresh vegetables.
J45 063 *<*2WAGE CONTROLS REMOVED*>
J45 064 |^*0In the Douglas view, wage controls distort the market just as
J45 065 badly as price controls. ^They discourage workers from moving out
J45 066 of declining industries by preventing growing industries from
J45 067 offering them higher wages. ^Douglas lifted Muldoon's wage freeze
J45 068 in November 1984, and is now encouraging industries to pay
J45 069 different wages depending on what they can afford. ^The
J45 070 implications of this policy will be examined in Chapter 11.
J45 071 *<*2THE END OF RENT CONTROLS*>
J45 072 |^*0Douglas believes that rent controls actually discouraged
J45 073 private home owners from renting out their properties. ^Rents
J45 074 were so low that it was simply not worthwhile.
J45 075    |^Rent controls were lifted in February 1985, and rents
J45 076 immediately jumped (by 21% during 1985). ^Douglas hopes that this
J45 077 has made it more profitable for property owners and developers to
J45 078 rent out more homes and so ease the housing shortage.
J45 079 *<*2INTEREST RATE CONTROLS LIFTED*>
J45 080 |^*0There is a long tradition of New Zealand governments keeping
J45 081 interest rates low to put people in houses and on farms. ^But
J45 082 Douglas believes that interest rate controls were among the most
J45 083 pernicious aspects of the regulated economy. ^Inevitably, the
J45 084 rich were able to get around them by lending their money out
J45 085 through solicitors or privately at above the regulated rates,
J45 086 while small savers were more likely to be stuck with controlled
J45 087 low interest rates at savings banks and building societies.
J45 088 ^Similarly, small businesses found it harder than the big
J45 089 companies to get funds, because if they had to charge everyone
J45 090 the same low interest rates, the banks naturally preferred to
J45 091 lend to the bigger firms.
J45 092    |^Low interest rates also distorted people's choices between
J45 093 saving and spending their money. ^Controlled low rates made it
J45 094 easy for people to borrow and spend more. ^This tended to push up
J45 095 prices and undermine New Zealand's international competitiveness.
J45 096 ^And low interest rates discouraged people from saving, so that
J45 097 much recent New Zealand capital investment has had to be financed
J45 098 by overseas borrowing.
J45 099    |^So Douglas's first move, made at the same time as the
J45 100 devaluation, even before he took office, was to abolish interest
J45 101 rate controls. ^He was able to sell this to the Labour caucus on
J45 102 the grounds that he had to let interest rates rise to attract
J45 103 back all the money that had flowed out of the country in the
J45 104 weeks before the election. ^But lifting the controls was an
J45 105 essential part of the Douglas programme to let market forces
J45 106 work.
J45 107    |^The change has worked in the sense that even small
J45 108 borrowers can now borrow money. ^For virtually the first time in
J45 109 living memory, anyone can now get finance to buy a house or start
J45 110 a business *- provided they are prepared to pay the going
J45 111 interest rate. ^In the long term, high interest rates will also
J45 112 restrain people's spending, and so bring down inflation. ^They
J45 113 should also encourage people to save more.
J45 114    |^In the short term, however, average household savings have
J45 115 actually dropped. ^This appears to be because interest rates rose
J45 116 so quickly in 1984-85 that people were not able to cut back their
J45 117 mortgages and other commitments to match their incomes. ^Instead,
J45 118 they had to borrow even more to keep their heads above water. ^If
J45 119 people behave rationally, we must presume that this was only a
J45 120 temporary effect, and that they are now trying to cut back their
J45 121 commitments to a manageable level.
J45 122 *<*2BANKING DEREGULATED*>
J45 123 |^*0New Zealand has long had one of the smallest and cosiest
J45 124 banking communities in the world. ^Since 1982, when two banks
J45 125 merged to form Westpac, there have been only four commercial
J45 126 trading banks. ^This tiny group was protected from competition by
J45 127 the fact that a new bank would have needed its own Act of
J45 128 Parliament.
J45 129    |^In the Douglas view, this was a serious distortion of the
J45 130 market. ^There was no one for people to go to if they were
J45 131 dissatisfied with the services offered by the four banks. ^There
J45 132 was no competitive pressure on the banks to provide the kind of
J45 133 sophisticated money management packages available to our overseas
J45 134 competitors in their own countries.
J45 135    |^So Douglas has almost completely deregulated the banks.
J45 136 ^Anyone can now start a bank provided they have *'demonstrable
J45 137 expertise in banking**' and at least *+$30 million behind them.
J45 138 ^All requirements for the banks to hold a certain proportion of
J45 139 their deposits in cash or government stock have been abandoned.
J45 140 ^The only remaining control is a general supervision of bank
J45 141 accounts by the Reserve Bank so that it can watch for any signs
J45 142 of financial troubles. ^If a bank does get into difficulty, the
J45 143 Reserve Bank will merely offer it advice. ^But ultimately, if a
J45 144 bank is about to collapse, the Reserve Bank has the power to step
J45 145 in and force a quick, surgical winding up, sale or merger.
J45 146    |^Deregulation has led to a rapid growth of merchant banks
J45 147 and investment houses offering sophisticated packages to
J45 148 business. ^There has, up to the time of writing, been less
J45 149 competition in banking for the small investor. ^But trusteebanks
J45 150 and the main building societies are increasingly competing
J45 151 directly with the banks for the patronage of small savers and
J45 152 this has already caused keener competition in interest rates.
J45 153    |^The major danger in Douglas's banking policy is that the
J45 154 provisions in the event of a bank collapse could be inadequate.
J45 155 ^Even if a bank is basically sound, it can easily go under if,
J45 156 for any reason, there is a run on its deposits. ^This danger is
J45 157 met in other countries by government insurance of bank deposits.
J45 158 ^The lack of such insurance in New Zealand means that innocent
J45 159 depositors could lose their money if there should be a financial
J45 160 panic.
J45 161 *<*2AGRICULTURAL PRODUCER BOARDS HUMBLED*>
J45 162 |^*0Agricultural producer boards, which market New Zealand's
J45 163 produce, have existed since the 1920s. ^The government's advisers
J45 164 in the Treasury have recommended effectively abolishing them.
J45 165 ^They argue that controlled marketing does not succeed in its
J45 166 goal of getting higher prices. ^For example, the Treasury says,
J45 167 it stops producers selling poorer quality kiwifruit overseas and
J45 168 thus widening the market for the fruit. ^The Treasury also argues
J45 169 that licensing exporters *'restricts the entry of new ones to the
J45 170 market despite the fact that innovation and growth have
J45 171 historically depended very heavily on new firms**'.
J45 172    |^In practice the government has not been as radical as the
J45 173 Treasury would like. ^It encouraged the Meat Board to hand over
J45 174 the export marketing of sheep to private meat companies. ^It
J45 175 ended the Poultry Board's control of egg marketing and
J45 176 distribution, abolished the Potato Board and the Tobacco Board,
J45 177 and ended the power of the Wheat Board to set prices. ^It has
J45 178 also begun a review of the monopoly powers of the Apple and Pear
J45 179 Marketing Board.
J45 180    |^The government has also abolished regulations which
J45 181 prevented the sale of cartoned milk, but, for social reasons, it
J45 182 has protected home delivery with a licensing system and price
J45 183 control which sets the price of cartoned milk 10 cents higher
J45 184 than that of bottles. ^It has also, so far, done nothing to break
J45 185 the monopoly power of the biggest board of all, the Dairy Board.
J45 186 *<*2LIQUOR LIBERATED*>
J45 187 |^*0The government's working party on liquor laws returned a
J45 188 familiar verdict at the end of 1986. ^It recommended the almost
J45 189 complete abolition of restrictions on the sale of liquor, arguing
J45 190 that restricting sales did not discourage people from drinking.
J45 191 ^And it concluded that the restrictions, which required you to
J45 192 prove there was a *'need**' before you could set up a tavern or a
J45 193 bottle store, acted solely to protect existing establishments
J45 194 from competition. ^By limiting the number of outlets the
J45 195 restrictions also encouraged the building of big *'beer barns**',
J45 196 the working party contended.
J45 197    |^It wanted *'off-licences**' (to sell takeaway liquor)
J45 198 granted to any business provided the applicant was suitable, and
J45 199 *'on-licences**' granted with the one additional restriction that
J45 200 local bodies consider whether the applicant would serve food and
J45 201 non-alcoholic drinks as well. ^The working party proposed that
J45 202 *'the present arbitrary restrictions on trading hours**' be
J45 203 removed, giving local bodies the power to set hours for
J45 204 particular outlets if they choose.
J45 205    |^It suggested ending the remaining *'dry**' areas that
J45 206 exist in some middle class Auckland and Wellington suburbs,
J45 207 calling them *'pockets of entrenched privilege**' that encouraged
J45 208 people to drive home drunk from the areas of the city where they
J45 209 did their drinking. ^And it recommended reducing the drinking age
J45 210 from 20 to 18.
J45 211    |^The government has been given conflicting advice on many
J45 212 of these points from a committee on violent offending, which
J45 213 reported early in 1987.
J45 214 *#
J46 001 **[340 TEXT J46**]
J46 002 ^*0Empirical studies of the management of part-time staffing
J46 003 decision have also provided strong support for the notion that
J46 004 the desire for labour scheduling flexibility is often a key
J46 005 motivating factor in the employer's decision to expand part-time
J46 006 employment (Beechey and Perkins, 1985, \0p. 254; Bosworth and
J46 007 Dawkins, 1982, \0p. 34; Nollen {0et al.}, 1978, \0p. 29, Robinson
J46 008 and Wallace, 1984, \0p. 29).
J46 009    |^Thirdly, it has been argued that the uneven utilisation of
J46 010 part-time labour across the workforce is directly related to
J46 011 patterns of occupational segregation by gender (Beechey and
J46 012 Perkins, 1985, \0p. 255; Humphries, 1983, \0p. 14; White, 1983,
J46 013 \0p. 45). ^The labour force is highly segregated by sex and it is
J46 014 largely women, the young and the old rather than mature-aged
J46 015 males who seek part-time hours. ^Where the full-time labour force
J46 016 is female, managers use part-time employment to extend hours of
J46 017 work or to adjust staffing to peaks and troughs in work activity.
J46 018 ^Where the full-time labour force is male, by contrast, managers
J46 019 opt for shiftwork systems or overtime to attain the necessary
J46 020 scheduling flexibility. ^Thus the patterns of part-time working
J46 021 are closely linked to the existence of occupational segregation
J46 022 by sex (Beechey and Perkins, 1985, \0p. 261).
J46 023    |^Relatively little attention has been paid so far in the
J46 024 literature on part-time employment to the influence of trade
J46 025 unions and professional associations on part-time employment's
J46 026 industrial and occupational structure. ^A number of writers have
J46 027 noted that trade union opposition is potentially an important
J46 028 barrier to the growth of part-time employment, and have
J46 029 identified some of the general reasons for this opposition
J46 030 (Canadian Commission of Inquiry, 1983, \0p. 9; Nollen {0et al.},
J46 031 1978, \0p. 128; White, 1983, \0pp. 53-56). ^For example, unions
J46 032 in Canada and the United States have objected to part-time
J46 033 employment because of the potential they believe it offers for
J46 034 labour cost savings through the reduction of employment benefits;
J46 035 because of the special problems that part-time workers can
J46 036 present for collective organisation; and because of the threat
J46 037 they believe part-time job growth poses for the job security and
J46 038 stability of the workforce (Canadian Commission of Inquiry, 1983,
J46 039 \0p. 9; Nollen {0et al.}, 1978, \0pp. 128-31). ^As yet however,
J46 040 few writers have gone on to identify the reasons for union
J46 041 opposition to part-time employment in particular industries or
J46 042 occupations, or to explore the implications of these attitudes
J46 043 and policies for the availability and labour market distribution
J46 044 of part-time jobs. ^The actions taken by professional
J46 045 associations to regulate part-time job opportunities within their
J46 046 sphere of employment have also been overlooked.
J46 047    |^This paper provides a case study of the impact of trade
J46 048 union organisation upon the structure of part-time employment in
J46 049 one particular segment of the labour market, public
J46 050 hospital-based registered nursing. ^Nurses employed in general
J46 051 and obstetric public hospitals are represented by the New Zealand
J46 052 Nurses Association; nurses employed in psychiatric and
J46 053 psychopaedic hospitals are represented by the Public Service
J46 054 Association. ^The 2 organisations have adopted strikingly
J46 055 different approaches to the issue of part-time employment.
J46 056    |^The discussion that follows briefly summarises the
J46 057 evidence available on the patterns of part-time employment in
J46 058 registered nursing and the reasons for its growth. ^The responses
J46 059 made by the Nurses Association and the Public Service Association
J46 060 to the growth of part-time nursing are then outlined and
J46 061 compared, and an attempt is made to explain the differences in
J46 062 approach.
J46 063 *<*4The growth of part-time nursing*>
J46 064    |^*0Part-time employment is today a prominent feature of the
J46 065 labour market in almost all areas of registered nursing
J46 066 employment. ^In 1984, 39 percent of all registered nurses
J46 067 employed in public hospitals, and 42 percent of those employed in
J46 068 general and obstetric public hospitals, were working part-time
J46 069 hours (New Zealand Department of Health, 1984, \0p. 18). ^Levels
J46 070 of part-time employment amongst district, Plunket and general
J46 071 practice nurses, and in private hospitals, were also high. ^In
J46 072 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, however, and in public
J46 073 health nursing, only around 10 percent of registered nurses were
J46 074 employed on a part-time basis (14 percent, 8 percent and 6
J46 075 percent of registered nursing staff respectively) (New Zealand
J46 076 Department of Health, 1984, \0pp. 18, 33).
J46 077    |^Although little research has been undertaken to identify
J46 078 the causes of the growth of part-time nursing in New Zealand, the
J46 079 information available suggests that both post-war shortages of
J46 080 qualified nursing staff, and the benefits offered for staff
J46 081 scheduling flexibility, were of considerable importance in
J46 082 prompting nurse administrators to make greater use of part-time
J46 083 employment. ^Shortages of trained nurses in the years following
J46 084 the war, resulting both from the expansion of public health
J46 085 services and the trend towards earlier and more universal
J46 086 marriage encouraged hospitals to make greater use of qualified
J46 087 nurses who offered themselves on a part-time basis (Kendrick,
J46 088 1950, \0p. 671; Pitts, 1984, \0p. 53). ^The Annual Reports of the
J46 089 Department of Health between 1946 and 1976 regularly referred to
J46 090 nursing shortages afflicting at least some areas of the country.
J46 091 ^Officials urged that hospitals make greater effort to recruit
J46 092 back into nursing married women who had left the profession and
J46 093 utilise married and part-time staff on afternoon and night shifts
J46 094 (Annual Reports 1969, \0p. 67; 1971, \0p. 79; 1972, \0p. 31;
J46 095 1976, \0p. 83). ^Unfortunately, national data is not available to
J46 096 show the pattern of part-time job growth within the nursing
J46 097 workforce during the post-war decades. ^Anecdotal evidence
J46 098 suggests however that the proportion of part-time nurses in
J46 099 public hospitals probably remained relatively low throughout the
J46 100 1950s and early 1960s, but grew significantly in the late 1960s
J46 101 and 1970s.
J46 102    |^Part-time employment has also been extensively utilised in
J46 103 both private and public hospitals to provide flexibility in the
J46 104 scheduling of nursing staff. ^An investigation of staffing
J46 105 patterns within public and private hospitals in Christchurch
J46 106 undertaken by the author in 1985, provided many examples of the
J46 107 use of part-time staff for this purpose (see appendix). ^Adequate
J46 108 nursing coverage must be provided in hospitals on a 24-hour,
J46 109 7-day-per-week basis, and a large amount of administrative time
J46 110 and effort is absorbed by the process of determining when each
J46 111 nurse will be on or off duty, which shift will be worked by whom
J46 112 and how weekends, absences and holidays will be accounted for
J46 113 (Young {0et al.}, 1981, \0p. 104). ^A common problem is the
J46 114 difficulty of staffing unpopular or socially inconvenient shifts:
J46 115 nights, Friday or Saturday evenings, public holidays. ^The use of
J46 116 compulsory full-time shift rotations to ensure adequate coverage
J46 117 at these times can cause major dissatisfactions among nursing
J46 118 staff. ^There are health and social problems associated with
J46 119 shiftwork, and it is also difficult to reconcile shiftwork with
J46 120 childcare responsibilities (Barnes, 1980, \0p. 27; Felton, 1975,
J46 121 \0p. 19). ^The creation of permanent part-time positions on the
J46 122 less popular shifts, such as nights, can assist hospitals to
J46 123 resolve this scheduling problem and provide 24-hour staff
J46 124 coverage without requiring nurses to rotate through a full
J46 125 24-hour shift cycle (Godfrey, 1980, \0p. 67; Johnson and
J46 126 Marcella, 1977, \0p. 34; Lartner, 1982, \0p. 168).
J46 127    |^In each of the general and obstetric public hospitals
J46 128 studied in Christchurch in 1985, the majority of part-time nurses
J46 129 were employed permanently on the night shift, working 2, 3 and
J46 130 sometimes 4 nights a week on a regular basis. ^The growth of
J46 131 part-time employment in these hospitals over the past 5 to 10
J46 132 years appears to have owed a good deal to the commitment of
J46 133 principal nurses to increasing the part-time coverage of the
J46 134 night shift, so as to reduce or eliminate the times when it was
J46 135 necessary to roster full-time staff nurses onto the night duty.
J46 136 ^Secondly, in every hospital for which information was obtained,
J46 137 permanent part-time nurses were utilised as relievers. ^As such
J46 138 they were requested to work extra duties when necessary on a
J46 139 voluntary basis to help cover for absences arising from sickness
J46 140 or annual leave. ^Nursing administrators generally preferred to
J46 141 call on their permanent part-time staff to cover these extra
J46 142 duties rather than to request full-timers to alter their rostered
J46 143 duty schedules at short notice or to work overtime. ^Thirdly, 2
J46 144 of the larger public hospitals made use of nursing pools composed
J46 145 largely of part-timers. ^Pool nurses are not permanently assigned
J46 146 to a particular ward but instead are assigned to a place of work
J46 147 when they come on duty, according to need. ^Pool nurses
J46 148 functioned both to fill in gaps caused by sickness and to raise
J46 149 staff levels when necessary in areas of the hospital where
J46 150 fluctuations in workloads are particulary critical, such as the
J46 151 intensive care unit. ^Discussions with nurse administrators in
J46 152 the course of the research confirmed that they considered the
J46 153 scheduling flexibility provided by part-time employment to be one
J46 154 of its major advantages.
J46 155    |^Neither the *"staff shortage**" nor the *"scheduling**"
J46 156 explanations for the growth of part-time registered nursing can
J46 157 explain the low level of part-time nursing found in psychiatric
J46 158 and psychopaedic hospitals. ^Historically, psychiatric and
J46 159 psychopaedic hospitals have experienced staffing problems at
J46 160 least as severe as those affecting general hospitals, and it is
J46 161 arguable that shortages of registered psychiatric nurses have
J46 162 been even greater. ^Nursing administrators in psychiatric
J46 163 hospitals must also schedule staff on a 24-hour, 7-day basis and
J46 164 adjust to cover absences. ^To explain the different levels of
J46 165 part-time employment that exist in the general and the
J46 166 psychiatric spheres of registered nursing, it is necessary to
J46 167 take into account the impact of the professional associations
J46 168 upon staffing patterns.
J46 169 *<*4The responses of the Associations*>
J46 170    |^*0The expansion of part-time employment in public general
J46 171 and obstetric hospitals during the 1970s occurred largely without
J46 172 any active response on the part of the Nurses Association. ^The
J46 173 Association has never developed a formal policy stance on the
J46 174 desirability of part-time employment in nursing, or the
J46 175 desirability of its expansion. ^While the importance of the trend
J46 176 towards part-time nursing has been acknowledged by Nurses
J46 177 Association leaders, they do not appear to have perceived this
J46 178 trend as an issue that required formal discussion and review at
J46 179 the executive level, either by the Association's executive or by
J46 180 any of its sub-committees.
J46 181    |^Instead, the response of the Nurses Association to the
J46 182 expansion of part-time employment has been limited in its focus
J46 183 to a concern with ensuring that equality for part-timers in basic
J46 184 conditions of employment is maintained. ^The Association's
J46 185 executive officers adhere to the view that there should be no
J46 186 direct discrimination against part-time nurses with respect to
J46 187 nationally-regulated conditions. ^On several occasions during the
J46 188 1970s, they acted on this belief by exerting pressure on the
J46 189 State Services Co-ordinating Committee ({0SSCC}), through the
J46 190 then Combined State Service Organisations ({0CSSO}), to ensure
J46 191 that certain newly-negotiated conditions of service for hospital
J46 192 employees were extended to part-time as well as full-time
J46 193 employees. ^In 1971, for example, a penal rate for hours worked
J46 194 at night was negotiated for the first time, but initially it was
J46 195 granted only to full-time nurses who rotated through the duty
J46 196 roster. ^The Association protested strongly and made a series of
J46 197 submissions to the Minister of Health and the {0SSCC}, until the
J46 198 night rate was extended to part-time nurses and those on fixed
J46 199 shifts (Carey, 1984, \0p. 50). ^Between 1978 and 1981, the Nurses
J46 200 Association took action to ensure that extra leave for
J46 201 shiftworkers in the Hospital Service was extended to part-timers
J46 202 (*"Shiftworker Part-Timers**", 1981, \0p. 33 and in 1980, to
J46 203 ensure that part-time nurses were paid transport allowances
J46 204 *"{0NZNA} Intervention**", 1980, \0p. 25). ^In large part,
J46 205 however, conditions of employment for part-time nurses in public
J46 206 hospitals have improved without extensive pressure from the
J46 207 Association.
J46 208    |^In contrast to the Nurses Association, the Public Service
J46 209 Association ({0PSA}) adopted a very clear policy position on the
J46 210 desirability of part-time employment in psychiatric and
J46 211 psychopaedic hospitals. ^Following the appointment of significant
J46 212 numbers of part-time nurses in the early and mid-1970s, part-time
J46 213 employment became an issue of discussion by {0PSA} sub-group
J46 214 committees located in individual hospitals.
J46 215 *#
J47 001 **[341 TEXT J47**]
J47 002 *<*4Information*>
J47 003 |^*0In the perfect market each consumer knows what is best for him
J47 004 or her. ^That is, they can make decisions in their best self
J47 005 interest.
J47 006    |^For many markets this is no great requirement. ^When people
J47 007 purchase groceries they have a fairly good idea what their
J47 008 family's needs and preferences are, and of the quality and price
J47 009 of the goods. ^The knowledge that is used for efficient grocery
J47 010 purchases has been acquired by shopping regularly over many years.
J47 011 ^They make mistakes, but typically any mistakes are small relative
J47 012 to total purchases.
J47 013    |^There are other purchases where this pattern of acquired
J47 014 knowledge through repeated purchases does not apply. ^Cars are
J47 015 bought infrequently, and the purchaser goes to great trouble to
J47 016 accumulate information from a variety of sources; publications,
J47 017 sales people, friends. ^Sometimes they make mistakes, but on the
J47 018 whole, for big ticket items it pays to accumulate information, and
J47 019 the outcome is a successful, although perhaps not perfect,
J47 020 purchase.
J47 021    |^Compare groceries and car purchase with going to a doctor.
J47 022 ^When someone goes to a doctor, it is because they usually do not
J47 023 know what they require. ^Moreover, they have little idea as to how
J47 024 to judge the quality of the medical care they think they may need.
J47 025 ^Most people do not go to the doctor often, and they do not shop
J47 026 around as they would when purchasing a car. ^So it is quite a
J47 027 different informational situation to that of a conventional
J47 028 market. ^As far as the consumers are concerned the market for
J47 029 health care is far from informationally perfect.
J47 030 *<*4Access of suppliers*>
J47 031 |^*0The ideal market requires freedom of entry and exit. ^The
J47 032 reason for this is as follows. ^If there is a fixed number of
J47 033 suppliers and, say, the demand for the service rises, then the
J47 034 suppliers could exploit the situation by demanding higher prices,
J47 035 with no benefit to the consumer. ^On the other hand if there is
J47 036 freedom of entry then other suppliers could observe the high
J47 037 prices that were being received in the market, enter it to
J47 038 participate in the abnormal profits, and by doing so bring the
J47 039 price down while supplying more services to the consumers.
J47 040    |^Of course there are very severe restraints on freedom to
J47 041 enter general practice in New Zealand. ^The aspiring {0GP} needs a
J47 042 professional qualification and acquiring that qualification takes
J47 043 time and the number of places in the medical schools is limited.
J47 044 ^We restrict immigration of doctors from overseas.
J47 045    |^These barriers to entry mean that another condition for a
J47 046 perfect market does not exist. ^Because there is an informational
J47 047 deficiency some of the barriers to entry might be justified in
J47 048 terms of a means of quality control to compensate for some of the
J47 049 deficiencies. ^The medical school issue is a more complex one,
J47 050 reflecting the costliness of a medical education, some shortages
J47 051 of patients for some of the clinical training, and a desire for
J47 052 some sort of distributional equity for aspiring candidates to the
J47 053 profession, as well as some quality control.
J47 054    |^One source of entry is alternative medicine but doctors
J47 055 have at least two advantages relative to them. ^First, they are
J47 056 entitled to medical benefits *- {0ie}, subsidies from the state.
J47 057 ^Second, they are entitled to prescribe pharmaceuticals for which
J47 058 the patient pays only a modest fee. ^Thus alternative medicine,
J47 059 under current conditions, is not sufficient to remove the barriers
J47 060 for entry problem.
J47 061 *<*4Distributional issues*>
J47 062 |^*0Another requirement needed for a market to work well is that
J47 063 its output is distributed fairly among the customers. ^For many
J47 064 products the nation accepts that the rich consume more than the
J47 065 poor, but providing the poor have sufficient then we are willing
J47 066 to tolerate some inequality.
J47 067    |^There is a further dimension of inequality when we consider
J47 068 medical services. ^Some people are sick more often and require
J47 069 more services than others. ^So as well as making sure that the
J47 070 medical services are distributed fairly between the rich and poor,
J47 071 there is also a need to ensure they are distributed fairly between
J47 072 the sick and well.
J47 073    |^Application of these principles is much clearer for, say,
J47 074 the secondary health system than for primary health care. ^Most
J47 075 people would accept that access to major surgery should be
J47 076 independent of income, and that a person receiving the surgery
J47 077 should not be penalised by a major loss of income, in comparison
J47 078 to those who are well.
J47 079    |^The fundamental point is that their demand for medical
J47 080 services is erratic over time and between people. ^The poor can
J47 081 get a fair share of food, for instance, by our ensuring they have
J47 082 an adequate income *- part of which they use for food purchase.
J47 083 ^Moreover, the amount of income necessary for food purchase can be
J47 084 calculated by knowing something about the family circumstances
J47 085 such as age, sex, and number, so the income can be delivered by an
J47 086 appropriate tax-benefit package.
J47 087    |^Because of the erratic incidence for the demand for medical
J47 088 services, there is no efficient way of providing their cost
J47 089 through the income maintenance system. ^We cannot identify simple
J47 090 characteristics which adequately predict the outlays a family may
J47 091 make; although the categories such as the young, the old, and some
J47 092 form of chronic sickness are useful.
J47 093    |^If the cost of a consultation was small, we need not worry.
J47 094 ^What is meant by small is an empirical issue. ^However, it is
J47 095 known that some families do not go to a doctor, or delay going to
J47 096 a doctor, because of the fee. ^The research suggests that
J47 097 deferring visiting the doctor is one of the last things a poor
J47 098 family does to save money, and they will defer visiting for the
J47 099 adults while they still visit on behalf of the children. ^It
J47 100 appears that current medical fees are sufficient to be a deterrent
J47 101 for some families, and are a real financial penalty for others.
J47 102 ^It seems likely that primary health services are not equitably
J47 103 distributed in New Zealand.
J47 104 *<*4Can the market be improved?*>
J47 105 |^*0Having established that the market for primary health care is
J47 106 not a very satisfactory one, then one asks whether it can be
J47 107 improved. ^As a first step, can the information flows in the
J47 108 market be improved? ^There are a number of possibilities here.
J47 109    |^First, there is the area of preprimary health care; that is
J47 110 the health care which takes place in the home without direct
J47 111 involvement of the professionals. ^In the decade since The Future
J47 112 of New Zealand Medicine there has been a lot of progress in this
J47 113 area. ^It is now accepted that the solution to diseases related to
J47 114 the consumption of alcohol and tobacco are more in the hands of
J47 115 the consumers than the medical profession and the nation even pays
J47 116 lip service to the obvious notion that a parent is the most
J47 117 important doctor for a child. ^It is lip service because we are
J47 118 not yet committed to ensuring that each person has an adequate
J47 119 level of knowledge to carry out the task of looking after their
J47 120 health. ^Part of that knowledge should include guidelines as to
J47 121 when to use the primary health services. ^So there is a first
J47 122 policy requirement. ^It makes economic and social sense to improve
J47 123 the public's knowledge of personal management of health, including
J47 124 how to use the primary health services.
J47 125    |^Second, it is now agreed that doctors should display in
J47 126 their waiting rooms their charges. ^But perhaps doctors should
J47 127 also be encouraged to advertise themselves, including their
J47 128 charges and their specialities?
J47 129    |^Third, there may be a role for an active consumer watchdog
J47 130 organisation, providing the public with information about the
J47 131 quality and performance of doctors, including measures of
J47 132 excessive waiting times. ^The medical profession may not be too
J47 133 keen on something akin to Which? or The Good Food Guide, but an
J47 134 effective market requires this sort of information to generate the
J47 135 pressures on suppliers to maintain and improve quality.
J47 136    |^Because of the informational problem, there is a need for
J47 137 some accreditation procedures which generate a barrier to entry.
J47 138 ^Markets do not work well when other suppliers cannot enter. ^In
J47 139 practical terms it is not necessarily in the public interest for
J47 140 suppliers in such a noncontestable market to be able to set their
J47 141 own prices. ^But before we conclude there has to be some sort of
J47 142 price control on doctors' fees, consideration should be given as
J47 143 to whether the barriers to entry could be usefully relaxed.
J47 144    |^Because of costs, lead time, and various bottlenecks,
J47 145 increasing the number of annual medical graduates is unlikely to
J47 146 be an effective policy in the short run. ^The current practice
J47 147 towards immigration of general practitioners seems to be fairly
J47 148 restrictive. ^A market solution to delivery of primary health
J47 149 care, requires that these restrictions should be lifted, and any
J47 150 doctor who meets the quality standards should be permitted into
J47 151 the country to work as a general practitioner. ^Of course there
J47 152 may be restrictions against doctors from the Third World for
J47 153 reasons of foreign assistance, and that care needs to be taken
J47 154 over the accreditation. ^One argument that is unacceptable is that
J47 155 restrictions should be maintained since other countries do. ^That
J47 156 argument has about as much validity as New Zealand pursuing the
J47 157 European Community's Common Agricultural Policy.
J47 158    |^Another form of reduction of barriers to entry is to
J47 159 liberalise what para- and alternative medics can and may do. ^For
J47 160 instance, for many people the local pharmacist is the first point
J47 161 of entry to formal primary health care. ^As such they could be
J47 162 promoted as a useful alternative to doctors. ^Pharmacists could
J47 163 carry out simple diagnoses and treatments (like mole removal), if
J47 164 it were built into their training. ^The practice of making
J47 165 available a wider range of pharmaceuticals without prescription
J47 166 could be encouraged, as could a class of drugs which may be
J47 167 prescribed by suitably trained medics. ^Do we have to go to a
J47 168 doctor whenever we need a low level antibiotic? ^Could not a
J47 169 pharmacist prescribe in some circumstances?
J47 170    |^Other health professionals could be similarly treated, by
J47 171 ensuring that some areas provide alternative diagnoses and
J47 172 treatment to control. ^At the other end, some countries permit
J47 173 direct access to specialists. ^Need the general practitioner
J47 174 maintain the gateway monopoly? ^Another source of medical monopoly
J47 175 is the {0GMS} benefit. ^As we shall come to shortly, it is very
J47 176 hard to justify the present *+$1.25 benefit. ^As a rule, partial
J47 177 subsidies rarely make sense, but reflect ill-conceived
J47 178 compromises. ^If we maintain the present market charge system,
J47 179 there is a strong case for the abolition of the *+$1.25 benefit,
J47 180 while maintaining and enhancing from the released funds the
J47 181 existing special {0GMS} for children, the elderly, beneficiaries,
J47 182 and the chronically ill, and abolishing the prescription charges.
J47 183 ^Incidentally this charge must have one of the highest costs of
J47 184 administration of all taxes, for a very conservative calculation
J47 185 suggests a cost of 18 cents in the dollar. ^By abolishing both the
J47 186 lowest {0GMS} benefit and the prescription charge there would be
J47 187 administrative savings on both accounts.
J47 188    |^The outcome of the various proposals to reduce entry
J47 189 barriers is likely to still leave some monopoly pricing powers to
J47 190 the general practitioner. ^If this were to happen it could still
J47 191 be in the national interest to provide some price controls on
J47 192 doctors' fees. ^This is a tentative conclusion, because the
J47 193 practical answer is a pragmatic one. ^For instance a set of
J47 194 guidelines may be sufficient, providing the consumer has
J47 195 sufficient information, there is a sufficient supply of
J47 196 alternatives, and the possibility of immigration.
J47 197    |^If the profession were to oppose the sort of informational
J47 198 and entry reforms covered here *- and there may well be good
J47 199 reasons against them *- then correspondingly the case for price
J47 200 controls becomes more powerful.
J47 201 *<*4Distribution policies for primary health care*>
J47 202 |^*0Historically there have been two major reasons for
J47 203 intervention in the primary health care market. ^On the one hand
J47 204 has been the problem of quality assessment and information, on the
J47 205 other have been the distributional issues.
J47 206    |^It is easy to expound some distributional objective such as
J47 207 *"nobody should suffer financially because of ill health**". ^It
J47 208 is somewhat more difficult to apply the principle.
J47 209 *#
J48 001 **[342 TEXT J48**]
J48 002 ^*0Any who don't join may be dismissed by the employer (\0s. 71).
J48 003 ^But the point should be noted that while section 71 *1permits
J48 004 *0employers to justifiably dismiss workers for this reason, it
J48 005 does *1not require *0them to do so.
J48 006    |^Individuals who are required to join a union but who
J48 007 object on the grounds of conscience or deeply held conviction
J48 008 (\0s. 83) may apply for exemption to the Union Membership
J48 009 Exemption Tribunal (\0ss. 73-97).
J48 010 *<2.4 *1*"Contestability**"*>
J48 011    |^*0Contestability is a word that was widely touted during
J48 012 consultations prior to the enactment of the Labour Relations Act
J48 013 1987. ^It refers to the possibility of one union *"contesting**"
J48 014 or seeking coverage of another union's members. ^The Act does
J48 015 provide for a limited form of contestability which has not
J48 016 previously existed in New Zealand's industrial law. ^It allows a
J48 017 union to challenge another union's coverage (\0s. 98) but only
J48 018 through a rigorously democratic process. ^The challenging union
J48 019 must first notify the Registrar of Unions, the central
J48 020 organisation of workers and the affected union (\0s. 100),
J48 021 precisely defining its *'target.**' ^After a period of three
J48 022 months, it must apply for the Registrar's approval of its
J48 023 definition (\0s. 101). ^Once approved, it must ballot its own
J48 024 members on whether they wish to extend their union's coverage
J48 025 (\0s. 102). ^If a majority agree, the union must apply to the
J48 026 Registrar for amendment of its membership rule (\0s. 103). ^If
J48 027 everything is in order, the Registrar then conducts a ballot of
J48 028 the workers in the target group (\0s. 103). ^Needless to say, a
J48 029 majority of these workers must agree to the change.
J48 030    |^The Act, then, does provide a mechanism for unions to make
J48 031 bids for someone else's members. ^This obviously provides union
J48 032 members with a degree of choice that did not exist before *-
J48 033 providing someone wishes to offer them alternative coverage.
J48 034 ^However, the process involved is clearly both rigorous and time
J48 035 consuming.
J48 036 *<2.5 *1Accountability*>
J48 037    |^*0Our industrial law has historically emphasised the need
J48 038 for unions to operate democratically and has sought to protect
J48 039 individual union members against abuses of power. ^The Labour
J48 040 Relations Act 1987 reinforces this historical theme by requiring
J48 041 (\0s. 36) that:
J48 042 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J48 043 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J48 044 **[END INDENTATION**]
J48 045    |^The Act (\0s. 40) gives the Registrar of Unions the power
J48 046 to override any union rule which is unreasonable, undemocratic,
J48 047 unfairly discriminatory or unfairly prejudicial or contrary to
J48 048 the Act or other law. ^It requires the election or removal of
J48 049 union officials to be administered by secret postal ballot or by
J48 050 some other similarly democratic secret ballot (\0s. 37 and First
J48 051 Schedule).
J48 052 *<3.    The Tripartite Wage Conference*>
J48 053    |^The Labour Relations Act 1987 continues to provide for a
J48 054 tripartite wage conference. ^Such a conference is to be held
J48 055 annually and to last no more than 90 days (\0s. 121). ^It is to
J48 056 include representatives of government and representatives of both
J48 057 state and private sector employers and unions. ^The conference is
J48 058 designed to act as a forum in which a *'full and frank exchange
J48 059 of information**' can occur on the economic situation, the
J48 060 government's economic policies (\0s. 127) and on the interests of
J48 061 the low-paid (\0s. 128). ^The government must provide a briefing
J48 062 on the state of the economy (\0s. 130). ^The conference can only
J48 063 make *'recommendations**' (\0s. 129). ^It may set up *'working
J48 064 parties**' (\0s. 131). ^It is possible that such working parties
J48 065 could address issues on which tripartite co-operation might well
J48 066 prove useful. ^For example, a tripartite approach to aspects of
J48 067 unemployment and training or retraining could well prove
J48 068 beneficial for the economy and for adversely affected individuals
J48 069 in a time of major readjustment.
J48 070    |^The point must be made that the tripartite wage conference
J48 071 is not set up with the intention of providing a wage
J48 072 *'guideline.**' ^Such a centrally determined or suggested figure
J48 073 would not be appropriate in an environment where bargaining is
J48 074 supposed to reflect the needs of industries and enterprises.
J48 075 ^However, the legislators clearly believe that there is still a
J48 076 place for some information sharing at a centralised conference
J48 077 and that there is a place for some issues to be tackled by
J48 078 tripartite co-operation.
J48 079 *<4. Disputes of interest, disputes of rights and associated
J48 080 institutions.*>
J48 081 *<4.1 *1What is a dispute?*>
J48 082    |^*0Like its predecessor, the Labour Relations Act 1987
J48 083 makes a distinction between disputes of interest and disputes of
J48 084 rights. ^It uses the following wording (\0s. 2):
J48 085 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J48 086 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J48 087 **[END INDENTATION**]
J48 088    |^As the use of italics attempts to indicate, a dispute of
J48 089 interest is the name given to the process by which an award or
J48 090 agreement is negotiated or renegotiated. ^The economic interests
J48 091 of the parties are the subject of debate. ^In the normal run of
J48 092 events, the debate produces a redefinition of wage rates and
J48 093 conditions of employment. ^Historically this has been an annual
J48 094 process although the Labour Relations Act provides a mechanism
J48 095 (\0ss. 178-183) for more frequent disputes of this nature *- if a
J48 096 *'new matter**' has arisen. ^A new matter is essentially some
J48 097 factor that significantly affects terms and conditions of
J48 098 employment but which is not dealt with in the award or agreement
J48 099 or is dealt with only very generally. ^The party wanting to open
J48 100 discussions on a new matter must obtain the permission of the
J48 101 Labour Court. ^This provision is aimed at creating greater
J48 102 *'sanctity**' of agreement *- helping to ensure that wherever
J48 103 possible awards and agreements last their contractual length.
J48 104    |^Disputes of rights, on the other hand, are essentially
J48 105 arguments about how to interpret or apply an existing award or
J48 106 agreement. ^They are arguments about the meaning of words and
J48 107 about how to precisely define the rights of the parties affected
J48 108 by them. ^For example, a dispute arose over how to interpret the
J48 109 words *'unusually dirty**' in a collective agreement covering a
J48 110 site where the workers were handling rusty steel. ^If handling
J48 111 the steel was unusually dirty, a penalty rate would be payable.
J48 112 ^The dispute went to disputes committee and then to court with
J48 113 the Judge ruling that the work was dirty but not unusually so and
J48 114 hence the penalty rate clause could not be invoked.
J48 115    |^Before going on to outline the procedures for the
J48 116 resolution of disputes, we must pause and look at the word
J48 117 *'dispute**' itself. ^Unlike its predecessor, the Labour
J48 118 Relations Act signals to the courts that the word dispute must be
J48 119 given a wide construction. ^A dispute means *'any dispute arising
J48 120 between one or more employers or employers' organisations or
J48 121 associations of employers' organisations and one or more unions
J48 122 or associations of unions (\0s. 2).**' ^The Industrial Relations
J48 123 Act 1973, on the other hand, specified that disputes must be in
J48 124 relation to *'industrial matters.**' ^This left the judiciary
J48 125 with the question of how to define *'industrial matters.**' In
J48 126 one case, the Arbitration Court ({0NZ} Bank Officers {0IUW} \0v
J48 127 {0ANZ} Banking Group (1979) {0Arb. Ct} 379) ruled that the issue
J48 128 of *'cheap**' staff loans on which the employer wished to raise
J48 129 the rate of interest did not qualify as an industrial matter and
J48 130 hence could not be the subject of a dispute. ^In another ({0NZ}
J48 131 Law Practitioners Decision (1980) {0Arb. Ct} 267), the Court
J48 132 ruled that the introduction of new technology was not an
J48 133 industrial matter but rather a matter of managerial prerogative.
J48 134 ^These decisions were arguably most unhelpful because they failed
J48 135 to bring real conflicts within the ambit of our conciliation and
J48 136 arbitration system (4). ^The new law removes this difficulty
J48 137 altogether. ^Unions and employers can dispute over any matter
J48 138 without being constrained by judicial interpretations of the
J48 139 correct *'field of play.**' ^How far the parties will go in using
J48 140 this new-found freedom remains to be seen. ^On paper at least,
J48 141 the reform paves the way for increased industrial democracy
J48 142 through extended collective bargaining.
J48 143 *<4.2 *1Disputes of interest*>
J48 144    |^*0The central thrust of the Labour Relations Act 1987 is
J48 145 to establish the principle that the *'terms and conditions
J48 146 relating to the employment of groups of workers are fixed by a
J48 147 single set of negotiations (\0s. 132).**' ^Workers can be covered
J48 148 by an award or an agreement but not by both. ^Awards are the
J48 149 documents produced by *1conciliation *0or, if both parties agree,
J48 150 by *1arbitration. ^*0They have the potential to *"bind**"
J48 151 ({0i.e.} to regulate the behaviour of) not only the parties that
J48 152 negotiate them but also any other employers and workers involved
J48 153 in the work to which the award relates (*'blanket coverage**').
J48 154    |^Agreements, by contrast, are the result of voluntary
J48 155 negotiations between the parties. ^They bind only the parties
J48 156 involved in the negotiations. ^In other words, the two documents
J48 157 are principally distinguished by the type of process that creates
J48 158 their existence and by the scope of their coverage. ^Both specify
J48 159 minimum wages and conditions of employment and can be enforced at
J48 160 court if necessary. ^The critical contribution of the Labour
J48 161 Relations Act is to eliminate *'second tier bargaining**' *- the
J48 162 practice whereby a worker could be covered by an award and then
J48 163 by a *'house**' agreement negotiated on top of it. ^Such
J48 164 secondary bargaining became prevalent from the 1960's on,
J48 165 particularly in the Auckland area. ^The Act (\0s. 132) requires
J48 166 the union to elect whether a particular group of workers will be
J48 167 included in negotiations for an award or for an agreement. ^Once
J48 168 a group of workers is covered by a separate agreement, it cannot
J48 169 return to the award unless the union and the employer agree to
J48 170 (\0s. 136). ^However, this is not the case in *1composite
J48 171 *0agreements (see below). ^A comparison of awards and agreements
J48 172 is given in the chart on pages 15 and 16 .
J48 173    |^We now turn to a description of the key processes involved
J48 174 in settling awards (conciliation and arbitration) and agreements
J48 175 (voluntary negotiations). ^In addition, we discuss the role of
J48 176 mediation in disputes of interest and the law relating to
J48 177 industrial action during disputes. ^A diagram of the options
J48 178 available for resolving disputes of interest is shown on page 21.
J48 179 *<4.2(a) *1Conciliation*>
J48 180    |^*0Some form of conciliation has been used in New Zealand
J48 181 since 1894. ^Conciliation involves the two direct parties (unions
J48 182 and employers) debating their positions around a table in a
J48 183 formal meeting chaired by an independent chairperson. ^That
J48 184 chairperson is a mediator designated by the Chief Mediator (\0s.
J48 185 138). ^Either the union or the employer may apply to the Chief
J48 186 Mediator for a dispute to be heard (\0s. 134). ^This includes
J48 187 setting out the *'claims**' which are made on the other party.
J48 188 ^An agreeable time and place is arranged (\0s. 139) and each
J48 189 party is allowed to nominate up to 10 persons as negotiators.
J48 190 ^Providing these individuals are adequately representative of the
J48 191 parties and have  requisite authority to act, the mediator
J48 192 constitutes the council (\0s. 141). ^The council is charged to
J48 193 *'use its best endeavours to bring about a settlement**' but can
J48 194 exercise absolute discretion in terms of how it operates (\0s.
J48 195 145). ^If the dispute is settled by the council, it is forwarded
J48 196 to the Arbitration Commission which registers it as an
J48 197 enforceable award (\0s. 146). ^All such awards must contain a
J48 198 *'coverage**' clause (\0s. 170). ^This clause specifies the
J48 199 employers, unions and workers bound by it. ^When registered, it
J48 200 also binds any employer who is not covered by a separate
J48 201 agreement (\0s. 160). ^Awards must always cover at least two
J48 202 employers (\0s. 134). ^Where they cover more than one union, they
J48 203 are technically known as *1composite *0awards (\0s. 137). ^In
J48 204 summary, conciliation is a controlled form of negotiation between
J48 205 representative parties.
J48 206    |^Prior to the Labour Relations Act 1987, the travel and
J48 207 accommodation expenses of negotiators were subsidised by the
J48 208 Department of Labour. ^The law no longer provides for these
J48 209 subsidies. ^Some commentators expect therefore that conciliation
J48 210 councils will get down to business more rapidly than they have in
J48 211 the past. ^The days of excessive *'strutting and posturing**'
J48 212 before the *'real**' talks begin are likely to be over. ^And
J48 213 there is also likely to be an increase in informal talks between
J48 214 the parties before the council is officially convened. ^This will
J48 215 enable both parties to obtain a more accurate picture of the
J48 216 other side's objectives and thus create the basis for less
J48 217 longwinded conciliation councils.
J48 218 *<4.2(b) *1Arbitration*>
J48 219    |^*0If a dispute is not resolved (or only partially
J48 220 resolved) by conciliation, the mediator refers it to the
J48 221 Arbitration Commission (\0s. 147).
J48 222 *#
J49 001 **[343 TEXT J49**]
J49 002 ^*0See also *1\0R \0v Martin and Martin *012 December 1984 ({0CA}
J49 003 198 and 199/83) (noted [1985] {0BCL} 174) where sentences were
J49 004 reduced on appeal to mark the Court's disapproval of the manner
J49 005 in which a Crown witness had been briefed by the police.
J49 006    |^The fact that the police chose to arrest and prosecute the
J49 007 offender when others engaged in similar or worse conduct were not
J49 008 arrested and charged does not prevent the Court, in the absence
J49 009 of improper motives by the police, from imposing the sentence
J49 010 appropriate to the gravity of the offence: *1\0R \0v Caird
J49 011 *0(1970) 54 {0Cr App R} 499.
J49 012    |^*4Totality principle *- ^*0As a general rule where each
J49 013 offence is a *1separate transaction *0and unrelated to the others
J49 014 in time, subject matter, or modus operandi, cumulative sentences
J49 015 should be imposed unless there is a compelling reason for
J49 016 concurrent sentences. ^Otherwise, there is a danger that the
J49 017 primary term of the leading sentence will not reflect adequately
J49 018 the gravity of the total criminal conduct for which the offender
J49 019 is being sentenced. ^Nevertheless, the Court must consider the
J49 020 effective sentence imposed to ensure that the total term of
J49 021 imprisonment is not excessive and that there is no overlapping of
J49 022 the aggravating factors taken into account in determining the
J49 023 length of each sentence. ^Cumulative sentences should not be such
J49 024 as to result in an aggregate term wholly out of proportion to the
J49 025 gravity of the offences, viewed as a whole: *1\0R \0v Bradley
J49 026 *0[1979] 2 {0NZLR} 262 ({0CA}); *1\0R \0v \0B *0[1984] 1 {0NZLR}
J49 027 261 ({0CA}). ^Cumulative and concurrent sentences and the
J49 028 *"Totality principle**" are examined in the commentary to \0s 73,
J49 029 *1post.
J49 030 *<*6F. CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE OFFENDER*>
J49 031    |^*4Age *- ^*0The weight given to personal circumstances is
J49 032 usually closely related to a consideration of rehabilitative
J49 033 potential; the age of an offender is thus a factor of
J49 034 considerable importance when determining an appropriate sentence:
J49 035 {0eg} *1\0R \0v Autagavaia *0[1985] 1 {0NZLR} 398 ({0CA}). ^The
J49 036 younger the offender, the less likely an advanced stage of a
J49 037 criminal career will have been reached. ^Where co-offenders are
J49 038 similarly implicated in an offence, a distinction may be drawn
J49 039 solely on the ground of age: {0eg} *1\0R \0v Andrews *06 December
J49 040 1985 ({0CA}235/85).
J49 041    |^Consequently, a youthful offender should generally receive
J49 042 a lesser sentence than an older and more mature one. ^The
J49 043 legislative policies reflected in the Children and Young Persons
J49 044 Act 1974 require the Courts to focus on the welfare and needs of
J49 045 youthful offenders during the particularly vulnerable years of
J49 046 adolescence: *1\0R \0v Brookes *019 August 1983 ({0CA} 115/83)
J49 047 (sentence of four years' imprisonment imposed in the High Court
J49 048 upon a youth aged 15 convicted of dangerous driving causing
J49 049 death, reduced on appeal to three years' imprisonment).
J49 050    |^With young offenders all hope of reformation should not be
J49 051 abandoned too readily, and sentences should be chosen that avoid
J49 052 institutionalisation. ^However, because of the degree of
J49 053 correlation between youth and violence, particularly the
J49 054 prevalence of premeditated crime involving the use of weapons,
J49 055 the Court of Appeal has stated that the possibilities of reform
J49 056 of young offenders may be overshadowed by the necessity to impose
J49 057 an appropriate sentence designed to deter others of a like mind:
J49 058 {0eg} *1\0R \0v Walker *0[1973] 1 {0NZLR} 99; *1\0R \0v Knowles
J49 059 *0[1984] 1 {0NZLR} 257.
J49 060    |^Sentences available for young offenders are examined in
J49 061 the notes to \0s 8, *1post.
J49 062    |^*0At the other end of the scale, advanced age, maturity
J49 063 and a good record over a large number of years, particularly if
J49 064 accompanied by ill-health, may persuade the Court that a
J49 065 custodial sentence is inappropriate: {0eg} *1Henry \0v
J49 066 Advocate-General of the Cook Islands *024 October 1979
J49 067 (\0M1347/79) ({0SC}, {0FC}) (noted [1979] {0BCL} 726; [1980]
J49 068 {0NZ} Recent Law 5). ^There is a reluctance to sentence a person
J49 069 to imprisonment where there is a possibility that life expectancy
J49 070 will be greatly reduced through aggravation of a medical
J49 071 condition or that the person may not live to be released: {0eg}
J49 072 *1Henry (supra). ^*0With elderly offenders the Court should not
J49 073 overlook the fact that each year of a custodial sentence
J49 074 represents a substantial proportion of the period of life left to
J49 075 the offender: *1\0R \0v Hunter *0(1984) 36 {0SASR} 101.
J49 076    |^*4Personal characteristics *- ^*0Factors such as medical
J49 077 problems, personality disorders, emotional difficulties,
J49 078 financial difficulties, depression, overwork, marital and family
J49 079 problems are all relevant when evaluating the culpability of the
J49 080 offender. ^The weight to be attached to personality factors in
J49 081 any particular case depends on the degree to which each is
J49 082 considered to be indicative of lack of premeditation and of
J49 083 uncharacteristic behaviour that is unlikely to be repeated; or,
J49 084 conversely, of conduct that demonstrates the offender is a danger
J49 085 to the community unless medication and treatment are given and
J49 086 accepted with a view to eliminating the cause of the offending,
J49 087 and thus whether incapacitation or rehabilitation needs to be
J49 088 emphasised when imposing sentence.
J49 089    |^Pre-sentence reports assist the Court in this respect:
J49 090 {0eg} *1\0R \0v Autagavaia *0[1985] 1 {0NZLR} 398 ({0CA}). ^The
J49 091 provision of reports containing information on the social,
J49 092 economic, educational, medical and psychiatric background of the
J49 093 offender is examined in the commentary to \0ss 15 and 121,
J49 094 *1post. ^*0Where the Court is sentencing with a view to achieving
J49 095 the reformation or treatment of the offender, or the disposal of
J49 096 a person who is troublesome in the community, it must be mindful
J49 097 of the need for there to be a reasonable relationship between the
J49 098 sentence imposed and the gravity of the offending: *1\0R \0v
J49 099 Elliot *0[1981] 1 {0NZLR} 295 ({0CA}).
J49 100    |^*4Mercy *- ^*0The trial Judge has the fundamental right
J49 101 and responsibility, in appropriate cases, to allow the promptings
J49 102 of mercy to operate and, even in cases which normally call for a
J49 103 deterrent sentence, he or she may conclude that the state is best
J49 104 served by taking a form of action calculated to encourage
J49 105 reformation: *1\0R \0v Wihapi *0[1976] 1 {0NZLR} 422 ({0CA}).
J49 106    |^This principle was reaffirmed in *1\0R \0v Lawson *0[1982]
J49 107 2 {0NZLR} 219 ({0CA}) where an order to come up for sentence if
J49 108 called upon, imposed upon a co-offender convicted of conspiracy
J49 109 to commit burglary and who had voluntarily committed himself for
J49 110 treatment for alcoholism, was said to be justified. ^It was an
J49 111 attempt by the trial Judge to rescue the offender *"as a brand
J49 112 from the burning**". ^See also, *1\0R \0v Peters *011 April 1986
J49 113 ({0CA}309/85) (noted [1986] {0BCL} 526) where the sentencing
J49 114 Judge had made a careful attempt to rehabilitate an offender
J49 115 convicted of assault with intent to commit rape through the
J49 116 composition of a sentence of community care. ^The Court refused
J49 117 to interfere with the sentence, which was working well, despite
J49 118 the fact that it did not reflect the seriousness of the
J49 119 offender's conduct, nor did it mirror the Judge's remarks on
J49 120 sentencing. ^The case was to be regarded as *"exceptional**".
J49 121    |^Mercy may be shown where the offender's personality ({0eg}
J49 122 immaturity, low level of intelligence, history of mental illness,
J49 123 social inadequacy, susceptibility to provocation), background
J49 124 ({0eg} suffering deprivation and extreme violence as a child) or
J49 125 peculiar circumstances ({0eg} severe emotional distress, domestic
J49 126 difficulties) give rise to the offence.
J49 127    |^In *1\0R \0v Dowling *0[1985] 1 {0NZLR} 182 the Court of
J49 128 Appeal noted that the appellant was a man who was unable to cope
J49 129 with the vicissitudes of life and was extraordinarily sensitive
J49 130 to matters which would not provoke an ordinary person. ^His
J49 131 personal characteristics (subnormality and alcoholism) justified
J49 132 the imposition of a lesser term of imprisonment than would
J49 133 otherwise be called for. ^A sentence of three years' imprisonment
J49 134 for manslaughter was reduced to two.
J49 135    |^In domestic disputes the level of culpability varies
J49 136 greatly, preventing sensible generalisations as to an appropriate
J49 137 sentence based for example on some kind of tariff: *1\0R \0v
J49 138 Lavea *011 December 1979 ({0CA}197/79) (noted 3 {0TCL} 2/2). ^The
J49 139 fact that an offender was immature, had suffered deprivation and
J49 140 extreme violence as a child and had a history of mental illness
J49 141 resulting in a state of uncontrollable frustration were
J49 142 considered as mitigating factors in imposing sentence for
J49 143 manslaughter by ill-treatment of a baby: *1\0R \0v Hansen *017
J49 144 August 1976 ({0CA}53/76).
J49 145    |^*4Race, nationality, ethnic background *- ^*0Equality
J49 146 before the law is a basic concept fundamental to the
J49 147 administration of justice. ^It is embodied in the judicial oath
J49 148 to do *"right to all manner of people... without fear or favour,
J49 149 affection or ill will**". ^Consequently, it is submitted that the
J49 150 sentencing principles outlined in this Introduction are to be
J49 151 applied in every case, irrespective of the identity of a
J49 152 particular offender or membership of an ethnic or other group.
J49 153 ^Nevertheless, these same principles require the Court to take
J49 154 into account all material facts, including those facts which
J49 155 exist only by reason of the offender's membership of an ethnic or
J49 156 other group: *1Neal \0v \0R *0(1982) 149 {0CLR} 305 ({0HCA}).
J49 157 ^The Court should impose the penalty which reflects matters of
J49 158 mitigation arising from the offender's background and personal
J49 159 situation, and which recognises the structure and operation of
J49 160 the society within which he or she lives, in particular, the
J49 161 degree to which the offender's cultural or ethnic heritage
J49 162 predominates and any problems of a cross-cultural nature that may
J49 163 have been experienced. ^This is a basic requirement of a system
J49 164 of justice that is evenhanded, consistent and uniform.
J49 165    |^Section 16, *1post *0expressly enables an offender to call
J49 166 witnesses as to his or her ethnic or cultural background.
J49 167    |^The issue of the relevance to sentence of the fact that
J49 168 the offender may be, or has been, subject to some traditional
J49 169 punishment or response within the local community, has arisen in
J49 170 Australia in the context of aboriginal customary or tribal law.
J49 171 ^The leading cases are *1Jadurin \0v \0R *0(1982) 44 {0ALR} 424
J49 172 ({0FCA}); *1Mamarika \0v \0R *0(1982) 42 {0ALR} 94 ({0FCA});
J49 173 *1Neal (supra); \0R \0v Herbert *0(1983) 23 {0NTR} 22; *1\0R \0v
J49 174 Sampson *0(1984) 53 {0ALR} 542 ({0FCA}); *1Atkinson \0v Walkely
J49 175 *0(1984) 27 {0NTR} 34, from which the following propositions can
J49 176 be extracted. ^The attitude of members of the local community to
J49 177 the offender and to the offence is of particular relevance,
J49 178 especially where the offence was committed within that community
J49 179 and where the victim was from that community. ^That the offender
J49 180 has been subjected to some form of local dispute resolution, even
J49 181 if this involves some additional response under aboriginal
J49 182 customary law is relevant, especially where members of the local
J49 183 community are thereby reconciled. ^The imposition of further
J49 184 punishment by the Court is not precluded. ^The Court cannot order
J49 185 or impose traditional punishment that is not lawful under the
J49 186 general law, nor should it give the impression of having
J49 187 sanctioned the exacting of retribution by the offender's own
J49 188 community, particularly where this involves the infliction of
J49 189 physical harm.
J49 190    |^These principles do not exclude the ability of a Judge, in
J49 191 appropriate cases, to deal with an offender in accordance with
J49 192 membership and the practices of the cultural or ethnic group,
J49 193 subject always to control remaining with the Court, and to the
J49 194 provisions of the law. ^Alternative means of rehabilitation which
J49 195 appropriately take account of different cultural or ethnic values
J49 196 should be utilised: (see community care, \0s 53 *1post*0). ^A
J49 197 failure by the Court to take account of these factors may create
J49 198 an injustice for the offender, by making the sentence much more
J49 199 onerous than it would be for an offender of a different cultural
J49 200 or ethnic background, with different traditions, customs and
J49 201 mores.
J49 202    |^The race or ethnic background of an offender has only
J49 203 rarely been expressly considered by the Court of Appeal in
J49 204 relation to sentence. ^One such case, however, is *1\0R \0v
J49 205 Sangkamyong *03 July 1984 ({0CA}36/84) (noted [1984] {0BCL} 836)
J49 206 where a sentence imposed for the importation of cannabis was
J49 207 reduced *"in the interests of justice and humanity**". ^The
J49 208 appellant, his wife and young children had escaped Laos and came
J49 209 to New Zealand after a year in a refugee camp. ^His absence from
J49 210 the home while serving a prison sentence would bear very heavily
J49 211 on his wife and their children with their very different cultural
J49 212 and language background.
J49 213 *#
J50 001 **[344 TEXT J50**]
J50 002 ^*0Richardson \0J identified three criteria which must be present
J50 003 to found an estoppel per rem judicatam, namely:
J50 004 |_(a) identity of parties
J50 005 |(b) identity of subject matter; and
J50 006 |(c) sufficient co-extensiveness of the standard of proof.
J50 007 |^It was the second of these criteria *- identity of subject
J50 008 matter, that was the issue in *1Maxwell.
J50 009    |^*0The facts of *1Gregoriadis *0were that the Commissioner
J50 010 had successfully brought evasion charges against the taxpayer in
J50 011 the Magistrates Court. ^The taxpayer appealed and the Supreme
J50 012 Court allowed the appeal on the basis that certain evidence that
J50 013 had been admitted in the Court below was inadmissible. ^In the
J50 014 meantime, as a result of the outcome of the prosecutions in the
J50 015 Magistrates Court, the Commissioner had assessed the taxpayer for
J50 016 penal tax. ^The taxpayer objected. ^The case came before Quilliam
J50 017 \0J in the High Court where the issue was whether the acquittal
J50 018 on the prosecutions debarred the Commissioner from charging the
J50 019 taxpayer in penal tax. ^Quilliam \0J held that it did not and
J50 020 that the taxpayer was chargeable.
J50 021    |^However, in the Court of Appeal it was held that the
J50 022 matter was res judicata and the appeal was allowed.
J50 023    |^The law of *1{Res Judicata} *0is an area which requires
J50 024 exactitude of expression. ^Its basis is that *1the same question
J50 025 *0shall not be the subject of relitigation between those whom, or
J50 026 their privies, it has already once been decided. ^*1But the
J50 027 question must be the same. ^*0Were the questions before the Court
J50 028 in *1Gregoriadis *0the same or not? ^Clearly not. ^This is
J50 029 accepted by Richardson and McMullin \0JJ at \0p 711 where they
J50 030 expressly admit that no more than a *"sufficient approximation**"
J50 031 between the two questions can be contended for. ^They then excuse
J50 032 making the leap over the gap, by saying that it does not matter,
J50 033 for if the standard had been the same (which it was not) the
J50 034 Commissioner would still have failed. ^This sort of *"near
J50 035 enough**" approach would seem to be unjustifiable in the area of
J50 036 the law of estoppel.
J50 037    |^Somers \0J seemed also to be troubled by the problem. ^He
J50 038 devotes the whole of \0p 712 to this difficulty and then says
J50 039 expressly *"the different standard of proof *1destroys the
J50 040 identity of issue**". ^*0He carries on, influenced by the merits
J50 041 of the case, in which it seems to him that the Crown is
J50 042 persecuting the appellant, to justify his support of the judgment
J50 043 of Richardson \0J and McMullin \0J by saying
J50 044 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J50 045 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J50 046 **[END INDENTATION**]
J50 047 |^The trouble is that the questions in the two proceedings were
J50 048 *1not the same. ^*0In one, it was whether, using the standard of
J50 049 proof necessary in criminal proceedings, the Court was convinced
J50 050 beyond all reasonable doubt that the appellant had furnished
J50 051 false returns. ^In the second it was, using a different standard
J50 052 of proof, will it be held as a matter of fact the appellant had
J50 053 furnished false returns?
J50 054    |^Can it be assumed that the Commissioner will not in the
J50 055 second proceedings tender evidence not tendered in the first, to
J50 056 clinch his case? ^This question was not faced, let alone
J50 057 answered, in the judgments. ^It is clear enough of course that
J50 058 the Commissioner's case on a criminal charge cannot be reopened
J50 059 later, with new evidence tendered; the plea of *1{autrefois
J50 060 acquit} *0would dispose of this. ^But where a *1different
J50 061 question on the same facts *0is the subject of litigation cannot
J50 062 a fresh case be made out by the Commissioner, in which the
J50 063 original acquittal is untouched, but a question of fact,
J50 064 necessary indeed to be decided in the earlier case, but on a
J50 065 different standard of proof, is again before the Court, and has
J50 066 to be decided on another, and more liberal standard of proof?
J50 067    |^Some may see the *1Gregoriadis *0decision as providing an
J50 068 example of where the doctrine of estoppel per rem judicatam will
J50 069 apply and that the foundation now exists for a future move by the
J50 070 Courts away from the traditional and restrictive approach of the
J50 071 past where decisions such as *1Maxwell *0provide examples of the
J50 072 Court drawing fine distinctions to exclude the doctrine. ^A more
J50 073 proper conclusion, in the writer's view, is that *1Gregoriadis
J50 074 *0should be seen as a decision of the Court of Appeal, perhaps
J50 075 flying in the face of established rules as to *1{Res Judicata},
J50 076 *0resulting in the dismissal of subsequent civil proceedings by
J50 077 the Crown in a case where (a) the question of criminal liability
J50 078 had already resulted in an acquittal and (b) the facts appeared
J50 079 to justify the conclusion that further litigation, if permitted,
J50 080 would very probably lead to the same conclusion. ^Further, the
J50 081 case, when examined should not be represented as a new departure
J50 082 in, or modification of, existing rules as to a *1{eadem quaestro}
J50 083 *0in *1{Res Judicata}.
J50 084    |^*0It is interesting to note that Gresson \0P in *1Maxwell
J50 085 *0considered that the concept of res judicata was inappropriate
J50 086 for another reason: (*1Maxwell \0v {0CIR} *0[1962] {0NZLR} 683 at
J50 087 698)
J50 088 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J50 089 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J50 090 **[END INDENTATION**]
J50 091 |(^There is obiter support for this statement *- see *1Society of
J50 092 Medical Officer of Health \0v Hope *0[1960] {0AC} 531, 568 per
J50 093 Lord Keith; \0cf *1Taylor \0v {0AG} *0[1963] {0NZLR} 251.)
J50 094    |^The decision of *1Caffoor \0v {0ITC} *0is an example of
J50 095 where, in the issue of an assessment, the Commissioner is not
J50 096 necessarily bound by any determination that might have been made
J50 097 in respect of an assessment for a previous year. ^The facts of
J50 098 this case were, that in respect of the 1950 income year the
J50 099 taxpayer had established before an income tax board of review
J50 100 that the taxpayers were trustees of a charitable trust, and
J50 101 therefore their income was exempt from income tax. ^For the 1951
J50 102 income year the Commissioner issued an assessment on the footing
J50 103 that the taxpayers were not trustees of a charitable trust.
J50 104    |^One of the grounds of objection against the assessments
J50 105 for the 1951 year was that the decision of the Board of Review in
J50 106 respect of the 1950 income year set up an estoppel per rem
J50 107 judicatam and therefore the Commissioner was bound to follow the
J50 108 decision of the board when he came to issue an assessment for a
J50 109 later year. ^The Privy Council rejected this view ([1961] 2 All
J50 110 {0ER} 441):
J50 111 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J50 112 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J50 113 **[END INDENTATION**]
J50 114    |^The decision in *1Caffoor *0is unusual because the Board
J50 115 was called on to decide between two previous conflicting
J50 116 decisions of the Privy Council. ^In *1Broken Hill {0Pty Co Ltd}
J50 117 \0v Broken Hill Municipal Council *0[1926] {0AC} 94 the Privy
J50 118 Council had held an appeal against a rating assessment that a
J50 119 decision on an assessment for one year does not support an
J50 120 estoppel in relation to an assessment for a subsequent year.
J50 121 ^However, in the same year the Privy Council in *1Hoysteed \0v
J50 122 {0FC} of \0T *0[1926] {0AC} 155 had taken the opposite view. ^In
J50 123 *1Caffoor *0the Privy Council followed the *1Broken Hill *0case.
J50 124 ^It should be pointed out that the two cases were heard before
J50 125 two differently constituted Boards, no member of either Board
J50 126 being present at the hearing conducted before the other. ^While
J50 127 the decision may provide one of the rare examples of the Privy
J50 128 Council overruling one of its previous decisions, it would seem
J50 129 that the Board was compelled by the quite unusual circumstances
J50 130 to overrule one decision or the other.
J50 131    |^In *1Duff & Ors \0v {0CIR} *0(1979) 3 {0TRNZ} 158 Beattie
J50 132 \0J was asked to consider the question of Issue Estopped (that
J50 133 is, estoppel per rem judicatam). ^That case concerned the
J50 134 purchase of land for the purpose of sub-division. ^The land was
J50 135 compulsorily acquired and the Commissioner included the
J50 136 compensation received in the taxpayer's assessable income. ^One
J50 137 of the contentions made by the taxpayer was that the assessment
J50 138 of the profit was estopped by the decision in an earlier case
J50 139 (*1Railway Timber Company \0Ltd \0v {0CIR} *0(1979) 2 {0NZTC} 61,
J50 140 172), because the parties were the same in effect or within the
J50 141 class of privies to that case. ^With regard to that contention
J50 142 Beattie \0J held that the parties in the present case were
J50 143 different in fact and law, differently linked. ^The facts and
J50 144 central issue in the *1Railway Timber *0case were different.
J50 145    |^It would seem however, that had the facts and issues been
J50 146 significantly similar Beattie \0J may have been influenced by the
J50 147 issue estoppel argument.
J50 148    |^In light of the *1Gregoriadis *0decision it is no longer
J50 149 possible to say with any certainty that the doctrine of estoppel
J50 150 per rem judicatam will not apply to a taxpayer. ^What is clear
J50 151 however is that it cannot be used to preclude the dispute or
J50 152 alteration of a later year's assessment, even where the issues
J50 153 are identical. ^Furthermore, even if an issue should arise
J50 154 relating to the same year, the privative provisions of the Act
J50 155 may prevent the success of the defence, unless it arises in
J50 156 objection proceedings because it necessarily involves disputing
J50 157 the Commissioner's assessment. ^Although the possibilities of
J50 158 successful invocation of the doctrine of estoppel per rem
J50 159 judicatam against the Commissioner are, in practical terms,
J50 160 limited, the scope still exists for the use of the doctrine and
J50 161 its future development.
J50 162 *<*4Estoppel By Representation:*>
J50 163 |^*0Estoppel by representation is defined in Spencer-Bower and
J50 164 Turner (*1Estoppel by Representation, *03 \0ed, 1977, \0p 4) as
J50 165 follows:
J50 166 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J50 167 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J50 168 **[END INDENTATION**]
J50 169 |^In the context of taxation the situation in which *"estoppel by
J50 170 representation**" may apply is where the Commissioner (through
J50 171 his officers) represents to a taxpayer that if the taxpayer
J50 172 conducts his affairs in a certain way, he will attract certain
J50 173 tax consequences. ^If the taxpayer arranges his affairs
J50 174 accordingly is the Commissioner then estopped from later saying
J50 175 that the tax consequences will be different? ^For example, if a
J50 176 taxpayer receives information from the Commissioner as to the
J50 177 deductibility of travel expenses (such as an academic on leave)
J50 178 and the taxpayer arranges his affairs in reliance on that advice,
J50 179 can the Commissioner change his mind when assessing the taxpayer,
J50 180 or even later re-assess the taxpayer? ^Situations like this occur
J50 181 frequently, particularly where the Commissioner issues advance
J50 182 rulings or guidelines for taxpayers. ^A taxpayer who acts in
J50 183 reliance upon an advance ruling and subsequently discovers that
J50 184 the Commissioner has altered his position with regard to that
J50 185 ruling will understandably feel aggrieved.
J50 186    |^The Commissioner's duties and discretions are conferred by
J50 187 statute. ^In order to determine whether representations or
J50 188 actions on the part of the Commissioner can bind him to exercise
J50 189 those duties and discretions in certain ways, it is necessary to
J50 190 consider whether the doctrine of estoppel by representation is
J50 191 effective against acts or decisions made pursuant to statutes.
J50 192 *<*4Statutory Powers:*>
J50 193 |^*0It is established law that an estoppel must fail, if its
J50 194 establishment results in an illegality, so too, it cannot be set
J50 195 up if its establishment results in preventing the performance of
J50 196 a statutory duty. ^The authority for this principle is contained
J50 197 in the judgment of Lord Maugham in *1Maritime Electric {0Co Ltd}
J50 198 \0v General Dairies Limited *0[1937] {0AC} 610 at 619-620.
J50 199    |^That case concerned certain provisions of the Public
J50 200 Utilities Act 1927 which imposed a duty on an electric company to
J50 201 charge a dairy company for all electric current supplied and
J50 202 used. ^The specific question for determination by the Court was
J50 203 whether the duty created by statute can be defeated or avoided by
J50 204 a mere mistake in the computation of accounts. ^The Court
J50 205 concluded that it could not. ^The particular sections of the
J50 206 Public Utilities Act under consideration were enacted for the
J50 207 benefit of the public; that is, on grounds of public policy in
J50 208 the general sense. ^Accordingly, it was not open to the Defendant
J50 209 to set up an estoppel.
J50 210    |^In *1Europa Oil ({0NZ}) Limited \0v Commissioner of Inland
J50 211 Revenue *0[1970] {0NZLR} 321 the New Zealand Court of Appeal,
J50 212 inter alia, considered whether an estoppel could be raised
J50 213 against the Commissioner when acting in his statutory duty to
J50 214 assess a taxpayer in accordance with the Act.
J50 215    |^Turner \0J (\0ibid at \0p 418. ^See also *1{0CIR} \0v
J50 216 Lemmington Holdings \0Ltd *0(1982) 5 {0TRNZ} 776) stated that the
J50 217 Commissioner cannot be precluded by the doctrine of estoppel from
J50 218 doing his duty as directed by Statute. ^Although, because of the
J50 219 particular conclusions reached by the Court he did not need to
J50 220 consider the question.
J50 221 *#
J51 001 **[345 TEXT J51**]
J51 002    |^*0Now *'Socrates**' does not in fact denote a unique person.
J51 003 ^(Or if it does there are other proper names which do not.) ^How does
J51 004 the standard view deal with this? ^Not, I think, by supposing that
J51 005 *'Socrates**' denotes a universal (though to be sure there are views,
J51 006 and ones to which I am sympathetic, which do suppose this) but rather
J51 007 by supposing that the proper name *'Socrates**' is ambiguous. ^In a
J51 008 particular utterance of (2), not only must there be a definite *1u
J51 009 *0indicated by *'that**', there must also be a definite individual
J51 010 named by *'Socrates**', though it might be different from the
J51 011 individual named by *'Socrates**' in another utterance of (2).
J51 012    |^If there is nothing else in common to all and only Socrateses
J51 013 than that they are named *'Socrates**', then these Socrateses, *1qua
J51 014 *0Socrateses, are all homonyms, having no more than the name in
J51 015 common. ^This term comes from Chapter One of the *1Categories, *0and I
J51 016 am intending to use it as Aristotle does. ^On the standard view,
J51 017 proper names, I take it, are always used homonymously. ^On this view a
J51 018 predication like (7) in which we are claiming that many individuals do
J51 019 have something in common, is analysed in such a way that a predicate,
J51 020 in this case *'leucodendron**' names a universal. ^By contrast the
J51 021 naming theory of predication as I shall understand it, is simply the
J51 022 view that all predication is to be modelled on (2). ^In other words
J51 023 (1) is to be understood as saying that the thing indicated by
J51 024 *'that**' is identical with the thing named by *'leucodendron**'.
J51 025 *<2.*3PLATO'S THEORY OF PREDICATION*>
J51 026 |^*0The naming view of predication makes no distinction between proper
J51 027 names, like *'Socrates**' and common nouns, like *'leucodendron**'.
J51 028 ^Likewise the explicit discussion of naming that we find in Plato's
J51 029 *1Cratylus *0moves to and fro from one kind of word to the other. ^The
J51 030 *1Cratylus *0is concerned with the question of whether names merely
J51 031 reflect convention, or whether there is a notion of their correct
J51 032 application. ^The dialogue begins using as examples *'Cratylus**' and
J51 033 *'Hermogenes**', but then, at 385a, switches immediately to the
J51 034 question of whether it is correct to call a horse a man, with no hint
J51 035 that any different question is at issue; and the same switching occurs
J51 036 throughout the dialogue. ^In English the distinction would be marked
J51 037 by the indefinite article. ^One would speak of calling Cratylus
J51 038 *'Cratylus**' but of calling a man *'a man**'. ^In Greek this is not
J51 039 possible, and the passage in question simply speaks of calling
J51 040 {15`ipon, 'anthropon}.
J51 041    |^Of course there is a difference between *'Socrates**' and
J51 042 *'leucodendron**'. ^For while many things are named *'leucodendron**',
J51 043 just as many things are named *'Socrates**', the things named
J51 044 *'leucodendron**' are so named in virtue of something they have in
J51 045 common, where this, however precisely it is to be spelled out, entails
J51 046 that they have in common more than just the fact that they are all
J51 047 given the same name. ^The naming view of predication must come
J51 048 equipped to say when it is *1legitimate *0for a language to give many
J51 049 things the same name. ^I'll shew**[SIC**] how this goes by applying it
J51 050 to Plato's theory of Forms.
J51 051    |^On Plato's theory there are Forms such as *'the beautiful
J51 052 itself**' and *'the just itself**'. ^In a predication like
J51 053 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J51 054 |^(3) *1a *0is beautiful
J51 055 **[END INDENTATION**]
J51 056 |we are to take *'beautiful**' as a proper name. ^Strictly speaking it
J51 057 is the name of the Form of beauty. ^(This is one of the reasons why
J51 058 Plato does not distinguish between *'beauty**' and *'beautiful**'.)
J51 059 *1Strictly speaking *0we are only entitled to take (3) to be true if
J51 060 *1a *0is the Form of beauty, for only then will what is denoted by *1a
J51 061 *0be identical with what is denoted by *'beautiful**'.
J51 062    |^So what are we to make of the sentence
J51 063 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J51 064 |^(4) Charmides is beautiful?
J51 065 **[END INDENTATION**]
J51 066 |^Strictly speaking Plato wants us to say that it is never true,
J51 067 since, however beautiful Charmides is, he is never identical with what
J51 068 is named by *'beautiful**' *1viz *0the Form of beauty. ^Nevertheless
J51 069 the word *'beautiful**' is ambiguous and can be used as the name of
J51 070 things other than beauty itself. ^In (4) *'beautiful**' is not being
J51 071 used homonymously, of things having only the name *'beautiful**' in
J51 072 common, but, as Plato puts it in the *1Phaedo, eponymously. ^*0Certain
J51 073 things are *'named after**' the Forms. ^That is to say we are entitled
J51 074 to use *'beautiful**' in (4) as the proper name of Charmides, provided
J51 075 that he stands in the appropriate relation to the Form of beauty.
J51 076 ^This relation is usually spoken of as participation, and it is no
J51 077 part of the present paper to say anything about it except that it is
J51 078 participation which legitimates the eponymous use of *'beautiful**' as
J51 079 the proper name of things other than beauty itself.
J51 080    |^Contrast the analysis of (4) on the standard view and on the
J51 081 naming view. ^On the standard view, the Platonic analysis of (4) would
J51 082 say that in (4) *'beautiful**' names the Form of beauty,
J51 083 *'Charmides**' names Charmides, and (4) is true because Charmides
J51 084 participates in Beauty:
J51 085 **[FIGURE**]
J51 086 |^Now I agree that (4) is true (for Plato) because Charmides
J51 087 participates in Beauty, and that is why, for many purposes the
J51 088 standard account will suffice. ^Nevertheless it will be important to
J51 089 see how it differs from the naming account in the Platonic analysis of
J51 090 (4). ^On the naming account, (4) is true because the thing named by
J51 091 *'Charmides**' is identical with the thing named by *'beautiful**'.
J51 092 ^What Charmides' participation in beauty does is make it legitimate to
J51 093 use the name *'beautiful**' (eponymously) of something other than the
J51 094 Form of beauty; in this sentence, Charmides. ^However *- and this is
J51 095 crucial for understanding Plato *- because this use is only eponymous
J51 096 it is not a strictly correct use of the name *'beautiful**', but only
J51 097 a derivative one. ^And that is why there is a sense in which (4) is
J51 098 true, but also a sense in which it is, in strictness, not really true.
J51 099 *<3.*3UNIVERSALS*>
J51 100 |^*0I want now to raise the question of the status of universals in a
J51 101 theory of predication. ^On the standard view a universal is what is
J51 102 named by the predicate *1F *0in an *'*1a *0is *1F**' *0sentence. ^To
J51 103 be sure the question then arises about what sort of thing is so named.
J51 104 ^Is it a class or a Platonic Form or what? ^Can it exist
J51 105 independently, as a Platonic Form does, of the individuals that
J51 106 participate in it, or not, as the existence of a class is presumably
J51 107 dependent on the existence of its members?
J51 108    |^But on the naming view, whatever a universal is, it cannot be
J51 109 that which is named by *1F, *0since on this view *'*1a *0is *1F**'
J51 110 *0will be true \0iff *1F *0names what *1a *0does; so if *1a *0names an
J51 111 individual in a true predication, so must *1F. ^*0I said earlier that
J51 112 it is usually thought that Platonic Forms are universals, and no harm
J51 113 is done if we use the *'standard view**' model of Plato's metaphysics.
J51 114 ^But we should remember that on the naming view of predication one
J51 115 cannot define a universal as that which is named by a universal word,
J51 116 and that in this sense we do not find a theory of universals in Plato.
J51 117    |^The name *'universal**' as a technical term in philosophy
J51 118 certainly appears in Aristotle. ^He uses the word \15katholon. ^One of
J51 119 his earliest explanations of its use is in Chapter 7 of the *1De
J51 120 Interpretatione. ^*0At 17a39-40 he says that a universal is that which
J51 121 is predicated of a number of things. ^I want to suggest that the
J51 122 correct account of what Aristotle means is the obvious one. ^On a
J51 123 naming view of predication, that which is predicated of a number of
J51 124 things is a name. ^In other words, a universal on such a view has to
J51 125 be a linguistic expression. ^However, although things which share the
J51 126 same name always have at least the name in common, it does not follow
J51 127 that, in any more genuine sense, they have anything really in common.
J51 128 ^Aristotle does not want to say that we always have a universal when
J51 129 things have the same name, but only when the things are, in a certain
J51 130 sense, the same kind of thing. ^What he does seem to hold is that a
J51 131 name is a genuine *1universal *0provided that it names the things it
J51 132 does name *1synonymously, *0as he puts it in the *1Categories.
J51 133 ^*0Ackrill translates his explanation of this term thus:
J51 134 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J51 135 |^When things have the name in common and the definition of being
J51 136 which corresponds to the name is the same, they are called
J51 137 *1synonymous (\15sun'onumia)(\0Cat *01*:a**:6-7).
J51 138 **[END INDENTATION**]
J51 139    |^To say that a universal is a word is perhaps a little swift
J51 140 until we are clear about the identity criteria for words. ^{0J.E.}
J51 141 Thomas (1980, \0p. 106\0f) mentions {0C.I.} Lewis as making a
J51 142 distinction between *1words *0and *1verbal expressions. ^*0Verbal
J51 143 expressions are identified by their forms, words by their meanings.
J51 144 ^Since words, like all linguistic expressions, are *1types, *0there
J51 145 may well be differing criteria for picking out their tokens. ^So we
J51 146 will say that the word *'man**' is a universal because it is proper to
J51 147 apply it to all and only things in the same species. ^In the *1Topics,
J51 148 *0at 154*:a**:18, Aristotle tells us explicitly that the species is
J51 149 synonymous with the individuals which are in it. ^This would make
J51 150 *'man**' and *'\15'anthropos**' the same universal, and would make
J51 151 *'\15'anthropos**', in a language in which it meant *'horse**', a
J51 152 different universal. ^If there were no men then one could not use
J51 153 *'man**' or *'\15'anthropos**' to refer to them, and so this way of
J51 154 using these words would not exist, which explains why Aristotle says
J51 155 in various places, {0e.g.} *1Metaphysics *0Z16 1040b27-28 that a
J51 156 universal cannot exist apart from its individuals.
J51 157    |^Regis (1976, \0pp. 144-149) claims that in Chapter 19 of Book
J51 158 *=II of the *1Posterior Analytics *0Aristotle is saying that
J51 159 universals are in the mind. ^If he is right I would not regard this
J51 160 view as incompatible with the linguistic view, inasmuch as one might
J51 161 regard the criteria for a word's being the universal *'man**' to be
J51 162 that it be used in a certain way, and that this is determined by the
J51 163 intentions in the minds of the language users and is possible only
J51 164 because they can perceive common properties, more or less as Aristotle
J51 165 describes it in the passage Regis discusses. ^All I would want to
J51 166 insist is that in some sense universals must be public. ^For, if
J51 167 scientific knowledge is to be possible, I must be able to refer to the
J51 168 same universal as you do. ^A similar position seems to be taken on
J51 169 \0p. 2 of Lloyd (1981).
J51 170    |^I would not even mind if someone chose to make a universal more
J51 171 abstract still. ^One might say that the universal *'man**' is that use
J51 172 of language which consists in applying a name to all and only those
J51 173 things which are members of a certain species, to be precise, to all
J51 174 and only men. ^Or one might think of it as the principle which
J51 175 declares such use legitimate. ^Aristotle certainly speaks in the
J51 176 *1Metaphysics *0of universals as *'principles**' (\15'archai) {0e.g.},
J51 177 \0*1Met *0B6, 1003*:a**:13, and it may well be that he thought of them
J51 178 as regulating the correct application of a term.
J51 179    |^It is true that Aristotle sometimes talks as if he believes that
J51 180 universals are things in the world. ^For instance in Chapter 5 of the
J51 181 *1Categories *0he speaks of the species and the genus as secondary
J51 182 substances ({15de'nterai onsiai} 2a14), but this talk gives a somewhat
J51 183 misleading picture of what Aristotle's view is. ^In an earlier
J51 184 article, Cresswell (1975b), I tried to shew**[SIC**] what it is about
J51 185 the world as Plato and Aristotle see it, which supports the philosophy
J51 186 of language they assume. ^In Plato's case it is that sensible things
J51 187 participate in Forms. ^Thus Plato's ontology requires there to be
J51 188 Forms. ^In Aristotle's case things come grouped into species and
J51 189 genus. ^This does not entail that Aristotle's *1ontology *0contains
J51 190 species or genera. ^There is a sense of course in which Plato's
J51 191 metaphysics also contains a relation of participation and Aristotle's
J51 192 a relation of *'specific identity**', but these relations do not need
J51 193 to be *'named**' by any expression but are facts about the world which
J51 194 ensure certain possibilities of naming.
J51 195 *#
J52 001 **[346 TEXT J52**]
J52 002    |^*0Nowadays through television, both in news items and in
J52 003 documentaries, we cannot escape seeing with our own eyes the evil
J52 004 which goes on all the time *- large-scale famines, devastating
J52 005 wars, the Jewish Holocaust, the threat of a nuclear holocaust *-
J52 006 while nearer to home we hear of armed hold-ups, increasing
J52 007 incidence of rape, murder and other forms of violence. ^Of the
J52 008 existence of evil we are absolutely in no doubt *- but why is it
J52 009 so?
J52 010    |^In asking this question we are voicing the problem of evil
J52 011 at a deeper level. ^Why does evil exist in a world in which *- in
J52 012 so many respects *- there is so much that is good, making human
J52 013 life worthwhile and full of fascinating interest? ^This aspect of
J52 014 the problem of evil surfaced as soon as our human forbears began
J52 015 to reflect on the nature of human experience. ^The problem has
J52 016 been wrestled with for millennia, generation after generation.
J52 017 ^Yet with the best will in the world we do not seem to be any
J52 018 nearer to a solution, particularly with regard to our ability to
J52 019 overcome and eliminate evil. ^This continuing human failure only
J52 020 serves to accentuate the nature of the problem which evil poses.
J52 021 ^It would be a sign of arrogant over-confidence for us to expect
J52 022 to solve this problem when everybody else has failed, but it is a
J52 023 considerable step forward simply to clarify our minds about the
J52 024 problem. ^The more we understand the nature of the evil we
J52 025 encounter, the better equipped we are to face evil with hope of
J52 026 gaining the victory over it.
J52 027    |^What is being attempted in this booklet is to discuss in
J52 028 turn such questions as: ^What is the nature of evil in itself?
J52 029 ^Is it a dark and hidden force? ^Has it any sort of objective
J52 030 reality of its own? ^Where did it come from? ^Why is it thought
J52 031 to be so powerful? ^Is there anything we can do about it?
J52 032    |^First of all we must examine how we commonly use the word
J52 033 *"evil**". ^What are the particular things, events, behaviour
J52 034 \0etc. which we categorize as evil? ^It has been customary, and
J52 035 it is certainly useful, to discern three distinct forms of evil:
J52 036 (1) metaphysical or supernatural forces of evil, (2) natural
J52 037 evil, and (3) moral evil.
J52 038    |^The metaphysical forms of evil were often regarded in
J52 039 earlier ages as easily the most terrifying, especially as they
J52 040 were frequently regarded as the actual cause of the other two
J52 041 forms of evil. ^For example, evil spiritual forces were often
J52 042 held to be responsible for such things as famines and plagues,
J52 043 just as they were conceived as frequently taking possession of
J52 044 otherwise innocent people and turning them into evil creatures.
J52 045 |^The New Testament refers to these spiritual forces as
J52 046 *"principalities and powers**". ^The New English Bible translates
J52 047 a well-known verse this way: ^*"For our fight is not against
J52 048 human foes but against cosmic powers, against the authorities and
J52 049 potentates of this dark world, against the superhuman forces of
J52 050 evil in the heavens.**" (Ephesians 6: 12).
J52 051    |^In Christian mythology these dark cosmic powers came to be
J52 052 known as Satan and his fallen angels. ^All through the Middle
J52 053 Ages their supposed unseen but powerful presence had a powerful
J52 054 effect. ^Martin Luther was certain on one occasion that he had a
J52 055 personal encounter with the Devil. ^And since the New Testament
J52 056 actually described an encounter between Jesus Christ and the
J52 057 Devil, the authority of Scripture alone was sufficient to cause
J52 058 Christian consciousness to be quite certain of the objective
J52 059 reality of the Devil right down to the late 19th century. ^For
J52 060 conservative Christians metaphysical evil in the form of the
J52 061 Devil still plays a dominant role in their world-view. ^Even Karl
J52 062 Rahner, a rather radical Roman Catholic theologian, could write
J52 063 only a decade ago: ^*"The existence of the devil cannot be
J52 064 denied.**"
J52 065    |^Yet that is just what most modern people of the Western
J52 066 world, including many practising Christians, do in fact deny.
J52 067 ^Devil-talk may well be a very apt and striking way of describing
J52 068 the dark side of human experience, but for a growing number in
J52 069 the last 100 years it has become no more than that *- a
J52 070 metaphorical way of speaking. ^Even {0C S} Lewis, who made such
J52 071 entertaining literary use of the devil concept in his famous
J52 072 *1Screwtape Letters, *0was not really defending the real being
J52 073 (or what philosophers call the ontological reality) of Satan. ^In
J52 074 the modern, highly secularized, view of the universe which has
J52 075 replaced the dualistic (or two-world) view of the universe so
J52 076 prevalent in the Middle Ages, not only the Devil but all other
J52 077 metaphysical forms of evil have been evaporating from the way we
J52 078 view reality. ^(Why they arose in the first place I shall explain
J52 079 in a later chapter).
J52 080    |^This means that to continue our pursuit of the character
J52 081 of evil we must confine our attention to the other two
J52 082 categories. ^Let us now turn to natural evil. ^Here we think of
J52 083 such occurrences as earthquakes, droughts, plagues and disease.
J52 084 ^In former centuries it was bubonic plague which struck fear into
J52 085 the hearts of people; today it is cancer and Aids.
J52 086    |^Let us examine these more closely. ^Why should we regard
J52 087 earthquakes as evil? ^Are they not simply natural phenomena which
J52 088 in themselves are neither good nor evil? ^If, through a
J52 089 telescope, we could observe them occurring on some other,
J52 090 uninhabited planet, we could take a purely objective interest in
J52 091 them. ^Then we could see that it would not be appropriate to
J52 092 categorize them as either good or evil. ^It is because of what
J52 093 the earthquake may do to *1us *0that we judge it to be evil. ^Any
J52 094 natural phenomenon which threatens our security or well-being is
J52 095 seen by us as an evil. ^It is we, and our attitude towards it,
J52 096 which makes it evil. ^Shakespeare had noted this, saying through
J52 097 Hamlet, ^*"For there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking
J52 098 makes it so.**"
J52 099    |^Thus, the evil we attach to certain natural phenomena is
J52 100 not inherently in them, but derives from the judgment we make of
J52 101 them, because we view them as a threat to our security. ^This
J52 102 humanly subjective component in all so-called natural evils can
J52 103 be illustrated by how we humans interpret the practice by which
J52 104 one species preys on another. ^We have even been inclined to find
J52 105 this repulsive, speaking of *"Nature red in tooth and claw**".
J52 106 ^But is this not because of our tendency to identify immediately
J52 107 with the unfortunate prey, if we happen to observe the lioness
J52 108 pouncing upon the antelope and tearing it to pieces for food? ^It
J52 109 is certainly an evil misfortune from the point of view of the
J52 110 antelope, but from the point of view of the pride of lions it is
J52 111 an event of good fortune.
J52 112    |^On the other hand, when we humans take the role of the
J52 113 hunter we do not appear to find any evil at all in killing
J52 114 various types of animals to provide our food. ^What is even more
J52 115 serious is the fact that whereas animals prey upon other species
J52 116 only for the purpose of supplying themselves with food, we humans
J52 117 have even made a sport out of the sheer excitement of stalking
J52 118 and killing our quarry. ^If the taking of life is to be regarded
J52 119 as evil, then humankind might well qualify for being the
J52 120 cruellest of all living species in relation to others.
J52 121    |^Sensitivity to the taking of life has varied from one
J52 122 cultural tradition to another. ^We have always felt fully
J52 123 justified in taking the life of non-human creatures. ^Not only do
J52 124 most of us regularly eat the flesh of specified animals, birds
J52 125 and fish but up until last century, some tribal communities saw
J52 126 nothing wrong in eating human flesh. ^New Zealand takes some
J52 127 pride in the fact that we deliberately breed animals in large
J52 128 numbers so that while they are still young and tender we can
J52 129 slaughter them for food. ^It is even claimed to be the basis of
J52 130 our economy. ^India, by contrast, would rather suffer from a poor
J52 131 economy than take the drastic step of slaughtering the cows which
J52 132 wander freely through its villages and which contribute to its
J52 133 poverty. ^The Jains and the traditional Hindus view with horror
J52 134 what they take to be the evil of our flesh-eating practices. ^I
J52 135 mention these contrasts simply to illustrate the fact that, in
J52 136 the category of natural evils, what one species sees as evil
J52 137 another experiences as good and what one human tradition regards
J52 138 as good another may regard as evil. ^Even in the category of
J52 139 natural evil there is something relative about the term evil for
J52 140 it is always related to the particular people who are making the
J52 141 judgements.
J52 142    |^Yet there is one particular form of natural evil on which
J52 143 all humans are agreed *- and perhaps even non-human animals would
J52 144 add their assent if only they could *- and that is disease. ^All
J52 145 forms of life, plants as well as animals, are subject to diseases
J52 146 which hinder and distort growth, cause premature death and, in
J52 147 the case of humans and other animals, bring pain and suffering.
J52 148 ^Before we knew anything of microbiology the origin and nature of
J52 149 disease was a great mystery. ^It was easy to jump to the
J52 150 conclusion that it was certain evidence of the evil influence of
J52 151 the metaphysical powers I referred to earlier. ^That is why we
J52 152 have inherited, and still use, the term *"stroke**" for the
J52 153 symptoms now seen to be caused by a cerebral haemorrhage. ^Even
J52 154 if disease was not attributed to the influence of a mysterious
J52 155 unseen world, it seemed at least to indicate that there is
J52 156 something radically wrong with this world.
J52 157    |^As humans wrestled with this aspect of the problem of evil
J52 158 they arrived at different conclusions. ^The Buddha, for example,
J52 159 concluded that pain and suffering permeate the whole of reality,
J52 160 and that there is nothing in life or in death which is not marked
J52 161 by it. ^He despaired of ever finding out why this is so. ^The
J52 162 Enlightenment which finally came to him, and which he wished to
J52 163 share with others, took the form of Four Noble Truths. ^The first
J52 164 is simply to acknowledge how suffering dominates all existence.
J52 165 ^The second is to recognise that suffering originates in human
J52 166 desire. (^The craving for possessions, for sensuous pleasures,
J52 167 for everlasting life or for extinction are all equally bad.) ^The
J52 168 only solution to the problem of suffering is to renounce (or be
J52 169 liberated from) craving; that is the third Truth. ^The fourth
J52 170 Truth outlines the Eight-step Path which leads to Nirvana, a
J52 171 state in which all suffering has been eliminated because the
J52 172 flame of craving has been snuffed out like a candle.
J52 173    |^Our own cultural tradition saw it rather differently.
J52 174 ^Disease, frustration, pain and suffering were all felt to be
J52 175 real enough but they pointed to the fact that this world is not
J52 176 as it was divinely intended to be. ^It is a fallen world. ^That
J52 177 is why we are plagued by disease. ^That is why women suffer pain
J52 178 in childbirth, natural process though it is. ^That is why our
J52 179 agricultural efforts are for ever being frustrated by weeds and
J52 180 plant diseases. ^The Genesis myth of origins not only explains
J52 181 disease and suffering as evidence of the fallen character of this
J52 182 world but, in effect, traces these natural evils back to moral
J52 183 evil in that it was the moral evil in the human heart which
J52 184 brought them all about.
J52 185    |^The advent of modern biological sciences enables us to
J52 186 look at the problem from quite a new angle. ^We now know that
J52 187 permeating the world of life-forms visible to the human eye there
J52 188 is another living world *- the world of microbiology. ^Indeed
J52 189 there has been a noticeable correlation between our recognition
J52 190 of the micro-world of life and the evaporation from modern
J52 191 consciousness of the super-world of spiritual life-forms.
J52 192    |^In some ways biological science enables us to give a
J52 193 rational explanation of at least some of the evil we associate
J52 194 with physical disease.
J52 195 *#
J53 001 **[347 TEXT J53**]
J53 002 ^*0And what is it about Newton's that makes it inferior to
J53 003 Einstein's in other fields? ^The obvious answer would seem to be
J53 004 that the predictions given by Newton's theory, in certain
J53 005 circumstances, fit better with the (in principle ascertainable)
J53 006 experimental data than those given by Galileo's theory. ^And in
J53 007 other circumstances, given the same standards of accuracy, the
J53 008 predictions given by the special theory of relativity are nearly
J53 009 spot on, while those given by Newton's theory fail miserably.
J53 010 ^The instrumentalist has merely shifted the problem to a more
J53 011 restricted field *- that of the fit of the empirical content of a
J53 012 theory with the (in principle) ascertainable facts of the matter.
J53 013 ^His thesis really amounts to the claim that the aim of an
J53 014 inquiry is to discover the empirically ascertainable truth about
J53 015 the world, and that the empirical content of one theory, while
J53 016 not being strictly accurate, may nevertheless be a better
J53 017 description of the facts than that given by another theory's
J53 018 empirical content. ^The instrumentalist pushes down the bulge in
J53 019 the carpet only to have it reappear elsewhere. ^He has to give an
J53 020 account of what it takes for one theory to be closer than another
J53 021 to the (in principle) empirically ascertainable facts.
J53 022    |^A theory of confirmation might be thought to dispose of
J53 023 the problem of truthlikeness in one of two different ways. ^One
J53 024 might claim that the degree of confirmation of an hypothesis is
J53 025 nothing but a measure of its truthlikeness. ^Or else one might
J53 026 claim that the aim of inquiry is not the possession of truth, but
J53 027 rather the possession of hypotheses with a high degree of
J53 028 confirmation. ^Neither claim can be justified. ^To show that the
J53 029 first claim is false, consider that theory, (whichever one it
J53 030 is), which describes the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but
J53 031 the truth. ^It is the strongest true theory there is. ^Of course
J53 032 no one knows which one it is, and in all probability no-one will
J53 033 ever articulate it. ^This does not stop it being the whole truth.
J53 034 ^Now this theory, let it be *1T, *0can hardly be described as the
J53 035 best confirmed theory there is. ^Let *1C *0be that proposition
J53 036 which reports everything which has so far been established for
J53 037 certain. ^Presumably the best confirmed proposition reports no
J53 038 more than is reported (explicitly or implicitly), in *1C. ^*0Any
J53 039 proposition which goes beyond *1C *0is uncertain, and so not as
J53 040 well confirmed as *1C. ^*0But *1T *0certainly reports far more
J53 041 than is contained in *1C. ^*0If it did not we would now be
J53 042 omniscient. ^So *1T, *0the whole truth, is not that theory with
J53 043 the highest degree of confirmation. ^But it is clear that *1T
J53 044 *0does have maximal truthlikeness. ^Nothing could be closer to
J53 045 the whole truth than the whole truth itself. ^Hence *1T *0has
J53 046 maximal truthlikeness but not maximal confirmation. ^Degree of
J53 047 confirmation does not measure degree of truthlikeness.
J53 048    |^Let us consider the second claim *- that a high degree of
J53 049 confirmation might supplant truth as the aim of inquiry. ^This
J53 050 claim has some plausibility. ^After all, is not an inquiry simply
J53 051 an exercise in the pursuit of knowledge, and does not knowledge
J53 052 simply amount to the possession of highly confirmed propositions?
J53 053 ^Attractive as it seems the claim is inadequate. ^High degrees of
J53 054 confirmation are just too easy to obtain. ^By sticking only to
J53 055 what one already knows for certain one can be sure of retaining
J53 056 only highly confirmed propositions. ^Thus if the aim of inquiry
J53 057 were simply the possession of highly confirmed propositions it
J53 058 could be achieved as easily by keeping one's mouth shut as by
J53 059 engaging in exacting research.
J53 060    |^Although the above argument shows that possession of
J53 061 highly confirmed propositions is not by itself the aim of
J53 062 inquiry, something like it may be still true. ^Consider the
J53 063 following: the aim of an inquiry is the possession of highly
J53 064 confirmed propositions which are also highly informative. ^This
J53 065 aim is not susceptible to the criticism that it can be fulfilled
J53 066 by doing no research at all. ^However, it has the consequence
J53 067 that progress in an inquiry cannot be made by the substitution of
J53 068 one falsified theory for another falsified theory. ^On this
J53 069 account an inquirer's preference for one falsified hypothesis
J53 070 over another falsified hypothesis would be inexplicable. ^For,
J53 071 according to almost all theories of confirmation, the degree of
J53 072 confirmation of a falsified hypothesis is zero. ^The degree of
J53 073 confirmation is a measure of how likely a proposition is to be
J53 074 true, given the evidence. ^If the evidence refutes the
J53 075 proposition, then the proposition has zero confirmation, given
J53 076 the evidence. ^Hence, on the above account of the aim of an
J53 077 inquiry each falsified hypothesis must be regarded as having
J53 078 contributed absolutely nothing to the progress of the inquiry.
J53 079 ^This seems absurd. ^Galileo's theory of moving bodies has been
J53 080 refuted. ^So has Newton's theory. ^Both have zero confirmation.
J53 081 ^Nevertheless Newton's theory is thought to be an improvement on
J53 082 Galileo's. ^Even had the refutation of Newton's theory (the
J53 083 precession of Mercury's perihelion) been available to scientists
J53 084 in the seventeenth century, Newton's theory would still have been
J53 085 heralded as a great contribution to science. ^Such a judgement
J53 086 could not be explained if the aim of an inquiry were the
J53 087 possession of highly informative, highly confirmed theories.
J53 088    |^The denial of the truth doctrine seems to be an
J53 089 unpromising way of avoiding the problem of truthlikeness. ^A more
J53 090 promising tack might be the denial of the progress doctrine. ^If
J53 091 the aim of inquiry is the whole truth of some matter, then it
J53 092 might be maintained that any proposition which falls short of the
J53 093 whole truth is as bad as any other. ^Strictly speaking there is
J53 094 no such thing as progress in an inquiry. ^Either the truth is hit
J53 095 upon, or the project is an utter failure. ^A miss is as good as a
J53 096 mile.
J53 097    |^This last position violates some deeply ingrained
J53 098 intuitions. ^Whether or not progress in human knowledge has been
J53 099 made it is clear that many people think it has. ^And just a
J53 100 little reflection would reveal that many instances of supposed
J53 101 progress consist in the replacement of something that is false by
J53 102 something else that also turns out to be false. ^Scientists
J53 103 are prone to think that Newton's theory of motion is preferable
J53 104 to Aristotle's, despite the fact that they hold both to be,
J53 105 strictly speaking, false. ^But science is not the only area in
J53 106 which such instances of progress are deemed to exist. ^And in any
J53 107 case, one does not need to invoke complex examples from science,
J53 108 inevitably surrounded by doubt on account of our ignorance of the
J53 109 universe, to elicit this intuition. ^It is possible to cite
J53 110 examples of simple theories which *1would *0have a certain
J53 111 ordering of closeness to the truth if a certain specified theory
J53 112 *1were *0the truth. ^Such examples will remain even if it turns
J53 113 out that scientists have been steadily and systematically leading
J53 114 us further and further from the truth.
J53 115    |^For example, suppose that in fact the number of the
J53 116 planets is 9. ^Tom maintains that the number of the planets is 8,
J53 117 and Fred maintains that the number of the planets is 5. ^Surely
J53 118 Tom's claim is closer to the truth than Fred's. ^Suppose Tom
J53 119 weakens his claim to the proposition that the number of the
J53 120 planets is either 8 or 9, and Fred weakens his to the claim that
J53 121 it is either 5, or 6, or 7, or 8, or 9. ^Again it seems that
J53 122 Tom's claim is closer to the truth than Fred's.
J53 123    |^Suppose that Oscar is interested in the distribution of
J53 124 two properties, fatness and tallness, in a certain class of
J53 125 people. ^His first conjecture (a rash guess made before he had
J53 126 had any contact with the people) is that everybody is both short
J53 127 and thin. ^His second conjecture (made after he had seen them in
J53 128 the distance on an extremely hot day *- the heat distorting both
J53 129 their visual appearance and Oscar's cognitive faculties) is that
J53 130 they are all tall and thin. ^His third conjecture (made after he
J53 131 has met them face to face) is that they are all tall and fat. ^In
J53 132 fact his third conjecture is the truth of the matter. ^Surely
J53 133 Oscar's second guess is closer to the truth than his first, and
J53 134 his third closer to the truth than his second?
J53 135    |^Finally, suppose that a detective has an identikit which
J53 136 features types of noses, ears, hair, chins, mouths, and so on.
J53 137 ^Our detective asks the witness to a crime to select those
J53 138 features that seem to him to best characterise the criminal. ^The
J53 139 witness chooses all the features correctly, except one. ^He omits
J53 140 a wart on the nose of the criminal. ^Now is this (false)
J53 141 description, or characterisation, just as inaccurate as any
J53 142 random selection of features which *1also *0omits the wart on the
J53 143 nose? ^Detectives do not think so.
J53 144    |^But perhaps this is to labour the point. ^Such examples
J53 145 are easy to construct and many of them will be used in the
J53 146 following pages. ^However, it is not immediately clear that there
J53 147 is a single coherent principle underlying all such judgements.
J53 148 ^What is required is a general *1theory *0of truthlikeness (or
J53 149 verisimilitude) which spells out clearly the conditions under
J53 150 which one proposition is closer to the truth than another.
J53 151 *<1.2 *1Explications and intuitions*>
J53 152    |^*0Several different solutions to the problem of
J53 153 truthlikeness have been proposed. ^What sort of criteria can be
J53 154 used to judge the adequacy of these different proposals? ^The
J53 155 task of giving a general account of truthlikeness is just like
J53 156 the logico-philosophical task of defining an acceptable concept
J53 157 of *1truth *0or of *1valid inference, *0or of *1logical truth.
J53 158 ^*0In these cases a certain concept is employed and applied
J53 159 intuitively, but a rigorous and precise explication of the
J53 160 concept is required in order to show that it can be applied
J53 161 consistently, and that the principles underlying the application
J53 162 of the concept can be articulated.
J53 163    |^An explication is not simply a definition, for the only
J53 164 restriction on definitions is that the abbreviating device be
J53 165 eliminable in all places in favour of what it abbreviates. ^An
J53 166 explicatum, however, should behave, in certain core areas, in the
J53 167 same way that the explicandum behaves. ^In other words, it should
J53 168 accord with *1clear cut *0intuitive judgements that are made in
J53 169 certain obvious cases. ^For example, consider the truth
J53 170 preserving inference: it is raining, therefore it is raining. ^If
J53 171 on some explication of *1valid inference *0this inference were
J53 172 judged to be invalid, the explication would clearly be
J53 173 inadequate. ^An explication of *1logical truth *0which made the
J53 174 English language expression *'it is raining**' a logical truth
J53 175 (in English) would clearly be inadequate. ^In grey areas, where
J53 176 it is difficult to apply the intuitive notion the explicatum may
J53 177 well extend the intuitive notion (it may *'educate our
J53 178 intuitions**'), but it must not consistently violate the core
J53 179 intuitions. ^That definition which can save the greatest number
J53 180 of intuitions is, other things being equal, the most acceptable.
J53 181    |^Of course, intuitive judgements have different levels of
J53 182 generality. ^The intuitive judgement that the proposition *1it is
J53 183 raining or it is not raining, *0is a logical truth is far more
J53 184 basic than the judgement that by disjoining any proposition with
J53 185 its negation we get a logical truth. ^Such an initially plausible
J53 186 principle is the beginning of a theory of logical necessity, and
J53 187 it may come into conflict with lower-level intuitive judgements
J53 188 concerning particular propositions. ^In general, lower-level
J53 189 judgements are to be given precedence over higher-level
J53 190 judgements.
J53 191    |^The position just adumbrated has its opponents. ^For a
J53 192 start, there are those who distrust intuitions in general and
J53 193 would seriously question the role I have assigned them in the
J53 194 enterprise of explicating intuitive concepts. ^Their criticisms
J53 195 will be discussed below. ^But there are also those who question
J53 196 the very enterprise of explication. ^For example, Karl Popper
J53 197 writes:
J53 198 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J53 199 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J53 200 **[END INDENTATION**]
J53 201 |^And:
J53 202 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J53 203 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J53 204 **[END INDENTATION**]
J53 205    |^Despite this view of his, Popper was the first philosopher
J53 206 to stress the importance of the problem of truthlikeness, and he
J53 207 gave the first real explication of truthlikeness. ^The question
J53 208 arises as to why he did not simply leave it as an undefined
J53 209 primitive notion.
J53 210 *#
J54 001 **[348 TEXT J54**]
J54 002 ^*0Indeed, since only the defunct Ca*?1rva*?1ka school maintained
J54 003 otherwise, classical Indian philosophy displays a relative
J54 004 paucity of arguments for this thesis when compared with the
J54 005 extensive body of discussion it offers about the nature of what
J54 006 it is that has pre-existed. ^Thus there are some empirical
J54 007 arguments adduced, like the Naiya*?1yika appeal to the inborn
J54 008 inclination of infants to suckle and their fears and joys.
J54 009 ^These, however, may be uncompelling in the light of modern
J54 010 biological theory. ^There are also certain theological arguments
J54 011 related to the efficacy of the thesis in explaining away the
J54 012 problem of evil. ^But these require for their plausibility prior
J54 013 commitment to a theistic point of view. ^More interesting
J54 014 philosophically are certain metaphysical arguments that purport
J54 015 to establish the pre-existence thesis. ^I want to examine
J54 016 critically two such attempts: one by the eighth century Indian
J54 017 Buddhist philosopher S*?2a*?1ntaraksita and one by an outstanding
J54 018 modern Western interpreter of Indian philosophy, Karl \0H.
J54 019 Potter.
J54 020    |^S*?2a*?1ntaraksita's argument (glossed by his pupil
J54 021 Kamalas*?2i*?1la) appears in his remarkable polemical compendium,
J54 022 the *1Tattvasangraha *0(*1s*?2lokas *01857-1964). ^The chapter in
J54 023 question is devoted to a refutation of the views of the
J54 024 materialist Loka*?1yatas. ^It is important to understand,
J54 025 however, that this argument for pre-existence is not an argument
J54 026 for the pre-existence of a soul, {0i.e.} an enduring substantial
J54 027 entity underlying change. ^Indeed, as a Buddhist
J54 028 S*?2a*?1ntaraksita is committed to the denial of any such entity.
J54 029 ^Rather he assumes a particular Buddhist account of a person as a
J54 030 series of causally efficient point-instants. ^According to some
J54 031 Buddhist philosophers this person-series includes both mental and
J54 032 physical events or states. ^Hence for them a person is a
J54 033 two-strand causal series comprising both a chain of physical
J54 034 events and a chain of mental events. ^The two chains are related
J54 035 co-ordinately (*1{sa*?1drs*?2ya}*0) but not causally: a view
J54 036 similar to the theory of psycho-physical parallelism in Western
J54 037 philosophy. ^However S*?2a*?1ntaraksita seems to favour an
J54 038 idealist account at various points, in which case the person is
J54 039 presumably to be identified with the chain of mental events.
J54 040 ^Either way, the argument is an argument for the pre-existence of
J54 041 the consciousness series.
J54 042    |^The argument rests upon two principles. ^The first is the
J54 043 principle of universal causation, {0i.e.} that every event has a
J54 044 cause. ^The second is a principle to the effect that not every
J54 045 mental event is totally caused by physical events. ^Or more
J54 046 exactly, that there are some mental events which have no physical
J54 047 events in their causal ancestry (allowing here for the
J54 048 possibility of indirect causation). ^Call this the *"mental cause
J54 049 principle**". (^Note that this formulation of the mental cause
J54 050 principle is compatible with either a realist or an idealist
J54 051 ontology.) ^These two principles can then be used to generate the
J54 052 following argument. ^For consider the first member of the chain
J54 053 of cognitions. ^Or more precisely, consider the first mental
J54 054 state in the life of an individual that is not totally caused by
J54 055 physical states. ^It must have as at least its part-cause a
J54 056 mental state occurring before the birth (or conception) of the
J54 057 individual. ^Thus pre-existence is established. ^Moreover, since
J54 058 this argument can be repeated for any previous life, the
J54 059 beginninglessness of the causal series of cognitions is
J54 060 established. ^Finally, since there is a previous birth, it is
J54 061 also reasonable to assume a future birth. ^After all, the
J54 062 cognition at the moment of death in this life is presumably
J54 063 causally efficacious in precisely the same way that the last
J54 064 cognition of the previous life was.
J54 065    |^There are various ways to try to block the regress this
J54 066 argument trades upon. ^One is to invoke the hypothesis of the
J54 067 existence of God. ^That is, we might argue that the first
J54 068 non-physically caused mental state in the life of an individual
J54 069 was caused by a divine mental state. ^The individual is not,
J54 070 then, beginningless. ^Moreover the existence of the consciousness
J54 071 series is thus dependent upon God's existence, {0i.e.} He is the
J54 072 creator. ^However, the regress will apply in the case of God, for
J54 073 the chain of divine mental states is indeed beginningless (God
J54 074 is eternal).
J54 075    |^As a Buddhist S*?2a*?1ntaraksita is unwilling to admit the
J54 076 theistic hypothesis and elsewhere in his work he argues
J54 077 independently against the existence of God. ^However, even if the
J54 078 theistic hypothesis can be ruled out on other grounds, there
J54 079 remains another possibility. ^The theistic hypothesis presupposes
J54 080 the truth of a more general principle: \0viz. that the first
J54 081 non-physically caused mental state in the life of an individual
J54 082 could have been caused by a mental state of some other
J54 083 individual. ^But if we admit this principle, then we do not need
J54 084 to insist that it is God's mental states which cause the initial
J54 085 mental states of other individuals. ^Rather, any individual's
J54 086 mental states could cause another's initial mental state. ^Thus
J54 087 what the regress will now show is the beginninglessness of
J54 088 causally efficient mental states, not the beginninglessness of
J54 089 any particular chain of such states. ^That is, the existence of
J54 090 conscious beings (conceived of here as causal series) could well
J54 091 be beginningless without this necessitating that any particular
J54 092 conscious being is beginningless. ^To block this possibility
J54 093 S*?2a*?1ntaraksita would have to deny the general principle that
J54 094 a person's initial mental state could be directly caused by the
J54 095 mental state of another. ^Now there seems no *1logical
J54 096 *0difficulty with such a possibility: telepathy is presumably a
J54 097 putative example of such a phenomenon and that seems at least a
J54 098 coherent hypothesis. ^Hence the principle will have to be
J54 099 rejected on empirical grounds. ^That is, it will be maintained
J54 100 that while such causal interactions may be logically possible, it
J54 101 is contingently the case that no such interactions take place in
J54 102 our world. ^The plausibility of this empirical claim will then be
J54 103 as strong as the case against the existence of the relevant
J54 104 parapsychological phenomena. ^Assuming this to be still an open
J54 105 question, I leave the matter there.
J54 106    |^Of course, this doesn't exhaust the range of escape routes
J54 107 from S*?2a*?1ntaraksita's regress argument. ^As I have already
J54 108 indicated, the argument rests upon two principles: the principle
J54 109 of universal causation and the mental-cause principle. ^Hence the
J54 110 denial of one or both of these principles will disarm the
J54 111 argument. ^Now some would be willing to deny the first principle
J54 112 and maintain that certain events are uncaused. ^Data from quantum
J54 113 mechanics is sometimes used to support such a position. ^However
J54 114 the correct interpretation of this data is highly controversial
J54 115 philosophically. ^At the very least, it is unclear that the
J54 116 instance of uncaused subatomic events (if they indeed occur)
J54 117 would in any way undermine the causal principle construed as a
J54 118 thesis about macroscopic events. ^If we then assume that mental
J54 119 events are macroscopic events, the regress argument is untouched.
J54 120    |^Another way of denying the causal principle is to opt for
J54 121 contra-causal libertarianism and maintain that certain events are
J54 122 indeed uncaused; most importantly, free human actions. ^This move
J54 123 can then block the regress by maintaining that the first 
J54 124 non-physically caused mental event in the life of an individual need
J54 125 not be mentally caused. ^Instead it could be uncaused, as are all
J54 126 free mental acts. ^Of course, libertarianism has its own
J54 127 problems. ^First, it owes us an account of how such uncaused
J54 128 events can be *1actions *0done under an agent's control.
J54 129 ^Secondly, if free acts are uncaused events then how can such
J54 130 events be rendered explicable without appealing to causal
J54 131 explanations? ^Now it may be that libertarianism is able to
J54 132 present a consistent story about these matters. ^However, I shall
J54 133 assume for the moment that the principle of universal causation
J54 134 is better entrenched than the libertarian view of acts that are
J54 135 uncaused events.
J54 136    |^One final point about the principle of universal
J54 137 causation. ^I formulated the principle of universal causation as
J54 138 the principle that every event has a cause. ^But it might be
J54 139 objected that S*?2a*?1ntaraksita's regress argument seems rather
J54 140 to require a principle to the effect that every event has a prior
J54 141 cause. ^And such a principle is surely false, for a cause and its
J54 142 effect might be simultaneous (as a train's motion is simultaneous
J54 143 with the motion of its carriages that it causes). ^Now it does
J54 144 seem reasonable to concede that sometimes causes and effects can
J54 145 be contemporaneous; but this admission need not touch
J54 146 S*?2a*?1ntaraksita's argument. ^For either the first 
J54 147 non-physically caused mental event of this life is caused by a prior
J54 148 mental event, or else it is caused by a contemporaneous mental
J54 149 event. ^On the first option, of course, we have the regress
J54 150 underway. ^On the second option, however, we're no better off.
J54 151 ^For what is the cause of the mental event that is the
J54 152 contemporaneous cause of the first non-physically caused mental
J54 153 event of this life? ^Given that it isn't physically caused, then
J54 154 its cause must be either a prior mental event, or else another
J54 155 contemporaneous mental event. ^In the first case we have the
J54 156 infinite temporal regress underway; in the second case we can ask
J54 157 the same question once again about the cause of that
J54 158 contemporaneous cause. ^So either we have an infinite temporal
J54 159 regress, or (implausibly) we have an infinity of contemporaneous
J54 160 causes and effects at the beginning of the causal series of each
J54 161 person's mental events.
J54 162    |^What about the mental-cause principle then? ^Materialism,
J54 163 of course, denies this principle; so too does epiphenomenalism.
J54 164 ^Acceptance of the principle apparently commits us either to
J54 165 idealism or to dualism ({0i.e.} interactionist dualism or
J54 166 parallelism). ^The standard Indian objection to the strong
J54 167 materialist claim that identifies the mental and the physical is
J54 168 a familiar one, resting upon what Western philosophers sometimes
J54 169 parochially call *"Leibniz's Law**". ^That is, it is maintained
J54 170 that mental states have properties not shared by physical states
J54 171 and hence cannot be identical with physical states.
J54 172 ^Unfortunately the objection is inconclusive since it is usually
J54 173 subjective phenomenal properties that are appealed to and
J54 174 Leibniz's Law is notoriously unreliable in intentional contexts.
J54 175 ^In any case, the Indian materialists (the Ca*?1rva*?1kas or
J54 176 Loka*?1yatas) generally conceded that consciousness possesses
J54 177 properties which seem peculiar to itself. ^But these properties,
J54 178 it was asserted, are supervenient upon physical states.
J54 179 ^Consciousness, then, is an emergent characteristic of the
J54 180 physical states formed by combinations of material elements.
J54 181 ^Just as, for example, the red colour of *1{pa*?1n} *0is an
J54 182 emergent property of the ingredients (betel, areca nut, lime),
J54 183 none of which is individually red coloured; so too consciousness
J54 184 is an emergent property of the unconscious material elements.
J54 185    |^Putting aside for the moment the opaqueness of the whole
J54 186 notion of emergent properties, S*?2a*?1ntaraksita has a twofold
J54 187 reply to the Loka*?1yata view. ^Firstly, he argues that the
J54 188 materialist claim that the mental is always causally dependent
J54 189 upon the physical is not conclusively established. ^This is
J54 190 because we cannot apply the customary method of agreement and
J54 191 difference to support the existence of such a universal causal
J54 192 law. ^Thus in the case of other people, we never have direct
J54 193 access to their mental states to establish the necessary positive
J54 194 and negative concomitance. ^In our own case, on the other hand,
J54 195 although we can observe the concomitance of some mental and
J54 196 bodily states, we obviously cannot do this for the *1first
J54 197 *0mental event of our present life. ^Hence there is no proof that
J54 198 the two sets of phenomena are causally related in the way the
J54 199 materialist claims. ^Secondly, it seems that there is in fact
J54 200 evidence to suggest that some mental states are not totally
J54 201 physically caused. ^In dreams or imaginings, for example, the
J54 202 mind can apparently work independently of external physical
J54 203 stimuli. ^Perhaps, then, some mental states could even occur
J54 204 independently of *1any *0physical cause.
J54 205    |^Now the whole question of the relation of the mental and
J54 206 the physical is, of course, a deep and tangled one; one I do not
J54 207 intend to pursue any further here. ^All I want to claim here and
J54 208 now is that if we concede S*?2a*?1ntaraksita his mental-cause
J54 209 principle (as many philosophers would) and also his principle of
J54 210 universal causation (as again many philosophers would), then his
J54 211 argument is apparently sound *- though, as was pointed out, he
J54 212 has to deny direct causal relations between minds.
J54 213 *#
J55 001 **[349 TEXT J55**]
J55 002 ^*0In 1906, with the railheads at Broken River in the east and
J55 003 Otira in the west, the Department was ready to call tenders for
J55 004 the tunnel. ^These required it to be completed within five years,
J55 005 by which time estimates were that the eastern railhead would have
J55 006 reached Arthur's Pass, enabling the line to be opened for through
J55 007 traffic about 1913.
J55 008    |^In the event the great day had to be postponed for another
J55 009 10 years. ^The reasons for this were numerous *- the virtual
J55 010 destruction of New Zealand's largest and most experienced
J55 011 contracting firm; a disastrous collapse at the Bealey end of the
J55 012 tunnel, when men working there were endangered and one man lost
J55 013 his life; several other fatalities directly attributable to the
J55 014 difficult and often dangerous working conditions; the rise of
J55 015 militant unionism which *"blacked**" the project as
J55 016 *"undesirable**" and contributed to a chronic shortage of
J55 017 experienced labour; and a world war which put the brakes on for
J55 018 four years.
J55 019    |^Although they considered the work might take six years to
J55 020 complete, the successful tenderers, John McLean & Sons, signed
J55 021 the contract in 1907 to build the tunnel within the specified
J55 022 five years at a price of 599,794 pounds. ^As the future was to
J55 023 demonstrate, both the time and the money were not much more than
J55 024 half what was required. ^At five years, the rate of progress
J55 025 would have had to be 4.7\0m a day; in reality they managed only
J55 026 2.5\0m. ^This would have seen the tunnel built in about nine
J55 027 years, with opening day in 1916 or 1917. ^But unforeseen
J55 028 circumstances and events involved the firm in heavy losses and
J55 029 eventually brought them to a halt. ^Their troubles were many *-
J55 030 increases in wages, falling productivity and scarcity of good
J55 031 labour (all attributed by the contractors to union agitators);
J55 032 the isolation and harsh climate of the construction sites,
J55 033 situated as they were close to either side of the Southern Alps;
J55 034 the high labour turnover (estimated in tens of thousands of men
J55 035 over the years); and difficult working conditions in the tunnel
J55 036 which made an unpleasant task even more unpleasant *- all these
J55 037 were factors which escalated costs and slowed progress. ^Other
J55 038 considerations such as excessive drunkenness and gambling among
J55 039 sections of the workforce contributed to the low profile of the
J55 040 job in the eyes of good tunnellers who might otherwise have been
J55 041 attracted by the high rates of pay offered.
J55 042    |^To what extent the McLeans were responsible for the
J55 043 problems which beset them is not clear. ^As contractors they had
J55 044 established an impressive reputation, having successfully
J55 045 completed numerous major public works in various parts of the
J55 046 country. ^They were apparently highly thought of as employers,
J55 047 with long experience in handling large numbers of men, both
J55 048 skilled and unskilled, but they were probably unprepared for the
J55 049 two major headaches at Otira *- the inherent difficulty of the
J55 050 work and the degree of worker unrest and agitation.
J55 051 *|^Immediately the contract was signed Murdoch McLean left for
J55 052 overseas to study modern tunnelling methods and order up-to-date
J55 053 equipment, including the latest Ingersoll Rand air drills from
J55 054 New York. ^Meanwhile his brother Neil set about establishing the
J55 055 considerable facilities and accommodation required at either end
J55 056 of the tunnel. ^A house was built for Murdoch near the Otira
J55 057 portal in the Rolleston River, while Neil chose for himself a
J55 058 site among the trees alongside Rough Creek in the Bealey. ^Here
J55 059 he and his wife later hosted numerous visitors, many from
J55 060 overseas, who came to see the longest tunnel in the British
J55 061 Empire being built.
J55 062    |^The power used for the project was generated by the waters
J55 063 of Holt's Creek on the Otira side and the Devil's Punchbowl Creek
J55 064 above the Bealey. ^Each developed 580 {0h.p.}, using Pelton
J55 065 wheels connected to dynamos. ^This plant worked well except when
J55 066 there was insufficient water because of the very occasional
J55 067 drought, or in mid-winter during the freeze.
J55 068    |^The men's huts at Arthur's Pass were built on the Bealey
J55 069 Flat, while on the west side they went on to *"The Island**" in
J55 070 the Rolleston River valley close to the tunnel mouth, about 5\0km
J55 071 above Otira. ^One hundred and fifty huts were built there at the
J55 072 rate of two or three a day. ^They provided reasonable if somewhat
J55 073 draughty accommodation until the night of April 15, 1910, when a
J55 074 fearful gale arose and blew most of them away. ^Gathering the
J55 075 remnants from down the valley and re-building them took
J55 076 considerable time and effort.
J55 077    |^The cottages for married men were built in Otira close to
J55 078 the hillside *- an unfortunate choice as it happened. ^One
J55 079 particularly wet day a shingle slide came down from the mountain
J55 080 and engulfed one with an unnecessarily tragic result *- a man
J55 081 named Charlie Morris rushed back inside for his wallet and was
J55 082 killed when the rockfall crushed the building like an eggshell.
J55 083    |^Early in 1908 a team of men went up the Rolleston to the
J55 084 survey site chosen for the tunnel and cleared away scrub and bush
J55 085 from the entrance. ^On May 5 a public holiday was declared for
J55 086 the ceremony of *"firing the first shot**", performed by the
J55 087 Prime Minister, the \0Rt. \0Hon. Sir Joseph Ward.
J55 088    |^About 9\0cm of rain fell that day and the several thousand
J55 089 people expected to attend dwindled to a few hundred. ^Only those
J55 090 with firm resolve or good umbrellas made it to the ceremony at
J55 091 the portal. ^Coloured flags and bunting with which the McLeans
J55 092 had festooned the entrance hung dripping in the downpour as Sir
J55 093 Joseph said his piece, his words almost drowned by the roar of
J55 094 the flooding river. ^A delegation of notables from Christchurch
J55 095 failed to arrive *- they were stopped in their tracks by the
J55 096 Waimakariri. ^Unable to cross, they sheltered in the Bealey Hotel
J55 097 and held their own ceremony there. ^All told it was a depressing
J55 098 start to the great project.
J55 099    |^Tunnel boring began from the Rolleston end with hand
J55 100 drills. ^With the arrival of the Ingersoll Rand equipment
J55 101 progress was stepped up from both ends, but it was soon apparent
J55 102 that the rate of excavation was not what it should be. ^Serious
J55 103 trouble developed at the Bealey end when it was found that the
J55 104 first section was of extremely loose and unstable rock requiring
J55 105 very heavy timbering.
J55 106    |^A long period of wet weather loosened the overburden and
J55 107 caused the timbers to give way, imprisoning 10 men. ^Continuing
J55 108 falls of rock made rescue work hazardous, but miraculously all
J55 109 were brought out alive, two of them after an entombment of more
J55 110 than three days.
J55 111 *|^Tunnel boss Jim McKeich first became aware of trouble when he
J55 112 heard a grinding noise overhead. ^Then the timbers gave way, rock
J55 113 and gravel poured down, and a heavy beam hit him on the head. ^He
J55 114 was dragged out more dead than alive. ^His son, who was a
J55 115 *"carbide boy**" on the job, noticed that his father's false
J55 116 teeth were missing and a wideawake helper saved McKeich's life by
J55 117 thrusting a pair of blacksmith's tongs down his throat and
J55 118 pulling out the missing dentures. ^At that the victim started
J55 119 breathing again, but spent the next six weeks in hospital.
J55 120    |^One of the heroes of the disaster was George Pitts, who
J55 121 rushed to the scene to find his camp mate, Claude Bray, almost
J55 122 entirely buried by timber and rock. ^He dug him out and carried
J55 123 him to safety, then returned to rescue George Beamer and another
J55 124 man who were buried in the same heap. ^Beamer was almost free
J55 125 when a second fall trapped them all.
J55 126    |^Pitts ended up in the shape of a letter *"U**" with his
J55 127 arms outstretched behind him, pinned beneath a wrecked truck
J55 128 bearing heavily on his body. ^When rescuers arrived, he was still
J55 129 alive but the nails and skin from his fingers were missing where
J55 130 he had scratched away at grit and rocks threatening to suffocate
J55 131 Beamer. ^Sadly all was in vain; Beamer died later in Greymouth
J55 132 Hospital.
J55 133    |^Eventually all the men were evacuated except two, Doyle
J55 134 and Duggan, who were trapped deeper in the tunnel beyond the
J55 135 fall. ^To rescue them by trying to clear a way through the debris
J55 136 was too dangerous so a side entrance was excavated through the
J55 137 hill. ^While this work was in progress, using every available
J55 138 man, the prisoners were supplied with food, hot drinks, clothing
J55 139 and blankets through the compressed air pipe. ^Eighty-six hours
J55 140 later they were brought out through the emergency exit to the
J55 141 cheers of their waiting workmates. ^There was a touching reunion
J55 142 between Doyle and his sister, who had maintained a ceaseless
J55 143 vigil at the tunnel throughout the ordeal.
J55 144    |^There were other fatalities, mainly at the Otira end,
J55 145 where two men were killed by misadventure while firing charges,
J55 146 and four by being run over or crushed by engines or trucks in the
J55 147 tunnel. ^Another was killed at Bealey when his coat was caught up
J55 148 in some machinery. ^Even the McLeans found themselves involved in
J55 149 tragedy, although not in connection with the work. ^Murdoch
J55 150 McLean's son Glenallan, a young lawyer from Wellington, came to
J55 151 visit his father one day in November, 1910. ^Next morning while
J55 152 edging forward to view the Rolleston gorge scenery, close by the
J55 153 house, he slipped over a precipice and was killed instantly.
J55 154    |^In fact the whole decade was a tragic one for the McLean
J55 155 family. ^Old John, the firm's founder, died shortly before the
J55 156 Otira job started. ^Two of Glenallan's brothers were killed in
J55 157 the Great War, and Murdoch himself died of cancer in 1917. ^His
J55 158 death broke a very close family unit.
J55 159 *|^As time passed the difficulty in securing a skilled labour
J55 160 force gradually sounded the death knell of the contract as well.
J55 161 ^The job was never fully manned and many of the thousands who
J55 162 came and went, attracted by the high wages, were only drifters
J55 163 and drunkards. ^The booze problem was not too serious in the
J55 164 earlier stages when James O'Malley held the licences of all three
J55 165 local hotels *- the Terminus at Otira, the Gorge at the mouth of
J55 166 Otira Gorge, and the Bealey. ^He was a good keeper, but when he
J55 167 sold the Gorge Hotel there was a change. ^The new man cared for
J55 168 nothing but liquor sales and soon a combination of heavy drinking
J55 169 and gambling (mainly two-up) required extra police at Otira.
J55 170    |^The ready availability of explosives also caused the local
J55 171 constable much concern. ^Several incidents were recorded, such as
J55 172 the blasting open of the Otira railway safe and removal of its
J55 173 contents. ^In another a group who were offended by the smell from
J55 174 a neighbour's *"little house**" blew it up *- fortunately there
J55 175 was nobody inside at the time. ^In one case an alcoholic and his
J55 176 drunken friends, refused entry by his wife, blew the back door
J55 177 and porch off his house; in yet another a resident who suspected
J55 178 a neighbour of stealing from his neatly sawn stack of firewood
J55 179 blocks bored holes in some of them and hid detonators therein,
J55 180 masking the holes with sawdust paste. ^Two days later the
J55 181 neighbour's stove blew out. ^Even the constable suffered when he
J55 182 grew too officious in his duties. ^One night when he was away
J55 183 investigating alleged sly-grogging someone blew the back off his
J55 184 house. ^This was regarded as a more serious offence and a
J55 185 locomotive driver called Brandy Jack was charged by the police,
J55 186 but the Christchurch jury found him *"not guilty**" and he
J55 187 returned home in triumph.
J55 188    |^Most of the workers were a transient lot, staying only a
J55 189 few weeks or even a few days, then moving on again, unable to
J55 190 accept the hard work required of them, or the climate, or the
J55 191 isolation. ^Rainfall at Otira was close to 500\0cm a year and
J55 192 sometimes the work in the tunnel was equally wet. ^In the higher
J55 193 atmosphere at Bealey Flat the cold was often intense, with deep
J55 194 snow on the ground, and workers coming on shift were pleased to
J55 195 get into the slightly warmer tunnel.
J55 196 *|^In this time of industrial unrest in New Zealand, union
J55 197 organisers, many of them Australians, were singing the praises of
J55 198 red flags and workers' rights.
J55 199 *#
J56 001 **[350 TEXT J56**]
J56 002 ^*0Meanwhile, despite this debate, the land guarantee was being
J56 003 interpreted in New Zealand through the implementation of 
J56 004 pre-emption.
J56 005    |^From the foundation of the colony, it was officially
J56 006 acknowledged in New Zealand that ownership of all land was vested
J56 007 in the Maori people, and in return the Crown had the sole right
J56 008 of buying Maori land. ^Both points were covered in the treaty's
J56 009 second article in the English text. ^Hobson, knowing that
J56 010 complete control over all land transactions was part of the
J56 011 government's plan, followed up the treaty by making the necessary
J56 012 land ordinances. ^Land for settlement was to be bought at a low
J56 013 price from Maori and sold at a high price to settlers, the
J56 014 profits to be expended on further development and emigration.
J56 015 ^The aim was to minimise imperial government costs and to make
J56 016 the colony as financially self-sufficient as possible.
J56 017    |^The concept of the government as the sole purchaser of
J56 018 their land was completely new to the Maori people. ^Until 1840
J56 019 they had been accustomed to dealing freely with their land, and
J56 020 that they were prepared to restrict this freedom by agreeing to
J56 021 the pre-emptive clause of the treaty is surprising. ^Did they
J56 022 fully grasp that the government was going to be the sole
J56 023 purchaser? ^Or did they think that they had promised merely to
J56 024 give the government the first offer? ^And did they realise that
J56 025 if the Crown did not wish, or was unable, to buy, then the land
J56 026 could not be offered to any other interested party whatsoever?
J56 027    |^The Maori text of the treaty simply referred to giving the
J56 028 Crown the *'hokonga**' (the buying and selling, or the trade) in
J56 029 land. ^Hobson and the Colonial Office unquestionably intended to
J56 030 obtain the sole right of purchasing Maori land and were confident
J56 031 that the treaty conferred this. ^The treaty negotiations suggest,
J56 032 however, that the exclusive nature of pre-emption was not always
J56 033 clearly understood. ^Nor did Maori grasp the financial
J56 034 constraints that pre-emption might bring; it was presented, it
J56 035 seems, either as a benefit to be gained or as a minor concession
J56 036 in return for the guarantee of complete Maori ownership.
J56 037    |^Maori understanding, at least at Waitangi, was possibly
J56 038 restricted by inadequate explanations, by absence from the
J56 039 meeting of 5 February when pre-emption was explained, or even by
J56 040 a chief's momentary cat-nap at the critical time. ^Henry
J56 041 Williams, questioned later on his explanation, was non-commital:
J56 042 *'^The chiefs wishing to sell any portion of their lands, shall
J56 043 give to the Queen the right of pre-emption of their lands.**'
J56 044 ^Colenso, a critical observer at Waitangi, was more informative,
J56 045 noting that a number of chiefs did not fully understand 
J56 046 pre-emption, an impression left, too, with another onlooker, William
J56 047 Brodie. ^At the meeting, only Moka, who queried the restrictions
J56 048 placed on Pakeha, demonstrated any grasp of pre-emption.
J56 049 ^Immediately after the signing, Colenso cited the chief Hara, who
J56 050 had offered land to individual, would-be purchasers since the
J56 051 signing. ^Hara had indignantly defended his customary right to
J56 052 deal with his lands as he pleased. ^Yet a Paihia chief, Tamati
J56 053 Wiremu, seems to have appreciated that the right of purchase
J56 054 rested solely with the Crown for he appealed to the governor in
J56 055 March 1840 to put a halt to overtures still being made by
J56 056 individual Pakeha. ^Tirarau, who went to the Bay of Islands to
J56 057 sign the treaty in early May 1840, was to refer to Hobson two
J56 058 weeks later for clarification on the very matter of pre-emption,
J56 059 but down the west coast at Kawhia, Whiteley was adamant that
J56 060 Maori signatories there had fully understood that they were to
J56 061 sell to the Crown alone.
J56 062    |^A good deal depended on the negotiator involved. ^Bunbury
J56 063 reported clearly on the explanations he gave on his trip south in
J56 064 May-June 1840. ^At Coromandel and Tauranga, Maori were told that
J56 065 the government wanted to *'check their imprudently selling their
J56 066 lands, without sufficiently benefiting themselves or obtaining a
J56 067 fair equivalent**'. ^Pre-emption was *'intended equally for their
J56 068 benefit, and to encourage industrious white men to settle amongst
J56 069 them**', to share their skills with Maori. ^Rather than allowing
J56 070 large areas of land to be alienated to absentee speculators who
J56 071 would not benefit Maori, it was better for the Queen to buy their
J56 072 lands herself *'at a juster valuation**'.
J56 073    |^Henry Williams also seems to have justified pre-emption as
J56 074 a protection against land speculation, for he reported that
J56 075 chiefs to the south of Cook Strait and up the coast to Wanganui
J56 076 were *'gratified that a check was put to the importunities of the
J56 077 Europeans to the purchase of their lands**'. ^Williams and his
J56 078 fellow missionaries had been apprehensive of the encroachments of
J56 079 land purchasers well before Hobson's arrival. ^Since most of the
J56 080 treaty negotiators were missionaries or, as in the case of
J56 081 Henry's son, Edward, closely associated with them, it seems
J56 082 reasonable to conclude that the general sense conveyed in
J56 083 explaining pre-emption was a protective one. ^It is quite likely
J56 084 that negotiators did not realise the full significance of 
J56 085 pre-emption; Hobson may not have widely publicised the financial
J56 086 provisions for the colony and the part that pre-emption would
J56 087 play.
J56 088    |^Maori attitudes to pre-emption depended a good deal on
J56 089 their particular circumstances. ^In the southern districts, Maori
J56 090 were eager to secure government assistance in dealing with the
J56 091 New Zealand Company settlers who were exerting every means in
J56 092 their power, not excluding force, to lay claim to lands which
J56 093 Maori considered they had never sold. ^It does not seem to have
J56 094 occurred to Maori to question whether the government had sole
J56 095 right of purchase or only first offer. ^What southern Maori
J56 096 needed was government protection; with considerable patience,
J56 097 those in the Port Nicholson area appealed to the governor by
J56 098 letter and by deputation to settle their difficulties.
J56 099    |^By contrast, although a great deal of land in the north
J56 100 had been alienated before 1840, some Maori were initially not
J56 101 averse to selling more and saw in this an immediate benefit from
J56 102 the treaty. ^Many of the major chiefs in the Bay of Islands and
J56 103 Hokianga districts quickly made land offers to Hobson in 1840; by
J56 104 early May, he noted *'much impatience and discontent**' among
J56 105 potential land sellers. ^Symonds confirmed this; Maori had even
J56 106 eased off work in anticipation of sales. ^Hobson, though, was in
J56 107 no position to take up more land in the north. ^Apart from
J56 108 inadequate funding for setting up a small colonial
J56 109 administration, his financial problems were compounded by the
J56 110 decision to shift the centre of government to the Waitemata early
J56 111 in 1841. ^This required extensive purchases at Auckland in 1840,
J56 112 and forced him to refuse northern land offers. ^Northern Maori
J56 113 were naturally disappointed, and a reaction against pre-emption
J56 114 came to government notice in December 1841 at the Bay of Islands
J56 115 and in 1843 at Kaitaia. ^The drying-up of the accustomed revenue
J56 116 from land sales contributed substantially to the tensions that
J56 117 climaxed in the war of 1844.
J56 118    |^Where land sales did take place, as at Auckland, Maori
J56 119 rapidly realised the extent to which the government was
J56 120 benefiting from the margin between purchase and re-sale prices.
J56 121 ^By the time FitzRoy arrived in December 1843, Waikato and Ngati
J56 122 Whatua chiefs were convinced that the pre-emption clause was
J56 123 unfair and should be reconsidered. ^Ngati Whatua representatives
J56 124 appealed to FitzRoy:
J56 125 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J56 126 ^Waikato supported this view, and shrewdly countered the usual
J56 127 explanation of pre-emption as protection against speculators by
J56 128 pointing out it was the government itself that wanted extensive
J56 129 land blocks. ^Settlers usually required only small tracts which
J56 130 Maori were generally willing to alienate to encourage Pakeha to
J56 131 live among them.
J56 132    |^FitzRoy was aware that settler influence was responsible,
J56 133 at least in part, for encouraging these complaints. ^Maori had
J56 134 been *'repeatedly told**' that they had given the Queen the
J56 135 *'hokonga**' only, and that in the Maori text of the treaty this
J56 136 did not constitute a cession of the *'sole and exclusive right of
J56 137 purchase**'. ^They had also been told that pre-emption was
J56 138 incompatible with article three of the treaty by which Maori were
J56 139 supposed to enjoy all the rights and privileges of British
J56 140 subjects, but, as long as they were unable to dispose freely of
J56 141 their own lands, this article was not effective *- they were *'no
J56 142 better than slaves (taurekareka) taken in war, who have not the
J56 143 disposal of their own lands, while occupied by their
J56 144 conquerors*'.
J56 145    |^The press was partly responsible for stirring up Maori
J56 146 unease. ^A steady campaign against pre-emption had been waged for
J56 147 almost six months before FitzRoy's arrival. ^In June 1843, the
J56 148 *1Southern Cross *0had complained about the effect of pre-emption
J56 149 on the Maori:
J56 150 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J56 151 ^In August, the paper shifted its attack to the treaty as a
J56 152 whole. ^It printed the *'official**' English treaty text of 1840
J56 153 alongside what it called a *'literal and true translation**' *- a
J56 154 close rendering in English of the Maori text that most chiefs had
J56 155 signed. ^The main purpose of this stratagem was to cast doubt on
J56 156 the validity of the entire agreement: the Maori people could not
J56 157 have given their *'intelligent**' consent to the treaty, as
J56 158 required by Normanby, because they had not fully understood its
J56 159 terms. ^Although the newspaper showed that Maori perhaps had a
J56 160 different understanding from the one intended in the English text
J56 161 of 1840, it did not suggest that Pakeha might take this into
J56 162 consideration and acknowledge that it was the Maori text that had
J56 163 been negotiated and signed in that year. ^The emphasis was placed
J56 164 instead on the uselessness of the treaty to meet settler needs.
J56 165 ^The *'valid**' treaty was assumed to be the English version,
J56 166 regardless of what Maori had signed or understood.
J56 167    |^The newspaper campaign, backed by representations from
J56 168 Maori and Pakeha, was sufficient to persuade FitzRoy that the
J56 169 government would have to make some adjustment to pre-emption. ^As
J56 170 FitzRoy confessed to Stanley, the facts of the Maori case went
J56 171 far to support their assertions. ^When Maori agreed to the 
J56 172 pre-emption clause, they naturally expected that government would
J56 173 buy Maori land when it was offered. ^Given the official arguments of
J56 174 protection against speculation, it was also reasonable for Maori
J56 175 to anticipate that the government would give a fair price for
J56 176 land. ^Neither of these expectations had been fulfilled. ^Knowing
J56 177 that the government was making a profit from land sales, Maori
J56 178 offered new land at an increased price which FitzRoy found to be
J56 179 *'wholly out of the question**'. ^The government could not
J56 180 consider new offers in any case, for it still had unsold land
J56 181 deriving from adjustments made with early settlers and with the
J56 182 New Zealand Company. ^Maori, unable to sell at all, or asked to
J56 183 sell at a price that was palpably unfair, justifiably felt
J56 184 betrayed by the workings of pre-emption and, as a result, by the
J56 185 treaty.
J56 186    |^Since the Colonial Office had allowed FitzRoy to exercise
J56 187 some discretion with regard to pre-emption, he decided to waive
J56 188 the restriction. ^Under the first waiver of March 1844,
J56 189 individuals could buy direct from Maori on condition that a fee
J56 190 of 10/- an acre was paid to the government. ^Certain areas, such
J56 191 as pa and sacred places, were to be withheld from sale and the
J56 192 details of each sale had to be scrutinised by Protectors. ^By the
J56 193 following October, however, such a small amount of land had been
J56 194 sold that FitzRoy decided to reduce the government fee to 1\0d an
J56 195 acre. ^Under the first waiver, about 600 acres changed hands;
J56 196 under the second, 100,000 acres.
J56 197    |^When announcing the waivers, FitzRoy had taken care to
J56 198 stress that the aim of pre-emption had been to protect Maori
J56 199 interests *- to check the purchase of Maori lands while their
J56 200 value was insufficiently known to their owners. ^This appeared to
J56 201 the settlers at Port Nicholson to be a deliberate
J56 202 misrepresentation of the real purpose of the measure, to which
J56 203 they drew Stanley's attention. ^As Stanley well knew, they noted,
J56 204 the real object of pre-emption was to apply in New Zealand the
J56 205 principles of sound colonisation.
J56 206 *#
J57 001 **[351 TEXT J57**]
J57 002 *<*4The Correspondence School*>
J57 003 |^*0On 12 January 1922, Miss Janet McKenzie was appointed to take
J57 004 charge of the first state correspondence classes, from a room and
J57 005 a desk in the government buildings in Wellington (Forde, 1947).
J57 006 ^By 1929 the School was teaching approximately 800 pupils in the
J57 007 primary department and 100 in the secondary department instituted
J57 008 in February of that year, and had 17 teaching staff (Butchers,
J57 009 1930: 332).
J57 010    |^The development of the Correspondence School reflected
J57 011 political concern for rural votes. ^Before 1945, New Zealand's
J57 012 electoral system operated a country quota scheme, a percentage
J57 013 being added to the population in rural electorates in
J57 014 consideration of the isolation of the rural community. ^The three
J57 015 main political parties in the 1920s (Reform, Liberal, and Labour)
J57 016 were all aware of the importance of the rural vote: *'^The
J57 017 comfort of the people and the power of the politicians alike
J57 018 depended upon the farmers (and) nearly all politicians paid prior
J57 019 attention to their welfare and their votes.**' (Oliver, 1960:
J57 020 159).
J57 021    |^The Parliamentary debates of the early 1920s show a demand
J57 022 for more rural schools and a concern on the part of politicians
J57 023 to meet this demand (Morris, 1982). ^This occurred at a time of
J57 024 falling produce and land prices, the development of dairying in
J57 025 new farming areas in the North Island, and increased rural-urban
J57 026 migration. ^Several {0M.P.}s argued that people were leaving
J57 027 country districts partly because of the disgraceful conditions of
J57 028 many rural schools and the limited chance *'backblocks**' people
J57 029 had of giving their children a good education. ^Inadequate
J57 030 buildings and the limited supply of teachers were identified as
J57 031 the major problems. ^The Minister of Education, {0C.J.} Parr,
J57 032 responded by claiming that *'the Department was anxious not
J57 033 merely to act justly, but even generously towards rural
J57 034 children**'. ^Parr himself visited some of the remote areas *'to
J57 035 wrestle with this problem and get to grips with it**'.
J57 036    |^In 1921, while defending cuts in educational spending,
J57 037 Parr still maintained that nonetheless *'the claims of small
J57 038 country schools and those of the backblock settlers would receive
J57 039 special consideration**'; a statement which was greeted with
J57 040 applause in the House. ^Teachers added their voices to the demand
J57 041 for improved rural school facilities. ^Articles such as *'Shack
J57 042 Schools back of beyond. A country teacher's protest**'
J57 043 (*1National Education, *02 February 1920), painted a stark
J57 044 picture of teaching in *'an old abandoned shack with the
J57 045 thermometer at thirty one degrees (\0F).... impossible to
J57 046 write... impossible to sit still longer than five minutes**'.
J57 047 ^Teachers in the remoter rural areas tended to be young,
J57 048 inexperienced and poorly qualified. ^In 1920, Parr admitted that
J57 049 many of the backblocks teachers *'had scarcely more education
J57 050 than the sixth standard at primary school**'. ^Salary increases
J57 051 and a special remote allowance made conditions somewhat more
J57 052 inviting in the rural schools, but they continued to be generally
J57 053 looked upon by teachers as a stepping stone to a better post.
J57 054    |^The economic downturn in 1921 made it difficult for Parr
J57 055 to implement his earlier promises to improve rural schooling.
J57 056 ^Teaching at a distance had been tried earlier, with household
J57 057 schools and itinerant teachers. ^Now, in 1922, the Government
J57 058 tried correspondence education *'as a last resort in its attempts
J57 059 to provide better rural education**' (Morris, 1982: 31). ^By the
J57 060 end of the Correspondence School's first year of operation, Parr
J57 061 was already claiming it to be a successful experiment:
J57 062 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 063 ^Correspondence schooling was also economic, being demonstrably
J57 064 cheaper than providing scattered small schools. ^In 1925 each
J57 065 Correspondence School pupil cost *+3-10 shillings, while each
J57 066 pupil at a Grade 0 school (attendance 1-8) cost *+15 *'per unit
J57 067 of average attendance**' (*1{0AJHR}; *01925, \0E1:15). ^As the
J57 068 policy of consolidation of small rural schools continued, the
J57 069 Correspondence School expanded. ^Its effectiveness and economy
J57 070 led, after some years of uncertainty, to the school being made
J57 071 permanent in 1931. ^Today, with some 20,000 students enrolled, it
J57 072 remains an integral and important part of the state education
J57 073 system.
J57 074 *<*4The District High Schools*>
J57 075 |^*0As Nash (1983: 111) observes, a dominant theme in rural
J57 076 secondary education has been
J57 077 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 078 ^Most progressive innovations in rural education attempt to forge
J57 079 closer links between schools and their local communities.
J57 080 ^Introduced in the face of considerable opposition, almost all
J57 081 have failed. ^In the rural communities of the Third World,
J57 082 attempts to introduce a curriculum in locally relevant knowledge
J57 083 have consistently failed. ^Instead, the educational systems of
J57 084 the developing countries are frequently more academic, 
J57 085 urban-oriented and elitist than their Western counterparts (Dore,
J57 086 1976). ^New Zealand district high schools illustrate this
J57 087 process.
J57 088    |^The establishment in 1869 in Otago of secondary
J57 089 departments in four rural schools reflected the Scottish system
J57 090 of parish schools, which aimed to enable the academically
J57 091 talented pupils to gain a secondary and university education
J57 092 (Thom, 1950). ^Although the 1877 Education Act gave Education
J57 093 Boards the power to establish district high schools, the initial
J57 094 development of such schools was slow. ^By 1899 there were only 14
J57 095 district high schools, predominantly in the South Island. ^Their
J57 096 curriculum was largely academic: English, Latin, French, algebra,
J57 097 mathematics, Euclid and geography were the core subjects. ^In
J57 098 general no science was taught, and few practical subjects were
J57 099 included in the curriculum. (^One school offered book-keeping and
J57 100 land surveying and another agriculture.)
J57 101    |^This situation was largely due to the District High
J57 102 Schools quickly becoming caught up in the pervasive influence of
J57 103 credentialism in the school system (^See Chapter 5). ^The Civil
J57 104 Service Reform Act (1886) reflected the strong popular (and
J57 105 political) desire to ensure equality of educational opportunity
J57 106 for rural children. ^Liberal Premier Stout, the author of the
J57 107 Act, stated that the examination syllabus would be drawn up so
J57 108 that *'pupils of the town secondary schools shall not have all
J57 109 the advantages... competitors in the country districts shall have
J57 110 an equal chance with them**'.
J57 111    |^As secondary education extended after 1901, the number of
J57 112 district high schools increased rapidly, from 13 in 1900 to 54 in
J57 113 1904, and 61 in 1915. ^George Hogben, the Inspector-General of
J57 114 Schools from 1899 to 1915, wanted the new schools to develop a
J57 115 more practical curriculum. ^Through special capitulation grants
J57 116 (under regulations gazetted in 1909), the Department encouraged
J57 117 schools to offer rural courses. ^Nevertheless, the traditional
J57 118 subjects remained firmly entrenched. ^In 1917 the Department
J57 119 tried to reinforce its curriculum policy by requiring district
J57 120 high schools with fewer than 70 pupils to teach agriculture and
J57 121 dairying to boys. ^But the schools remained under constant
J57 122 pressure from the middle and lower middle class sections of the
J57 123 community to offer courses leading to University Entrance
J57 124 (Matriculation), and the regulations were largely ignored.
J57 125    |^The 1940s saw a renewed effort to stimulate rural
J57 126 education in the face of increased urbanisation. ^The provision
J57 127 of agricultural courses was regarded as likely to help stabilise
J57 128 the rural population. ^The Thomas Report and the revised School
J57 129 Certificate (1945) enabled pupils to study dairying,
J57 130 horticulture, agriculture, and animal husbandry to School
J57 131 Certificate level. ^When the curriculum status of these subjects
J57 132 was thus raised, the number of pupils studying agricultural
J57 133 subjects reached its highest point. ^But because of increased
J57 134 urbanisation in the 1950s, the attraction of agricultural
J57 135 subjects was short-lived. ^The Wild Report of 1958 showed that
J57 136 only 17 of the 104 district high schools still taught
J57 137 agriculture, although a third still offered horticulture.
J57 138    |^What the experience of the District High Schools
J57 139 illustrates, therefore, is the intertwining of academic
J57 140 curricula, school credentials, and social reproduction. ^As
J57 141 Nash puts it:
J57 142 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 143 (Nash, 1983: 112). ^To rural parents, school credentials
J57 144 represented cultural capital enabling their children to share in
J57 145 the opportunities for further education and white collar jobs
J57 146 available to urban children.
J57 147 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 148 (Campbell, 1941: 119-120). ^Underlying this parental demand was
J57 149 an implicit acceptance of the Platonic distinction between
J57 150 *'pure**' and *'applied**' knowledge, a distinction which
J57 151 provides a *'common sense**' underpinning of the division of
J57 152 labour (Apple, 1979).
J57 153    |^The development of the District High School, the
J57 154 Correspondence School, and the rural primary schools illustrates
J57 155 how political pressure from rural communities has interacted with
J57 156 state policy in shaping attempts to provide equality of
J57 157 educational opportunity for rural children. ^Despite the general
J57 158 decline in rural services, New Zealand's rural primary schools
J57 159 are today well equipped, and their teachers well trained and
J57 160 supported by many professional services (Nash, 1983: 109).
J57 161 *<*6SCHOOLING IN THE CITY*>
J57 162 |^*0Grace (1984) usefully surveys the American and British
J57 163 writing on urban education. ^The literature has grown rapidly
J57 164 since the early 1960s, partly because of a sense of contemporary
J57 165 malaise about urban development and its attendant problems.
J57 166 ^Racial unrest and urban riots, with their basis in inner city
J57 167 problems of housing, employment, health and education, have
J57 168 focused attention on the contribution of schools to alleviating
J57 169 this situation. ^Despite the considerable work which has been
J57 170 undertaken, however, Grace concludes that urban education as a
J57 171 field of study in the United States has been inadequately
J57 172 theorised, its *'mode of inquiry dominated by various forms of
J57 173 abstracted empiricism or by micro-institutional studies**', and
J57 174 has lacked an historical dimension (Grace, 1984: 17). ^Similar
J57 175 criticisms he claimed also applied to the British literature on
J57 176 urban education.
J57 177    |^Various definitions of *'urban education**' derive from
J57 178 particular social theories (Grace, 1984: 34-35). ^Within the
J57 179 general theoretical approach adopted here (Chapter 1), urban
J57 180 education becomes the study of the distribution of resources in
J57 181 urban schooling, a distribution determined by the conflicts of
J57 182 social, political and ethnic interest groups in the city (and the
J57 183 wider society). ^This process is one of struggle and
J57 184 contestation; in particular, the field of urban working class
J57 185 schooling is
J57 186 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 187 (Grace, 1984: 35). ^As we have seen earlier, this involves the
J57 188 development of schooling with an emphasis on its social control
J57 189 aspects and its role in legitimating (through the curriculum,
J57 190 {0IQ} testing, and credentialism) particular forms of cultural
J57 191 capital, thereby providing differential access to the labour
J57 192 market.
J57 193    |^As McCulloch (1985a: 51) has pointed out: *'^Urban history
J57 194 has begun to develop strongly in this country, but thus far the
J57 195 social and political roles of urban education have been little
J57 196 investigated.**' ^Any attempt to begin to develop a history of
J57 197 urban education in New Zealand would need to absorb the existing
J57 198 mass of Education Board and school histories, systematising these
J57 199 with reference to crucial issues such as the enforcement of
J57 200 attendance, local versus central control, community access, and
J57 201 provision for minority/ disadvantaged groups. ^These issues would
J57 202 need to be addressed within the broader context of urban
J57 203 development:
J57 204 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J57 205 (Tyack, 1974: 29).
J57 206    |^Accordingly, we need New Zealand studies along the lines
J57 207 of Katz's work on Hamilton, Ontario (1975) and Parsons' study of
J57 208 Carbrook in Sheffield (Parsons, 1978). ^Such work frequently
J57 209 usefully combines quantitative analysis (particularly of census
J57 210 data), documentary analysis, and oral histories.
J57 211    |^Given the paucity of historical work, our discussion here
J57 212 concentrates on more recent aspects of urban schooling in New
J57 213 Zealand: demographic changes and their effects on schooling; the
J57 214 schooling of Pacific Islanders, as an example of the special
J57 215 character and needs of urban ethnic minorities; community access
J57 216 to schooling (zoning, adult students), and the related issue of
J57 217 community control of schools. ^Each of these developments or
J57 218 issues is not unique to New Zealand (see Grace, 1984).
J57 219 *<*4Demographic changes*>
J57 220 |^*0Three trends stand out here: changes in population growth and
J57 221 structure, continuing urbanisation and the development of a
J57 222 plural society. ^Each of these has considerable implications for
J57 223 the education system.
J57 224 |^*1Population growth and structure  ^*0Population is a key
J57 225 variable in New Zealand's future policy options. ^A detailed
J57 226 knowledge of the dynamics of the country's population is vital
J57 227 for the development of policy in fields such as labour market
J57 228 planning, the allocation of resources (including welfare
J57 229 benefits), regional development, housing, and political demand
J57 230 for services, including schooling. ^Researchers, planners and
J57 231 policy makers have in recent years paid considerable attention to
J57 232 changes in the New Zealand population (see Johnston, 1982). ^Two
J57 233 population trends have particular implications for education: a
J57 234 continued downward trend in birth rate (although potential for
J57 235 population growth is still quite substantial); and a changing age
J57 236 structure: the proportion of the population in the young
J57 237 dependent age groups has decreased, while that of the elderly has
J57 238 increased.
J57 239    |^Ingham (Renwick and Ingham 1974) overviewed pre-1970
J57 240 attempts to discern future trends in New Zealand's school
J57 241 populations, and indicated some of the difficulties involved.
J57 242 *#
J58 001 **[352 TEXT J58**]
J58 002 ^*0Compulsory attendance did not apply to any child whose home
J58 003 was more than two miles from school until 1901, when the
J58 004 exemption was restricted to a child under ten who had to walk
J58 005 more than two miles between home and school, or between home
J58 006 and local public transport. ^Children over ten years of age
J58 007 were similarly exempted if they had to walk more than three
J58 008 miles.
J58 009    |^The Liberals' education reforms also brought Maori and
J58 010 handicapped children under closer supervision. ^Whereas the
J58 011 1877 Act had provided for neither, the 1894 Act made Maori
J58 012 children subject to the same general provisions and exemptions
J58 013 as European children. ^Powers for dealing with truant children
J58 014 and/or their parents/ guardian were also increased in the
J58 015 measures of 1894 and 1901. ^School inspectors would still find
J58 016 evidence that parents were *'treating their children's
J58 017 education as a thing of minor importance**'. ^Parliamentarians
J58 018 would still argue over the right of the state to compel parents
J58 019 to do without their children's assistance during school hours,
J58 020 but with the 1901 School Attendance Act making compulsory
J58 021 attendance up to 14 years of age, the growing social
J58 022 unacceptability of youthful bread-winners was reinforced by
J58 023 educational enactment.
J58 024    |^During the Liberal era, considerable legislative
J58 025 attention was given to another group of children whose welfare
J58 026 appeared to be at risk. ^Under the terms of the 1867 Neglected
J58 027 and Criminal Children Act and the 1882 Industrial Schools Act
J58 028 there was statutory provision for infants to be placed in some
J58 029 form of institutional care if necessary. ^The Children's
J58 030 Protection Act of 1890 allowed the police to intervene in cases
J58 031 of wilful ill-treatment, neglect, abandonment or exposure of a
J58 032 child, but the problem remained of trying to secure appropriate
J58 033 conditions in which very young children could be cared for.
J58 034 ^Conditions at such institutions as Caversham Industrial School
J58 035 were not designed for infants, and disease and mortality rates
J58 036 were high. ^The move to fostering inaugurated by the 1882
J58 037 Industrial Schools Act provided improved conditions for
J58 038 children in state care but the fate of many infants left to
J58 039 neighbourhood resources was often appalling. ^The embryonic
J58 040 free kindergarten movement provided some relief for working
J58 041 mothers desperate for some reliable form of daytime supervision
J58 042 of infants but most at risk were illegitimate or unwanted
J58 043 infants. ^The isolated cases of baby-farming which received
J58 044 public attention through police prosecution aroused expressions
J58 045 of indignation and shame. ^Not until 1893 was police agitation
J58 046 for greater powers to deal with this problem successful. ^The
J58 047 Infant Life Protection Act aimed to eliminate the situation
J58 048 whereby children *'either by advertisement or otherwise are
J58 049 placed in most unsuitable homes, where it is perfectly well
J58 050 understood that the sooner the child dies the better pleased
J58 051 all concerned will be**'. ^As the celebrated murder trial of
J58 052 Minnie Dean revealed, however, the 1893 legislation was not
J58 053 sufficiently rigorous. ^The new Infant Life Protection Act of
J58 054 1896, therefore, covered infants up to the age of four years
J58 055 and required all prospective care-givers and their homes to be
J58 056 subject to close scrutiny before a licence was granted. ^Full
J58 057 records had to be kept, annual reapplications were mandatory,
J58 058 and licensees knew from the outset that they could lose their
J58 059 means of livelihood should they be found guilty of cruelty to
J58 060 any infant, maintaining an excessive number of children, or
J58 061 failing to give notice of an infant's death. ^For the next
J58 062 decade, this Act was to give a hitherto extremely vulnerable
J58 063 group of children a substantial amount of protection.
J58 064    |^Illegitimate and adopted children also came under the
J58 065 Liberals' purview. ^An 1894 Act legitimized children born out
J58 066 of wedlock if their parents subsequently married and registered
J58 067 their offspring. ^However the Legitimation Act did not allow
J58 068 cases where, for the parents, a legal impediment to marriage
J58 069 existed at the time of the child's birth. ^Between 1894 and
J58 070 1900, 345 children benefited from this measure, but by far the
J58 071 greater number of illegitimate children did not. ^The fate of
J58 072 many of these was of growing concern to the police. ^As the
J58 073 1893 report on baby-farming had noted:
J58 074 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J58 075 ^Adopted children had their position subjected to parliamentary
J58 076 scrutiny in 1895. ^Whereas the 1881 Adoption of Children Act
J58 077 had provided for youngsters under the age of 12, the new
J58 078 legislation of 1895 concerned children under 15. ^Considerable
J58 079 care was taken with the definition of *'deserted**', a
J58 080 thoroughness which suggests that the greater number of children
J58 081 available for adoption were deserted rather than orphaned.
J58 082 ^Possibly following the precedent of single parent fostering,
J58 083 which had developed under the 1882 Industrial Schools Act, the
J58 084 1895 Act made it possible for children to be adopted by a wide
J58 085 range of prospective parents provided appropriate consent from
J58 086 natural parents or guardians was forthcoming. ^As in 1881, the
J58 087 1895 Act also provided for an institutional adoption, a
J58 088 situation which would cater for those children bereft of any
J58 089 alternative form of security. ^*'Backyard**' adoption doubtless
J58 090 continued but the illegality of such a practice was presumably
J58 091 some deterrent.
J58 092    |^Such measures give a glimpse of a society that was far
J58 093 from the ideal for a minority of the children within it, an
J58 094 impression reinforced by such proposals as the Juvenile
J58 095 Suppression Bill of 1896 or the Young Persons Protection Bill,
J58 096 debated late in 1897. ^Both measures lapsed. ^Although the
J58 097 Liberals also failed to legislate the larrikin problem out of
J58 098 existence, persistence did win out in some contexts. ^Seddon's
J58 099 Juvenile Smoking Suppression Act of 1903 was to make it an
J58 100 offence for any youth under 15 to smoke in a public place
J58 101 (unless the offender could produce a medical certificate to
J58 102 prove that he was smoking for the benefit of his health!).
J58 103 ^Other issues were dealt with somewhat reluctantly. ^Only after
J58 104 sustained lobbying for women's groups were the politicians
J58 105 persuaded to raise the age of female consent to 16 in 1896.
J58 106 ^The 1869 Contagious Diseases Act, which applied to all females
J58 107 deemed prostitutes, was not to be repealed until 1910, the
J58 108 campaigns of 1893 and 1896 proving to be unsuccessful. ^Yet
J58 109 other necessary social reforms affecting children were left
J58 110 outstanding. ^Although Justice Department officials had
J58 111 protested vigorously against the public scandal of children
J58 112 being committed to colonial gaols (in 1890, 20 aged under ten
J58 113 and 54 aged ten to 15), the practice was only gradually
J58 114 discontinued. ^The 1894 Indictable Offences Summary
J58 115 Jurisdiction Act specially provided for a prison sentence of no
J58 116 longer than one month for any seven- to 12 year-olds who were
J58 117 found guilty of the crimes with which they had been charged.
J58 118 ^Moreover, although the Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act of
J58 119 1893 forbade the sale of liquor to any child apparently under
J58 120 13 for consumption on licensed premises, not until the
J58 121 Licensing Acts Amendment Act of 1904 was it illegal to send a
J58 122 child under the age of 13 to a licensed house for the purchase
J58 123 of liquor.
J58 124    |^Obviously it can be argued that the Liberals made a
J58 125 valiant effort to legislate for both majority and minority
J58 126 interest groups as far as children were concerned. ^The
J58 127 education reforms catered for the thousands, the social reforms
J58 128 for the hundreds whose need was none the less real for being
J58 129 shared by relatively few. ^Given the political and
J58 130 constitutional difficulties of the Liberals during their first
J58 131 term of office, it is scarcely surprising that children feature
J58 132 so little. ^The second term, from the end of 1893 to the end of
J58 133 1896, was substantially more fruitful. ^Reeves was curiously
J58 134 evasive when referring to this spate of legislation. ^In *1The
J58 135 Long White Cloud *0he commented:
J58 136 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J58 137 ^He did not deny the suggestion. ^Given that many colonial
J58 138 women were politically at their most active at this time, the
J58 139 election campaign of 1893 should have brought home to many
J58 140 Members of Parliament an awareness that women voters had their
J58 141 own set of political priorities. ^The unsuccessful campaign for
J58 142 the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act was one example; the
J58 143 introduction of the Juvenile Depravity Suppression Bill was
J58 144 most probably directly related to requests from the Society for
J58 145 the Protection of Women and Children. ^As {0P. A.} Gregory has
J58 146 noted, the proliferation of women's societies at this time
J58 147 was a critical reason for community and governmental attention
J58 148 being drawn toward the behaviour of young people.
J58 149    |^Without a detailed examination of personal papers it is
J58 150 difficult to tell whether many of the Liberal cabinet ministers
J58 151 had a particular concern for children. ^When Reeves, in his
J58 152 dual capacity as Minister of Labour and Minister of Education,
J58 153 promoted reforms in 1894, the Factories Act specified 14 years
J58 154 as the minimum age of employment while 13 years remained the
J58 155 age of exemption from school. ^It has been suggested that the
J58 156 age difference was not an oversight, that this was Reeves's
J58 157 method of trying to raise the school leaving-age without
J58 158 alarming political interests which might have objected to a
J58 159 universal increase of one year in the school attendance-age.
J58 160 ^Yet child-related issues were not a significant part of
J58 161 Reeves's own writings. ^Education did not merit a chapter in
J58 162 *1State Experiments *0and the relevant provisions of the
J58 163 Factory Acts were given limited attention. ^Although children
J58 164 received incidental mention in *1The Long White Cloud,
J58 165 *0Reeves's interest was such that his biographer had no need to
J58 166 include the words *'child**' or *'children**' in the book's
J58 167 index. ^Further research may well reveal Edward Tregear to be
J58 168 the persistent driving force behind the Liberals' legislative
J58 169 achievement concerning young industrial workers, for the annual
J58 170 reports of the Department of Labour certainly reflect a
J58 171 constant concern for child welfare. ^Seddon, too, applied his
J58 172 political persuasiveness on behalf of the colony's children.
J58 173 ^Measures as diverse as the Infant Life Protection Act, the
J58 174 attempted labour reforms of the late 1890s, and the 1903
J58 175 Juvenile Smoking Suppression Act all bore the hallmark of the
J58 176 Premier's advocacy. ^The dividing line between personal concern
J58 177 and political advantage may have been indistinct at times but
J58 178 when an over-zealous Devonport policeman handled suspected
J58 179 child pranksters in a manner more suited to hardened criminals,
J58 180 Seddon's sense of outrage and indignation seemed genuine.
J58 181    |^Legislative concern for children was not a vote-winning
J58 182 policy before 1893. ^Once women were enfranchised, the position
J58 183 changed. ^It would have been impossible for the Liberals to
J58 184 have remained oblivious to demands for social reform from
J58 185 women's groups. ^Neither Reeves nor Sir Robert Stout, for
J58 186 example, could help but be informed of some of the leading
J58 187 issues as far as women were concerned, given the active
J58 188 involvement of their own wives in the feminist movement. ^Yet
J58 189 the political involvement of women may also have made Liberal
J58 190 political calculations a little more complicated. ^A measure
J58 191 such as the Domestic Servants Half-Holiday Bill would have
J58 192 brought some improvement to the working conditions of an
J58 193 occupational group in which a thousand child employees were
J58 194 involved, many of them having been placed out to service by
J58 195 Church agencies. ^The proposal lapsed but not before the
J58 196 debates revealed a clear gulf in attitudes which would have
J58 197 been echoed in the community. ^The enthusiasm of domestic
J58 198 servants for the reform would not have been shared by their
J58 199 mistresses.
J58 200    |^The lack of legislative consistency continued.
J58 201 ^Throughout the decade, official statistics concerning arrivals
J58 202 and departures continued to classify persons aged 12 years and
J58 203 over as adults, while both the industrial and educational
J58 204 reforms suggested that childhood extended at least until the
J58 205 attainment of 14 years of age. ^While the age of consent for
J58 206 marriage remained 12 years for a girl, the age of female
J58 207 consent for sexual liaison, which had changed from 12 to 14 in
J58 208 1889, was confirmed as 14 in 1893, raised to 15 in 1894 and
J58 209 settled at 16 in 1896. ^Meanwhile 14 years remained the age at
J58 210 which a boy could marry or a male be charged with rape or
J58 211 attempted rape. ^Yet, if there were no uniformity, there was at
J58 212 least a slowly emerging consensus that, in the public sphere at
J58 213 least, 14 years was the minimum age at which adult
J58 214 responsibilities should be imposed upon children.
J58 215    |^However, as the post-1901 sequel to this investigation
J58 216 shows, the Liberals did not effect any major change in parental
J58 217 attitudes.
J58 218 *#
J59 001 **[353 TEXT J59**]
J59 002 ^*0An autochthon is a son or daughter of the soil, and
J59 003 autochthonous means indigenous as opposed to foreign *- in the
J59 004 New Zealand context, Maori as opposed to Pakeha.
J59 005    |^John Beaglehole may not have caught these echoes but Ruth
J59 006 Ross did. ^Autochthonous seems to have been a banter-word in John
J59 007 Beaglehole's circle. ^He once used it in a letter to Ruth Ross.
J59 008 ^She responded with *'The Autochthonous New Zealand Soil**', her
J59 009 contribution to *1The Feel of Truth, *0the Festschrift edited by
J59 010 Professor Peter Munz in honour of Professor {0F. L. W.} Wood and
J59 011 Professor {0J. C.} Beaglehole. ^Ruth Ross had been a student of
J59 012 Wood and Beaglehole during the war years. ^Then she worked with
J59 013 Beaglehole in the Centennial Branch and, during the rest of her
J59 014 life, developed, for a Pakeha historian, an unrivalled knowledge
J59 015 of Pakeha incursion, Maori responses, and Pakeha-Maori
J59 016 interaction during the early years of European settlement of the
J59 017 Bay of Islands. ^From her tireless search for evidence that could
J59 018 form the basis of historical understanding came her important
J59 019 studies of Te Tiriti o Waitangi.
J59 020    |^*'The Autochthonous New Zealand Soil**' is a hermetic
J59 021 piece. ^It is more like a short story than a piece of historical
J59 022 writing. ^She referred to it, disarmingly, as a
J59 023 *'reminiscence**'. ^What she manages to convey is a sense of
J59 024 cultural difference in the way that the Maori of her acquaintance
J59 025 on the banks of the Hokianga identified with their whakapapa,
J59 026 tribal traditions, and the forces of wairua and tapu that are
J59 027 part of the fabric of their lives. ^*'In the Maori world**', she
J59 028 says, *'the speaker speaks. ^Understanding is the business of the
J59 029 listener**'. ^And that understanding is bedevilled by the
J59 030 allusiveness of what is said. ^In the utterances of kuia and
J59 031 kaumatua, episodes in the lives of legendary figures are not
J59 032 easily distinguishable from accounts of last week's fishing trip,
J59 033 from some anecdote from the speaker's own life, or from some
J59 034 topic of current conversation, such as the whakapapa of some
J59 035 person whose forebears are being sorted out. ^Past and present
J59 036 are not separable in the way historians in the Western tradition
J59 037 assume. ^The mauri of the ancestors lives on. ^It is an
J59 038 obligation of the living to keep them alive and protect their
J59 039 mana. ^This can be baffling to a Pakeha historian, even to one
J59 040 who has enough Maori to be able to have a rough idea of what is
J59 041 being said. ^There is a cultural difference. ^Maori and Pakeha
J59 042 occupy different conceptual worlds, have different forms of
J59 043 explanation, different forms of discourse, and they proceed under
J59 044 different protocols and for different purposes. ^*'I am not
J59 045 unaware**', John Beaglehole said at the end of *1The New Zealand
J59 046 Scholar, *'*0that my trade as a historian is a school of
J59 047 scepticism**'. ^What Ruth Ross seems to be reminding Pakeha
J59 048 historians trained in that school of scepticism is that, to
J59 049 kaumatua and kuia, tribal history is celebration.
J59 050    |^Ruth Ross is important to my theme in three ways. ^First,
J59 051 her work as a historian was one of the seeds John Beaglehole saw
J59 052 sprouting. ^Let her represent the post-war generation of New
J59 053 Zealand scholars *- men and women thinking *- who have enlarged
J59 054 our understanding of what it means to be developing a form of
J59 055 civilization in these islands. ^Her thinking brought her to a
J59 056 different concept of what we should mean when we talk about our
J59 057 national identity from the one outlined in *1The New Zealand
J59 058 Scholar. ^*0Relating ourselves to the Western tradition was not
J59 059 for her the issue. ^For her it was how Pakeha scholars, schooled
J59 060 in the Western tradition, should perceive, try to understand,
J59 061 relate to, live with, and learn from the Maori with whom they
J59 062 associated and shared a century and a half of history, but whose
J59 063 heritage, traditions, and ways of experiencing the world were so
J59 064 different.
J59 065    |^She is important, secondly, because, like John Beaglehole,
J59 066 she took a broad view of the scholar's duties. ^One of the
J59 067 comments in *1The New Zealand Scholar *0that pleased but also
J59 068 surprised me was Beaglehole's commendation of the School
J59 069 Publications Branch of the Department of Education. ^When
J59 070 speaking of the seeds he saw sprouting, he said:
J59 071 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J59 072 ^He saw its publications, I suppose, as a continuation of the
J59 073 excellent *1Making New Zealand *0series that was one of the
J59 074 fruits of the Centennial Branch. ^Certainly he took it as one of
J59 075 the tests of New Zealand scholarship that men and women could
J59 076 write about aspects of our culture in ways that were true to what
J59 077 had to be said and suitably adapted to the understanding of the
J59 078 readers for whom they were intended. ^Ruth Ross wrote several
J59 079 bulletins, all based on her archival researches, all lively and
J59 080 interesting, all intended to deepen the understanding of boys and
J59 081 girls of aspects of their history as New Zealanders. ^Her
J59 082 thoughts on the Treaty of Waitangi appeared in a Primary School
J59 083 bulletin fourteen years before *'Te Tiriti o Waitangi**' was
J59 084 published in the *1New Zealand Journal of History.
J59 085    |^*0My third reason for placing *'The Autochthonous New
J59 086 Zealand Soil**' alongside *1The New Zealand Scholar *0is
J59 087 personal. ^It allows me to document changes in my own awareness
J59 088 over the years as I have thought about what it means to me to be
J59 089 a New Zealander. ^I said earlier that I found the message of
J59 090 *1The New Zealand Scholar *0comforting for all of two decades but
J59 091 that, rereading it now, I can see the marks of time on it. ^My
J59 092 responses to Ruth Ross's piece have been the reverse. ^When I
J59 093 read it in 1969 or 1970 I found it baffling and I thought it
J59 094 eccentric. ^I had the feeling that an essentially private
J59 095 communication *- one in which points were being scored *- had
J59 096 been offered for public inspection. ^Whether or not that was so,
J59 097 I can now see I was not ready for it. ^In her search for
J59 098 historical understanding and, more particularly, no doubt, as a
J59 099 result of her attempts to understand the ways of the Maori people
J59 100 she was living near on the Hokianga, Ruth Ross found herself
J59 101 confronted with cultural differences between Maori and Pakeha and
J59 102 found herself asking questions that had not occurred to me or to
J59 103 many other Pakeha. ^Now that I have had some experience of the
J59 104 Maori cultural renaissance of the last 15 years, I find that her
J59 105 essay speaks to me in ways I begin to understand. ^John
J59 106 Beaglehole's address gave me satisfying answers to questions that
J59 107 worried me in the fifties. ^Ruth Ross's essay poses new questions
J59 108 for which answers still have to be found. ^The uncertainty about
J59 109 what it means to be a New Zealander has returned. ^The cry from
J59 110 the heart quoted by John Beaglehole must be answered all over
J59 111 again.
J59 112    |^The formulation has changed. ^So, too, has the context of
J59 113 discussion. ^Questions about our identity as a people are no
J59 114 longer confined to what Beaglehole referred to as those higher
J59 115 reaches of criticism that wash the pages of *1Landfall. ^*0They
J59 116 have become matters of much wider community interest.
J59 117    |^Our discussions about identity can now be much more
J59 118 concrete and immediate than they used to be. ^In part this is
J59 119 because the concept of identity does not have as many blanks as
J59 120 it did a generation ago. ^The growing body of work of our writers
J59 121 and other creative artists, of our scholars and researchers, is
J59 122 helping us to recognize ourselves as people of these islands and
J59 123 not some other country. ^John Beaglehole's New Zealand scholars
J59 124 are becoming appreciated for what they can do to show us
J59 125 ourselves. ^However they might regard themselves, our writers and
J59 126 creative artists no longer have to cast themselves in the role of
J59 127 outsiders who live in New Zealand but are not really of it.
J59 128 ^There are publics for their work *- people who look forward to
J59 129 their latest productions as events that will add to their
J59 130 experience and enjoyment. ^A sense of communion is emerging. ^It
J59 131 is increasingly supported by institutional arrangements and
J59 132 networks of communication. ^The universities have courses on New
J59 133 Zealand literature, New Zealand history, Maori language, and
J59 134 Maori studies, and their art schools, music departments, and
J59 135 visiting fellowships are focal points for creative work. ^Indeed,
J59 136 the universities, generally, through teaching, research, and
J59 137 publication are making major contributions. ^The Queen Elizabeth
J59 138 *=II Arts Council, in association with galleries, museums,
J59 139 theatres, and a wide range of organizations, is playing a
J59 140 critical role in stimulating the work of creative New Zealanders,
J59 141 making it accessible, developing markets for it, and helping the
J59 142 public to appreciate it. ^Increasingly, our leading corporations,
J59 143 public as well as private, think it important to sponsor the
J59 144 creative efforts of New Zealanders. ^The National Library at last
J59 145 has a habitation and names worthy of its quite central place in
J59 146 our intellectual life. ^We now look forward to the time when the
J59 147 National Archive is properly housed for its equally important
J59 148 function. ^The mass media of radio, television, and film provide
J59 149 public platforms for creative and scholarly activity, and so,
J59 150 too, do newspapers and magazines.
J59 151    |^Our consciousness of ourselves as New Zealanders is
J59 152 changing and continues to change. ^We are caught up in a
J59 153 fascinating process of interaction. ^The more we reflect on our
J59 154 experience in these islands, the more do we appreciate its
J59 155 uniqueness: the more we know and the more deeply we feel about
J59 156 what it is that constitutes that uniqueness, the clearer and more
J59 157 coherent do our views about ourselves and our identity as New
J59 158 Zealanders become. ^That process of collective self-recognition
J59 159 has been increasingly at work among us as we have tried to come
J59 160 to terms with the major national and international developments
J59 161 of the last 20 years that have shaped our lives. ^We are learning
J59 162 to replace one view of ourselves and our place in the world with
J59 163 another. ^The British entry into the European Economic Community
J59 164 forced us to develop a completely new set of trading
J59 165 relationships with the rest of the world. ^We are gradually
J59 166 learning that, although we may think of New Zealand as Godzone,
J59 167 the rest of the world does not owe us a living.
J59 168    |^We are becoming more aware of ourselves as a Pacific
J59 169 country. ^Australia, Japan, and the United States have become our
J59 170 major trading partners. ^Significant numbers of Samoans, Tongans,
J59 171 Cook Islanders, Tokelauans, and Niueans have made their homes in
J59 172 New Zealand but keep up links with their families in the Islands.
J59 173 ^Through our membership of the Pacific Forum and other regional
J59 174 organizations in the South Pacific we are building new
J59 175 communities of interest which range from cultural and educational
J59 176 exchange, through forms of economic co-operation, to regional
J59 177 approaches to collective security. ^We are learning to cast our
J59 178 thoughts and consider our national interests in the context of
J59 179 the South Pacific. ^We are also being nudged in that direction by
J59 180 French persistence in exploding nuclear devices at Mururoa, by
J59 181 the inability of the United States and the {0USSR} to lessen the
J59 182 danger of a nuclear holocaust, and by international concern about
J59 183 the protection of the biosphere. ^In short, we are learning our
J59 184 place in the world. ^We are at once the remotest extension of
J59 185 Western and of Polynesian culture. ^That dual heritage is not to
J59 186 be found anywhere else.
J59 187    |^This change in perception has been strongly influenced by
J59 188 changes in the composition of the New Zealand population.
J59 189 ^Two-thirds of the New Zealanders now living were born after the
J59 190 end of the Second World War. ^The depression of the thirties and
J59 191 the Second World War are history to them, experiences their
J59 192 parents and grandparents talk about. ^Their views of themselves
J59 193 have been formed against the background of the Vietnam War,
J59 194 decolonization and the emergence of the Third World, the
J59 195 persistence of famine, poverty, and injustice side by side with
J59 196 the nuclear arms race, the environmental movement, and the
J59 197 changing ethnic composition of New Zealand society, particularly
J59 198 in the North Island. ^It is within these islands and in relation
J59 199 to both streams of our cultural heritage that we are now seeking
J59 200 a home in thought.
J59 201 *#
J60 001 **[354 TEXT J60**]
J60 002 ^*0And the relation between the theory (I mean the theory of
J60 003 poetry in particular) and the new poems that actually get written
J60 004 can be a lot more complex and obscure than it looks at first
J60 005 sight. ^A movement and the *1theory *0of a movement are two
J60 006 different and distinct kinds of literary activity. ^I could
J60 007 illustrate this in any number of ways, but it would take too much
J60 008 of our time. ^A general statement will have to do; I hope you
J60 009 will take it on trust. ^Simply, that the *1theory, *0any theory
J60 010 of poetry, is always a secondary manifestation: poetics follow
J60 011 poems, not the other way round.
J60 012    |^In the case of *'open form**' poetry, I think we have seen
J60 013 a peculiar tendency to put theory first and poetic practice
J60 014 second. ^In order to write *'open form**', the poet is assumed
J60 015 *1first *0to have read and mastered the principles of
J60 016 *'projective verse**', in particular as these are expounded by
J60 017 the late Charles Olson, by Robert Creeley, and other American
J60 018 poets associated with them. ^Besides this, the movement, and some
J60 019 aspects of the theory as well, have combined (and confused)
J60 020 *1poetic *0revolution with *1social *0revolution, more
J60 021 consciously and obviously than any such movement since the
J60 022 Romantics nearly two centuries ago. ^Of course I'm thinking of
J60 023 the counter-culture of the sixties and seventies; the years when
J60 024 poetry in more or less *'open**' form began to be epidemic *- and
J60 025 the San Francisco years, in the fifties, when Ferlinghetti,
J60 026 Robert Duncan, Gary Snyder, and Allen Ginsberg gave such a big
J60 027 impetus to the movement.
J60 028    |^In one sense the theory did come first; Charles Olson's
J60 029 essay called *'Projective Verse**' appeared as early as 1950.
J60 030 ^But it didn't produce the new movement. ^I think it would be a
J60 031 wild guess that Ginsberg, for instance *- whom I consider the one
J60 032 poet of unusual genius among them all *- owed his highly
J60 033 individual style to the theorizing of Olson and Creeley. ^Rather,
J60 034 it seems to me that the movement *- the Beat generation and their
J60 035 successors *- picked up the theory and swept it along, till today
J60 036 we find it on our own doorstep, alive and kicking or, shall we
J60 037 say, twitching? ^The theory was something the movement wanted,
J60 038 and there it was: a *1poetic, *0a mystique, a doctrine, an
J60 039 ideology of sorts.
J60 040    |^All the same, however it looks to us now, Charles Olson,
J60 041 in 1950, did announce what he conceived to be a new poetic, a new
J60 042 programme for poetry. ^In doing this, he invoked the authority,
J60 043 and the example, of major American poets of an earlier
J60 044 generation: Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, Hart Crane, {0E.
J60 045 E.} Cummings. ^Pound and Williams in particular interested him;
J60 046 but they were the forerunners, the beginners; what Olson proposed
J60 047 was a more advanced theory than theirs, and (at least by
J60 048 implication) a superior poetic practice.
J60 049    |^I have been rereading Pound's famous *'A Few Don'ts**' of
J60 050 the year 1913, and his poetic *1credo, *0written in 1911. ^With
J60 051 Olson's *'Projective Verse**' and a few other revered scriptures
J60 052 of the movement fresh in my mind, I find myself wondering, a
J60 053 little, how much has been added; indeed, whether something has
J60 054 not been subtracted in the transition *- it has *1been *0a
J60 055 transition, one can't deny that *- from the master's principles
J60 056 and practice to those so much in favour with a later generation.
J60 057 ^I think there has been a narrowing of the vision, accompanied by
J60 058 a good deal of mystification, a tendency to doctrinaire
J60 059 attitudinizing, and in some of the poetry a peculiar rigidity or
J60 060 inertness *- all of this totally at odds with Pound's thinking
J60 061 and his art, and equally at odds with the language of liberation
J60 062 and renewal affected by some of our born-again young poets.
J60 063    |^There is another tendency or disposition (I shall merely
J60 064 notice it in passing) which appears in the critical polemics of
J60 065 *'projectivism**'; something like a nervous nose for heresy.
J60 066 ^Olson himself, thirty years ago, declared {0T. S.} Eliot (he
J60 067 nicknames him {0O. M.} Eliot) to be *'*1not *0projective**' *-
J60 068 and he adds,
J60 069 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J60 070 ^That expression *'save himself**' betrays the tendency, doesn't
J60 071 it? ^Only the other day, in a similar vein, I see that \0Mr Alan
J60 072 Loney, writing in *1Islands, *0warns {0C. K.} Stead that he will
J60 073 not achieve *'truly open form**' if he doesn't mend his ways.
J60 074 ^Loney proceeds to advise Stead what he must do to become
J60 075 *'projective**'; the way of salvation has been pointed out to
J60 076 him. ^At least, that seems to be the drift; for my own part, I
J60 077 have to confess that the ghostly counsel offered would give me
J60 078 small comfort, because I find it unintelligible.
J60 079    |^Still, as I keep on reminding myself, *'projectivism**' is
J60 080 with us. ^So are Olson and his school. ^So are a host of younger
J60 081 poets, good and bad, one way or another affected by the movement,
J60 082 whether or not they happen to have studied its definitive
J60 083 writings. ^Having done a little study myself, I have to ask
J60 084 again, as I did a moment ago: *1what *0was added to Pound, or
J60 085 Williams for that matter, in the late fifties and the sixties, by
J60 086 Olson, Creeley and the movement we associate with Black Mountain
J60 087 College. ^Was anything of major worth or meaning added, for
J60 088 instance to the *'three principles**' which Pound and Richard
J60 089 Aldington and *'{0H.D.}**' agreed upon seventy years ago? ^Those
J60 090 three principles have been familiar ground for some of us for a
J60 091 very long time. ^They will bear repeating here:
J60 092 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J60 093 |1. ^Direct treatment of the *'thing**' whether subjective or
J60 094 objective.
J60 095 |2. ^To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the
J60 096 presentation.
J60 097 |3. ^As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the
J60 098 musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.
J60 099 **[END INDENTATION**]
J60 100    |^We are in the year 1912, about the time Pound first used
J60 101 the term *'imagiste**'. ^This was Imagism: first principle,
J60 102 *'direct treatment of *"the thing**"**'. ^Pound goes on to
J60 103 explain what he means by an *'Image**' *- it is *'that which
J60 104 presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of
J60 105 time**'. ^This, he argues, *'instantaneously ... gives that sense
J60 106 of sudden liberation ... of freedom from time limits and space
J60 107 limits ... which we experience in the presence of the greatest
J60 108 works of art**'. ^It's worth noticing that Pound does not pretend
J60 109 to offer a brand-new system for producing a brand-new kind of
J60 110 art. ^He is describing, in his own terms, a process by which
J60 111 *'the greatest works of art**' have already been achieved, and by
J60 112 implication, the way towards all new achievement in art. ^*1And
J60 113 *0he is deducing theory from art, not art from theory; the right
J60 114 way round, as it seems to me.
J60 115    |^Pound's rules may sound a bit obvious and truistic to some
J60 116 of us, now. ^It was the prevailing taste, in the poetry and
J60 117 criticism of the time, that made them *1new, *0and challenging.
J60 118 ^In 1912, Hopkins was almost unknown *- Bridges's edition of the
J60 119 poems appeared in 1918 *- otherwise his theory of inscape and
J60 120 instress might have been seen to anticipate Pound's insistence on
J60 121 *'the thing**' and his demand for the *'image**' presented in an
J60 122 *'instant of time**'. ^Grierson's famous anthology of the
J60 123 metaphysical poets had barely appeared. ^Yet, as things stood at
J60 124 the time, it was Pound who set things going *- *'out of key with
J60 125 his time*', as he put it in *'Hugh Selwyn Mauberly**', he tried
J60 126 *'to resuscitate the dead art / of poetry**'.
J60 127    |^Forty years later, in 1950, Charles Olson announced the
J60 128 arrival of projective verse, and took up what the lawyers call an
J60 129 *'adversary situation**' towards what he calls the
J60 130 Non-Projective. ^Beneath the title he printed three
J60 131 ingeniously-chosen etymological siblings of the word
J60 132 *'projective**': spaced out across the page, each with an
J60 133 unclosed parenthesis mark, we read the words *'projectile**',
J60 134 *'percussive**', *'prospective**'. ^*1Projectile *- *0it goes off
J60 135 like a shell or a rocket *- ^Okay, citizen? ^*1Percussive *- *0it
J60 136 beats and it strikes. ^*1Prospective *- *0it looks ahead, it's
J60 137 the poetry of the future.
J60 138    |^Opposed to all this *- so to speak, in the enemy camp *-
J60 139 was the Non-Projective. ^This was of course where {0T. S.} Eliot
J60 140 remained, and the cause of what Olson judged to be his failure as
J60 141 a dramatist. ^About the Non-Projective we are told three things:
J60 142 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J60 143 |^First, it is *'what a French critic calls *"closed**" verse**'.
J60 144 |^Second, it is *'that verse which print bred**' (which means, I
J60 145 take it, something that happened after the invention of movable
J60 146 printing type in the fifteenth century, or the emergence of a
J60 147 printed book audience for poetry in the sixteenth century).
J60 148 |^Third, it is *'pretty much what we have had, in English and
J60 149 American, and have still got, despite the work of Pound and
J60 150 Williams**'.
J60 151 **[END INDENTATION**]
J60 152    |^From the start, it's clear that we are in for something
J60 153 more radical than Pound ever dreamt of; we are in another world,
J60 154 if not another planet, from Pound. ^Pound, whatever we choose to
J60 155 make of his political aberrations, took poetry with an immense
J60 156 and, for his time, extraordinary *1seriousness. ^*0He was, I
J60 157 believe, humble before it and its history. ^I'm not sure that he
J60 158 didn't say the last word *- in English anyway, and if there can
J60 159 *1be *0a last word *- on the subject of *1{vers libre}, *0and a
J60 160 few other problems of diction and versification which have
J60 161 confronted poets in our century. ^He affirmed his belief that
J60 162 poets should try to know, and learn from, *1all *0poetry, of all
J60 163 possible ages and languages, and to master *1all *0systems of
J60 164 metre. ^A poet could not have too many masters or too many
J60 165 languages. ^Whatever Pound was, he was not, and here's the
J60 166 contrast I wish to point out, a poetic Messiah, whose mission and
J60 167 message was to correct the errors of centuries past. ^The errors
J60 168 which concerned him were *'modern**' errors. ^His *'modernism**'
J60 169 was grounded on a profound sense of tradition, not merely
J60 170 classical and Renaissance, but more recent and Romantic. ^Not
J60 171 many of us may be able to follow Pound's advice, for instance,
J60 172 *'to dissect the lyrics of Goethe coldly into their component
J60 173 sound values**', but it is within anybody's means to *'read as
J60 174 much of Wordsworth as does not seem too unutterably dull**'. ^In
J60 175 all this, Pound seems to me to be in a true line of descent from
J60 176 the great innovators and reformers of poetry; in contrast to the
J60 177 kind of extravagant syncretist and philosophical dilettante whom
J60 178 I find addressing me in Olson's *'Projective Verse**' essay.
J60 179    |^More specifically, one or two examples of the kind of
J60 180 thing I mean. ^I read about *2COMPOSITION BY FIELD *- *0Olson's
J60 181 *2FIELD *0is much talked about: often by people who, I suspect,
J60 182 understand it no better than I do. ^It is something *'opposed to
J60 183 inherited line, stanza, over-all form, what is the *"old**" base
J60 184 of the non-projective**'. ^Yes, we can see what it is *1opposed
J60 185 to; *0and it looks very much like the old (and exhausted) debate
J60 186 between *1{vers libre} *0and regular verse, between *'imagism**'
J60 187 and what Pound called *'perdamnable rhetoric**' in English
J60 188 poetry. ^There is, besides, a whole paragraph of Olson which *-
J60 189 effectively and poetically *- contains nothing more than Eliot's
J60 190 last paragraphs in *'Tradition and the Individual Talent**': for
J60 191 Eliot's word *'emotion**' you only have to read Olson's word
J60 192 *'energy**'; and you can, if you like, prefer a pseudo-scientific
J60 193 and quantitative metaphor to an old-style psychological one: but
J60 194 whether you do or not, the Olson version contains nothing new
J60 195 whatsoever.
J60 196    |^Where I suppose Olson can be said to have gone further
J60 197 than Pound *- or rather, turned the argument about poetics in a
J60 198 new direction altogether *- was in his attempt to provide poets
J60 199 with a *1method, *0a kit of practical rules for the composition
J60 200 of *'projective verse**'. ^Where Pound and Aldington offered a
J60 201 few general guidelines for poets, Olson offered, or seemed to
J60 202 offer, a set of *1compositional *0rules, both complete and
J60 203 specific; as he presented them, these appeared to be grounded on
J60 204 scientific or quasi-scientific notions. ^I say quasi-scientific,
J60 205 because the connexions between the arguments and the poetic
J60 206 subject depend so much on one's willingness to accept that they
J60 207 exist.
J60 208 *#
J61 001 **[355 TEXT J61**]
J61 002 |^*0*'The land and the people**' is an evocative phrase that has
J61 003 strong connections with many periods of New Zealand's cultural
J61 004 history. ^We can no longer afford to use such a phrase
J61 005 innocently; we need to be aware of the various conceptual battles
J61 006 that have preceded its present comfortable sense of timelessness
J61 007 and shared reality.
J61 008    |^One way to focus on differences is to consider what is
J61 009 implied by the connective *'and**'. ^For the original community
J61 010 *- tangata whenua *- the convergence between people and land, or
J61 011 individual and community, involved a rich mesh of rights and
J61 012 responsibilities. ^These relationships had no counterpart in the
J61 013 language of the Pakeha settlers. ^*'New Zealand**' was born out
J61 014 of this cultural collision, with the settlers imposing their own
J61 015 set of legal and economic connections between the land and the
J61 016 people. ^Among the authoritative voices of the Maori Land Court,
J61 017 the old meanings could survive only as a subtext.
J61 018    |^In 1939 Charles Brasch gave the title *1The Land and the
J61 019 People *0to his first book of poems. ^The book serves to
J61 020 symbolise an initially small but important new phase in Pakeha
J61 021 culture. ^Brasch and the writers and artists he was to publish in
J61 022 his magazine *1Landfall *0thought of themselves as an
J61 023 oppositional group *- what we would today call a counter-culture
J61 024 *- in relation to the smugness and materialism of the dominant
J61 025 Pakeha way of life. ^A new conception of the land was an
J61 026 important part of their politics. ^Their appetite for wild and
J61 027 unpeopled landscapes implied a rejection of the trivial modes of
J61 028 life previously put in place by the settlers. ^The artist had to
J61 029 strip away this pseudo-culture, to look deep into *'the land's
J61 030 heart**' in an attempt to *'learn shreds of her purpose**' (in
J61 031 James \0K. Baxter's phrases). ^A new beginning could be made from
J61 032 what was real, natural, and unique to this environment. ^The
J61 033 writers and artists who shared this austere programme had little
J61 034 sympathy for the conventional bonds between land and people *-
J61 035 they wanted to be people *1of *0the land and not *'offshoots,
J61 036 outcasts, entrepreneurs, architects of Empire**', or those who
J61 037 *'divided the land for aimless, customary greed**' (as {0A.R.D.}
J61 038 Fairburn wrote in *'Dominion**'). ^Today, however, it is clear
J61 039 even to Pakeha readers that this counter-culture still shared
J61 040 many of the mental habits of the dominant culture. ^With a few
J61 041 exceptions, its writers and artists were unable to make
J61 042 significant use of Maori culture as a source of alternatives.
J61 043 ^Much of their work was energised by their sense of encountering
J61 044 an alien country for the first time *- a landscape that was
J61 045 *'empty**', *'raw**', *'nameless**' and *'without history**'.
J61 046 ^This approach ran counter to a Maori sense of shared habitation
J61 047 and quiet familiarity with the land. ^The influence of the
J61 048 Romantic tradition was visible also in the Pakeha emphasis on the
J61 049 individual artist, the unique sensibility, the man alone, who
J61 050 could only begin to see clearly when he had separated himself
J61 051 from family and community.
J61 052    |^By 1960 this *'Landfall**' tradition showed signs of
J61 053 running out of steam. ^In assembling *1The Penguin Book of New
J61 054 Zealand Verse *0Allen Curnow could find few young poets to
J61 055 include. ^He commented: *'there is something frighteningly
J61 056 monolithic about the country's *- *"culture**" seems, ominously,
J61 057 the only word**'. ^The verse of the last decade had been *'muted
J61 058 in tone, deficient in energy, a dulled mirror**'. ^A literary
J61 059 movement that derived much of its energy from an opposition
J61 060 between nature and culture was a kind of *'Tradition of the
J61 061 New**' that inevitably had trouble maintaining its sense of
J61 062 discovery. ^There was an *'End to the Frontier**', an unavoidable
J61 063 *'Fall into Culture**'. ^Ironically it was at this time *- when
J61 064 the tradition seemed to be entering a mid-life crisis *- that its
J61 065 audience greatly expanded. ^A number of schools, universities,
J61 066 galleries and magazines started to take this work seriously.
J61 067 ^They came to see it as synonymous with serious New Zealand
J61 068 literature and art. ^Inevitably the growth in audience encouraged
J61 069 a certain amount of dilution, though there were a few
J61 070 extraordinary artists such as Allen Curnow, Colin McCahon and
J61 071 Douglas Lilburn who continued to resist the compromises. ^Today,
J61 072 a book with a title such as *'The Land and the People**' is
J61 073 likely to be a coffee table collection of glossy landscape
J61 074 photographs (a few of which will allude to McCahon, say, or Rita
J61 075 Angus), and familiar quotations from writers such as Fairburn,
J61 076 Baxter, or Denis Glover. ^This is not to suggest that the
J61 077 *'Landfall**' tradition has ever become a huge market. ^Less
J61 078 subtle forms of nationalism are normally required to create a
J61 079 runaway bestseller or to attract the attention of Television New
J61 080 Zealand. ^But in terms of the *'serious**' or *'high culture**'
J61 081 audiences *- in terms of institutions such as art galleries and
J61 082 funding bodies *- it is hard to imagine any other artistic
J61 083 movement in this country being so successful in setting agendas.
J61 084    |^Since the late 1960s, this tradition has been fiercely
J61 085 challenged from at least three directions. ^The uneasy feeling
J61 086 that many younger artists had in the late 1950s or early 1960s of
J61 087 working in the shadow of the two previous generations has since
J61 088 been dispelled. ^Probably the most important development has been
J61 089 the Maori renaissance, exemplified by such books as *1Into the
J61 090 World of Light *0or such exhibitions as *'Te Ao Marama (Seven
J61 091 Maori Artists)**'. ^Alongside such work, *'New Zealand literature
J61 092 and art**' shrinks clearly to a Pakeha tradition. ^Institutions
J61 093 concerned with national culture *- public art galleries, for
J61 094 example *- must now give equal acknowledgement to Maori material.
J61 095 ^The result has been an unsettling of existing notions of the
J61 096 *'New Zealand tradition**', without (as yet) any consensus about
J61 097 alternatives. ^Consider the example of Harvey McQueen and Ian
J61 098 Wedde's *1Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. ^*0Published in
J61 099 1985, it was the first anthology to juxtapose the Maori and
J61 100 Pakeha poetic traditions. ^Most reviewers acknowledged the
J61 101 seriousness of the experiment, but they still gave the editors a
J61 102 hard time. ^Some Maori readers were uneasy about the translations
J61 103 and the way they sometimes blurred the tribal contexts; and some
J61 104 Pakeha readers were disconcerted by the cultural shifts that the
J61 105 editors were making between two conceptions of poetry and two
J61 106 styles of value judgement. ^The desire for a bicultural tradition
J61 107 is strong but the conceptual problems have yet to be resolved.
J61 108 ^Similarly, the use of Maori material by Pakeha artists remains
J61 109 problematic. ^A painting seen twenty years ago as a step towards
J61 110 biculturalism may now create an uneasy sense of appropriation.
J61 111    |^The second critique of the *'New Zealand tradition**' has
J61 112 come from feminists who argue that its conception of *'the
J61 113 people**' has favoured not only Pakeha, but also male interests.
J61 114 ^The essays of a writer such as {0A.R.D.} Fairburn *- *'The Woman
J61 115 Problem**', for example *- now seem blatantly sexist. ^Robert
J61 116 Chapman's *'Fiction and the Social Pattern**' traces the conflict
J61 117 between dominant wives and demoralised husbands as one of the
J61 118 central concerns of New Zealand fiction. ^Art criticism has at
J61 119 times downgraded domestic or *'interior**' space while valorising
J61 120 the great (masculine) outdoors. ^This has counterparts in poetry.
J61 121 ^An example is Baxter's famous *'Poem in the Matukituki Valley**'
J61 122 which celebrates the man alone who bivouacs *'where the mountains
J61 123 throw their dice / Of boulders huge as houses**' instead of
J61 124 *'hiding**' in the *'gentle dark**' of the city with *'child and
J61 125 wife**'. ^The fact that feminism has a strongly international
J61 126 perspective has made it quick to see through some of the pieties
J61 127 of the local literary tradition. ^While a number of women have
J61 128 participated in that tradition, in some cases prominently,
J61 129 feminist historians have noted many reviews in which male
J61 130 rhetoric and male preoccupations have been unselfconsciously
J61 131 presented as objective literary taste. ^Meanwhile, new forms of
J61 132 feminist art have emerged, as documented by magazines such as
J61 133 *1Broadsheet *0(whose June 1983 issue provides a useful starting
J61 134 point) and *1Antic *0(1986).
J61 135    |^The third challenge to the tradition has come from
J61 136 theoretical work that analyses cultures and sub-cultures in terms
J61 137 of competing language systems and competing readings. ^The
J61 138 writers of the magazine *1And *0(1983-85) attempted to
J61 139 reinterpret the *'New Zealand tradition**' by highlighting the
J61 140 problems involved in its persistent claims to nature and reality.
J61 141 ^*'New Zealand verse**' has been *- in the words of Allen Curnow
J61 142 *- *'the record of an adventure, or series of adventures, in
J61 143 search of reality**'. ^The strength of poets such as Fairburn,
J61 144 Brasch and Glover derives from their *'instinct for a reality
J61 145 prior to the poem which protects [them] from losing their subject
J61 146 in rhetoric**'. ^*1And *0set out to show that New Zealand realism
J61 147 was a genre with definable conventions and rhetorical manoeuvres.
J61 148 ^Francis Pound's book *1Frames on the Land *0looked similarly at
J61 149 the codes by which *'the land**' was transformed by New Zealand
J61 150 painters into *'landscape**'. ^The intention of these critics was
J61 151 not to discredit New Zealand art and literature but to conceive
J61 152 of it differently so that it lost its exclusive franchise to
J61 153 reality or taste. ^The critique of the dominant tradition by
J61 154 magazines such as *1Parallax, And *0and *1Splash *0was
J61 155 accompanied by creative work, by the emergence of new non-realist
J61 156 forms of literature and art.
J61 157    |^This essay has concentrated on changes in the so-called
J61 158 *'high culture**' but these should not be wholly separated from
J61 159 broader social changes. ^One shift that is obviously relevant to
J61 160 any discussion of *'the land and the people**' is growing
J61 161 urbanisation. ^The *'language**' approach described above is
J61 162 particularly attuned to the city as a complex landscape of
J61 163 language, a rapidly changing social construction where political
J61 164 contrasts and conflicts are constantly being thrust at us in
J61 165 visible forms. ^It is striking, however, that so much other local
J61 166 art remains focused on the landscape, particularly the wild
J61 167 landscape. ^The growth of the film industry since 1970, for
J61 168 example, has given new life to the local literary tradition by
J61 169 translating old stories and novels to the screen. ^Few films have
J61 170 been set in the city. ^Though based on an original script,
J61 171 *1Vigil *0is a powerful example of the old themes, particularly
J61 172 the struggle with a wild landscape. ^Alternatively, in some
J61 173 recent books and films it appears that the old paradigm is being
J61 174 transferred to a city context. ^First encounter with the
J61 175 landscape has become first encounter with the city. ^The suburbs
J61 176 are contrasted with the inner city as the small towns were
J61 177 contrasted with the wilderness. ^The villains of the countryside
J61 178 *- the slash-and-burn farmers *- have their counterparts in the
J61 179 slash-and-burn property developers of the city. ^This transfer of
J61 180 the paradigm helps to open up new territory, though it also
J61 181 imports some of the old Romantic elements. ^We can see a mixture
J61 182 of this kind in one of the first New Zealand urban feature films,
J61 183 *1Other Halves.
J61 184    |^*0The last ten years have been a period of unusual change
J61 185 in many areas of our society. ^The debates about biculturalism,
J61 186 feminist issues, the Springbok tour, the Homosexual Law Reform
J61 187 Bill, the economic relationship between farmers and city people,
J61 188 the growing gap between rich and poor *- these have challenged us
J61 189 to recognise (and to act on) the fact that New Zealand/ Aotearoa
J61 190 is a country with many tribes and sub-cultures. ^These and other
J61 191 differences have always existed, of course, but the dominant
J61 192 culture has often succeeded in crowding out different viewpoints.
J61 193 ^Today, a phrase like *'the land and the people**' would be
J61 194 highly suspect if it issued from the lips of a politician or
J61 195 advertiser promoting some sentimental notion of national unity.
J61 196 ^My essay has itself run the risk of over-generalising,
J61 197 particularly by concentrating on the main *'New Zealand**'
J61 198 tradition and neglecting some alternative forms of art. ^I hope,
J61 199 however, that I have covered enough history to help to explain
J61 200 the present variety of messages and readings in our vicinity.
J61 201 ^There is a growing recognition today that the familiar maps no
J61 202 longer apply, and many have rushed to provide new maps, a
J61 203 *'re-ordering of old elements**', focusing particularly on the
J61 204 need to chart New Zealand in thoroughly bicultural terms.
J61 205 ^Adequate terms are not necessarily available yet, but there have
J61 206 been some valuable attempts.
J61 207 *#
J62 001 **[356 TEXT J62**]
J62 002    |^*0The poem I read a moment ago, *'Poets to Come**', was
J62 003 in my bonfire edition of Whitman. ^And it occurs to me now that
J62 004 it must be an extraordinary experience for young American poets
J62 005 to meet that poem for the first time, to find themselves being
J62 006 encouraged and challenged, *1imagined, *0by this poet who
J62 007 addresses them directly, who declares that it is from them that
J62 008 *'the main things**' will come.
J62 009    |^I suppose my argument, insofar as I have one, is that New
J62 010 Zealand poetry, in order to begin producing its own *'main
J62 011 things**', needed to escape from the sense of tradition which
J62 012 is declared in Mason's poem. ^It needed to abandon its place at
J62 013 the rear, it needed to step out of line. ^It had to stop paying
J62 014 homage to the whole metaphor. ^I think that all of this *1has
J62 015 *0happened, and that one of the reasons is that New Zealand
J62 016 writers began to read the work of those American poets whom
J62 017 Whitman addresses in his poem. ^Those American poets had
J62 018 already abandoned the line that Mason declares in *'Song of
J62 019 Allegiance**'. ^Theirs was, and is, a world of pluralism and
J62 020 possibility.
J62 021    |^I don't think there are signs of Whitman in the poetry I
J62 022 myself write. ^But he's a wonderfully encouraging poet to read
J62 023 *- if you're another poet, or would-be poet. ^He insists, for
J62 024 example, that a poem can be extremely personal, yet thereby be
J62 025 a public rather than a private statement. *'Song of Myself**'
J62 026 begins:
J62 027 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 028 |**[POEM**]
J62 029 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 030 |^Later in the poem he calls himself *'Walt Whitman, a
J62 031 kosmos**'.
J62 032    |^Whitman also insists on the importance of inclusiveness
J62 033 and variety:
J62 034 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 035 |**[POEM**]
J62 036 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 037 |^An emphasis on the importance of contradiction and diversity
J62 038 has been very strong in American poetry. ^There's a little poem
J62 039 by Louis Simpson, for example, called *'American Poetry**',
J62 040 which begins prescriptively:
J62 041 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 042 |**[POEM**]
J62 043 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 044 |^Or there's the idea of *'impure**' poetry expressed by the
J62 045 Chilean writer Pablo Neruda, who in my mind keeps company with
J62 046 a large number of North American poets:
J62 047 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 048 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J62 049 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 050    |^Those who shun the *'bad taste**' of things will fall on
J62 051 their face in the snow. ^So poetry can be a bad taste
J62 052 operation. ^It can be impure and various, breaching decorum at
J62 053 every point. ^I think that this is something I first found out
J62 054 about from Whitman.
J62 055    |^I want to mention one other aspect of Whitman's poetry
J62 056 which I find important *- and this is the way in which he
J62 057 offers what he writes as a conversation with the reader.
J62 058 ^*'Song of Myself**', which is a long poem in 52 sections,
J62 059 begins with the word *'I**' (*'^I celebrate myself and sing
J62 060 myself**') and ends with the word *'you**' (*'^I stop somewhere
J62 061 waiting for you**'). ^The whole poem represents a transfer of
J62 062 energy from writer to reader; and as reader you're constantly
J62 063 being reminded of your responsibility to be active, to
J62 064 contribute to the whole process by which the poem's meaning is
J62 065 constructed.
J62 066    |^This idea of the poem as conversation, as intimate
J62 067 address from writer to reader, has been very important in
J62 068 American poetry. ^I think you can see signs of it in the work
J62 069 of several New Zealand writers since the 1960s. ^James \0K.
J62 070 Baxter's *1Jerusalem Sonnets *0are a clear example. ^Much more
J62 071 obliquely, in my own writing, I'm struck by the frequency with
J62 072 which I use the word *1you. *0It's an odd, shifty pronoun: it
J62 073 can refer directly to the reader; it can signify a specific
J62 074 figure within the poem, even the writer of the poem; or it can
J62 075 do the generalizing job that the English *1one *0does. ^I'm
J62 076 never quite sure just how the word *1you *0operates in my poems
J62 077 *- sometimes it seems to shift between the various
J62 078 possibilities, rather than opting for any single one of them *-
J62 079 but it's certainly there.
J62 080    |^So in Whitman, whom I read at the age of sixteen, I can
J62 081 recognize many of the assumptions I was going to find in later
J62 082 American poetry. ^Poetry could quite properly be an instrument
J62 083 for subjective exploration, yet this subjectivity was not
J62 084 necessarily the same thing as narcissism or solipsism; it might
J62 085 even be a means to a truly public voice. ^And poetry could be
J62 086 messy, contradictory, various, inclusive. ^It could also be
J62 087 conversational in its voice, not measured and managed like a
J62 088 newspaper editorial. ^I don't think that any of these senses of
J62 089 possibility were present in the poetry being written in England
J62 090 during the 1940s and 1950s; and since New Zealand poets were
J62 091 still waiting politely in place at the end of Mason's English
J62 092 line, the possibilities weren't especially evident in New
J62 093 Zealand poetry either.
J62 094    |^I find myself asserting New Zealand ignorance of the
J62 095 example of American poetry. ^But I think I can give an
J62 096 interesting instance of that ignorance.
J62 097    |^The most influential figure in New Zealand writing after
J62 098 World War *=II was Charles Brasch, through his editing of
J62 099 *1Landfall. *0Now I don't want to suggest that Brasch was a man
J62 100 of narrow sympathies. ^He was generous and encouraging to a
J62 101 whole range of younger New Zealand writers (even publishing my
J62 102 own first book of poetry). ^He translated poetry from Russian,
J62 103 German, Italian and Punjabi. ^But I think he had a blind spot
J62 104 when it came to the work that had been and was being produced
J62 105 in the United States of America. ^Brasch, of course, had a
J62 106 considerable private income and was a considerable benefactor.
J62 107 ^When I was a student at the University of Otago no one seemed
J62 108 to have any doubt that he almost alone constituted the
J62 109 *'anonymous group of local businessmen**' who had endowed the
J62 110 Burns Fellowship. ^One of Brasch's benefactions at this time
J62 111 was a grant to the university library, which was designed to
J62 112 enable it to buy every book of verse published in Britain and
J62 113 the Commonwealth over a ten-year period. ^What struck me about
J62 114 this was the absence of American verse.
J62 115    |^Others must also have been struck by the very *1European
J62 116 *0nature of Brasch's sensibility. ^In the December 1966 issue
J62 117 of *1Landfall, *0the second-last which Brasch edited, there
J62 118 appeared two poems by a certain {0C. G.} Gibson. ^They had
J62 119 pride of place at the front of the magazine. ^The first was
J62 120 called *'Low Paddocks and Light**'. ^Here are the first three
J62 121 of its seven stanzas:
J62 122 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 123 |**[POEM**]
J62 124 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 125 |^The only problem is that anyone at the time who had read much
J62 126 contemporary American poetry would probably have come across a
J62 127 poem by {0W. S.} Merwin called *'Low Fields and Light**'. ^The
J62 128 difference between *1field *0and *1paddock *0in the two titles
J62 129 fairly sums up the difference between the two texts. ^Here are
J62 130 Merwin's opening stanzas:
J62 131 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J62 132 **[POEM**]
J62 133 **[END INDENTATION**]
J62 134 |^Needless to say, Merwin's poem predates the work of {0C. G.}
J62 135 Gibson.
J62 136    |^My assumption at the time was that someone had set out to
J62 137 make a point. ^Perhaps {0C. G.} Gibson was really one of the
J62 138 poets anthologized in Charles Doyle's 1965 anthology *1Recent
J62 139 Poetry in New Zealand. ^*0Perhaps {0C. G.} Gibson was *'{0C.
J62 140 G.} Gibson**'. ^More recently, however, I've realized that the
J62 141 dustjackets of an expatriate novelist, Colin Gibson, offer a
J62 142 biography (born in Invercargill, advertising copywriter in
J62 143 London and New York, \0etc) which accords with the *1Landfall
J62 144 *0note on the poet, {0C. G.} Gibson. ^Presumably novelist and
J62 145 poet are closely connected.
J62 146    |^Whatever the origins of {0C. G.} Gibson, *1Landfall
J62 147 *0itself never acknowledged that it had printed a pair of
J62 148 American poems in error. ^I believe Charles Brasch thought
J62 149 there was nothing to apologise for. ^He had accepted the poems
J62 150 in good faith: that they turned out to be, more or less, by
J62 151 well known contemporary American poets merely confirmed the
J62 152 acuteness of his taste.
J62 153    |^The Brasch view *- which was Eurocentric, and which
J62 154 essentially affirmed, I think, Mason's roll-call *- was what I
J62 155 met at the University of Otago. ^The very first written
J62 156 exercise I faced as a first-year student of English was clause
J62 157 analysis of several stanzas from Spenser's *1Faerie Queene.
J62 158 ^*0In a note on the magazine *1Freed, *0Murray Edmond has
J62 159 pointed out the importance of Auckland University's American
J62 160 Poetry Course to writers associated with the magazine. ^Alan
J62 161 Brunton, Ian Wedde, Jan Kemp, Russell Haley and Edmond himself
J62 162 took the course. ^I don't recall that sense of focus and
J62 163 revelation at university at all. ^In fact I think it was
J62 164 somehow important to me that American poetry, or the part of it
J62 165 that I was reading, *1wasn't *0taught in the Department of
J62 166 English, and wouldn't in any case submit meekly to the
J62 167 analytical techniques I was being trained in as a student.
J62 168    |^I had grown up reading comics, many of them American.
J62 169 ^Once I sent to America for a Phantom skull ring. ^This glowed
J62 170 in the dark. ^If you were ever placed in a situation where it
J62 171 was necessary to despatch some evil-doer with a clean,
J62 172 well-timed blow to the jaw, you were well equipped. ^Your
J62 173 opponent woke up with a head full of clouds and asterisks; on
J62 174 his chin was the imprint of a skull *- sign of the Ghost Who
J62 175 Walks. ^I read American comics, watched American movies,
J62 176 listened to American music. ^American poetry therefore
J62 177 connected quite comfortably with the rest of my imaginative
J62 178 life *- though not with my formal education in English
J62 179 Literature. ^To read it was *1normal *- *0but also a mild
J62 180 defiance, a private excitement. ^American poetry was hard to
J62 181 come by, too. ^You might have to send away for it, just like a
J62 182 Phantom ring.
J62 183    |^My life then, as now, was made up of all kinds of
J62 184 incongruities and disjunctions *- not grand or dramatic but the
J62 185 stuff of everyday experience. ^There was a continuing gap, for
J62 186 example, between the university, where I studied the *1Faerie
J62 187 Queene, *0and my home life. ^*'Home**', in my case, meant a
J62 188 centre-city hotel, which was run by my parents. ^The gap
J62 189 between pub and university was obvious enough. ^But it had none
J62 190 of the romance that James \0K. Baxter attributes to it. ^For me
J62 191 it was normal; I made the journey every day as a matter of
J62 192 course. ^Because the hotel sometimes displayed in the bar
J62 193 posters for travelling music shows, there were plenty of free
J62 194 concert tickets. ^So I went to show after show in the Dunedin
J62 195 Town Hall. ^That seems pretty incongruous in retrospect, too.
J62 196 ^On the one hand, I would go happily to Del Shannon or the
J62 197 Everly Brothers. ^On the other hand, I would go just as happily
J62 198 to Jimmy Shand and his band or the Howard Morrison Quartet. ^Or
J62 199 there might be a Mozart opera at His Majesty's Theatre.
J62 200    |^In fact that musical world was *1mixed *0in ways that the
J62 201 literature we were taught and could buy in bookshops wasn't.
J62 202 ^The reason American books were unobtainable in local bookshops
J62 203 was tied up with the convenient way in which British and
J62 204 American publishers had carved up the English-speaking world.
J62 205 ^The London publishers owned the Commonwealth, and in many
J62 206 respects still do. ^This meant that British poetry was well
J62 207 distributed here, while American wasn't. ^Even more
J62 208 insidiously, it tended to mean that American poets first had to
J62 209 face the test of English taste. ^Those of them who became known
J62 210 in New Zealand had to be anthologized in London, or be taken on
J62 211 by a firm like Faber & Faber.
J62 212    |^The anthology of American poetry which is sometimes said
J62 213 to have transformed poetry in English is Donald \0M. Allen's
J62 214 *1The New American Poetry, *0published by Grove Press in 1960.
J62 215 ^In New Zealand and Australia poets seem to compete as to who
J62 216 was first to read it. ^I'm sure I wasn't one of the first,
J62 217 although I remember encountering there the Beat poets, the
J62 218 Black Mountain poets, the New York poets, and a whole range of
J62 219 statements and manifestos. ^I remember poring over Charles
J62 220 Olson's essay on Projective Verse *- it was *1busy *0and
J62 221 somehow badly behaved, like much else in the book.
J62 222    |^The anthology which meant more to me, however, and which
J62 223 made a context for Allen's anthology, was a 1962 Penguin,
J62 224 *1Contemporary American Poetry, *0edited by Donald Hall.
J62 225 ^Inside my copy I've written (unusually) the date of purchase:
J62 226 1963, my last year at high school.
J62 227 *#
J63 001 **[357 TEXT J63**]
J63 002    |^*0The *'Walking Westward**' review signalled not only
J63 003 Loney's resistance to inclusion in Stead's *'open form**' line
J63 004 but also his new determination to define clearly a counter
J63 005 position, to establish an opposing line. ^Hence, when Loney
J63 006 founded *1Parallax: a Journal of Post-modern Literature and Art
J63 007 *0in 1982 he chose to include articles as well as poetry and
J63 008 fiction. ^Thus *1Parallax *0set itself the task of providing a
J63 009 theoretical infrastructure for postmodernism in this country, as
J63 010 its predecessor, *1Morepork *0(a Dunedin-based magazine of
J63 011 postmodern poetry edited by Graham Lindsay, who was acknowledged
J63 012 in the dedication to *1Parallax*0/l), had failed to do. ^Loney
J63 013 clearly wanted his journal to be more than a place where those
J63 014 few interested in postmodern poetry could publish and be read by
J63 015 one another. ^He aimed at a strategic intervention in the
J63 016 literary scene as a whole, addressing the politics as well as the
J63 017 poetics of poetry production and reception. ^*1Parallax *0ran a
J63 018 number of polemical articles the thrust of which was towards a
J63 019 redrawing of the then-dominant maps of New Zealand poetry by
J63 020 broadening the art-historical information available to readers
J63 021 and producers of poetry. ^No polemical effort, for instance, was
J63 022 wasted battling against that monster of a bygone age, Georgian
J63 023 realism, already well buried by Brunton and Stead on successive
J63 024 occasions. ^But battle was declared against Stead, a present
J63 025 threat because of his *'crowding out [of] alternatives**', as
J63 026 Horrocks put it, his *'tak[ing] over**' of *'the central terms of
J63 027 post-modernism**' in order to apply them to specifically
J63 028 modernist poems.
J63 029    |^There were inevitably problems with the method of
J63 030 effecting local cultural change adopted by *1Parallax. ^*0For a
J63 031 start the very portentousness of the title indicated the high
J63 032 seriousness of the endeavour. ^*1Landfall'*0s subtitle, *'A New
J63 033 Zealand quarterly**', sounds modest by comparison. ^Secondly, the
J63 034 terms of the discussion were fatally limited by an
J63 035 over-preoccupation with *1American *0poetry and *1American
J63 036 *0poetics. ^The effect of the constant reiteration of certain
J63 037 apparently luminous names *- David Antin, Robert Creeley,
J63 038 *1Boundary 2, {0et al.} *- *0in Wystan Curnow's opening essay,
J63 039 *'Post-modernism in Poetry and the Visual Arts,**' was
J63 040 unfortunate in this respect. ^It suggested that *1Parallax *0was
J63 041 to be no more than the private vehicle of a clique of local
J63 042 poetry *1{cognoscenti} *0talking to each other about the American
J63 043 fashions that really interested them. ^The names functioned as
J63 044 shibboleths, and clearly not to be familiar with them was not to
J63 045 count.
J63 046    |^Yet *1Parallax, *0although it continued throughout its
J63 047 three numbers to function in part as a talking-shop for the
J63 048 self-appointed avant-garde, was not simply another little
J63 049 magazine on the fringes, fated to launch a few new or neglected
J63 050 poets into the orbit of the mainstream then die. ^*1Parallax
J63 051 *0articulated an alternative set of assumptions about who counted
J63 052 and who didn't in New Zealand poetry. ^It constructed its own
J63 053 interpretation of literary history and argued for that
J63 054 construction. ^It developed (or borrowed) a complete set of
J63 055 literary terminologies. ^In other words, *1Parallax *0presented
J63 056 itself as the organ of an oppositional literary scene with its
J63 057 own terms of reference, its own claims to priority and its own
J63 058 notions about where *'the margins**' of New Zealand poetry were
J63 059 to be found.
J63 060    |^The most seminal essay in the first number of *1Parallax,
J63 061 *0and the most instructive for this discussion, is not Wystan
J63 062 Curnow's often quoted *'Post-Modernism in Poetry**' but Horrocks'
J63 063 less noticed *'An Essay About Experimental Films That Ended Up As
J63 064 An Essay About New Zealand**'. ^Where Curnow's essay has the
J63 065 strained, high tone of someone addressing an international art
J63 066 audience through the unlikely vehicle of a New Zealand little
J63 067 magazine, Horrocks' aim is more modest, his prose more
J63 068 accessible, his intended audience local and specific. ^Where
J63 069 Curnow declines to engage with the local variants of the general
J63 070 tendency he describes, Horrocks eagerly displays his intimacy
J63 071 with the most immediate levels of the local scene. ^Horrocks is
J63 072 trying to trace the emergence of an audience alert to the really
J63 073 new, the experimental, the alternative, out of the tiny circles
J63 074 of enthusiastic amateurs that have traditionally constituted the
J63 075 New Zealand avant-garde in film, in poetry and in art. ^What
J63 076 Horrocks seeks is an audience which is sufficiently
J63 077 discriminating, sufficiently focussed and of just sufficient size
J63 078 (fit but few) to serve as the vanguard of fundamental change in
J63 079 local cultural preferences. ^He records his pleasure in the
J63 080 discovery of *'a small, well-attuned audience (in the Maidment
J63 081 Little Theatre, for example, or Just Desserts Cafe, or at 191
J63 082 Hobson Street)**'. ^Horrocks isn't indulging here in
J63 083 surreptitious advertising by slipping the names of these
J63 084 establishments into his essay. ^He is indicating where and at
J63 085 what level of intimacy the changes he seeks are beginning to take
J63 086 place.
J63 087    |^While Curnow steps from one American art *'authority**' to
J63 088 another, evidently wishing he were actually walking through SoHo
J63 089 or the Village where all his terms and references have currency,
J63 090 Horrocks is excitedly engaged with what is happening here *- or
J63 091 is just about to happen. ^He senses an underground change taking
J63 092 place, one that will revise assumptions about *'what
J63 093 *"experimental**" means in the New Zealand context**'. ^He notes
J63 094 the appearance of *'a certain type of essay**' that *'wants to
J63 095 argue with our whole culture, our whole set of artistic habits
J63 096 and values**'. ^Horrocks' attitude to cultural change is like
J63 097 that of the revolutionary towards political change. ^His
J63 098 priorities and strategies are Leninist. ^What is needed is a
J63 099 small but *'intense**' group of activists with a long-range
J63 100 historical sense and determined on nothing less than wholesale
J63 101 renovation of the local poetry polity. ^The group must be
J63 102 *'self-contained**' and specialized. ^It must be alert to change
J63 103 that is taking place *'at a deep level,**' change of which the
J63 104 effects are only discernible by those who read art history as the
J63 105 revolutionary reads the masses. ^Above all, the group must resist
J63 106 the drift *'back from the edge towards the middle**' that has
J63 107 swallowed previous hopeful movements in New Zealand poetry. ^In
J63 108 other words, *'the margins**' are to provide the necessary
J63 109 vantage point from which the centre, that morass of error and
J63 110 compromise that swallows the promising and corrupts the
J63 111 ambitious, will be radically shifted. ^The mainstream will, in
J63 112 fact, become at last the marginal, the redundant, and literary
J63 113 history will record only the bright moments of real change
J63 114 brought about by those tiny *'scenes**' of dedicated individuals.
J63 115    |^Horrocks is right, of course, that the great art shifts in
J63 116 the past have been initiated by such small *'scenes**' (though
J63 117 this oversimplifies the process by which they become generally
J63 118 felt). ^The problem is that the art historian in this country
J63 119 inevitably is attuned to movements and changes that have already
J63 120 occurred elsewhere, and there is a danger that the *'deep
J63 121 change**' awaited will turn out to be some fashion already
J63 122 shop-worn in New York or San Francisco. (^There is also the
J63 123 problem of to whom these changes will be addressed. ^Does a rise
J63 124 in the prestige of postmodernism among the readers of literary
J63 125 magazines really mean a change in the culture as a whole?) ^The
J63 126 major shifts in art history effected by, say, Pound and Eliot
J63 127 around the time of the First World War or Olson just after the
J63 128 Second did not simply borrow some already existing script. ^Eliot
J63 129 certainly learned a great deal from Jules Laforgue (as Coleridge
J63 130 before him learned from the German philosophers of his day) and
J63 131 part of his shock value for English readers of 1910 may be
J63 132 attributed to his adoption of Laforgian mannerisms. ^But he
J63 133 didn't take from Laforgue or from any prior poet a complete plan
J63 134 for a poetic revolution that had already been carried through.
J63 135 ^It was enough to know what he was writing *1against *0and to be
J63 136 aware of exemplary predecessors and contemporaries. ^He had no
J63 137 way of telling exactly where he was leaping to when he wrote
J63 138 *1The Waste Land, *0or where precisely he would carry poetry in
J63 139 English by doing so.
J63 140    |^Horrocks, however, knows pretty well where he wants New
J63 141 Zealand writing and reading habits to head. ^It isn't simply
J63 142 towards the Olsonian postmodernism propagandized for by Loney.
J63 143 ^Horrocks sees *1Parallax *0as part of the *'shift**' he
J63 144 envisages, not the thing itself. ^The trouble with *1Parallax
J63 145 *0for someone with Horrocks' peculiarly acute historical sense
J63 146 was not that its focus was too narrow or its audience too tiny,
J63 147 but that it already had about it the fatal air of being
J63 148 historical when it appeared. ^Loney in the 1980s was still
J63 149 fighting the battles of the 1970s (in Olson's terms, those of the
J63 150 1950s).
J63 151    |^The little magazine which was most exactly to suit
J63 152 Horrocks' purposes appeared towards the end of 1983. ^It was
J63 153 called *1And *0and was co-edited by two Auckland English
J63 154 graduates, Alex Calder who was working on his {0Ph.D.} at
J63 155 Auckland at that time, and Leigh Davis who had already gone to a
J63 156 job in Treasury in Wellington, having somehow learned the trick
J63 157 of marketing an {0M.A.} in English with a Marxist dissertation on
J63 158 Allen Curnow, in the world of finance. ^*1And *0was intended from
J63 159 the start to run for no more than four numbers. ^Its very name
J63 160 stressed that it intended to put itself *1within *0historical
J63 161 change, not to become an institution. ^If the name also seemed to
J63 162 draw attention to the sequentiality of little magazines in this
J63 163 country (with *1Morepork, Parallax *0and *1Splash, *0for all
J63 164 their differences, providing some sort of continuum on the poetry
J63 165 left), it did so subversively. ^*1And *0had no intention of
J63 166 carrying on the flame nurtured by Loney. ^The interview of Loney
J63 167 by Davis in *1And*0/l signals as much rupture and difference
J63 168 (though amiable and respectful) as continuity, in spite of
J63 169 Loney's efforts to offer avuncular support to Davis. ^*1And
J63 170 *0entered {0NZ} \0lit. with a calculated estimation of its own
J63 171 delinquency and power to shock not seen in New Zealand literary
J63 172 magazines (nor so brilliantly manipulated) since *1Freed. ^*0Its
J63 173 cover showed two cowboys, guns at the ready, above the caption,
J63 174 *'coming in**'. ^Its stapled penurious format announced not only
J63 175 its difference from high-cost, high-quality productions like
J63 176 *1Landfall, Islands *0or *1Parallax, *0but also announced the
J63 177 benefits for little magazines of the photocopying machine.
J63 178    |^Perhaps the most telling sign of *1And'*0s marketing savvy
J63 179 was its presentation of its very poverty, the ephemerality of the
J63 180 magazine as an object, as an enormous advantage that it possessed
J63 181 over the existing journals, establishment or oppositional. ^While
J63 182 *1Landfall *0continued expensively as the Caxton Press's
J63 183 flagship, while *1Islands, *0like some down-at-heels scholar
J63 184 whose private means had long since declined, struggled to keep up
J63 185 appearances, and while *1Parallax, *0designed by the meticulous
J63 186 craftsman Loney, was handsomely done on good quality paper with
J63 187 proper binding, *1And *0emulated the producers of underground
J63 188 comics and punk handbills by using available technology and the
J63 189 enthusiasm of its contributors. ^The editors simply stapled the
J63 190 xeroxed blocks of contributors' articles inside A4 covers and let
J63 191 the readers' eyes cope with the plethora of typefaces and the
J63 192 occasional transposition. ^*1And *0was dense with information,
J63 193 liable to disintegrate (like other consumer durables it requires
J63 194 to be repurchased every so often), recalcitrant against plain
J63 195 writing and abominably difficult to shelve. ^More important, it
J63 196 saw no need to disguise its poverty by clinging, like the revived
J63 197 *1Islands, *0to *'an old and expensive format**'. ^It wasn't hip
J63 198 to aim for longevity any longer.
J63 199    |^What is most telling here is *1And'*0s difference not only
J63 200 from *1Landfall *0and *1Islands *0but also from *1Parallax. ^And
J63 201 *0departed from Loney's magazine in more than the cost of its
J63 202 production and the permanence of its binding. ^*1And *0started
J63 203 out with a clear sense of its intended market, a market which
J63 204 needed not so much to be reached as created. ^Moreover it started
J63 205 out with no sense of grudge against local *'authorities**'.
J63 206 ^*1And *0didn't see itself as excluded, as Loney did. ^The
J63 207 post-structuralist constituency which *1And *0claimed as its own
J63 208 was, as Davis cheerfully acknowledged in the first number, not
J63 209 large. ^So *1And *0pushed off exuberantly to a zero market share.
J63 210 *#
J64 001 **[358 TEXT J64**]
J64 002    |^*0Many of the stories about this artist have been written
J64 003 and published, others have been passed on verbally, some have
J64 004 been filmed for television. ^Most operate at the personal,
J64 005 anecdotal level, although we are not concerned here with
J64 006 investigating these private meanings. ^Our sphere is that of
J64 007 public record and that record focuses very sharply on his image
J64 008 as a certain type of artist. ^In the presentation of him, there
J64 009 are certain constants. ^The stories are diverse but they do
J64 010 converge and it is at these points of intersection that the
J64 011 central formulas emerge.
J64 012    |^It is well known that Philip Clairmont committed suicide
J64 013 at the age of thirty four. ^Looking back over his life this
J64 014 knowledge now colours all our interpretations of and speculations
J64 015 about the work. ^The end, its suddenness, narrows our range of
J64 016 interest; precursors of it seize our attention. ^It seems to have
J64 017 been inevitable so there is pathos in the pride of a smiling
J64 018 child holding up a prize-winning drawing. ^Our understanding of
J64 019 his life changed with his death. ^In realising that, we can
J64 020 realise how unstable the past is, how it is remade constantly.
J64 021    |^While accepting that there are psychological, biographical
J64 022 and social reasons for the things we do, we wish to concentrate
J64 023 on the last. ^To start first a few steps away from Clairmont
J64 024 himself and to look at some of the terms from which the very idea
J64 025 of *'artist**' is arrived at and what this means in New Zealand.
J64 026 ^In examining these concepts we hope to open up the area
J64 027 available for looking at Clairmont's work; perhaps to untangle it
J64 028 a little from his personality.
J64 029    |^Myths about artists, myths about Clairmont, are a
J64 030 shorthand, a code. ^Like most codes the terms are seldom examined
J64 031 as they are passed on and so become increasingly arbitrary when
J64 032 forced onto a particular situation. ^A Clairmont *'package**' is
J64 033 developed to give a coherent personality to a body of works: to
J64 034 impose unity upon it and explain it without undue complication.
J64 035 ^In doing so a continuity is established, an order of priorities
J64 036 set. ^This packaging ideally suits the art market which requires
J64 037 recognisable product predicated on the difference *1between
J64 038 *0artists and the coherence of the individual artist. ^It also
J64 039 easily accommodates the fetishism of personality cults.
J64 040    |^In presenting artists in this way information that is not
J64 041 easily fitted into the story is forgotten, suppressed. ^The point
J64 042 of these stories is that they make us feel that we understand at
J64 043 the very moment we should be beginning to ask questions. ^Relying
J64 044 on the bulwark of the mystifying and inaccessible genius of the
J64 045 artist, we allow ourselves to be passive consumers.
J64 046 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 047 |*'^The first obstacle [to an understanding of art] is the
J64 048 conception of art history as a history of artists.**'
J64 049 |(Hadjinicolaou: 17)
J64 050 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 051    |^Art institutions are largely based on this assumption with
J64 052 exhibitions usually conceived to show the unity and development
J64 053 of an individual artistic personality. ^Even group shows, with
J64 054 few exceptions in this country, are presented as a number of
J64 055 individuals rather than a community of shared interests. ^More
J64 056 rare are *'theme**' exhibitions which attempt to show how
J64 057 individuals have operated in the same area. ^Yet the building
J64 058 block for all of them is the same: the artist, who is seen as the
J64 059 source, origin and meaning of the work. ^The overwhelming weight
J64 060 of this trend leads to the smoothing out of contradiction, a
J64 061 neutralising of questions and a limitation on too many
J64 062 possibilities. ^For, when all else fails, the eccentricities of
J64 063 artistic personality can be wheeled out in easy explanation of
J64 064 any frightening inconsistency or proliferation of meanings.
J64 065    |^The insistence on this individualised formula means that
J64 066 ways of making and doing art outside it must be marginalised.
J64 067 ^They are branded *'not art**', or at least, *'not Real art**'
J64 068 and banished to popular culture, folk art, craft, ethnography or
J64 069 even *'women's art**'. ^The standard art gallery monograph format
J64 070 exacerbates this.
J64 071 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 072 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 073 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 074    |^In this monograph we will examine the *'signifiers of
J64 075 artistness**' which have dominated the way in which Philip
J64 076 Clairmont has been seen and unstitch some of the formulas.
J64 077 *<follow his path alone*>
J64 078    |^The artist alone in his studio, battling with the visions
J64 079 that torment him is one of the pervasive phallocratic art images
J64 080 of the twentieth century. ^It has become the accepted shorthand
J64 081 for representing art and artists in the mass media. ^Such a
J64 082 natural image, so obvious, so seldom questioned. ^Why even its
J64 083 exclusions seem like commonsense.
J64 084    |^And so the way of working of some artists becomes the norm
J64 085 for all artists. ^Group and anonymous activities are particularly
J64 086 feared. ^*'Artist-ness**' is largely defined in terms of solitary
J64 087 work, usually with some implications of struggle and turmoil.
J64 088 ^The connections of artists to social, political and economic
J64 089 life, to gender, race and class are suppressed.
J64 090 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 091 |*'^An essential quality of any true artist is separateness,
J64 092 whether he works in defiant solitude or within the discipline of
J64 093 an established style.**'
J64 094 |(Foreword to Alexander Liberman. *1The artist in his studio.
J64 095 *0London: Thames and Hudson; 1969)
J64 096 |*'^I was taught how to be a painter, and all the implications,
J64 097 the solitary confinement which makes a painter's life.**'
J64 098 |(*1Colin McCahon/ a survey exhibition. *0Auckland City Art
J64 099 Gallery; 1972: 21)
J64 100 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 101    |^It is the image of the lone artist that is the foundation
J64 102 of the present art market with huge swings in value on the basis
J64 103 of a signature, a name. (^So much so that at least one punter was
J64 104 encouraged to add signatures to authentic works by Van \der
J64 105 Velden, presumably to make them more authentic still!). ^It is
J64 106 also the basis of a revealing shorthand whereby artworks are
J64 107 constantly referred to and classified solely by the artist's
J64 108 name. ^In artspeak who doesn't know what *'a Gully**', *'a
J64 109 Killeen**' or *'a Clairmont**' is? ^Again it seems like
J64 110 commonsense. ^But books, for example, are not referred to in this
J64 111 interchangeable way. ^*'A Frame**', *'a Mansfield**' sounds
J64 112 absurd. ^It needs to be amplified by *'novel**' or *'poem**' to
J64 113 slip into the language. ^But art shorthand has gone one step
J64 114 further. ^*'Painting**' or *'drawing**' or even the very
J64 115 generalised *'work**' can be dropped and yet we still understand.
J64 116 ^The name is the most important category and it is the guardian
J64 117 of authenticity.
J64 118    |^Artists are defined as exempt from social and political
J64 119 responsibility, except that of expressing their own inner being.
J64 120 ^And the riddle is complete when they are judged by how close
J64 121 they get to expressing that inner being, even though we (the
J64 122 audience) are excluded by definition from knowing what it is.
J64 123 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 124 |^*'Well, first of all, if you're an artist, you get it by just
J64 125 trying to meet your own standards, not anybody else's, but your
J64 126 own, a deep self-expression.**'
J64 127 |(Len Lye. *1Spleen; *0[1977]; 7: {0np})
J64 128 |^*'*"Art is not a random thing. ^Art has to come from the heart,
J64 129 mind, experience and soul and body of the artist,**"\0Mr McIntyre
J64 130 said.**'
J64 131 |(Peter McIntyre. *1Auckland Star; *031 May 1976)
J64 132 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 133    |^So used have we become to looking at art in this way that
J64 134 the idea of an individual of particular sensitivity expressing
J64 135 his thoughts and feelings seems commonplace *- inevitable. ^And
J64 136 on this *'inevitability**' we have built the large part of our
J64 137 art history, exhibitions and art marketing. ^It is on the
J64 138 commonsense theory we have constructed the past in a linked
J64 139 sequence of masters and masterpieces and which governs our
J64 140 expectations of the future.
J64 141    |^But there is change and the contention that art does
J64 142 operate this way is under seige (largely by the feminist
J64 143 critique). ^Other models are being proposed.
J64 144 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 145 |*'^There's a myth that artists spring into the world with a
J64 146 full-blown, singular sensibility which is theirs to develop,
J64 147 their core, their inner being.**'
J64 148 |(Barbara Kruger. Interview. *1Flash art; *0March 1985: 36)
J64 149 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 150    |^The theory of art as individual expressiveness makes a
J64 151 number of assumptions. ^Firstly that the world is made up of
J64 152 autonomous and fundamentally unalterable individuals (they who do
J64 153 the expressing) and that it is from their unmediated
J64 154 consciousness meaning is born (that which they express).
J64 155 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 156 |*'^Philip Clairmont's paintings express his ideas, beliefs and
J64 157 emotions, and attempt to set down in paint the way that these
J64 158 reflect the overriding mood of our time.**'
J64 159 |(Alexa \0M Johnston. *1Anxious images. *0Auckland City Art
J64 160 Gallery; 1984: 12)
J64 161 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 162    |^Such an explanation spills over into the life and
J64 163 personality of the artist. ^We start to be concerned about his
J64 164 *'sincerity**' and how he lives. ^It becomes important to us that
J64 165 the life and the work share an obvious logic *- proof that we are
J64 166 getting the *'real thing**' in the work, an authentic fragment of
J64 167 another person. ^The work, seen in this way, becomes a very
J64 168 powerful fetish indeed. ^The work is conclusively explained to us
J64 169 by the personality of its maker.
J64 170 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 171 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 172 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 173    |^As a metaphor for the artist's pure individuality
J64 174 aloneness is crucial. ^And the place where the artist is seen to
J64 175 be most alone, (and therefore most himself?), is in the studio.
J64 176 **[PLATE**]
J64 177    |^But none of us is alone. ^Our experience is social to its
J64 178 core. ^Artists need an audience but the reciprocity of culture is
J64 179 ignored in the drive to set up unbreachable dichotomies: maker/
J64 180 consumer, active/ passive, male/ female.
J64 181 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 182 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 183 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 184    |^So why is there such a determination to detach artists
J64 185 from any specific social context? ^Why this need to make them
J64 186 appear to float free from gender, power, money in that autonomous
J64 187 sphere aesthetics? ^What allowed Clement Greenberg to assert on
J64 188 the one hand that art was crucial and yet on the other that it
J64 189 has never, in a real sense, affected the course of human affairs?
J64 190 ^It's like all good stories.
J64 191    |^Once upon a time ...
J64 192    |^Pre Renaissance artists did not work alone. ^As members of
J64 193 guilds, artisans were organised into workshops whose projects
J64 194 were planned and executed communally, usually in close
J64 195 consultation with the commissioners. ^They were men along with
J64 196 women, in spite of history's suppression of the female record.
J64 197 ^However, by the late fifteenth century a differential fee
J64 198 structure was developing as competition for artists' services
J64 199 intensified. ^This rising market was explained in art terms, not
J64 200 economic ones. ^Some artists came to be seen as superior
J64 201 individuals with special creative powers and artists were eager
J64 202 to seize this avenue to independence, to fame, wealth and honour.
J64 203 ^Some artists that is, for the former differentiations of skill
J64 204 and ingenuity were exaggerated and essentialised. ^A very few
J64 205 were regarded as truly creative and the rest *- their former
J64 206 companions *- as subservient to those of unique vision. ^So the
J64 207 liberation of the artist meant the domination of others. ^Now the
J64 208 use of the male pronoun is totally appropriate.
J64 209    |^With the romanticism of the late eighteenth and early
J64 210 nineteenth centuries today's view of artists was crystallised:
J64 211 the only authentic source of art is the creative individual. ^Art
J64 212 is about his (almost always) expression of his feelings about
J64 213 reality. ^Of course at the same time other models of art and
J64 214 artists have been operating, but that of expressive realism has
J64 215 dominated in a New Zealand wary of theory.
J64 216    |^In New Zealand the image of the individual, the loner
J64 217 resonates very satisfactorily. ^New Zealand men publicly revel in
J64 218 the struggle against *'overwhelming odds**' whether in war or
J64 219 rugby. ^Or art.
J64 220 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 221 |*'*"^A man spends too much time alone,**" Johnson said to
J64 222 himself.**'
J64 223 |(John Mulgan. *1Man alone. *0Hamilton: Paul's Book Arcade; 1950:
J64 224 206)
J64 225 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 226 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 227 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J64 228 |*'^The artist today is free as a bird. ^He paints what he
J64 229 likes.**'
J64 230 |(Peter Tomory. *1New Zealand Women's Weekly; *027 March 1961)
J64 231 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 232    |^And there it is again, aloneness as freedom. ^He can paint
J64 233 what he likes because no one much cares what he paints, except
J64 234 that it be identifiable, stamped by a unique sensibility:
J64 235 original. ^For in this argument originality is acknowledged as
J64 236 the authentic sign of the true artist.
J64 237 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J64 238 |*'^The savage and inescapable guts of Philip Clairmont's three
J64 239 paintings establish him further as one of the country's most
J64 240 original and courageous young painters.**'
J64 241 |(Hamish Keith. *1Auckland Star; *015 March 1975)
J64 242 **[END INDENTATION**]
J64 243    |^And what of this originality, this oppressive
J64 244 retrospective labeling? ^For nothing can be termed original
J64 245 unless by comparison with similar *- but not identical *-
J64 246 components of the same system.
J64 247 *#
J65 001 **[359 TEXT J65**]
J65 002 ^*0Ideologies are embodied in cultural institutions *- schools,
J65 003 galleries, churches *- as well as in cultural artefacts *-
J65 004 paintings, architecture, texts, photographs *- and by these means
J65 005 they are broadcast and reproduced. ^Ideology both supports and
J65 006 reflects the distribution of power within a society, which in
J65 007 turn (from a Marxist point of view) is determined, in the last
J65 008 instance, by economic factors. ^The following section looks at
J65 009 some of the ideologies associated with the economic form of our
J65 010 own society (capitalism) and how they are reflected in
J65 011 photographs.
J65 012    |^The Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century had seen a
J65 013 shift away from the unchallenged authority of church and
J65 014 sovereign towards a new order based upon observation. ^This new
J65 015 attitude found its purest expression in the philosophy of
J65 016 positivism. ^Positivism holds that nothing exists except that
J65 017 which can be perceived by the senses; that unless we can measure
J65 018 and observe then we are dealing only with figments of the
J65 019 imagination.
J65 020    |^Nineteenth-century capitalism *- epitomised by the factory
J65 021 and the harnessing of new technologies *- was engaged with
J65 022 solving the problems of mass production. ^Resources needed to be
J65 023 discovered, measured, and manipulated, requiring information on a
J65 024 scale never before imagined. ^Knowledge of the visible took
J65 025 precedence, since only the practical qualities of an object were
J65 026 usable. ^Positivism was thus a form of knowledge typifing a
J65 027 society in which the production and ownership of objects had
J65 028 become a paramount value.
J65 029    |^When photography entered this state of affairs in the
J65 030 mid-19th century, it was recognised and acclaimed for its
J65 031 **[PLATE**]
J65 032 realism, for its ability to *'stand in**' for the objects
J65 033 depicted. ^As such, it provided an ideal form for the collection
J65 034 and manipulation of information. ^The natural sciences of the
J65 035 18th and 19th centuries were particularly concerned with the
J65 036 collection and classification of *'facts**' or specimens.
J65 037 ^Photographs such as those taken by Thomas Andrew were greatly
J65 038 sought by museums and universities world-wide as ethnographic
J65 039 records.
J65 040    |^The common approach of 19th century capitalism, science,
J65 041 and ethnographic photography was one of appropriation; something
J65 042 was taken from its original context and given a different use or
J65 043 meaning in another. ^So long as photographs are regarded as
J65 044 appropriative *- that is, that *'something**' is removed *- then
J65 045 power can be said to be exerted over the subject. (^Many of us do
J65 046 feel, at some level, that photography *'steals**' something of
J65 047 our spirit or self.) ^The power of photography also lies, as
J65 048 Susan Sontag points out, in its ability to obtain information
J65 049 about someone which they could never have themselves. ^When the
J65 050 subject is unaware of being photographed, or of the uses to which
J65 051 the photograph may be put, that power is further multiplied.
J65 052    |^Even when photographs are not used in exploitative ways,
J65 053 photographic appropriation may still ideologically reflect or
J65 054 support material exploitation. ^Photographs by pakeha of Maori
J65 055 are sometimes seen by the latter as offensive in that they are
J65 056 symptomatic of pakeha appropriation in general.
J65 057 **[PLATES**]
J65 058    |^Closely linked with appropriation is voyeurism. ^Strictly
J65 059 speaking, voyeurism is an exaggerated interest in viewing sexual
J65 060 objects or scenes, often from a *'distant**' or hidden position.
J65 061 ^Photographers are often accused of voyeurism in serving up, as
J65 062 objects for contemplation, depictions of those (often
J65 063 defenceless) groups regarded as *'other**'; the poor, aged,
J65 064 handicapped, eccentric, deviant, or culturally different. ^The
J65 065 reproduced images of Glenn Busch, Diane Arbus and Walker Evans
J65 066 can be described as voyeuristic. ^Before equating voyeurism with
J65 067 *'bad**' though, consideration should be given to the
J65 068 implications of voyeurism in each instance. ^That is, as
J65 069 suggested above, whether they reflect or support actual
J65 070 relations of dominance or exploitation. ^Evans' image seems, on
J65 071 the surface, the most innocuous of the three, for there is
J65 072 nothing strange or unusual about the woman and child to excite
J65 073 our interest. ^However, further questions are raised on learning
J65 074 that Evans used a concealed camera in an experiment to see how
J65 075 people would appear when photo-
J65 076 **[PLATE**]
J65 077 graphed unawares in the defenceless state of reverie.
J65 078    |^One of the most fundamental ideologies underlying
J65 079 capitalism is individualism *- a belief in the ability of
J65 080 individuals to define the conditions of their own life (including
J65 081 economic activities). ^In operation, such an ideology supports
J65 082 the continued functioning of capitalism by proposing the
J65 083 existence of self-determination when, in practice, such a
J65 084 possibility is systematically denied to the majority of people.
J65 085 ^Art functions as one of the fields of this operation: ^Since the
J65 086 Renaissance, the artist has been *1constructed *0as an
J65 087 autonomous, self-defining, creative individual *- an *1{auteur}.
J65 088 ^*0Thus art offers evidence of the supreme expression of
J65 089 individualism. ^However, the activities and products of the
J65 090 artist are also defined by society and art itself (at least
J65 091 modernist art) as independent of and marginal to the practical,
J65 092 day-to-day concerns of society in general.
J65 093 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J65 094    |^The history of art photography is the history of symbolic
J65 095 attempts to reconcile the incompatibility of self definition
J65 096 (creativity) and the conditions of industrial living
J65 097 (technology). ^Around the beginning of this century, a number of
J65 098 (mostly leisured) individuals strove to show that creativity
J65 099 could be found in the mechanical. ^Their approach *- called
J65 100 pictorialism *- de-emphasised as much as possible the machine-made
J65 101 appearance of photographs in favour of the handmade look.
J65 102 ^*1The Camera Doctor, *0by {0J.W.}Johnson, is an almost pure
J65 103 expression of the values held by the early pictorialists. ^It
J65 104 seems determined to project a thoroughly non-industrial image of
J65 105 photography. ^The subjects, an elderly man and a camera (probably
J65 106 an old model even in its own time), as well as the depiction of
J65 107 craftsmanship, all suggest a prior age. ^In addition, the title
J65 108 proposes that the camera is not a mechanical device but a living
J65 109 entity. ^Reinforcing this content
J65 110 **[PLATE**]
J65 111 are the soft focus, textured surface, and warm toned appearance
J65 112 of the print, all suggestive of non-photographic artistic media.
J65 113    |^This denial of the technology of photography by means of
J65 114 inserting the *'human hand**' into the process appeared
J65 115 unconvincing to some photographers by the 1920s, and a new
J65 116 approach developed placing the point of creative engagement at a
J65 117 more sophisticated level, emphasising intellectual rather than
J65 118 manual control. ^This new movement, referred to by its German
J65 119 name, *1{Neue Sachlichkeit} *0or New Objectivity, celebrated the
J65 120 machine-made qualities of photography (often in fact depicting
J65 121 machines) and aimed at transforming record photography into art.
J65 122 ^Photographers such as Edward Weston and Paul Strand in the
J65 123 {0USA}, and
J65 124 **[PLATES**]
J65 125 Albert Renger-Patzsch in Germany, worked by isolating and
J65 126 detaching objects from their wider context in an attempt to
J65 127 redeem positivism by sheer intensity of observation. ^Beauty,
J65 128 truth and spiritual knowledge were all held to be discoverable in
J65 129 the physical world, provided one had sufficient sensitivity of
J65 130 vision. ^It was this vision, the ability to choose the object and
J65 131 its framing that was all-important, not the everyday significance
J65 132 of the object itself.
J65 133    |^Capitalism in the same period, having solved the problems
J65 134 of production, was attempting to come to grips with those of the
J65 135 distribution and consumption of goods. ^Attitudes of thrift and
J65 136 accumulation had to be re-oriented to those of consumption if the
J65 137 market was to absorb the quantity of goods which could now be
J65 138 produced. ^Advertising images provided the ability to achieve
J65 139 this. ^By taking advantage of the new technology of
J65 140 photomechanical reproduction and the offerings of New Objectivity
J65 141 *- better means of signification *- images of goods more
J65 142 *'real**' and
J65 143 **[PLATES**]
J65 144 attractive than the goods themselves were able to be widely
J65 145 disseminated.
J65 146 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J65 147    |^This new mode of economic activity *- the mass production
J65 148 of signifiers *- means that we live in a society of spectacle in
J65 149 which no objects of representation can be found, only images
J65 150 which refer to other images, ad infinitum. ^Andrew Bogle's
J65 151 photograph of a wall mural illustrates perfectly the way images
J65 152 hem us in on all sides; even the physical solidity of a wall is
J65 153 transformed into picture. ^As Baudrillard has pointed out, the
J65 154 fears of the iconoclasts were justified, since images eventually
J65 155 come to simulate, rather than represent, the real. (^Admittedly,
J65 156 a more real world
J65 157 **[PLATE**]
J65 158 did not exist before the society of the spectacle; positivism had
J65 159 worked hard to create *'the fact**'. ^Rather, what has taken
J65 160 place is a movement within ideology.)
J65 161    |^The political significance of advertising is that it
J65 162 offers a single proposal: that we transform ourselves, our lives,
J65 163 by changing our possessions or style. ^Only by purchasing goods
J65 164 can happiness and satisfaction be attained. ^Such a proposal
J65 165 recognises no other values than those of novelty and the power to
J65 166 acquire. ^Since all reference is now reflexive there is no point
J65 167 of exit from this system, only endless consumption of images of
J65 168 short currency. ^Real political choice is narrowed to freedom of
J65 169 consumption *- the choice of one product over another.
J65 170    |^This society of the spectacle has made photographic
J65 171 reference to the *'real**' world a problematic activity.
J65 172 ^Documentary photographs of suffering, for instance, simply
J65 173 become irrelevant, impotent, and unusable. ^To claim that we are
J65 174 inured to such images is really only half the truth; vision as
J65 175 spectacle, not vision as knowledge, is how we participate in our
J65 176 culture. ^John Berger argues that the feelings of awkwardness and
J65 177 discontinuity we may experience on
J65 178 **[PLATE**]
J65 179 seeing horrific images of war and suffering are due not so much
J65 180 to their content, but to the discontinuity of photography *- its
J65 181 ability to wrench things from their context. ^If we were present
J65 182 at the occasion of the photograph we could act appropriately but
J65 183 we are not, therefore any response we make is inadequate. ^Don
J65 184 Slater offers an alternative interpretation by suggesting that
J65 185 feelings of discomfort and shock arise from our realisation that
J65 186 images of suffering have become entertainment. ^Even the ultimate
J65 187 real of death can be drained of reality, can be processed *-
J65 188 without embarrassment *- through the same machine used for
J65 189 soapsuds.
J65 190    |^Art photographers also have difficulty working in the
J65 191 modes of reference employed by pre-spectacle, New Objectivity
J65 192 photographers. ^Recent work such as that by Hilla and Bernd
J65 193 Becher or Peter Hannken is much more equivocal about realism,
J65 194 making no claims of capturing essences or spiritual truths. ^The
J65 195 current appeal of this work lies in its ambiguity between
J65 196 abstraction, documentation, and expression. ^There are
J65 197 ideological investments in all three areas (abstraction serves to
J65 198 guarantee art's
J65 199 **[PLATES**]
J65 200 irrelevance), yet it has become difficult to believe
J65 201 wholeheartedly in any single one. ^Even the pervasive ideological
J65 202 construct of the photographic artist as *0is eroding as we
J65 203 recognise in the society of the spectacle that there is no
J65 204 *'starting point**' for photographic meaning; that in a sense,
J65 205 all images have already been taken.
J65 206 *<*4Some *'political**' photographs*>
J65 207    |^*0Having suggested that photographs are inevitably
J65 208 political, and that most operate in ways which actively support
J65 209 the status quo, the question must now be asked: is it possible for
J65 210 photographs to challenge (and with what degree of effectiveness)
J65 211 dominant ideologies and oppressive social/ economic structures?
J65 212 ^That is, is it possible to change social and economic conditions
J65 213 with the very tools *- visual representations *- which tend to
J65 214 help reproduce them in their present forms?
J65 215    |^Any answers to these questions must consider the nature
J65 216 and degree of determination in society. ^A simple reflection
J65 217 model of ideology views cultural artefacts (such as photographs)
J65 218 as reflecting ideology, while in turn the nature of this ideology
J65 219 is determined by economic factors. ^In this case, artists and
J65 220 photographers are mere accomplices and propagandists in the
J65 221 service of ruling ideologies. ^However, more complex and
J65 222 sophisticated interpretations of this basic scheme are possible.
J65 223 ^In these, cultural artefacts also play a part in constituting
J65 224 and constructing ideology, and economic structures have a less
J65 225 direct, though not necessarily less profound influence. ^The
J65 226 original questions tend then to devolve into complex empirical
J65 227 ones: ^The many contexts of an image must all be considered, as
J65 228 well as its content, before assessing its potential to provoke
J65 229 change.
J65 230    |^The following section examines some photographs which can
J65 231 be regarded as intentionally, though not necessarily explicitly,
J65 232 political *- that is, images aimed at altering existing power
J65 233 relations.
J65 234    |^A strong emphasis in modernist art photography concerns
J65 235 the individual expressing him or herself against the oppresive
J65 236 weight of mass imagery and the dehumanising conditions of
J65 237 industrial society. ^While the *1effect *0of such an emphasis may
J65 238 simply be to reproduce
J65 239 **[PLATE**]
J65 240 an ideology of individualism, thereby disguising the causes of
J65 241 such dehumanisation, the *1intention *0is implicitly political.
J65 242 *#
J66 001 **[360 TEXT J66**]
J66 002 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J66 003 *<*51*>
J66 004    |^*0The word *"primitive**" has become the exhausted slushy
J66 005 of modern art history. ^Its part in that history has involved
J66 006 many mediations. ^As Kirk Varnedoe writes in an essay on Gauguin
J66 007 (1), the word
J66 008 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J66 009 ^Though he does not, Varnedoe could have included gender among
J66 010 these disparative terms.
J66 011    |^But it's important to note, as Varnedoe does, that the
J66 012 terms are not necessarily exclusive, but more usually paired in
J66 013 some way. ^The *"primitive**" may be what a civilisation sees as
J66 014 other than itself; it is also what a civilisation must invent as
J66 015 a self-critique.
J66 016    |^For example, European court Arcadianism, nobles playing at
J66 017 being shepherds and shepherdesses, was a kind of
J66 018 *"primitivism**". ^It addressed not only the aristocracy's sense
J66 019 of its class difference from the peasant, but also a sense of
J66 020 loss *- a ritualised admission, however sentimental or cynical,
J66 021 of corruption *- of the loss of authenticity or innocence to
J66 022 cultivation, manners, consciousness. ^It was a game in which
J66 023 consciousness was turned around in a gaze upon what it imagined
J66 024 was instinct. ^The implications of this *"primitivism**"
J66 025 therefore adhered very closely to the civilised *- were *1of
J66 026 *0the latter, as well as different, other, from it. ^This
J66 027 retrospective narrative, this drama, has been the subject of much
J66 028 court painting, as for example Watteau's *1The Embarcation From
J66 029 Cythera, *0a narrative of nostalgia for lost innocence, whose
J66 030 self-critique adheres firmly, if speciously, to it.
J66 031    |^Christina Conrad has usually chosen to move away from the
J66 032 centre, to remote areas and austere circumstances. ^The
J66 033 bookshelves in these Cytheran houses, however, are full of art
J66 034 books referring to Primitive Painting, African Art, Henri
J66 035 Rousseau, Art Brut.
J66 036 *<*52*>
J66 037    |^*0Clearly, Conrad is involved in a version of an age-old
J66 038 drama and quest, the Arcadian one, whose double consciousness has
J66 039 invented the word *"primitive**" to explain why it should seek to
J66 040 turn back upon itself those imagined qualities of innocence,
J66 041 primary experience, and instinct, which it knows (or feels) it
J66 042 has forfeited to disenchantment. ^*"Primitive**" is the magic
J66 043 word which allows that double consciousness to believe again in
J66 044 what it knows does not exist. ^The word allows the sceptic to
J66 045 become rapturous. ^It allows Christina Conrad, in a telling
J66 046 moment, to successively abjure the terms *"Christian**" and
J66 047 *"spiritual**", preferring finally to speak of *"logic**" (2).
J66 048 ^In *"The Rise of Primitivism**" (3), Christopher Middleton uses
J66 049 the phrase *"art as visionary fact**": this he sets against *"art
J66 050 as a perspectival simulation of nature**"; he traces the concept
J66 051 to Kandinsky's *1{Uber das Geistige in der Kunst} *0(1912).
J66 052    |^An understanding of this double consciousness, which
J66 053 involves not (self-)deception but a quality of theatricality, is
J66 054 vital to the consideration of an artist like Christina Conrad,
J66 055 who so often and so obviously pushes artfulness and artlessness
J66 056 against each other in her work.
J66 057    |^And that something adhesive *- a magic or mediation *- is
J66 058 involved in this primitivist consciousness, must be the starting
J66 059 point for an introduction to the art of Christina Conrad.
J66 060 *<*53*>
J66 061    |^*0When she jokingly proposes a painting *"The Artist as a
J66 062 Bloody Loony**", the title pivots sharply upon the word *"as**"
J66 063 *- Conrad is turning her theatrical consciousness in some
J66 064 derision upon those who imagine that Cythera really exists and
J66 065 that she has already arrived there *- pre-lapsarian, gifted with
J66 066 infantile creativity, without modern consciousness. ^The title is
J66 067 also a wry self-admission that you have to be mad to get involved
J66 068 in this game. ^And mad not to.
J66 069    |^I'd guess, too, that some attention is solicited by the
J66 070 word *"bloody**". ^Conrad is a wordsmith whose sense of language
J66 071 in her speech, poetry, and titles, is both exact and ornate. ^The
J66 072 precise words are also embellished *- they whirl out from
J66 073 accuracy into metaphor. ^Thus the *"bloody loony**" of her title
J66 074 comments not only on one predictable perception of her work and
J66 075 its extravagant gestures; the phrase also backloads suffering.
J66 076 ^It may even co-opt a male language of religious experience,
J66 077 remotely Christian and possibly mediaeval, to a female zone. ^It
J66 078 may perform an elision of stigmata with menstruation, a gesture
J66 079 that is at once a transformation of suffering and a defence
J66 080 against its causes. ^The term even seems to be signalling at a
J66 081 remote mystical history occupied, for example, by the persecuted
J66 082 Albigenses *- a sect that sought to advance feminine terms as
J66 083 major, to subvert a language whose Christian masters would
J66 084 respond with persecution, bloody persecution at that.
J66 085    |^And further, it's important to note that Conrad's art is
J66 086 never secular. ^It nearly always conveys a deep tone of mystical
J66 087 or spiritual experience *- of the fundamental, factual, *1logical
J66 088 *0nature of such experience. ^And while this kind of perception
J66 089 is often attributed to *"primitive**" non-Western cultures and to
J66 090 polytheistic or animistic religions, and while the modelling of
J66 091 Conrad's figures obviously owes something to Modernist
J66 092 primitivism (Picasso's Africanism in particular), Conrad's links
J66 093 are really old European ones. ^Her art reaches back to a
J66 094 mediaeval, or Gothic, iconography. ^In a sense, it returns the
J66 095 recent legacy of Modernist primitivism to a remote European
J66 096 history. ^It enters that visual language in a mediaeval drama in
J66 097 which no aspect of life, however domestic, was merely secular *-
J66 098 in which the very objects of domestic life were imbued with
J66 099 malevolent or benign powers, in which the most banal characters
J66 100 could be seen as satanic or saintly, in which sexual and religious
J66 101 forces ran back together toward some suppressed, pagan source.
J66 102    |^Conrad's Cythera, then, is not a serene place, a haven, a
J66 103 place of lotus-eaters or born-again innocents, but a site of
J66 104 turbulence, shape-changing, conflict, and ecstasy. ^In her
J66 105 paintings, those morbid personifications of the secular, the art
J66 106 dealers, become demonic undertakers. ^Of course, this is also a
J66 107 drama, a costume drama at that, and so the scenes are not without
J66 108 humour *- even humouring.
J66 109    |^What the dealers signify now, as they pay their call on
J66 110 the *"bloody loony**" whose visions they will stun into currency,
J66 111 is the fact that Conrad's primitivism is not the innocent sort,
J66 112 but rather a kind of vitalism. ^What Conrad's art resists are the
J66 113 devitalising claims of the merely secular. ^At this level,
J66 114 however deliberately theatrical, grotesque, comic, and
J66 115 double-conscious her art may seem, it is profoundly, deadly,
J66 116 serious.
J66 117 *<*54*>
J66 118    |^*0The term *"primitive**" seems to have entered the art
J66 119 lexicon through French. ^In the mid nineteenth century
J66 120 *1{*"primitif**"} *0was used to denote fourteenth and fifteenth
J66 121 century Italian artists such as Cimaboue and Giotto. ^Later in
J66 122 the century the term would attach to the Limbourg Brothers.
J66 123 ^Later still, as the century began to turn towards the kind of
J66 124 primitivist crisis engendered by *1{Der Blaue Reiter}, *0the word
J66 125 was used of mediaeval icons, of eighteenth and nineteenth century
J66 126 ex votos and other religious works, especially Rumanian,
J66 127 Bavarian, and Spanish glass paintings.
J66 128    |^By the *1{fin de sie*?3cle}, *0*"primitive**" was being
J66 129 used of all of the above, and of European folk art of the period
J66 130 which extended into the twentieth century, including secular
J66 131 glass paintings, painted Slovenian beehives, rustic painted
J66 132 furniture, and god knows what else. ^The term was also used
J66 133 indiscriminately of tribal art from Africa and Oceania, of
J66 134 archaic art such as the Iberian sculpture that would later
J66 135 influence Picasso, of Oriental court art, and so on.
J66 136    |^This ballooning of the territory of *"primitive**"
J66 137 reflects a shrinkage and a crisis in the metropolitan zone *-
J66 138 reveals a garrison mentality whose sense of its own centrality
J66 139 was megalomanic and certainly (as events would reveal)
J66 140 proto-fascist; and which was simultaneously aware of the growing
J66 141 scope of the other *- of the *"primitive**": the savage, the
J66 142 folk, the naive, the archaic, the oriental, the provincial.
J66 143    |^Metropolitan taste and scholarship would soon admit the
J66 144 *"Italian primitives**" to the mainstream of European art
J66 145 history. ^It would accredit the syncretic sophistication of the
J66 146 Brothers Limbourg. ^In the first decades of the twentieth
J66 147 century, urged by *1{Der Blaue Reiter}, *0the metropolitan would
J66 148 argue for the deprovincialising of such phenomena as Bavarian
J66 149 glass painting.
J66 150    |^This had the effect of attacking bourgeois or academic
J66 151 taste, an Oedipal motive also in Picasso's Africanism. ^As an
J66 152 appropriation, however, it had in addition the effect of
J66 153 enlarging the metropolitan zone. ^The great Modernist
J66 154 Weltanschauung was launched.
J66 155    |^By mid-century the move had been taken further by
J66 156 Dubuffet. ^The *"art brut**" of the mentally ill, of children,
J66 157 and of makers working entirely outside the metropolitan art
J66 158 economy, was proposed as an authentic alternative to the products
J66 159 of that economy, which would certainly by now include countless
J66 160 samples of Modernist primitivism.
J66 161    |^This move installed Cythera in place of the metropolitan
J66 162 centre. ^There was no longer any need to be somewhere else. ^All
J66 163 that was required was the repudiation of an economy. ^Conrad's
J66 164 art dealers are the phantoms of this scenario. ^Much of her
J66 165 writing and art *- the signature of its style *- might seem of
J66 166 Dubuffet, or of Michel The*?2voz (*1Art Brut, *01976; *1{Le
J66 167 langage de la rupture}, *01978).
J66 168 *<*55*>
J66 169    |^The successive repudiations and movements in Modernist
J66 170 *"progress**" have all seemed versions of this primitivist
J66 171 recidivism. ^The primitivism of such late Modernist phenomena as
J66 172 American sculptural earthworks (Robert Smithson, Michael Heizer,
J66 173 Robert Morris); the monumentalism of Nancy Holt or Michelle
J66 174 Stuart; the *"fetishism**" of Eva Hesse or Jackie Windsor or, in
J66 175 New Zealand, of Jacqueline Fraser; the 1970s walks of Richard
J66 176 Long, the shamanism of Beuys; the sympathetic magic invoked by
J66 177 much women's movement art *- the primitivism of these is readily
J66 178 identifiable.
J66 179    |^But by the seventies, the idea of *"the primitive**" had
J66 180 been *"demagnetised**", as Christopher Middleton puts it (4) by
J66 181 the thought of two and even three generations. ^A postmodern
J66 182 generation (such as Jacqueline Fraser's) has been less
J66 183 self-conscious about the Late Capitalist economy it occupies.
J66 184 ^Primitivism raised against the metropolitan economy has seemed,
J66 185 for this generation, to be as effective as a bow and arrow. ^In
J66 186 the 1980s, the primitivism of Jacqueline Fraser, of Christina
J66 187 Conrad, has a different frame from that available to it in the
J66 188 early 70s. ^It is a different kind of alternative. ^And it has
J66 189 been in the 1980s that Christina Conrad, notwithstanding her
J66 190 sardonic asides in the direction of the art dealers, has advanced
J66 191 into the art economy.
J66 192 *<*56*>
J66 193    |^*0It is now very hard to make primitivist art that does
J66 194 not install quotation marks around *"primitive**". ^Women artists
J66 195 have featured prominently in this process *- the term *"other**"
J66 196 like the Derridaean pun *"diffe*?2rence**" has become a
J66 197 commonplace of this consciousness.
J66 198    |^It's a consciousness widely separated from the Modernist
J66 199 primitivism of Gauguin and Picasso, who now, themselves, might
J66 200 almost seem naive. ^Indeed, the consciousness frequently
J66 201 repudiates their example; or quotes them in knowing contexts.
J66 202 ^Robin White's Kiribati woodcuts come to mind: their Gauguinesque
J66 203 qualities involve a highly conscious historical sense. ^And
J66 204 Christina Conrad's Picassoesque modelling needs looking at in
J66 205 this regard also.
J66 206 *<*57*>
J66 207    |^*0Paintings titled *"^The Artist Contemplating Her
J66 208 Finances**", or *"^The Artist Entertaining the Gentlemen of the
J66 209 Artworld**", or, most blatantly, *"^The Artist Asking for Time to
J66 210 Paint**", are hardly unselfconsciously primitivist *- their
J66 211 claims on the primitivist site have a very large historical
J66 212 context.
J66 213    |^What the conscious primitivism of Christina Conrad does
J66 214 have in common with that of its Modernist masters (with whom her
J66 215 relationship is certainly ironic) is a tendency to iconise
J66 216 subjects *- to transform narrative into icon, depth into surface,
J66 217 and so on.
J66 218    |^A significant mark of Conrad's consciousness can be read
J66 219 right here *- where her narrative or discursive qualities (as
J66 220 inscribed in her titles) encounter her *"primitive**" iconic ones
J66 221 (as revealed in the  static, sculptural, frontal qualities of
J66 222 both paintings and clay works). ^The one tends to apply pressure
J66 223 to the other; the result is theatrical, often humorous, and
J66 224 certainly involves a deal of calculated display.
J66 225    |^This display *- this transformation of the discredited
J66 226 optimisms of Modernist primitivism *- involves a repudiation of
J66 227 the *"old master**" history of Modernist anti-bourgeois
J66 228 primitivism. ^Like Mimmo Paladino's, for example, Conrad's
J66 229 primitivism has had to reduce its Modernist masters (for instance
J66 230 Picasso) to an available status *- her quotation of such
J66 231 *"masters**" is not deferential, but equal.
J66 232    |^It is even, perhaps, reappropriative *- as the Modernist
J66 233 masters in their day appropriated tribal art, transforming it
J66 234 into a memory, so Conrad *"remembers**" them; less because they
J66 235 might transform the art of her time, as because the
J66 236 transformation they did accomplish now needs to be written back
J66 237 into art as an ordinary ingredient of its vocabulary.
J66 238 *#
J67 001 **[361 TEXT J67**]
J67 002 |^*0Metamorphosis: change of form \0esp. magic transformation.
J67 003 |^We are experiencing a moment when contradictions and
J67 004 ambiguities impress themselves on our consciousness with
J67 005 compelling urgency. ^It is no longer possible to assess art
J67 006 activity in the eighties in the same framework as even that of
J67 007 five years ago. ^Postmodernism has urged a more critical
J67 008 discourse abroad which in turn is gathering momentum in this
J67 009 country and the premise on which artmaking takes place is under
J67 010 close scrutiny. ^It is impossible to ignore the fact that for the
J67 011 past twenty years there has been a disillusionment with 
J67 012 avant-garde progressivism and a dissatisfaction with so-called
J67 013 *'modernist**' painting. ^For those most keenly aware of this
J67 014 rupture with the past, there has been a radical reassessment of
J67 015 the notions of the individual genius of the artist, the
J67 016 uniqueness of the object, and the privileged context of the
J67 017 museum.
J67 018    |^How then do we come to terms with a New Zealand artist
J67 019 like Philippa Blair who at face value continues to evolve an
J67 020 expressionist mode of painting in keeping with the tenets
J67 021 operating earlier this century? ^Can we afford to assess her work
J67 022 only in terms according to Worringer and Kandinsky or those
J67 023 espoused by the existentialists or do we now attempt to evaluate
J67 024 Blair in the nexus of Postmodernism**[SIC**]. ^As Suzi Gablik has
J67 025 commented:
J67 026 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 027    |^There is no denying that Blair's work has always reflected
J67 028 a pluralist standpoint. ^From the *1Packapoo *0series of
J67 029 paintings and screenprints in 1980, the *1tipi *0works of
J67 030 1982-83, *1Canberra: Snakes and Circles *0in 1984, the
J67 031 Christchurch series of cut-out canvases in 1985 to the *1Macbeth
J67 032 *0cloaks and drawings of 1986, she has freely explored a number
J67 033 of directions. ^Making no apology for her eclecticism, she has
J67 034 taken on board a style that at times has reiterated similar
J67 035 concerns of close colleagues in New Zealand, Jackson Pollock's
J67 036 action painting, the experimental films of Len Lye, Jim Dine's
J67 037 particular brand of pop art, symbols and formal structures
J67 038 derived from the American Indian, explorations in abstraction
J67 039 a*?3 la the Bauhaus and so forth.
J67 040    |^On the local front, Philippa Blair, like Philip Trusttum,
J67 041 Allen Maddox and Philip Clairmont was nurtured in the
J67 042 expressionist formula by Rudi Gopas at the Canterbury School of
J67 043 Art. ^In the 'sixties he had urged his students to choose colour
J67 044 freely and examine its psychological effects and to abstract from
J67 045 specific natural forms to produce visual statements that evoked
J67 046 the universal. ^The validity of this endeavour has subsequently
J67 047 been disputed by, among others, Hal Foster, in his essay *'The
J67 048 Expressive Fallacy**', where he argues that expressionism is a
J67 049 specific language which *'encodes the natural and simulates the
J67 050 immediate.**' ^There is, in effect, no such thing as an
J67 051 unmediated or pure response to nature or to one's feelings.
J67 052 ^Expressionism per se runs the risk of being seductive and
J67 053 without sufficient content for the postmodern sensibility.
J67 054    |^The questioning of the integrity of this formula by
J67 055 today's standards is just one of the dilemmas Blair faces in her
J67 056 career. ^Her relationship to German and Abstract Expressionism,
J67 057 to specific international figures named above as well as art of a
J67 058 similar persuasion by other New Zealanders is equivocal since the
J67 059 system it evolved from was a patriarchal one and the visual
J67 060 language it used served a masculine viewpoint. ^As a woman artist
J67 061 she is therefore operating in a tradition that tends to negate
J67 062 femininity. ^To some extent Blair has disrupted this hegemony by
J67 063 building into her style imagery that, in terms of American
J67 064 feminist theory of the 'seventies, has a symbolic parallel to
J67 065 women's experience. ^Her canvases may have a scale and emotional
J67 066 strength that disqualify such adjectives used traditionally for
J67 067 *'feminine**' art (such as *'delicate**', *'refined**' and
J67 068 *'pretty**') but they incorporate a strong sexual component which
J67 069 can be seen as especially female. ^This is manifested in her
J67 070 *1tipi *0paintings where she is preoccupied with formal
J67 071 relationships between *'inside**' and *'outside**' and in works
J67 072 like the *1Journey Cloak *0(1983) where there is a sense of
J67 073 enclosure, barriers, constrictions as well as of growth,
J67 074 unwinding and unfolding. ^Lucy Lippard suggested in *1From the
J67 075 Center *0that
J67 076 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 077    |^Blair has steered clear of acknowledging the erotic
J67 078 component in her imagery until 1985 when a series of etchings and
J67 079 paintings based on the dichotomy of male/ female appeared.
J67 080 **[PLATE**]
J67 081 ^These were among the few obviously figurative compositions the
J67 082 artist has produced. ^She prefers to describe the content of her
J67 083 work in terms of intangible polarities *- Shelter/ Exposure,
J67 084 Energy/ Rest, Night/ Day, Personal/ Universal, Spirit/ Matter.
J67 085 ^Such metaphysical oppositions, according to Foster, are the very
J67 086 basis of Expressionism and since the 'seventies, they have
J67 087 recurred over and over again in Blair's work. ^In a typewritten
J67 088 statement of July 1984, she wrote
J67 089 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 090    |^In this attempt to balance opposites, the viewer is
J67 091 constantly aware of the formal properties of her work.
J67 092 ^Exuberant in colour and gesture, large unstretched canvases are
J67 093 pinned flat to the wall or given the freedom to fall as a fold,
J67 094 capable of transforming themselves visually in a variety of ways.
J67 095 ^They are at once painting, sculpture, cloaks and shelters,
J67 096 unrestricted by the constraints of stretcher and frame. ^When
J67 097 interviewed by Chris Parr in late 1982 she explained,
J67 098 **[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 099 ^It is a distinctive trait of this artist that she has placed
J67 100 particular emphasis on breaking down the barriers of traditional
J67 101 artmaking, and continues to be innovatory in this respect.
J67 102    |^In the four years since Parr's article was published
J67 103 Philippa Blair has remained open-ended and all-inclusive in her
J67 104 imagery. ^Regular travel outside New Zealand has contributed to a
J67 105 widening of her visual vocabulary and she maintains an energy and
J67 106 confident hedonism in canvases, prints and drawings that is 
J67 107 life-affirming rather than nihilistic. ^Her appropriation of American
J67 108 Indian symbols and the *1tipi *0device of the early 'eighties
J67 109 gradually gave way to cloaks which were less didactic.
J67 110    |^In the artist's exhibition *1Transformations *0at {0RKS}
J67 111 Art in September 1983, works were given titles such as *1Spring
J67 112 Cloak, Hiroshima Cloak *0and *1Metaphysical Cloak. ^*0Lines,
J67 113 shapes and colour areas ran arbitrarily into one another imaging
J67 114 a world of shifting, unpredictable relationships. ^The addition
J67 115 of black-and-white striped poles (which had an anthropomorphic
J67 116 presence) and ladders were extended out from the
J67 117 canvas into the gallery space. ^Explicit signs, drawn from a 
J67 118 non-Western culture, were no longer present and thus the artist
J67 119 avoided the trap of overt image-scavenging. ^Instead, the
J67 120 paintwork was freer and endeavoured to be associated more with
J67 121 personal experience than with tribal art.
J67 122    |^In April 1984 Blair participated in the
J67 123 artist-in-residency programme at the Canberra School of Art. ^For
J67 124 a period of three months she developed canvases and drawings that
J67 125 gave primacy to the autobiographical. ^She sees most of her
J67 126 output as reflecting a journey *- both actual and in metaphysical
J67 127 terms. ^In Canberra, the city's topographical complexity formed a
J67 128 base structure for her images with analogies to the game of
J67 129 *'snakes and ladders**', and to Kandinsky's work in the
J67 130 Australian National Gallery. ^Exhibited first in Canberra and
J67 131 subsequently in New Zealand, the paintings especially were her
J67 132 most complex to date. ^A frenetic configuration of lines, circles
J67 133 and colours combined in compositions called *1Kangaroo:
J67 134 Gininderra, Glenloch Interchange *0and *1Snaking Through: Woden
J67 135 Valley.
J67 136    |^*0Among the constructions, *1Snake with Ladder *0was
J67 137 typical. ^It featured a darkly coiled canvas strip and inserted
J67 138 coloured wooden batons, with a small black ladder leaning on the
J67 139 wall alongside. ^What was perhaps surprising in the *1Snakes and
J67 140 Circles *0series was the inclusion of a group of conte*?2 and
J67 141 charcoal drawings. ^Here the artist deliberately restricted the
J67 142 scale and colour of her imagery, allowing the strong centrifugal
J67 143 movement of line and form to come to the fore. ^Curved rhythms
J67 144 suggested motorway intersections at the same time as sexually
J67 145 organic forms. ^The corporeality of these drawings implied
J67 146 movement both across and out from the surface. ^*1Canberra Kimono
J67 147 *0comprised one of several canvases folded to suggest clothes,
J67 148 with richly coloured outer folds, split and divided. ^Inside
J67 149 these the tonality was sombre. ^The duality was
J67 150 characteristically intended to act as a metaphor for change from
J67 151 one transient state to another. ^It was a series of cloaks which
J67 152 largely made up the artist's exhibition later in the year at the
J67 153 Shippee Gallery, New York.
J67 154    |^Much of 1985 was spent in Christchurch as a visiting
J67 155 lecturer in painting at the School of Fine Arts (where she had
J67 156 graduated in 1967). ^*1A Tree has its Heart in its Roots, *0named
J67 157 after a fable written by Lye in 1948, set the theme for works
J67 158 from this period. ^Seeing it as symbolical of the life-force,
J67 159 Blair adopted a schematised trunk and branch form as a way of
J67 160 suggesting growth-change *- birth *- and death. ^The speed and
J67 161 considerable physical action involved in such paintings is
J67 162 crucial for conveying the desired effect of immediacy. ^Moving
J67 163 rapidly with brush and pigment across the rectangular canvas
J67 164 covering her studio floor, the artist performs what is almost a
J67 165 choreographed dance. ^When displayed at the Robert McDougall Art
J67 166 Gallery in early 1986, paintings based on the tree were
J67 167 accompanied by those using an emblematic heart, such as in
J67 168 *1Queen of Hearts. ^*0These recalled her *'heart books**' of the
J67 169 previous year where the canvas could be opened out at random from
J67 170 its position on the wall. ^The Christchurch show also featured an
J67 171 installation of *'cut-outs**' where the rectangular edge of the
J67 172 canvas was cut and draped in partial imitation of a garment.
J67 173 ^*1Sailing in Hagley Park *0was the most ambitious of these.
J67 174    |^In recent months Blair has taken the theatrical
J67 175 implications of her installation to a natural conclusion with a
J67 176 series of cloaks and pastel drawings based on *1Macbeth.
J67 177 ^*0Inspired by rehearsals she attended at Auckland's Theatre
J67 178 Corporate in May 1986, she arrived at statements like the
J67 179 *1King's Cloak. ^*0The work is among her most imposing to date in
J67 180 its three-dimensional quality and vibrant colour with free
J67 181 gestural brushstroke and dripped paint drenching and opening up
J67 182 the heavier forms. ^The whole vocabulary of expressionist
J67 183 technique so richly displayed encourages the viewer to experience
J67 184 vicariously, to identify emotionally with dramatic changes and
J67 185 contrasts of mood implied by the theme.
J67 186    |^Not surprisingly a year before, Philippa Blair had read
J67 187 Franc*?6oise Gilot's
J67 188 **[PLATES**]
J67 189 book *1Interface: The Painter and the Mask. ^*0In Gilot's
J67 190 description of the supremacy of an individual's creativity, she
J67 191 sensed a parallel approach to her own:
J67 192 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 193    |^The problem remains. ^Is it sufficient for an artist
J67 194 working in the mid-'eighties to see paintings as a Romantic 
J67 195 self-identification with nature or the universe?
J67 196 *<*4Gillian Chaplin*>
J67 197 *<*2ANNE KIRKER*>
J67 198 |^*0Since the early nineteen-eighties, Gillian Chaplin has no
J67 199 longer worked exclusively as a photographer in the conventional
J67 200 sense. ^For practical reasons, as much as the need to articulate
J67 201 shifts in her own creative thought, she has largely by-passed
J67 202 direct use of the camera, to convey instead a confrontation
J67 203 between past and present *- in her own life particularly, and the
J67 204 intangible realm of fantasy and dream.
J67 205    |^Employed full-time at the Auckland Institute and Museum in
J67 206 1981, the artist found she had less time at her disposal (and no
J67 207 dark-room) to maintain the output of photography she was used to.
J67 208 ^In the Museum's U-bix photocopier she discovered a readily
J67 209 accessible means to simultaneously transpose a variety of images:
J67 210 |**[LONG QUOTATION**]
J67 211    |^Chaplin has in fact come to regard the photocopying
J67 212 machine as a super-efficient camera, capable of exposing and
J67 213 printing an image *'in a flash**', but its special ability to
J67 214 combine eerily stark precision with ghostly shading and also to
J67 215 skid the impression out of definition is perfect for her
J67 216 enigmatic perception. ^The artist's initial use of xerox was
J67 217 demonstrated as part of her exhibition at Photo-Forum in 1981 and
J67 218 took the form of a single sheet supporting an image of velvety
J67 219 soft blacks. ^With time she started tearing, cutting and pasting
J67 220 pieces of the xeroxed sheets together, heightening the complexity
J67 221 of their various relationships and she also began adding colour
J67 222 by hand.
J67 223    |^There has been one consistent motif within these transient
J67 224 interior worlds *- that of the artist's physical self as subject.
J67 225 *#
J68 001 **[362 TEXT J68**]
J68 002    |^*0When we hear a modern day concert pianist dashing
J68 003 through a jungle of trills, rapid scale passages, arpeggios,
J68 004 broken chords and double octaves in a cadenza of a piano
J68 005 concerto, how often do we stop and think of the source of this
J68 006 type of keyboard bravura. ^The cradle of keyboard virtuoso
J68 007 writing was the English virginal school of which Byrd's
J68 008 Sellinger's Round is a representative example. ^Of course
J68 009 keyboard instruments existed well before the lifetime of William
J68 010 Byrd (1543-1623) but a true keyboard idiom as distinct from a
J68 011 vocal idiom did not develop till the late renaissance.
J68 012 *<*4Historical Background of Keyboard Music*>
J68 013    |^*0The keyboard instruments in existence up to and during
J68 014 the renaissance era were the organ, clavichord, virginals, spinet
J68 015 and harpsichord.
J68 016    |^Of these the organ is of course the oldest with a history
J68 017 stretching back to about 246 {0B.C.} ^The first composer of
J68 018 importance was the German Konrad Paumann who wrote a pioneering
J68 019 organ method in 1452. ^His Buxheimer Orgelbuch (\0cl460) contains
J68 020 a collection of some 250 solo organ works, most of them
J68 021 ornamented pieces of vocal works by German composers, who
J68 022 dominated early organ literature. ^The main composers of organ
J68 023 much**[SIC**] in the 1500s were Cabezon of Spain and Merulo of
J68 024 Venice. ^The style of organ works was mainly vocal and
J68 025 polyphonic. ^Little virtuosity appeared in organ writing before
J68 026 the Baroque era, although some of the organ toccatas of Merulo
J68 027 written between 1598-1604 show clear signs of an independent
J68 028 keyboard style and bravura writing beginning to emerge.
J68 029    |^Clavichords which developed from the old monochord were in
J68 030 evidence as early as the 1430s. ^As the strings are *1struck *0by
J68 031 a tangent it is the true predecessor of the piano rather than the
J68 032 harpsichord family whose strings were *1plucked *0by a quill.
J68 033 ^The very quiet volume level of the clavichord confined its use
J68 034 largely to that of a domestic household instrument.
J68 035    |^Harpischord, spinet and virginals are one family of
J68 036 plucked-string keyboard instruments and indeed the three words
J68 037 tended to be interchangeable as well as meaning different things
J68 038 at different times.
J68 039    |^Thus, in 16th and 17th century England the term
J68 040 *"virginal**" mean**[SIC**] any string keyboard instrument. ^The
J68 041 well-known Fitzwilliam Virginal Book in which this Byrd
J68 042 Sellinger's Round is printed, was largely played on the
J68 043 harpsichord.
J68 044 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J68 045 |^*4Consult a reputable music dictionary and find out the
J68 046 differences in shape and technical specifications between a
J68 047 harpsichord, a spinet and a virginal.
J68 048 **[END INDENTATION**]
J68 049    |^*0Because of its compact shape, the virginal was the true
J68 050 domestic instrument used most commonly in households. ^Some
J68 051 designs were a pair of virginals laid side by side on one case in
J68 052 which the right-hand virginal could be removed from the case,
J68 053 placed on a table and used as a portable keyboard rather like
J68 054 today's electronic organ keyboards. ^Hence the term *"a pair of
J68 055 virginals**" which is sometimes encountered in contemporary
J68 056 descriptions of seventeenth century virginals.
J68 057    |^The first instruments of the harpsichord family were
J68 058 developed near the end of the 14th century. ^The earliest written
J68 059 evidence of such an instrument was in 1404. ^In a treatise of
J68 060 about 1440 Arnaut of Zwolle describes the harpsichord in great
J68 061 detail with accompanying diagrams.
J68 062    |^The wide geographical distribution and acceptance of the
J68 063 harpsichord in the 15th century led to the development of schools
J68 064 of harpsichord building in various countries, the most important
J68 065 being Italy. ^Other schools sprang up in Germany, Flanders,
J68 066 France and England.
J68 067 *<*4String Keyboard Music in England*>
J68 068    |^*0In 1502 Edward Stanley was known to have sung and
J68 069 accompanied himself on the virginal before the King of Scotland.
J68 070 ^Virginal music was in great favour at the courts of Henry *=VII
J68 071 and Henry *=VIII who was himself a skilled virginal player.
J68 072    |^While much early English keyboard music is apt for
J68 073 virginal or organ later music differentiated between the two
J68 074 styles in a way which the keyboard music of Italy didn't. ^The
J68 075 English virginalists can therefore claim to have pioneered the
J68 076 truly independent string-keyboard style as exemplified in the
J68 077 works of the mature English virginal school from composers such
J68 078 as Bull, Farnaby, Gibbons and Byrd.
J68 079    |^An important forerunner to this mature virginal style is
J68 080 Hornpipe by Aston as well as two anonymous works sometimes
J68 081 attributed to Aston *- *"My Lady Carey's \1Dompe**" and *"My Lady
J68 082 Wynkfyld's \1Rownde**". ^All three pieces appeared between about
J68 083 1530-1535. ^These pieces show clear evidence of the use of
J68 084 variation technique by English keyboard writers before 1550, as
J68 085 well as displaying a remarkable grasp of keyboard technique using
J68 086 scalic runs, broken chords and arpeggios.
J68 087    |^This paved the way for the flowering of the great English
J68 088 virginalists a generation later, the most important of whom was
J68 089 William Byrd. ^Other prominent writers were Orlando Gibbons
J68 090 (1583-1625), Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656), John Bull (1562-1628)
J68 091 and Giles Farnaby (\0cl563-1640).
J68 092 *<*4Important Keyboard Music Collections*>
J68 093    |^*1The Mulliner Book *0compiled by Thomas Mulliner from
J68 094 \0cl545 to \0cl585 is the oldest and most important of the
J68 095 keyboard sources. ^It contains dances, transcriptions of secular
J68 096 songs and anthems, settings of psalm tunes and chants. ^Although
J68 097 these are mainly for organ there are a few in the collection
J68 098 intended for virginals. ^The manuscripts in this collection
J68 099 comprise works by Redford, Tallis, Blytheman, Shepherd, Alwood,
J68 100 Edwards, Robert Johnson, Mundy, Taverner, Tye and others.
J68 101    |^The most carefully and beautifully written manuscript is
J68 102 *1My Lady Nevell's Book *0containing 42 works all by Byrd,
J68 103 including Sellinger's Round.
J68 104    |^*1Parthenia, or the \1Maydenhead of the First \1Musicke that
J68 105 ever was printed for the \1Virginalls *0(1611) is the first known
J68 106 English publication of virginal music. ^It contains 21 pieces by
J68 107 Byrd, Bull and Gibbons. ^They are mostly pavans and galliards
J68 108 plus one set of variations, a fancy and some preludes.
J68 109    |^By far the most comprehensive anthology is the
J68 110 *1*"Fitzwilliam Virginal Book**". *0This was copied by Francis
J68 111 Tregian during his ten year confinement in Fleet Prison for
J68 112 refusing to renounce his Catholic religion. ^It contains nearly
J68 113 300 compositions (including Byrd's Sellinger's Round) by nearly
J68 114 all the major English keyboard writers. ^They include madrigal
J68 115 transcriptions, contrapuntal fantasias, preludes, dances,
J68 116 descriptive pieces and many sets of variations, all written
J68 117 between \0cl562 to \0cl6l2.
J68 118    |^One of the last collections to appear was *1*"Elizabeth
J68 119 Rogers her {1Virginall Booke}**" *0dated 1656.
J68 120    |^Titles of works and collections, contemporary paintings
J68 121 and works of literature would seem to reinforce the fact that the
J68 122 virginal was largely an instrument for ladies.
J68 123 *<*4Keyboard Forms*>
J68 124    |^*0Because an independent keyboard style was still in its
J68 125 infancy, the 16th century forms reflected a heterogeneous mixture
J68 126 of vocal, dance and emergent keyboard forms, which could be
J68 127 grouped into four categories: vocal forms, dance forms, pieces
J68 128 based on an style and variation forms. ^It should not be
J68 129 forgotten that keyboard composers in those days were both
J68 130 competent organists and virginalists and that much of the
J68 131 keyboard repertoire was therefore interchangeable. ^Many of the
J68 132 forms could be played equally well on either instrument.
J68 133 *<*41. Vocally derived forms*>
J68 134    |^*0There were four categories of keyboard works allied with
J68 135 vocal music. ^The first of these consisted of straight
J68 136 transcriptions of popular motets, chansons and madrigals
J68 137 decorated by trills runs and embellishments. ^Some of these
J68 138 stayed close to their models like Farnaby. ^Farnaby's
J68 139 transcription of his own canzonet *"{1Ay me, poore heart}**" is
J68 140 never obscured by figuration. ^Others like Byrd and Philips were
J68 141 much freer with their transcriptions. ^Philips' transcription of
J68 142 Lassus's chanson *"Margot labourez les vignes**" makes a much
J68 143 freer use of keyboard decoration and scale runs in the part
J68 144 writing.
J68 145    |^Cantus firmus compositions based on Gregorian chants, and
J68 146 later, secular tunes, formed another popular category of
J68 147 vocally-derived keyboard music. ^This style appeared in the
J68 148 middle of the 16th century. ^Later composers like Byrd and
J68 149 Gibbons were able to decorate popular sacred cantus firmus
J68 150 melodies such as their various settings of *"Miserere**" and *"In
J68 151 Nomine**" with quite enterprising figurations of virginal
J68 152 technique. ^A number of these cantus firmus compositions are
J68 153 included in the popular anthologies such as the Fitzwilliam
J68 154 Virginal Book.
J68 155    |^The instrumental *1ricercar *0(\0It. ricercare to seek,
J68 156 search) was the instrumental equivalent of the vocal motet. ^The
J68 157 earliest, dating from the mid 16th century, were written in the
J68 158 same tradition as polyphonic church music. ^The ricercare
J68 159 generally displayed great contrapuntal learnedness with much use
J68 160 of inversion, augmentation, diminution and retrograde treatment
J68 161 of polyphonic material. ^They were written for instrumental
J68 162 consorts and sometimes for keyboard instruments. ^The form was
J68 163 favoured in Italy especially, and reached its vogue in the later
J68 164 part of the 16th century.
J68 165    |^The *1canzona *0(\0It. *"song**") was one of the most
J68 166 important instrumental forms of the 16th century and favoured in
J68 167 Italy. ^The earliest canzonas from 1520-1540 developed from the
J68 168 practice of lutenists and keyboard players making instrumental
J68 169 arrangements of French chansons. ^The lively rhythm, clear-cut
J68 170 structure and simple tunefulness of the chanson made the canzona
J68 171 a more popular, secular and less learned counterpart of the
J68 172 ricercar. ^It employs long fugue-like themes imitated in all
J68 173 voices but with more freedom and rhythmic vitality than the
J68 174 ricercar. ^Keyboard canzonas continued their popularity in the
J68 175 early Baroque and became an important forerunner to the Baroque
J68 176 organ fugue.
J68 177 *<*42. Forms based on an improvisatory style*>
J68 178    |^*0These are closely allied to the vocally derived forms
J68 179 above, in that they were still written in the old polyphonic
J68 180 tradition during the renaissance. ^The three most popular
J68 181 keyboard forms in this category were the *1toccata, prelude,
J68 182 *0and *1fantasia.
J68 183    |^*0The *1toccatas *0and *1preludes *0are the freest in
J68 184 structure. ^The preludes for virginal by both Byrd and Bull use
J68 185 considerable keyboard figuration. ^Bull's eight preludes make
J68 186 considerable demands on keyboard virtuosity. ^The toccata was a
J68 187 speciality of Italian organ composers, especially the Venetian
J68 188 Merulo. ^It is written in one movement in a free form. ^The few
J68 189 toccatas in English collections show a strong Italian influence.
J68 190    |^The *1Fantasia *0or *1Fancy *0is similar in structure to
J68 191 the Toccata but it is more contrapuntal and imitative in style.
J68 192 ^They range from scholastic contrapuntal exercises to very free
J68 193 works in an improvisational style. ^There is a tendency to
J68 194 develop one subject extensively in this genre. ^Giles Farnaby
J68 195 excelled in this form, combining contrapuntal skill with a true
J68 196 virginal keyboard style of broken chords, wide skips,
J68 197 ornamentation and rapid passages in thirds.
J68 198    |^The renaissance keyboard writers laid the foundation for
J68 199 the full flowering of the prelude, toccata and fantasia in the
J68 200 Baroque, reaching their peak in the organ and harpsichord works
J68 201 of {0J.S.} Bach.
J68 202 *<*43. Dance Forms*>
J68 203    |^*0Among the dance forms the most plentiful in virginal
J68 204 collections are pavans and galliards, allemandes and courantes.
J68 205 ^Jigs, brawls (\1branles), masks, lavoltas, morescas and
J68 206 spagniolettas also appear.
J68 207    |^Dances were often grouped in pairs. ^A slow 4/4 dance
J68 208 followed by a quicker 3/4 one, such as the pavan and galliard,
J68 209 was a common formula. ^These dance pairs were often grouped like
J68 210 this in Europe too. ^The Italian ronde and saltarello and the
J68 211 German Tanz and Nachtanz were two typical examples. ^The
J68 212 Allemande (or \1Alman) and Courante emerged in the middle of the
J68 213 16th century. ^Both these were retained for the later stylized
J68 214 dance suites of the Baroque. ^These works were often written
J68 215 specifically for dancing. ^Others, although retaining their basic
J68 216 characteristics were extended and stylized beyond the functional
J68 217 dance. ^Gibbons's *"\1Pavane Lord Salisbury**" is such an example.
J68 218    |^In all these dance forms the rhythmic and harmonic aspects
J68 219 predominated even when composers gave them elaborate contrapuntal
J68 220 treatment. ^Sometimes sets of variations are built on dances,
J68 221 especially the passamezzo pavans. ^One of Byrd's eight
J68 222 pavan-galliards in the *"My \1Ladye Nevell's \1Booke**" includes such
J68 223 a pavan.
J68 224    |^Borrowed material occasionally appears in keyboard pavans.
J68 225 ^Farnaby's Lachrimae Pavana and Byrd's Pavana Lachrimae are both
J68 226 based on Dowland's *"Flow My Tears**". ^Dances are sometimes
J68 227 named after an individual. ^A pavan-galliard each by Byrd and
J68 228 Gibbons for example are titled *"Pavan and Galliard, the Earl of
J68 229 Salisbury**". ^Some titles have descriptive connotations too,
J68 230 such as Bull's Spanish Pavan, Tomkin's Hunting Galliard and
J68 231 Philips's Pavana Dolorosa.
J68 232    |^Next in popularity are the allemandes and courantes which
J68 233 were likewise paired together. ^The jig is usually in a lively
J68 234 modern day equivalent of a 6/8 or 12/8 metre.
J68 235 *#
J69 001 **[363 TEXT J69**]
J69 002 ^*0Since the apical and basal walls of a cell are denoted by
J69 003 *2\LOWWALL *0and *2\HIGHWALL *0(\0Fig. 5), this corresponds to
J69 004 |**[FORMULA**],
J69 005 |in *=I (for notation see Table 1).
J69 006 *<3.2 Time in the simulation*>
J69 007    |^A complete simulation requires 120 1-\0h time steps. ^The
J69 008 first 60 time steps are required to fill the meristem and the
J69 009 second 60 for data collection (*=I) . ^A constant *2{ZEROTIME =
J69 010 60} *0is used to adjust time scales to zero at the beginning of
J69 011 data collection.
J69 012    |^Each family has its own time scale which runs from 1 to 74
J69 013 \0h and which is related to the time step for the simulation by
J69 014 the parameters *2\ZEROTIME, \TZERO *0and *2\NEWTIM *0(\0p. A10,
J69 015 \0p. A14) . ^*2\TZERO *0is the age of a family at the beginning
J69 016 of data collection, and *2\NEWTIM *0is the time between the
J69 017 introduction of one family and the next (Section 4.2).
J69 018 *<3.3 Implementation of the division rules*>
J69 019    |^Division rules are given in *=I and correspondence between
J69 020 the notations used in *=I and in the program is given in Table 1.
J69 021 ^Division rules are based on relationships between cell lengths
J69 022 and observed cell size limits (*=I) . ^The rules are implemented
J69 023 in subroutine *2\GROW *0(\0p. A18). ^In this subroutine, two
J69 024 times are assigned to each cell (\0Fig. 6; \0p. A18) : *2\TMIN,
J69 025 *0the first time step after twice the minimum size is reached
J69 026 (rule **=ii, *=I), and *2\TMAX, *0the first time step after the
J69 027 maximum size has been reached (rule **=iii, *=I).
J69 028    |^The process of transverse division is handled in
J69 029 subroutine *2\DIVIDE *0(\0p. A17). ^If a cell is to undergo
J69 030 division, a division time *2\TDIV *0must be selected from the
J69 031 interval *2{RANGE ( = TMAX - TMIN) (DIVIDE)}. ^*0Three
J69 032 procedures, *'midpoint**', *'uniform**' and *'binomial**', are
J69 033 available for setting *2\TDIV, *0and the procedure to be used is
J69 034 set in file *2{CONDITION.DAT} *0(\0Fig. 2; Section 2.2). ^The
J69 035 midpoint procedure sets *2\TDIV *0to the midpoint of the
J69 036 interval, or, more precisely, to the midpoint if the interval
J69 037 contains an odd number of time steps, and to the time step before
J69 038 the midpoint if the number of time steps is even. ^The other two
J69 039 procedures involve sampling at random from probability density
J69 040 distributions by using random number generators (Sections 2.2,
J69 041 2.3). ^In the uniform procedure, *2\TDIV *0is selected by
J69 042 sampling a random number from a discrete uniform density function
J69 043 so that every time step in the interval, including *2\TMIN *0and
J69 044 *2\TMAX, *0has an equal chance of being chosen. ^In the binomial
J69 045 procedure, *2\TDIV *0is selected by sampling from a symmetric
J69 046 binomial density function. ^This makes *2\TDIV *0more likely to
J69 047 fall in the middle of the time interval than at the beginning or
J69 048 end, so that the binomial procedure is intermediate between the
J69 049 midpoint and uniform procedures (*=I).
J69 050    |^If a cell cycle duration ({0CCD}) found by one of these
J69 051 procedures is less than two hours (which may occur if the initial
J69 052 length of a cell exceeds twice the minimum size), *2\TMIN *0is
J69 053 redefined (*=I, rule **=iv; \0p. A19-20) as
J69 054 |*2{TMIN = BEGIN + 2},
J69 055 |*0where *2\BEGIN *0is the time the cell was formed. ^The
J69 056 division time is then calculated as before.
J69 057    |^Use of discrete time steps means that a convention is
J69 058 required to determine whether the mother or daughter cells are in
J69 059 existence at *2\TDIV. ^*0The data collection routines treat
J69 060 *2{TDIV-1} *0as the time of disappearance of mother cells and
J69 061 *2\TDIV *0as the time of appearance of daughter cells ({0e.g.}
J69 062 \0p. A29).
J69 063 *<3.4 File splitting*>
J69 064    |^Longitudinal splitting is implemented in subroutine
J69 065 *2\GROW *0(\0Fig. 6; \0p. A18) and split points are set up in
J69 066 subroutine *2\TISSUEINIT *0(\0p. A9). ^If a cell passes the
J69 067 split-point for that file (*2{FSPLIT(FILE)}, *0\0p. A9) it is
J69 068 assigned a time *2\TSPLIT *0(\0p. A18) and must then undergo a
J69 069 longitudinal split (\0Fig. 6; \0p. A20). ^Splitting results in
J69 070 two progeny the same length as the original cell, rather than
J69 071 half the length as in transverse division. ^Splitting times must
J69 072 therefore lie between (*2{BEGIN + 2}) *0and (*2{TDIV - 2}), *0to
J69 073 allow the progeny of splits to divide before exceeding the
J69 074 maximum length (*2\MAXL, *0\0p. A19) without violating the
J69 075 two-hour minimum {0CCD} rule (*=I, rules **=vii, **=viii). ^Cells
J69 076 split at the times when their positions are closest to the
J69 077 split-points assigned to them. ^These times (*2\TDIV) *0equal
J69 078 either *2\TSPLIT *0or *2{TSPLIT-1} *0(\0p. A20).
J69 079    |^In the stele, some files must split twice to give the
J69 080 observed increase in file number (*=I; Appendix C.6). ^In this
J69 081 case, each file is assigned a second split position, *2\NEWSPLIT,
J69 082 *0and the fact that it has already split once is recorded
J69 083 (*2\CLEFT; *0\0p. A20).
J69 084 *<4. *2GROWING A ROOT MERISTEM.*>
J69 085 *<4.1 *0Initialisation and boundary conditions.*>
J69 086    |^*'Initial**' cells are introduced into the model over an
J69 087 apical boundary at 0.1 \0mm (*=I). ^Files of cells are made up of
J69 088 a series of families with the apical boundary of one family
J69 089 coincident with the basal bound of the next (*=I). ^The apical
J69 090 bound of a family is the pathline of the apical wall (*2\LOWWALL)
J69 091 *0of its initial cell.
J69 092    |^The apical wall of the initial cell of the first family in
J69 093 each file is set at the apical boundary in subroutine *2\FILEINIT
J69 094 *0(\0p. A10). ^The lengths of this cell and of all subsequent
J69 095 initial cells are selected from the density distribution of
J69 096 initial cell lengths (Section C.5). ^As initial cells move away
J69 097 from the apical boundary, gaps are left between the boundary and
J69 098 their apical walls. ^The length selected for a new initial cell
J69 099 is compared with the length of a gap (test *2\GAP1, \GAP2, *0\0p.
J69 100 A13), and a new initial cell is introduced when this length is
J69 101 nearest to the new cell length. ^Because the simulation operates
J69 102 in discrete time steps, this procedure causes the positions of
J69 103 initial cells to fluctuate about the apical boundary.
J69 104    |^If very large cells are introduced at the apical boundary,
J69 105 a situation may arise where a cell's *2\TMIN *0and *2\TMAX
J69 106 *0(Section 3.3) are both one, or are one and two; such cells
J69 107 would tend to have very short cell cycles for the first two or
J69 108 three generations after introduction, which would be unrealistic
J69 109 given the slow cell growth in this region. ^Initial cells larger
J69 110 than 0.014 \0mm (twice the minimum length at 0.1 \0mm) are
J69 111 therefore subjected to the division rules as if they existed
J69 112 before introduction. ^This procedure was set up as follows. ^An
J69 113 earliest possible time of division prior to introduction at the
J69 114 apical boundary can be assigned to these calls by assuming that
J69 115 they are of minimum size at birth. ^This is the time at which the
J69 116 cells would have reached twice the minimum size while in the
J69 117 region between the tip and the apical boundary. ^Earliest
J69 118 possible times of division are calculated using the equation
J69 119 **[FIGURE**]
J69 120 |**[FORMULA**],
J69 121 |where L is cell length sampled from the initial size
J69 122 distribution. ^This equation was obtained by fitting a quadratic
J69 123 curve to data for the time taken by cells of minimum size
J69 124 introduced at positions below 0.1 \0mm to reach the apical
J69 125 boundary. ^*2\TMAX *0and *2\TDIV *0are then found in the normal
J69 126 way (\0p. A11, A13). ^If this *2\TDIV *0occurs at or before
J69 127 introduction ({0i.e.} less than one), then instead of the
J69 128 selected initial cell, two progeny cells half the length of the
J69 129 original are introduced, one after the other. ^Each of these is
J69 130 assigned (\0p. A11, A14) a *'birth time**', *2\NEWBEGIN, *0equal
J69 131 to *2\TDIV *0at introduction. ^*2\NEWBEGIN *0is used in all
J69 132 subsequent calculations of age, cell cycle time, and so on for
J69 133 these cells. ^If the assigned *2\TDIV *0is greater than one, the
J69 134 original cell is introduced, and *2\NEWBEGIN *0is set equal to
J69 135 the calculated *2\TMIN.
J69 136    |^*0The net effect of this procedure is that the division
J69 137 rules are applied consistently to all initial cells, including
J69 138 those that might have divided prior to appearance **[SIC**] the
J69 139 apical boundary had the region between the tip and 0.1 \0mm
J69 140 existed in the simulation model.
J69 141 *<4.2 Growing a family of cells*>
J69 142    |^Cells introduced over the apical boundary at 0.1 \0mm, and
J69 143 their descendants, form *'families**' (*=I). ^Growth of a family
J69 144 is controlled by the main program *2\CELLGROW *0using subroutines
J69 145 *2\FAMILYINIT, \STORE, *0and *2\RESTORE *0(\0Fig. 8). ^A series
J69 146 of families is organised to form a file of cells. ^Files are
J69 147 initialised using *2\FILEINIT *0(\0p. A10), while stele and
J69 148 cortex tissues are organised in *2\TISSUEINIT *0(\0p. A9).
J69 149    |^The size of the initial cell in each family is selected in
J69 150 subroutine *2\FAMILYINIT *0(\0Fig. 8; \0p. A13). ^Cells
J69 151 introduced over the apical boundary of the model grow as the
J69 152 pathlines of their walls diverge. ^Subroutine *2\FAMILYINIT
J69 153 *0also initialises a set of state variables for each initial
J69 154 cell. ^When the cell divides, the values of state variables
J69 155 *2\BEGIN, \TDIV, \HIGHWALL, \LOWWALL, \LABEL, \NEXT, \NEW,
J69 156 \SPLIT, \SIZELIM, \STATUS, \CLEFT, \POSITION, \NEWSPLIT, *0and
J69 157 *2\IMMIGRE *0are recorded by subroutine *2\STORE *0(\0p. A32).
J69 158 ^The pseudo-recursive procedure (\0Fig. 3) is then followed until
J69 159 a descendant is produced which does not reach its *2\TMAX
J69 160 *0before passing the end of the meristem and is therefore
J69 161 non-proliferative (*2{STATUS = -1}, *0\0p. A18, A19). ^This cell
J69 162 is grown on until it passes the end of the growth zone with data
J69 163 on its size recorded once in the elongation zone at 4.5 \0mm
J69 164 (\0p. A18, A19) and at the end of the growth zone in subroutine
J69 165 *2\ENDZONE *0(\0p. A34).
J69 166 *<4.3 Stele and cortex tissues*>
J69 167    |^The simulated root is made up of two tissues, stele and
J69 168 cortex. ^The split points required for each tissue are set in
J69 169 subroutine *2\TISSUEINIT *0(\0p. A9), based on data in Section
J69 170 C.6. ^The variable *2\SIZELIM, *0which determines cell size
J69 171 limits for each tissue (Table C.2), is set in subroutine
J69 172 *2\FILEINIT *0(\0p. A10).
J69 173 *<5. *2SIMULATION RESULTS: SPATIAL DATA*>
J69 174    |^*0An example of simulation results, with abbreviated
J69 175 tables is given in Appendix B. ^Here we give notes on Sections
J69 176 B.1-B.3.
J69 177 *<5.1 Initialisation and operational checks*>
J69 178    |^The data in this section of output provide some checks on
J69 179 performance of the simulation. ^The first table shows the results
J69 180 of the procedure for dividing initial cells described in Section
J69 181 4.1. ^The first line gives the numbers of cells in size classes
J69 182 as sampled from the observed distribution; the second is the
J69 183 numbers in those size classes after application of the division
J69 184 rules as described in Section 4.1.
J69 185    |^The next two tables are concerned with the cell production
J69 186 rate below 0.125 \0mm (where the spatial data collection starts).
J69 187 ^The first gives the rate of introduction of initial cells over
J69 188 the apical boundary in a sector (for a 30 degree sector,
J69 189 multiplication by 12 will give the cell flux at 0.1 \0mm). ^The
J69 190 second is a count of the number of cell divisions observed
J69 191 between the apical boundary and 0.125 \0mm in 15 observations;
J69 192 multiplication by 12/15 yields an average rate of cell production
J69 193 for a whole root in the segment 0.1-0.125 \0mm.
J69 194    |^The third group of tables is concerned with statistics on
J69 195 cell length outside the meristem. ^Cell length densities and mean
J69 196 cell lengths are tabulated for cells leaving the growth zone at
J69 197 8.0 \0mm, and for cells in the segment 4.375-4.625 \0mm.
J69 198    |^The data on cell division rates in Sections B.1 and B.3
J69 199 can be used to check simulated results against those given by
J69 200 Erickson and Sax (1956) (*=I).
J69 201 *<5.2. Cell length data*>
J69 202    |^The data in Sections B.2 and B.3 are collected in
J69 203 subroutine *2\RECORD *0(\0p. A23) for 0.25 \0mm segments,
J69 204 starting at 0.125 \0mm from the apex. ^Column headings are the
J69 205 midpoints of segments. ^All calculations are carried out in
J69 206 subroutine *2\FREQUENCY *0(\0p. A35).
J69 207    |^The table of mean cell length by segment at four hour
J69 208 intervals is a check on the stochastic behaviour of the
J69 209 simulation (Section 8.1; \0Fig. 9). ^Cell length densities by
J69 210 segment, in 5 \0\15m*0m size classes, are presented for total
J69 211 cells, for newly-produced daughter cells, for mother cells about
J69 212 to divide, for non-proliferative cells and for proliferative
J69 213 cells.
J69 214 *#
J70 001 **[364 TEXT J70**]
J70 002    |^*0Concentrated load tests on three one-way reinforced
J70 003 concrete slabs are described. ^Instrumentation of the main
J70 004 reinforcing bars enabled the tension forces to be measured and
J70 005 compared with the predicted response from standard thin plate
J70 006 flexural theory for load levels ranging from the first cracking
J70 007 load through to the failure condition. ^Simple supports were used
J70 008 for the first slab and the second was flexurally restrained. ^In
J70 009 both cases care was taken to introduce no lateral restraint. ^The
J70 010 peak reinforcement forces were found to be between 50 and 75
J70 011 percent of the theoretical thin plate values. ^In the third slab,
J70 012 where the supports provided flexural and lateral restraint
J70 013 approaching full fixity, the peak bar forces were close to 35
J70 014 percent of the theoretical value. ^The discrepancies between the
J70 015 theoretical and experimental results are explained by membrane
J70 016 action, the tensile resistance of concrete at a cracked section
J70 017 and a greater spread of flexural actions in the slab than is
J70 018 indicated by thin plate theory.
J70 019 *<1. *2INTRODUCTION*>
J70 020    |^*0Most current design methods for reinforced concrete
J70 021 slabs subjected to concentrated loading require tension
J70 022 reinforcement to be provided to resist flexural actions which are
J70 023 based either on elastic thin plate theory or strength limit state
J70 024 analyses such as yield line theory. ^Experimental work on full
J70 025 scale structures and laboratory specimens has shown that the
J70 026 flexural performance of slabs is generally considerably better
J70 027 than would be predicted from these analyses. ^The enhancement in
J70 028 performance has been attributed to the presence of inplane
J70 029 compressive forces in the slab. ^These arise, as illustrated in
J70 030 the next section, from the coupling of inplane and bending
J70 031 deformations in flexurally cracked reinforced concrete members
J70 032 and the restraint to the inplane deformation provided by the
J70 033 surrounding structure and the boundaries. ^This phenomenon is
J70 034 commonly referred to as membrane action.
J70 035    |^The design method for slabs contained in the Ontario
J70 036 Highway Bridge Design Code is one method of design which does
J70 037 make an allowance for the enhancement in performance resulting
J70 038 from membrane action. ^Where slabs meet certain criteria,
J70 039 designed to ensure that the boundaries can provide adequate
J70 040 lateral restraint, they may be proportioned to contain a nominal
J70 041 0.3% percent flexural reinforcement. ^This is considerably less
J70 042 than that required by the more usual methods of analysis. ^The
J70 043 requirements, which have been established from field and
J70 044 laboratory tests, are empirical in nature.
J70 045    |^A rational method of analysis that makes allowance for the
J70 046 beneficial effects of membrane action is desirable. ^However,
J70 047 before such a method can be established it is important to have a
J70 048 clear understanding of the general mode of resistance of such
J70 049 structures. ^It was to help provide this basic information that
J70 050 the three slabs and the associated beam specimens described in
J70 051 this report were constructed and tested. ^Extensive
J70 052 instrumentation was built into the slabs to enable forces at
J70 053 critical sections to be measured in the slabs with different
J70 054 boundary conditions. ^Emphasis was placed on the behaviour of
J70 055 flexurally cracked slabs under elastic conditions.
J70 056 *<2. *2THE COUPLING OF BENDING AND INPLANE DEFORMATIONS*>
J70 057    |^*0The way in which membrane action arises and enhances the
J70 058 flexural performance of a reinforced concrete structure is
J70 059 illustrated in Figure 1 for the case of a beam. ^The end supports
J70 060 are assumed to provide complete fixity against rotation while any
J70 061 change in length is resisted by a spring of stiffness K. ^In
J70 062 conventional flexural theory changes in length are ignored, and
J70 063 consequently the force resisted by the axial restraint springs is
J70 064 taken as zero. ^This inherent assumption is incorrect once the
J70 065 concrete cracks in flexure. ^As illustrated in Figure 1(b),
J70 066 standard elastic flexural theory indicates that the neutral axis
J70 067 of a cracked section lies on the compression side of the
J70 068 mid-depth. ^Hence the strain at the mid-depth along the beam is
J70 069 tensile over the full length indicating that expansion occurs.
J70 070 **[FIGURE**]
J70 071 **[FIGURE**]
J70 072 ^For a restrained beam the spring K induces a compressive axial
J70 073 force in the member, and a crack pattern similar to that shown in
J70 074 Figure 1(c) is developed. ^The compressive force *'enhances**'
J70 075 the performance of the beam by reducing the stress in the
J70 076 reinforcement for a given load level.
J70 077    |^In a slab membrane action can act in two directions. ^If a
J70 078 one-way flexurally restrained slab is envisaged as a series of
J70 079 beam strips it can be seen that restraint to expansion may be
J70 080 provided by adjacent strips, causing the most heavily loaded
J70 081 strip to go into compression and the neighbouring ones to be
J70 082 subjected to tension. ^Thus membrane forces may be provided by
J70 083 internal restraint in a slab, and such actions might give some
J70 084 enhancement to the flexural performance under the action of
J70 085 concentrated loads. ^Very much greater enhancement can be
J70 086 expected where the slab boundaries provide restraint against
J70 087 expansion as is the case with the internal slab spans in
J70 088 multi-beam bridge decks.
J70 089    |^To investigate the potential that membrane action has for
J70 090 enhancing flexural performance under cracked elastic conditions
J70 091 the fixed ended beam shown in Figure 1 was analysed for a series
J70 092 of differing steel contents and axial restraint spring
J70 093 stiffnesses (K). ^In the computations the concrete and steel were
J70 094 assumed to remain in the linear elastic range and the flexural
J70 095 tensile strength of the concrete together with the consequent
J70 096 tension stiffening was ignored. ^Some of the results of these
J70 097 analyses are shown in Figure 2.
J70 098 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 099 |^Three significant points were evident from this study:
J70 100 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 101 |1.
J70 102 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 103 ^The improvement in flexural performance, as measured by the
J70 104 steel stress induced for a given load level, is independent of
J70 105 the span to depth ratio of the member provided deflections are
J70 106 small compared with the depth of the slab.
J70 107 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 108 |2.
J70 109 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 110 ^The potential enhancement in performance increases as the
J70 111 flexural steel content is reduced (see Figure 2).
J70 112 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 113 |3.
J70 114 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 115 ^Relatively small restraint stiffnesses, measured in terms of the
J70 116 axial stiffness of the uncracked beam, have a marked influence on
J70 117 the performance.
J70 118 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 119 *<3. *2TEST SPECIMENS AND INSTRUMENTATION*>
J70 120    |^*0Three one-way slab strips were constructed and tested.
J70 121 ^Details are given in Figure 3. ^All three were 102 \0mm deep,
J70 122 had a span to total depth ratio of 12 and a width of twice the
J70 123 span. ^The reinforcement consisted of 10 \0mm deformed bars at
J70 124 152.5 \0mm spacing placed in the top and bottom faces of the slab
J70 125 in both directions. ^With each slab two beams were cast together
J70 126 with a number of concrete test specimens. ^The beams were 305
J70 127 \0mm wide and 102 \0mm deep, with the same longitudinal steel as
J70 128 the slab but with the transverse reinforcement omitted. ^The
J70 129 concrete was supplied by a local ready mix firm, with each slab
J70 130 and its associated beams and test specimens being cast from the
J70 131 same mix. ^All test specimens were damp cured for seven days
J70 132 after casting. ^They were then left to dry for a few days before
J70 133 being instrumented prior to testing. ^Concrete properties
J70 134 obtained from testing specimens cured with the slabs are given in
J70 135 Figure 3.
J70 136    |^Each of the three slab strips had different boundary
J70 137 conditions, as shown in Figure 3. ^The first slab was simply
J70 138 supported with the boundaries providing no restraint against
J70 139 rotational or inplane movements. ^With the second slab the
J70 140 supports provided restraint against rotation but no restraint
J70 141 against inplane displacements, while in the third slab the
J70 142 boundaries provided a condition close to full fixity for rotation
J70 143 and translation. ^Prestressing strands clamped Slabs 1 and 2 onto
J70 144 {0PTFE} sliding supports, with the initial force in each strand
J70 145 being in the range of 55-60 \0kN. ^Tests on the bearing units
J70 146 indicated that friction forces of 2 percent or less could be
J70 147 expected under the load levels sustained during the tests. ^The
J70 148 boundaries of Slab 3 were sandwiched between two reinforced
J70 149 concrete blocks and the whole assembly was stressed to the floor.
J70 150    |^A 15 \0mm crack initiator was cast into the cover concrete
J70 151 on the tension side of the member along the slab centre-line. ^In
J70 152 slabs 2 and 3 similar crack initiators were also placed on the
J70 153 tension side of the member 50 \0mm from each support line. ^All
J70 154 the *'tension**' reinforcing bars crossing the crack initiated
J70 155 section on the slab centre-line were instrumented at this
J70 156 location, and every second bar was instrumented at the initiated
J70 157 sections close to the supports.
J70 158 **[FIGURE**]
J70 159    |^At all points where the bars were instrumented a pair of
J70 160 strain gauges were used. ^These were located on opposite sides of
J70 161 the bar to eliminate possible errors due to local bending of the
J70 162 bar at the crack. ^To attach these gauges the deformations were
J70 163 filed off the sides of the bar. ^The gauges were fixed and
J70 164 waterproofed, and the 30 \0mm length of bar containing the
J70 165 instrumentation was then covered by a grease impregnated tape.
J70 166 ^This was added to destroy bond in the immediate vicinity of the
J70 167 initiated crack so that tension in the concrete could not reduce
J70 168 the force carried by the reinforcement at this location. ^Before
J70 169 the bars were placed in the boxing they were calibrated in axial
J70 170 tension. ^After the concrete was cured electrical resistance
J70 171 gauges were applied to the compression surface of the slab along
J70 172 the member centre-line with one gauge being placed above each
J70 173 bar. ^In addition a number of gauge points were attached to the
J70 174 concrete to enable a mechanical demountable gauge to measure the
J70 175 opening of the initiated crack at the slab centre-line.
J70 176 ^Deflection measurements were made with a precise level.
J70 177    |^The beams were instrumented in a similar manner and were
J70 178 tested under statically determinate conditions so that the
J70 179 section response, as measured by the output of the strain gauges,
J70 180 could be calibrated against the applied bending moment and axial
J70 181 load. ^It had been intended to use these beam tests to interpret
J70 182 the slab results. ^Unfortunately differences in crack spacing
J70 183 between the beams and the slabs reduced the value of this
J70 184 calibration. ^Some of the results from these beam tests are
J70 185 described in Part *=I of this report.
J70 186 *<4. *2SEQUENCE OF LOAD CYCLES FOR SLABS*>
J70 187    |^*0The slabs were loaded with a 203 by 203 steel plate
J70 188 fitted with a rubber washer. ^This was pulled against the
J70 189 underside of the slab by a Macalloy bar passing through a duct.
J70 190 ^The load was applied by a hydraulic jack and its value was
J70 191 monitored by a load cell. ^With each slab there were three
J70 192 loading positions located on the member centre-line (a, b and c),
J70 193 as indicated in Figure 3.
J70 194    |^A major aim of the testing was to observe the response of
J70 195 a uniformly cracked slab, as it was felt that this would be
J70 196 representative of actual service conditions. ^To achieve this
J70 197 with two different degrees of cracking the loading sequence
J70 198 described in the following paragraphs was used.
J70 199 |1.
J70 200 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 201 ^*1Stage 1 *- *0the load plate was positioned at the centre of
J70 202 the slab in position b (see Figure 3), and two cycles of load
J70 203 were applied (1**=i and 1**=ii) so that the strains in the bars
J70 204 adjacent to the load increased to a predetermined value.
J70 205    |^The load plate was moved to position *"a**" and two cycles
J70 206 of load were applied as for position *"b**". ^Then the same
J70 207 process was followed at position *"c**".
J70 208 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 209 |2.
J70 210 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 211 ^*1Stage 2 *- *0the load plate was positioned at the centre of
J70 212 the slab and a load cycle was applied (stage 2**=i). ^The
J70 213 measured response in this cycle was taken as that corresponding
J70 214 to a uniformly cracked slab. ^In the second cycle in this load
J70 215 position the load was increased until the new predetermined
J70 216 strain level for stage 2 was reached.
J70 217    |^The load was then moved to position *"a**", followed by
J70 218 position *"c**", with the two load cycles being applied to the
J70 219 predetermined level at each position.
J70 220 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 221 |3.
J70 222 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J70 223 ^*1Stage 3 *- *0the load was positioned at the centre of the slab
J70 224 and the load was applied (stage 3**=i), and the measured response
J70 225 was taken as that for a uniformly cracked slab to the stage 2
J70 226 strain level.
J70 227 **[END INDENTATION**]
J70 228 |4.
J70 229 ^*1Stage 4 *- *0the load was increased in the middle position of
J70 230 the slab in stage 4 until failure occurred. ^In all cases the
J70 231 slab was loaded and unloaded a number of times in this stage
J70 232 before failure finally occurred.
J70 233 *#
J71 001 **[365 TEXT J71**]
J71 002 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 003    |^*0Ten of eleven tunnels on a section of New Zealand's
J71 004 {0NIMT} railway were too small for the proposed electric
J71 005 locomotives. ^The problem was resolved by lowering the track in
J71 006 five tunnels, by passing four, and daylighting one.
J71 007    |^The first 85 of the 200 or so tunnels built for {0NZR}
J71 008 were of very small section. ^They have severely limited the
J71 009 loading gauge ever since. ^Over the years, many of the small
J71 010 tunnels have been eliminated by line closures or deviations, and
J71 011 some have been daylighted or enlarged. ^After completion of the
J71 012 electrification works so few of the small tunnels remain on the
J71 013 principal lines that it is becoming increasingly viable for
J71 014 {0NZR} to enlarge or eliminate them all and then increase its
J71 015 effective loading gauge.
J71 016    |^The paper outlines the development of the {0NZR} network
J71 017 and describes the tunnel size problem, with particular reference
J71 018 to enlarging tunnel sections by track lowering.
J71 019 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 020 |1.
J71 021 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 022 *<*3INTRODUCTION*>
J71 023    |^*0In December 1981 Government approval was given to
J71 024 electrify a 408 kilometre section of New Zealand's North Island
J71 025 Main Trunk Railway ({0NIMT}). ^Work began soon after, and is
J71 026 scheduled for completion in mid 1988. ^The viability of the
J71 027 project depended on the greater ability of electric locomotives
J71 028 to haul heavy trains up the steeper gradients at higher speeds
J71 029 than the diesel electric locomotives. ^Hence the electric
J71 030 locomotives had to be both heavy and powerful. ^Their adhesive
J71 031 weight and maximum axle weight were limited by the strength of
J71 032 the track and bridges. ^Their size was limited by the tunnels on
J71 033 the route, which had to accommodate not only the locomotives but
J71 034 also the overhead electric traction wire. ^Their power was
J71 035 limited by the space for axle hung traction motors between the
J71 036 wheels on the 1067 \0mm track gauge.
J71 037    |^Investigations had shown that of all the technical
J71 038 constraints, the small tunnel size was the most severe.
J71 039 ^Locomotives of sufficient power could be built within the weight
J71 040 limitations but not within the size limitation. ^The approved
J71 041 project therefore included deviating the track around four of the
J71 042 restrictive tunnels, daylighting one ({0i.e.} opening it out into
J71 043 a cutting) and increasing their effective size by lowering the
J71 044 track in five more. ^Only one of the eleven tunnels on the
J71 045 section of the line concerned was large enough without change.
J71 046    |^There is a second potential benefit from the
J71 047 electrification tunnel work. ^They could now carry larger wagons
J71 048 as well as larger locomotives. ^With relatively little further
J71 049 work, all remaining small tunnels on the principal {0NZR} routes
J71 050 could also be enlarged or eliminated. ^It would then be possible
J71 051 for wagons with up to 25% greater cubic capacity to run on all
J71 052 principal routes and most secondary and minor routes. ^The
J71 053 resulting commercial benefit would be substantial.
J71 054 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 055 |2.
J71 056 *<*3THE NEW ZEALAND RAILWAY NETWORK*>
J71 057    |^*0New Zealand is a long, narrow mountainous country
J71 058 divided by Cook Strait into two main islands. ^The pioneer
J71 059 railway builders had to overcome many problems to construct the
J71 060 original 5700 route kilometre network. ^To many of these
J71 061 problems, the cheapest answer was a tunnel. ^Today, the network
J71 062 has been reduced to about 4,200 route \0km, but about 160 of the
J71 063 original 200 or so tunnels still remain. ^Some seventeen of these
J71 064 tunnels are over one \0km long; three are over 8 \0km long.
J71 065 ^Because of the weak soils through which they were driven, most
J71 066 {0NZR} tunnels are fully lined.
J71 067    |^Almost all of the network was built after 1870, to
J71 068 standards laid down by the New Zealand Government. ^For the first
J71 069 thirty years, the standards under the policies of Sir Julius
J71 070 Vogel were simple and austere. ^The single track main lines were
J71 071 laid to a gauge of 3*?7 - 6*?8 (1067 \0mm). ^Earthworks were
J71 072 minimised by steep grades, sharp curves, and narrow formation.
J71 073 ^The tunnels were generally about 14*?7 - 0*?8 (say 4300 \0mm)
J71 074 high above rail level, and 12*?7 - 6*?8 (say 3800 \0mm) wide, to
J71 075 accommodate a loading gauge 11*?7 - 6*?8 (3505 \0mm) high by 8*?7
J71 076 - 0*?8 (2438 \0mm) wide, with chamfered upper corners. ^The six
J71 077 smallest tunnels of the {0NIMT} electrification section were
J71 078 built to the standards of this era.
J71 079    |^By the turn of the century, the transport demands of the
J71 080 developing colony could not be satisfied by the Vogel network. ^A
J71 081 second period of railway construction began about 1901 under the
J71 082 direction of Ministers of Railways Ward and Cadman.
J71 083    |^The new lines were laid in heavier rail to carry the
J71 084 bigger, more powerful locomotives required. ^But the heat and
J71 085 smoke from these, and from the even larger locomotives that
J71 086 followed, made working and travelling conditions in the Vogel
J71 087 tunnels very unpleasant. ^To improve ventilation, tunnels of the
J71 088 Ward-Cadman era were typically constructed 15*?7 - 2*?8 (about
J71 089 4630 \0mm) high by 14*?7 - 10*?8 (about 4530 \0mm) wide. ^Figure
J71 090 1 compares the typical Vogel and Ward-Cadman tunnel sections. ^It
J71 091 also shows the standard 1870 loading gauge which was retained
J71 092 until 1974, even though the larger tunnels would pass rolling
J71 093 stock of greater dimensions. ^Even when metricated in 1974, the
J71 094 loading gauge was only slightly increased. ^The remaining Vogel
J71 095 section tunnels continued to dominate the maximum practicable
J71 096 size of all rolling stock with universal running rights on the
J71 097 {0NZR} network.
J71 098    |^Figure 1 also shows the profile of the Porotarao tunnel,
J71 099 completed in 1980, and a possible new loading gauge currently
J71 100 under consideration.
J71 101 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 102 |3.
J71 103 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 104 *<*3THE NORTH ISLAND MAIN TRUNK TUNNELS*>
J71 105    |^*0The 680 \0km {0NIMT} is the network's busiest freight
J71 106 route. ^It joins the capital city of Wellington with New
J71 107 Zealand's largest city, Auckland. ^Much of the route is
J71 108 mountainous and it includes three summits higher than 800 \0m
J71 109 above sea level. ^Ruling grades are 1 in 50 uncompensated, and
J71 110 the sharpest curves are of 150 \0m radius. ^The 408 \0km
J71 111 electrification section between the cities of Palmerston North
J71 112 and Hamilton includes the most mountainous country and the
J71 113 steepest grades on the route.
J71 114    |^Figure 2 shows the location of the tunnels within the
J71 115 electrification section of the {0NIMT}.
J71 116    |^Most of the line was constructed in the pioneer period of
J71 117 railway building. ^There were originally 33 tunnels on the route,
J71 118 29 to Vogel standards and 4 larger. ^However by 1981, in a number
J71 119 of separate route improvement projects, 18 of the small tunnels
J71 120 had been eliminated and 4 larger tunnels constructed. ^During
J71 121 electrification works, 4 more small tunnels and one of the
J71 122 original larger tunnels were eliminated. ^There are now only 7
J71 123 smaller tunnels (of which two have been enlarged) and 7 larger
J71 124 tunnels remaining. ^The five small restrictive tunnels are
J71 125 located near Paekakariki, some 40 \0km north of Wellington.
J71 126    |^Table *=I lists the tunnels remaining in 1981 between
J71 127 Palmerston North and Hamilton. ^It shows which tunnels were of
J71 128 insufficient size for electrification, and the action taken to
J71 129 improve them.
J71 130 **[TABLE**]
J71 131    |^The surface rocks of the central North Island are
J71 132 generally tertiary marine sediments (papa) overlaid on the
J71 133 volcanic plateau by volcanic deposits. ^Tunnels \0T15, \0T16 and
J71 134 \0T17 were driven through volcanic materials, but tunnels \0T8,
J71 135 \0T9, \0T10, \0T11, \0T12, \0T13, \0T14 and \0T18 were
J71 136 constructed in mudstones. ^In all cases the tunnels were fully
J71 137 lined.
J71 138 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 139 |4.
J71 140 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 141 *<*3LOCOMOTIVE SPECIFICATION*>
J71 142    |^*0International tenders were invited for the supply of
J71 143 locomotives for the project. ^The specification called for a six
J71 144 axled locomotive of maximum mass 108 tonnes, in either Bo-Bo-Bo
J71 145 or Co-Co configuration. ^The main physical dimensions had to be
J71 146 contained within the limits shown in Figure 3.
J71 147    |^New Zealand Railways developed the specification from a
J71 148 knowledge of locomotives that were commercially available.
J71 149 ^Maximum dimensions were estimated from preliminary reports on
J71 150 the tunnels, using the clearance standards described later in
J71 151 this paper.
J71 152    |^In the event, a tender for the supply of 22 locomotives
J71 153 was let to Brush Electric Machines \0Ltd, of England. ^Their
J71 154 design complied with the specified maximum height of 3950 \0mm,
J71 155 but some minor and acceptable changes to non-critical dimensions
J71 156 were negotiated.
J71 157 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 158 |5.
J71 159 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 160 *<*3CLEARANCE STANDARDS*>
J71 161    |^*0The annular space (or clearance) between rolling stock
J71 162 and the interior of a tunnel provides more than just mechanical
J71 163 separation. ^In tunnels with traction overhead wires, it gives
J71 164 electrical insulation. ^Where steam or diesel powered locomotives
J71 165 operate the space is necessary for ventilation. ^In some
J71 166 circumstances, the effects of sudden pressure rise from high
J71 167 speed entry, may also be relevant. ^The {0NIMT} tunnels were of
J71 168 adequate size for the existing locomotives and rolling stock. ^To
J71 169 determine the maximum size of electric loco that could operate in
J71 170 the existing or enlarged tunnels it was necessary to redefine the
J71 171 minimum acceptable clearance standards. ^These had to include
J71 172 sufficient allowance for all likely intrusions into the
J71 173 theoretical clearance space. ^The chief sources of clearance
J71 174 intrusions are dynamic movements of the rolling stock, track
J71 175 imperfections, tunnel lining irregularities, and rolling stock
J71 176 profile infringements of the nominal loading gauge.
J71 177    |^While it is relatively easy to define and measure the
J71 178 profile of a locomotive, it is more difficult to define and
J71 179 measure the geometry of a long tunnel interior, especially if the
J71 180 tunnel is unlined. ^The {0NIMT} tunnels present typical problems.
J71 181 ^They extend over several kilometres, some are on single track
J71 182 and some on double, and while most are on straight track, some
J71 183 are on curves.
J71 184    |^Usual practice is to plot a composite profile of the least
J71 185 dimensions of all tunnels on a route, relative to the existing
J71 186 track. ^Where the track is curved, a correction is made for
J71 187 versine and end throw effects. ^In the past, least dimensions
J71 188 were measured using a wagon mounted frame hauled through tunnels
J71 189 at slow speed. ^Ductile lead fingers attached to the frame
J71 190 contacted the lining and bent to the least dimension they
J71 191 encountered. ^More recently a video camera mounted on a wagon is
J71 192 used to record at frequent intervals a band of light illuminating
J71 193 the tunnel lining. ^That record is digitised and can then be
J71 194 processed electronically or an analogue plotted.
J71 195    |^The maximum permissible rolling stock profile is derived
J71 196 by subtracting appropriate horizontal and vertical clearance
J71 197 standards from the composite tunnel profile for the route.
J71 198 ^Clearance standards must allow for the inherent inaccuracies of
J71 199 the rolling stock and composite tunnel profiles, the probability
J71 200 of the various clearance gap intrusions occurring together, and
J71 201 the consequences of mechanical (or electrical) contact or
J71 202 proximity.
J71 203    |^Through experience, aggregate clearance standards had been
J71 204 determined for rolling stock with traditional suspensions. ^They
J71 205 were believed to be excessively conservative in some respects,
J71 206 and it was not known if they would apply to the more innovative
J71 207 suspensions expected to be offered by some locomotive tenderers.
J71 208 ^New standards were required which included explicit components
J71 209 for dynamic body movement.
J71 210    |^For an electric locomotive of approximately rectangular
J71 211 profile in a tunnel of horseshoe section, horizontal clearances
J71 212 are critical at rail level, loco floor level, loco eaves level
J71 213 and at pantograph level. ^Table *=II shows the clearance
J71 214 standards that were set for these positions, and how they were
J71 215 derived. ^They include components for:
J71 216 |_(a)
J71 217 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 218 track misalignment
J71 219 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 220 |(b)
J71 221 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 222 slack track gauge and wheel flange wear
J71 223 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 224 |(c)
J71 225 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 226 lateral suspension movement
J71 227 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 228 |(d)
J71 229 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 230 body roll and track cross level (cant) error
J71 231 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 232 |(e)
J71 233 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 234 tunnel lining and locomotive profile error, and the relative
J71 235 importance of contact or proximity.
J71 236 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 237 **[TABLE**]
J71 238    |^The vertical tolerance standards adopted were permissible
J71 239 variations of
J71 240 **[TABLE**]
J71 241    |^The adopted standards are designed to give negligible
J71 242 likelihood of locomotive body contact with the tunnels, but
J71 243 occasional *"flashover**" from the pantographs may occur. ^The
J71 244 relatively minor consequences of flashover are an acceptable
J71 245 tradeoff for the advantages of longer pantographs. ^However where
J71 246 the original Vogel tunnels allowed a horizontal clearance of 450
J71 247 \0mm up to man height above the invert, the new standards of 300
J71 248 \0mm would reduce the chance of survival of a workman
J71 249 accidentally surprised by a train. ^To compensate, the spacing of
J71 250 manhole refuges in tunnels with less than 450 \0mm side
J71 251 clearances has been reduced from a maximum of 111 \0m to a
J71 252 maximum of 38 \0m at tunnel centres and 20 \0m near the tunnel
J71 253 portals. ^The hazard is further reduced because with modern
J71 254 communications, the risk of staff being surprised by a train has
J71 255 been virtually eliminated.
J71 256 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 257 |6.
J71 258 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J71 259 *<*3ALTERNATIVES*>
J71 260    |^Although the final decisions were to improve the
J71 261 restrictive tunnels by lowering the track in five, by passing
J71 262 four and daylighting one, in most cases there were technical
J71 263 alternatives.
J71 264 **[END INDENTATION**]
J71 265 *#
J72 001 **[366 TEXT J72**]
J72 002 ^*0Much of this early growth was further stimulated by the oil
J72 003 price hike that occurred in late 1973, which consequently
J72 004 heightened public and scientific awareness of the vital role of
J72 005 energy in economic processes.
J72 006    |^From this early work, emerged an obvious requirement to
J72 007 establish conventions, methods and techniques; and to
J72 008 standardise terminologies used in {0EA}. ^In 1974, the
J72 009 {0I.F.I.A.S.} (1974), held a workshop attended by many of the
J72 010 early workers in the field, which aimed to fulfill this
J72 011 requirement. ^This workshop recommended a set of conventions
J72 012 and methodologies, which have since been used quite widely,
J72 013 although far from universally. ^At this time, {0EA} studies
J72 014 continued to proliferate in the scientific literature. ^Many of
J72 015 the more influential articles were published in the journal
J72 016 *"Energy Policy**" (Chapman, 1974; Chapman, Leach and Slesser,
J72 017 1974; Wright, 1974; Chapman, 1975; Berry, Long and Makino,
J72 018 1975), with the entire issue of the December 1975 journal being
J72 019 devoted to {0EA}. ^These papers covered a wide range of
J72 020 subjects including energy analyses of chemicals, materials and
J72 021 energy production, and addressed the methodological issues
J72 022 facing {0EA}.
J72 023    |^Other important articles, covered new areas such as the
J72 024 energy requirements of packaging (Bousted, 1974) and nuclear
J72 025 power stations (Chapman and Mortimer, 1974); as well as further
J72 026 studies of agro-food systems (Steinhart and Steinhart; 1974,
J72 027 Leach, 1976). ^In 1976, {0H.T.} and {0E.C.} Odum published
J72 028 their second book in this field, entitled *"Energy Basis for
J72 029 Man and Nature**". ^This book (Odum and Odum, 1976) further
J72 030 expanded upon and clarified concepts first developed in 1971.
J72 031 ^Although this book again had quite an influential effect on
J72 032 {0EA}, the growth of {0EA} consolidated further both in terms
J72 033 of the volume of literature produced, and in terms of the
J72 034 introduction of new concepts and methodologies. ^However, it
J72 035 should be noted that many of the original controversies over
J72 036 methodology and the application of {0EA}, still exist and are
J72 037 yet to be resolved.
J72 038 *<1.1.3 *1Methodological Approaches*>
J72 039    |^*0Several methodological approaches have emerged over the
J72 040 last decade:
J72 041 |(1) ^*1Process Analysis ^*0This is probably the most commonly
J72 042 used method in {0EA}. ^The main aim of the analysis is to
J72 043 calculate the total energy requirement for producing a product.
J72 044 ^The first stage is to identify all the inputs (direct and
J72 045 indirect) required to produce a product *- this is sometimes
J72 046 done by way of using the flow diagram symbols recommended by
J72 047 the {0I.F.I.A.S.} (1974). ^The second stage is to assign energy
J72 048 values to each input, so that they can be summed so as to
J72 049 determine the total energy requirement of the product. ^This
J72 050 method is generally accepted to be the most accurate method of
J72 051 determining the Energy Requirement of a product or process.
J72 052 ^However, the partitioning problem is often encountered when
J72 053 using Process Analysis. ^The partitioning problem refers to the
J72 054 problem of allocating one energy input, to several outputs of a
J72 055 process. ^Problems can also be encountered in obtaining data
J72 056 which is representative of the processes involved *- that is, a
J72 057 sampling problem is often encountered.
J72 058 |(2) ^*1Input-Output Analysis ^*0Input-Output ({0I-O}) tables
J72 059 are used to determine the total energy requirements (\0MJ), per
J72 060 unit output (*+$) of any sector in the economy. ^Since {0I-O}
J72 061 tables are available in almost all countries, the method is
J72 062 widely applicable. ^However, there are many problems and
J72 063 limitations associated with {0I-0} analysis: (a) ^There is
J72 064 quite a substantial time delay, from the time of the survey to
J72 065 the time the tables are published (often 5-10 years). ^During
J72 066 this time many technical and economic factors could have
J72 067 changed the coefficient in the {0I-O} matrix. (b) ^The
J72 068 outputs(*+$) of many sectors are often very heterogeneous, so
J72 069 therefore it is difficult to identify exactly what the output
J72 070 is, and attribute an energy requirement per unit of product.
J72 071 ^In reality there is often a quite substantial variation in the
J72 072 energy requirements of different products produced by the same
J72 073 industry, but {0I-O} analysis assumes these energy requirements
J72 074 to be the same. (c) ^Difficulties which are not insurmountable,
J72 075 are often encountered in dealing with imported commodities, as
J72 076 no energy coefficients are available for these. ^The main
J72 077 advantage of {0I-O} analysis, is its systems approach, which
J72 078 makes it useful in macro-systems studies.
J72 079 |(3) ^*1Thermodynamic Analyses ^*0These sets of methods include
J72 080 Second Law Analysis (Connolly and Spraul, 1975), Availability
J72 081 Analysis (Sussman, 1977), and Energy Analysis (Ahern, 1980).
J72 082 ^All these methods aim to examine the thermodynamic
J72 083 efficiencies and limits to processes. ^These analyses tend to
J72 084 focus on theoretical rather than actual energy requirements,
J72 085 and therefore often provide insights to future energy
J72 086 requirements and the development of technology. ^The major
J72 087 problem with these methods, is that they lack applicability to
J72 088 larger scale problems, and often because of the lack of data
J72 089 can only be applied to small scale, narrowly defined problems.
J72 090 ^Georgescu-Roegen (1971) has, nevertheless, provided
J72 091 theoretical thermodynamic constructs for larger scale systems,
J72 092 but they are as yet to be applied.
J72 093 |(4) ^*1Eco-Energetics ^*0This refers to the methodological
J72 094 approach used by Odum and Odum (1976). ^It is based on
J72 095 ecological systems modelling, which uses a circuit language to
J72 096 describe energy flows in systems. ^It is notably different from
J72 097 {0I-O} and Process Analysis, in that it includes energy values
J72 098 for solar energy and labour; and it attempts to convert all
J72 099 forms of energy to common quality units (Fossil Fuel
J72 100 Equivalents). ^Some analysts from this school of thought, view
J72 101 eco-energetics as a replacement for conventional economics, and
J72 102 as the basis for an *"energy theory of value**".
J72 103 ^Understandably, this view has drawn much criticism from
J72 104 economists (Edwards, 1976), and those who practice the other
J72 105 methods of {0EA}. ^The main advantage of Eco-energetics, is its
J72 106 systems approach which focuses on the interdependencies in and
J72 107 between natural and economic systems.
J72 108    |^The first three approaches to {0EA} are not mutually
J72 109 exclusive either in theory or in practice. ^Process analysis
J72 110 often utilizes {0I-O} analyses to compute indirect inputs or at
J72 111 least some of the indirect inputs (Bullard *1{0et al.},
J72 112 *01976). ^Process Analysis, often involves elements of
J72 113 thermodynamic analysis, when comparing the actual with the
J72 114 theoretical energy requirements of a process. ^However,
J72 115 Eco-energetics has rarely, if ever, been combined with the
J72 116 other forms of {0EA} and is often singled out as being
J72 117 *"fundamentally**" different to other forms of {0EA} ({0e.g.}
J72 118 Fluck and Baird, 1980).
J72 119 *<1.1.4 *1Methodological Problems*>
J72 120    |^*0The following methodological problems, which have been
J72 121 often used in criticism of {0EA}, have been widely identified
J72 122 in the literature ({0I.F.I.A.S.}, 1974; Leach, 1975; Pearson,
J72 123 1977):
J72 124 |(1) ^*1Boundary Problem ^*0The problem is one of what inputs
J72 125 (and sometimes outputs) should be included in the problem.
J72 126 ^Firstly, what energy inputs should be included? ^The
J72 127 {0I.F.I.A.S.} (1974) recommended, only including
J72 128 *"non-renewable**" resources, although this recommendation is
J72 129 far from universally accepted. ^Odum and Odum (1976), and
J72 130 others from the eco-energetics school of thought include
J72 131 renewable resources such as incident solar energy. ^Secondly,
J72 132 should labour inputs be included, and if so how? ^The
J72 133 {0I.F.I.A.S.} (1974) recommended, that when considering
J72 134 industrial or developed systems, it was not necessary to
J72 135 include labour inputs, as they were not important. ^However,
J72 136 the {0I.F.I.A.S.} (1974) did recommend that labour inputs be
J72 137 included in low intensity agricultural systems as in these
J72 138 systems they were considered to be important. ^The problem of
J72 139 what *"energy value**" to attribute to labour inputs, if they
J72 140 are included, is difficult to resolve. ^The following methods
J72 141 have been suggested: (a) muscular energy output of manual
J72 142 labour (Makhijani, 1975), (b) total energy content of food
J72 143 consumed, sometimes reduced for the proportion of man-hours
J72 144 worked per day (Newcombe, 1975; Pimentel, \0D., *1{0et al.},
J72 145 *01973), (c) lifestyle support energy (Odum and Odum, 1976) *-
J72 146 this has the problem of double counting associated with it, (d)
J72 147 energy equivalent of labour, determined by examining labour
J72 148 energy substitutions (Echiburu, 1977). ^The third boundary
J72 149 problem which is considered in the literature is *- how far
J72 150 back should a particular input be traced? ^For example, should
J72 151 the machines that make the machines be included in the
J72 152 analysis?
J72 153 |(2) ^*1Valuation Problem ^*0The problem here, is one of
J72 154 finding a unit of account (or numeraire). ^Different forms of
J72 155 energy have different qualities, different supply
J72 156 characteristics (some are flow resources, some are stock
J72 157 resources), different abilities to do work, different degrees
J72 158 of cleanliness and so on. ^Some means is required to equate
J72 159 these different energy sources, particularly one which takes
J72 160 account of energy quality (this is often referred to as the
J72 161 energy quality problem). ^The normal means of measuring energy,
J72 162 that is by enthalpy (\15D*0H) or heat measurements, does not
J72 163 take into account the quality or grade of the energy. ^Several
J72 164 techniques have been suggested for overcoming the energy
J72 165 quality problem: Available Work Analysis, Energy Analysis and
J72 166 the use of Fossil Fuel Equivalents ({0FFE}). ^None of these
J72 167 techniques has gained anywhere near universal acceptance, and
J72 168 all of them have problems and limitations to their use. ^If
J72 169 {0EA} is to gain acceptance as an evaluative technique, it is a
J72 170 fundamental requisite that this valuation problem be resolved,
J72 171 particularly the energy quality element of this problem.
J72 172 |(3) ^*1Partitioning Problem ^*0This refers to the problem of
J72 173 allocating one energy input to several (or multiple) outputs of
J72 174 a process or system. ^For example, a given amount of energy
J72 175 (\0MJ) is required to produce essentially 2 products from a
J72 176 sheep farm: wool (\0kg) and meat (\0kg). ^The problem arises,
J72 177 when the energy input (\0MJ) has to be allocated to the outputs
J72 178 (\0kg). ^The {0I.F.I.A.S.}, (1974), recommended 4 possible
J72 179 conventions for partitioning: (a) assign all energy
J72 180 requirements to the output of interest (b) assign energy
J72 181 requirements in proportion to financial value or payments (c)
J72 182 assign energy requirements in proportion to some physical
J72 183 parameter characterising the system ({0e.g.} weight, volume,
J72 184 energy content) (d) assign energy requirements in proportion to
J72 185 marginal energy savings which could be made if the good or
J72 186 service were not provided. ^All these conventions, are very
J72 187 arbitrary, and none of them has gained widespread acceptance.
J72 188 ^Regression analysis has provided a useful tool for overcoming
J72 189 this partitioning (or allocation) problem, where the outputs
J72 190 are produced in quantities not proportional to each other. ^For
J72 191 example, Cleland, Earle and Boag (1981), used regression
J72 192 analysis to allocate energy inputs to multiple products from
J72 193 food factories. ^When the outputs are proportional or near
J72 194 proportional to each other ({0e.g.} in the case of meat and
J72 195 wool production from a sheep farm), the problem is said to be
J72 196 confounded or aliased, and cannot be solved by regression
J72 197 analysis. ^Regression analysis has also been used successfully
J72 198 by others (Jacobs, 1981; Rao *1{0et al.}, *01981). ^It should
J72 199 be noted that the partitioning problem is less evident in {0EA}
J72 200 when a systems modelling technique is used, as systems
J72 201 equations can accommodate multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
J72 202 ^The partitioning problem only really arises when single
J72 203 products are examined ({0e.g.} in Process Analysis).
J72 204    |^Other methodological problems arising from both the
J72 205 theory and practice of {0EA} have been identified in the
J72 206 literature (refer to Pearson, 1977). ^However, they are less
J72 207 serious, and present less fundamental criticisms of {0EA}.
J72 208 *<1.1.5 *1Uses and Applications*>
J72 209    |^*0Much debate on the uses and applications of {0EA} has
J72 210 taken place in the literature, particularly in terms of {0EA}'s
J72 211 relationship with Economics (Webb and Pearce, 1975; Edwards,
J72 212 1976).
J72 213    |^However, there is a fairly wide consensus that {0EA} has
J72 214 an important role to play in energy conservation. ^A systematic
J72 215 {0EA} of a process or system can often identify areas of
J72 216 inefficient energy use, and identify areas of the greatest
J72 217 potential savings. ^This was found to be the case in the
J72 218 author's systematic study of the New Zealand food system
J72 219 (Patterson and Earle, 1985). ^Second law analyses can give a
J72 220 particular insight to the potential for energy conservation *-
J72 221 the theoretical minimum energy requirements of a process can be
J72 222 compared with the actual energy requirements. ^These minimum
J72 223 energy requirements can be set as standards to attain both in
J72 224 terms of performance and design.
J72 225 *#
J73 001 **[367 TEXT J73**]
J73 002    |^*0The most prominent feature to emerge from the Brazilian
J73 003 tests is the statistical nature of the results produced. ^The
J73 004 specimen tensile strengths showed a reasonable correlation with
J73 005 the specimen dry density, such that they could be corrected to
J73 006 the mean dry density (see \0Fig. 6.1.3), but all of the rest of
J73 007 the data recovered appeared to be quite random. ^This is
J73 008 evidenced by plotting the vertical load at failure for each
J73 009 specimen against the vertical displacement at failure as shown in
J73 010 \0Fig. 8.1.1. ^This graph shows a considerable scatter of points
J73 011 and has a Pearson correlation coefficient of r = 0.337.
J73 012    |^Similarly, a plot of specimen failure load against
J73 013 horizontal displacement at failure shows a large scatter of
J73 014 points. ^This graph is shown in \0Fig. 8.1.2 and it has a Pearson
J73 015 correlation coefficient of r = 0.043.
J73 016    |^Two further plots continue to show a lack of correlation
J73 017 between parameters which may have been expected to be related.
J73 018 ^\0Fig. 8.1.3 shows a graph of the vertical displacement at
J73 019 failure plotted against the horizontal displacement at failure
J73 020 for the 50 specimens. ^No relationship between these parameters
J73 021 is evidenced and the Pearson correlation coefficient for the data
J73 022 is r = 0.100. ^\0Fig. 8.1.4 shows a plot of \15D*0V against
J73 023 \15D*0H which again shows a large scatter of points with r =
J73 024 0.331. ^Note that the parameters \15D*0V and \15D*0H are as
J73 025 defined in \0Fig. 6.1.5.
J73 026 **[FIGURES**]
J73 027    |^The random nature of the experimental observations is
J73 028 attributable to the *'brittleness**' of the lime-soil mixture.
J73 029 ^In an ideally brittle material failure occurs due to the
J73 030 propagation of cracks while the internal stresses of the specimen
J73 031 are below the yield stress of the material. ^This implies that
J73 032 for brittle type materials, deflections are very small and
J73 033 failure is sudden. ^Real materials always experience a small
J73 034 amount of plasticity near the tip of the crack which produces a
J73 035 small amount of plastic deformation and helps resist propagation
J73 036 of the crack (Jayatilaka, 1979).
J73 037    |^Cracks may be caused within the specimen by any flaws
J73 038 present in the material which cause incompatible deformations
J73 039 upon loading of the specimen. ^Propagation of the cracks is
J73 040 perpetuated by the stress concentrations they generate. ^Material
J73 041 flaws may be in the form of trapped air or water, or any
J73 042 inclusions which have an inconsistent degree of bonding with the
J73 043 surrounding material.
J73 044    |^Having established that failure of a brittle material is
J73 045 due to the presence and propagation of cracks, the random nature
J73 046 of the tensile testing results is explained by the random
J73 047 distribution of cracks within the material and very importantly
J73 048 their orientation. ^Cracks which occur normal to a tensile stress
J73 049 distribution are obviously more likely to lead to failure than
J73 050 those at an angle to it, while cracks parallel to the stress may
J73 051 have no effect at all.
J73 052    |^The opposite to a brittle material is a *'ductile**'
J73 053 material. ^These materials also contain cracks, but crack
J73 054 propagation and stress concentrations are relieved by the
J73 055 plasticity of the material. ^Failure is usually due to the motion
J73 056 of defects which coalesce to cause *'slipping**' along
J73 057 interparticle planes.
J73 058    |^The brittle failure mechanism for tensile strength is
J73 059 often described in terms of the *'weakest link**' or *'series**'
J73 060 theory. ^This theory draws an analogy to the tensile strength of
J73 061 a chain. ^Just as the strength of a chain is dependent on the
J73 062 strength of the weakest link, the strength of a brittle material
J73 063 is dependent on the size and orientation of some critical crack.
J73 064 ^The ductile failure mechanism is described by the *'bundle**' or
J73 065 *'parallel**' theory. ^This theory draws an analogy to the
J73 066 situation where a bundle of threads is subjected to a tensile
J73 067 force. ^When the applied force reaches the strength of the
J73 068 weakest thread, that thread fails and the force it carried is
J73 069 redistributed amongst the remaining threads. ^This sequence is
J73 070 repeated until macroscopic failure occurs when the redistributed
J73 071 forces exceed the strength of the strongest thread (Jayatilaka,
J73 072 1979).
J73 073    |^A plot of \15D*0V against V (see \0Fig. 8.1.5) again shows
J73 074 a considerable scatter of points with a correlation coefficient r
J73 075 = 0.145, while the plot of \15D*0H against H shown in \0Fig.
J73 076 8.1.6 exhibits a reasonable relationship with r = 0.627. ^A
J73 077 possible explanation for this observation is that the lower
J73 078 stresses (all compressive) along the horizontal diameter make the
J73 079 specimen less dependent on the material flaws which may be
J73 080 present in that region. ^The stresses along the vertical axis
J73 081 however are significantly higher and they change from being
J73 082 compressive under the loading strips to tensile in the centre of
J73 083 the specimen, thus the specimen response in this region is more
J73 084 dependent on the random distribution of the material flaws and
J73 085 their orientation.
J73 086    |^The data gathered from the Brazilian test with regard to
J73 087 evaluating Young's modulus, E, and Poisson's ratio, \15n, using
J73 088 the equations given by Kennedy and Anagnos (1983) was not
J73 089 satisfactory, {0ie.}
J73 090 |**[FORMULAE**]
J73 091    |^The negative values of Poisson's ratio calculated from the
J73 092 Brazilian test which appear in Table 6.1e are very consistent,
J73 093 (mean = -0.062, standard deviation = 0.007 for the 50 specimens)
J73 094 but are obviously incorrect. ^Previous work with a similar
J73 095 material reported by Bartley (1986) also showed anomalous
J73 096 stiffness results, with negative values being obtained for
J73 097 Poisson's ratio. ^In correspondence between \0Mr Bartley and \0Mr
J73 098 {0J.N.} Anagnos on this matter, \0Mr Anagnos commented that the
J73 099 likely source of error was in the measurement of the value
J73 100 \15D*0V.
J73 101    |^The finite element modelling of the Brazilian test
J73 102 demonstrated that yielding of the material beneath the loading
J73 103 strips had a significant effect on the calculated deflections of
J73 104 the specimen. ^The ratio of vertical deflection at failure to
J73 105 horizontal deflection at failure, {0ie.} V/H, was found to be
J73 106 approximately 8 (\15n = 0.1) when a linear elastic model was
J73 107 used, whereas if yielding of the material adjacent to the loading
J73 108 strips occurred, the ratio V/H (\15n = 0.1) increased to 25. ^The
J73 109 value of 25 matches the ratio obtained from the Brazilian tests,
J73 110 hence the nonlinear model is more appropriate for the lime-soil
J73 111 mixture than the linear elastic model. ^The extent of yielding
J73 112 beneath the loading strips is shown in \0Fig. 7.4.7 *- note that
J73 113 the edge of the strip causes a significant stress concentration
J73 114 (see \0Fig. 7.4.8).
J73 115    |^The consequence of the nonlinearity of the material is to
J73 116 invalidate the equations for Young's modulus, E, and Poisson's
J73 117 ratio, \15n, proposed by Kennedy and Anagnos (1983). ^These
J73 118 equations require parameters such as
J73 119 **[FORMULA**]
J73 120 and
J73 121 **[FORMULA**]
J73 122 (see \0Fig. 6.1.5), which are predominantly influenced by an
J73 123 assumed linear elastic situation, and if used for nonlinear
J73 124 materials, they produce anomalous results such as negative values
J73 125 for \15n (see Table 6.le and Bartley 1986).
J73 126    |^The discussion above confirms that the Kennedy and Anagnos
J73 127 equations are not applicable for the testing carried out in this
J73 128 work, however, they are sound when the material behaves in a
J73 129 linear elastic fashion. ^This was confirmed by the fact that the
J73 130 linear elastic finite element model of the Brazilian test
J73 131 required negative values of \15n to achieve the V/R ratio of the
J73 132 specimens observed in the Brazilian tests, while the Kennedy and
J73 133 Anagnos equations also produced negative values of \15n from the
J73 134 test data.
J73 135    |^The practice of coating the loading strips with dental
J73 136 plaster as employed in this project is recommended for future use
J73 137 in Brazilian testing of lime-soil mixtures. ^Its use is justified
J73 138 for the following reasons. ^First, it decreases the
J73 139 *'sharpness**' of the edge of the loading strips and as shown by
J73 140 the finite element modelling this region does produce stress
J73 141 concentrations in the specimen (see \0Fig. 7.4.8). ^Secondly, it
J73 142 performs an *'ironing out**' function so that the force applied
J73 143 to the loading strip is transferred to the specimen via a smooth
J73 144 surface, free of irregularities which may cause stress
J73 145 concentrations. ^However, it must be emphasized that the
J73 146 smoothing of the specimen surface does not have a major effect on
J73 147 flaws within the material which are responsible for the failure
J73 148 of the specimen, since failure is initiated in the middle part of
J73 149 the specimen. ^The only questionable aspect of using the plaster
J73 150 is that it is difficult (especially on the upper loading strip)
J73 151 to make an absolutely consistent and uniform application for
J73 152 numerous specimens, however the small variations which inevitably
J73 153 do occur are not considered to be of significant consequence.
J73 154 *<*18.2 Double Punch Test*>
J73 155    |^*0Although the double punch test was only used to gain
J73 156 comparative tensile strength values for the Brazilian test, it
J73 157 proved to be a very effective tensile test considering the
J73 158 relatively simple apparatus used.
J73 159    |^The mean dry density of the 15 double punch specimens was
J73 160 1274.2{0kg/m*:3**:}, with a standard deviation of
J73 161 5.4{0kg/m*:3**:}. ^Comparing this data with that of the 50
J73 162 Brazilian test specimens ({0ie.} mean dry density =
J73 163 1292.5{0kg/m*:3**:} and standard deviation = 12.4{0kg/m*:3**:})
J73 164 shows that the dry density of the double punch specimens was
J73 165 slightly lower and more consistent. ^The resulting specimen
J73 166 tensile strengths (using the Fang and Chen equation, see Table
J73 167 6.2b) had a mean value of 88.6{0kPa} and a standard deviation of
J73 168 6.8{0kPa}. ^This strength value is just under two thirds of that
J73 169 found using the Brazilian test and the standard deviation
J73 170 approximately one third. ^The lower strength value is to be
J73 171 expected due to the fact that in the failure mechanism of the
J73 172 double punch test the tension crack can occur on any one of an
J73 173 infinite number of planes, whereas in the case of the Brazilian
J73 174 test, failure is restricted to a plane through the vertical
J73 175 diameter of the specimen.
J73 176    |^The variation of the specimen tensile strength values was
J73 177 lesser for the double punch test than for the Brazilian test,
J73 178 however the population sizes were different. ^To decide if the
J73 179 double punch test, with a tensile strength standard deviation of
J73 180 6.8{0kPa} for 15 specimens, is a more consistent method of
J73 181 testing than the Brazilian test, with a tensile strength standard
J73 182 deviation of 18.O{0kPa} for 50 specimens, the statistical *'F
J73 183 test**' is used. ^For the data described above, an F ratio of 7.0
J73 184 results. ^Given the population sizes in this situation, tables
J73 185 from Neville and Kennedy (1964) give F distribution values of 2.3
J73 186 and 3.2 for 5% and 1% levels of significance respectively. ^Since
J73 187 the calculated value for F exceeds the tabulated values, it can
J73 188 be concluded that the null hypothesis should be rejected. ^This
J73 189 means that the probability that the difference between the
J73 190 variances associated with the Brazilian test and the double punch
J73 191 test is due to chance alone is less than 1%. ^Hence, the
J73 192 repeatability of the double punch test results is significantly
J73 193 better than those of the Brazilian test.
J73 194    |^A reasonable relationship was found for the specimen dry
J73 195 density and tensile strength from the Brazilian test specimens
J73 196 (see \0Fig. 6.1.2), but plotting dry density against tensile
J73 197 strength for the double punch specimens does not show the same
J73 198 relationship. ^The plot is shown in \0Fig. 8.2.1 and it has a
J73 199 correlation coefficient, r = -0.027.
J73 200    |^The probable reason for the lack of correlation between
J73 201 specimen dry density and tensile strength is the small number of
J73 202 specimens and the relatively narrow range of dry density values
J73 203 compared with the Brazilian test specimens.
J73 204 *#
J74 001 **[368 TEXT J74**]
J74 002 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 003    |^*0This is the most favoured approach, and it is being
J74 004 pursued by {0KDD}, Philips, Xerox, Sharp, {0IBM}, Matsushita,
J74 005 {0NHK}, {0NTT}, {03M}, Sony, Canon, Hitachi, Sanyo, {0TDK},
J74 006 Optimem, LaserDrive, Verbatim, Bull, and no doubt many others.
J74 007 ^The process is really thermomagneto-optical rather than
J74 008 magneto-optical. ^It uses techniques similar to those employed in
J74 009 vertical magnetic recording and may be thought of as optically
J74 010 assisted magnetic recording.
J74 011    |^The disks are covered with a very thin layer of a magnetic
J74 012 material with a high coercivity and a low Curie point. ^During
J74 013 manufacture they are uniformly magnetised in one direction,
J74 014 either up or down. ^During the writing process the laser beam
J74 015 heats up the target spot as in other techniques. ^Once its
J74 016 temperature reaches the Curie point of the material the
J74 017 coercivity of the material at the spot vanishes, and its
J74 018 magnetisation can be reversed by means of a weak magnetic field
J74 019 applied by a small coil attached to the write head. ^On cooling,
J74 020 this reversed magnetisation is *'frozen**'. ^In this way, the
J74 021 bit, although stored magnetically, has its areal extent
J74 022 determined optically, by the size of the laser beam spot.
J74 023    |^The reading process uses either the Faraday effect or the
J74 024 Kerr magneto-optical effect. ^Both of these are rotations of the
J74 025 plane of polarisation of plane-polarised light. ^The Faraday
J74 026 effect occurs on transmission through a magnetised material, and
J74 027 the Kerr effect on reflection from a magnetised material. ^In
J74 028 either case, the areas of reversed magnetisation on the optical
J74 029 disk, when viewed through the polarising filters of the objective
J74 030 lens, appear as dark spots against a bright background.
J74 031    |^The biggest advantage that this technique has over the
J74 032 other erasable technologies is that it offers an apparently
J74 033 unlimited number of write-erase-write cycles. ^The biggest
J74 034 problem is to develop the best possible material. ^It must have
J74 035 high coercivity at room temperature, a low Curie point, and a
J74 036 high Kerr or Faraday rotation. ^It must also be stable, so as to
J74 037 provide dependable storage, and it must be possible to sputter
J74 038 deposit it as a thin, ultra-smooth layer. ^Last but not least, it
J74 039 cannot be too expensive.
J74 040    |^The most favoured materials are iron garnets, consisting
J74 041 of iron in combination with one or more of the rare earth
J74 042 transition metals, terbium, gadolinium, and dysprosium.
J74 043 ^Amorphous material is better than crystalline because, although
J74 044 the magneto-optic rotations are smaller, there are no grain
J74 045 boundaries to create noise and the {0S/N} ratios are much better.
J74 046    |^The basic Kerr or Faraday rotations may be as small as
J74 047 0.1*@. ^They may be increased by the addition of \0Sm, \0Ag,
J74 048 \0Cu, or \0Mg to the {0TbGdFe} film but this tends to affect the
J74 049 coercivity. ^They may also be increased by using multi-layered
J74 050 constructions in which the magnetic layer is sandwiched between
J74 051 precise thicknesses of other reflecting and refracting layers.
J74 052 ^For example, engineers from Sharp Corporation were able to
J74 053 increase the Kerr rotation of a {0GdTbFe} film from 0.27 to
J74 054 1.75*@ using a multi-layered disk consisting of 0.12 \0\15m*0m of
J74 055 {0SiO}, 0.015 \0\15m*0m of the {0GdTbFe} material, 0.030
J74 056 \0\15m*0m of {0SiO*;2**;}, and 0.040 \0\15m*0m of copper on a
J74 057 glass substrate. ^Later work has shown that replacement of the
J74 058 silicon oxide layers by aluminium nitride ({0AlN}) leads to a
J74 059 marked improvement in stability, apparently because oxygen from
J74 060 the oxide layers selectively oxidises the rare earth elements.
J74 061 **[END INDENTATION**]
J74 062 *<*4Prototype Units*>
J74 063 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 064    |^*0The first magneto-optical disk storage prototype was
J74 065 demonstrated as long ago as January 1982 by Sharp Corporation.
J74 066 ^The unit was described as a videodisk system with recording
J74 067 capabilities. ^It used a 5*?8 {0TbDyFe} based disk which stored
J74 068 up to 200 \0Mbyte.
J74 069    |^Philips also demonstrated a prototype disk storage unit in
J74 070 1982. ^It had a 2*?8 disk covered with an 0.05 \0\15m*0m layer of
J74 071 amorphous {0GdTbFe} material. ^It rotated at 600 {0rpm} and
J74 072 stored 10 {0Mbyte}. ^The developed product was intended to be a
J74 073 peripheral for personal computers.
J74 074    |^In mid-1982 {0NHK} (Japan Broadcasting Corporation)
J74 075 announced a prototype magneto-optical videodisk using a 0.2
J74 076 \0\15m*0m gadolinium-cobalt amorphous thin film. ^The Kerr
J74 077 magneto-optic rotation was 0.3*@. ^The system used 150 \0mm
J74 078 (6*?8) disks which stored 3.4 \0Gbyte.
J74 079    |^{0KDD} and Sony have also been active in magneto-optics.
J74 080 ^As long ago as August 1981, {0KDD} engineers were reported as
J74 081 storing 5 {0Mbit/cm*:2**:} on glass disks coated with a film of
J74 082 {0TbFe} or {0GdTbFe}. ^More recently they have been co-operating
J74 083 with Sony, and in October 1983 the partners demonstrated a
J74 084 prototype system using 12*?8 disks incorporating a {0TbFeCo}
J74 085 magnetic film developed by {0KDD} and the grooved double-sided
J74 086 substrate used by Sony for digital audio disks and for write-once
J74 087 disks. ^The prototype 12*?8 disks stored about 40,000 A4 pages,
J74 088 equivalent to about 3.7 \0Gbyte. ^A similar 8*?8 disk stored
J74 089 approximately half this. ^In October 1984 Sony delivered two
J74 090 12*?8 drives to {0KDD} and claimed that they were the first
J74 091 erasable magneto-optic disk storage systems in practical use for
J74 092 computer data storage. ^At the Data Show in Tokyo during October
J74 093 1985 {0KDD} demonstrated a further development. ^It consisted of
J74 094 a microcomputer-controlled system for digitising and storing
J74 095 video still frames. ^Each 12*?8 magneto-optical disk held 2300
J74 096 digitised frames on each side. ^In the course of this research
J74 097 {0KDD} needed a device to test its experimental disks and asked
J74 098 Nakamichi to build one for them. ^The resulting drive, the
J74 099 {0OMS}-1000, is really a laboratory tool for testing
J74 100 magneto-optical media, but it is commercially available and
J74 101 advertisements for it may be seen in electronics magazines.
J74 102    |^In May 1984 Canon showed a document filing system using
J74 103 its prototype magneto-optical drive and an 8*?8 disk.
J74 104    |^In October 1984 Hitachi presented a series of papers on a
J74 105 12 \0cm disk with a total capacity on both sides of 0.55 \0Gbyte
J74 106 and implied that a commercial product was about 2 years away.
J74 107    |^At the Japan Electronic Show in Tokyo in October 1984
J74 108 Sanyo showed a prototype magneto-optical compact disk recorder.
J74 109 ^For the sake of compatability the machine used the same sampling
J74 110 and coding format as the standard {0CD}. ^However, to overcome a
J74 111 poor signal-to-noise level the magneto-optic disks had to be
J74 112 played at an increased disk speed which cut down the maximum
J74 113 playing time from 74 to 30 minutes. ^Sanyo engineers were
J74 114 optimistic that they could improve the {0S/N} ratio enough to
J74 115 allow the standard {0CD} disk speed to be used. ^The prototype
J74 116 player was designed so that it could play standard {0CD}s as well
J74 117 as the magneto-optical ones.
J74 118    |^Another recent demonstration was made by Verbatim at the
J74 119 {0U.S.} National Computer Conference of 1985 in Chicago. ^The
J74 120 prototype that was demonstrated stored 40 \0Mbyte of data on a
J74 121 single-sided 3.5*?8 disk. ^The developed product was to store as
J74 122 much as 100 \0Mbyte and was to be aimed at the personal computer
J74 123 storage market. ^Instead of the more usual Kerr effect, the
J74 124 prototype used the Faraday effect for readout, with the detector
J74 125 and the laser diode on opposite sides of the disk. ^This was
J74 126 designed to reduce expense, but it meant that the disks had to be
J74 127 single-sided. ^The information layer was a proprietary mix of
J74 128 \0Tb, \0Fe, and \0Co about 0.06-0.08 \0\15m*0m thick sputtered
J74 129 onto a glass disk. ^The active layer was sandwiched between 0.06
J74 130 \0\15m*0m thick layers of a dielectric for protection and for its
J74 131 anti-reflection properties. ^Verbatim's goal was to begin
J74 132 large-scale manufacturing in the third quarter of 1987, selling
J74 133 drives for about {0US}*+$300 and disks for about {0US}*+$20-30 to
J74 134 {0OEM} manufacturers. ^Since that conference Verbatim has been
J74 135 bought by Kodak, and the direction of the project has changed
J74 136 slightly. ^The main change is a move to reflective media and the
J74 137 Kerr effect rather than transmissive media and the Faraday
J74 138 effect. ^This will allow higher capacities to be achieved.
J74 139 ^Reasonable quantities of the product are not now expected until
J74 140 1988.
J74 141    |^At the *2COMDEX/ FALL *0trade show in November 1985
J74 142 Optimem and {03M} announced a partnership to produce a 200
J74 143 \0Mbyte 5 1/4*?8 optical drive that will operate interchangeably
J74 144 with read-only, write-once, and erasable media. ^They anticipated
J74 145 a commercial product during 1986 with volume production beginning
J74 146 in 1987.
J74 147    |^Most of the announcements of these prototypes have
J74 148 suggested that they would quickly lead to commercial products.
J74 149 ^So far they have not. ^It is only possible to guess at the
J74 150 reasons, but uncertain stability and poor signal-to-noise ratios
J74 151 seem to be the most likely.
J74 152 **[END INDENTATION**]
J74 153 *<*6THE PHASE-CHANGE APPROACH*>
J74 154 *<*4Description*>
J74 155 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 156    |^*0In this approach the sensitive surface is made to switch
J74 157 from an amorphous to a crystalline form. ^The point at which a
J74 158 bit is to be written must be heated and then abruptly quenched to
J74 159 force the material to crystallise. ^To erase the bit it must be
J74 160 heated again and cooled slowly.
J74 161    |^This approach has a number of advantages over
J74 162 magneto-optics. ^Higher bit densities are possible because the
J74 163 written bits are smaller (0.6 \0\15m*0m as against 1.0 \0\15m*0m
J74 164 for magneto-optics); signal-to-noise ratios are better (95 \0dB
J74 165 as against a maximum of 85 \0dB for magneto-optics); and the
J74 166 disks are cheaper and easier to manufacture. ^Unfortunately, the
J74 167 repeated phase changes eventually cause the sensitive layer to
J74 168 deteriorate, so limiting the number of read-write cycles. ^The
J74 169 exact limits are unclear. ^One paper suggests 10,000; others,
J74 170 that there is no significant deterioration before about 100,000
J74 171 cycles; while Matsushita claims to have successfully performed
J74 172 1,000,000 read-erase-write cycles on its disks.
J74 173    |^Although phase-change is not as popular as magneto-optics,
J74 174 and only one significant prototype unit has been displayed, a
J74 175 number of important companies are working with it including
J74 176 Matsushita, Sony, {0JVC}, and Hewlett-Packard.
J74 177 **[END INDENTATION**]
J74 178 *<*4Prototype Units*>
J74 179 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 180    |^*0Only one prototype erasable optical disk recording
J74 181 system using phase-change technology has been demonstrated. ^This
J74 182 was in April 1983, and the manufacturer was Matsushita, known in
J74 183 consumer markets though its brand-names Panasonic, Technics,
J74 184 Quasar, and National.
J74 185    |^The prototype unit used an 8*?8 disk rotating at 1800
J74 186 {0rpm}. ^The sensitive layer was tellurium suboxide doped with
J74 187 small amounts of germanium, indium, and lead. ^Originally the
J74 188 material was in its crystalline state. ^Data bits were written as
J74 189 spots of amorphous material. ^This has a lower reflectivity, and
J74 190 so the written bits stood out as dark spots on a light
J74 191 background.
J74 192    |^A semiconductor laser operating at 0.83 \0\15m*0m was used
J74 193 both for reading, at a power of 1 \0mW, and for writing, at 8
J74 194 \0mW. ^A separate semiconductor laser, operating at 0.78
J74 195 \0\15m*0m and 10 \0mW was used for erasing, but the same
J74 196 focussing lens was used for both so that erasing and rewriting
J74 197 could take place almost simultaneously.
J74 198    |^The disks had 15,000 concentric (not spiral) tracks with a
J74 199 pitch of 2.5 \0\15m*0m and could store 15,000 \0TV frames,
J74 200 equivalent to about 0.7 \0Gbyte.
J74 201 **[END INDENTATION**]
J74 202 *<*6OTHER ERASABLE APPROACHES*>
J74 203 *<*4Polymer Dye Media*>
J74 204 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 205    |^*0After magneto-optics and phase-change, the third active
J74 206 technology for making erasable optical disks is to use
J74 207 light-sensitive dyes encased in polymer films. ^This is a
J74 208 low-cost method and does not use toxic materials like tellurium,
J74 209 selenium, and arsenic, but preliminary findings suggest that it
J74 210 has a severely restricted lifetime of only about 150 
J74 211 write-erase-write cycles.
J74 212    |^Kodak and Philips are among the firms working with this
J74 213 media, and Kodak, in a paper given at an Optical Society of
J74 214 America conference on Optical Data Storage in California during
J74 215 April 1984, showed a microphotograph of the data bits on a disk
J74 216 using its material. ^The definition was impressive and gave an
J74 217 excellent signal-to-noise ratio, but it is not clear whether that
J74 218 particular media **[SIC**] was erasable or only write-once.
J74 219 **[END INDENTATION**]
J74 220 *<*4Colour-Change Media*>
J74 221 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J74 222    |^*0This media **[SIC**] represents an interesting variant of the
J74 223 phase change approach. ^The material was developed by Hitachi
J74 224 \0Ltd and only announced in December 1985. ^Instead of a
J74 225 reversible change between crystalline and amorphous forms, it
J74 226 uses a reversible change between two different crystalline forms
J74 227 of a metallic alloy.
J74 228 *#
J75 001 **[369 TEXT J75**]
J75 002    |^*0The properties of New Zealand coals, the uses to which
J75 003 they were put, the lack of thermal power stations and of
J75 004 conventional steel making, brought an early pattern of coal
J75 005 usage, far removed from that of overseas countries.
J75 006    |^The early coal industry, based on West Coast bituminous
J75 007 coals, has gradually shifted its dependence to the more-abundant,
J75 008 more-cheaply-won, lower-rank coals, especially of the North
J75 009 Island.
J75 010    |^The range of New Zealand coals and their properties, and
J75 011 the changing pattern of coal use *- in the past and as forecast
J75 012 for the future *- are described.
J75 013    |^The concern is largely with the relatively-unique 
J75 014 sub-bituminous coals and the developing technology for their use.
J75 015    |^Examples are described, where an understanding of coal
J75 016 properties and of the energy circumstances in New Zealand, is
J75 017 required to ensure that the wisest energy policies are
J75 018 implemented.
J75 019 *<*7INTRODUCTION*>
J75 020    |^*0The history of coal use in New Zealand is notable for
J75 021 its distinction from that of most overseas countries *- in the
J75 022 general circumstances that have dictated the overall pattern of
J75 023 energy use, and in the properties of the coal. ^An understanding
J75 024 of these  distinguishing features, too often not appreciated in
J75 025 the past, is essential to the proper planning for the wisest use
J75 026 of New Zealand's coal.
J75 027    |^Our coal reserves, although they constitute 93.6% of New
J75 028 Zealand's reserves of fossil fuels, are essentially finite; it
J75 029 behoves us to ensure that they are used with maximum
J75 030 effectiveness and maximum efficiency, to provide their maximum
J75 031 contribution to the country's future economy.
J75 032    |^If this paper does nothing else, it might, hopefully, make
J75 033 New Zealanders aware of the need to be conversant with all these
J75 034 distinguishing features, before we start to apply overseas
J75 035 technology in our different conditions, and especially with our
J75 036 different (sub-bituminous) coals.
J75 037    |^If we are going to involve overseas consultants, they will
J75 038 not appreciate some of these peculiar issues, and without the
J75 039 necessary insight, they are likely to advise the adoption of
J75 040 technology proven in their own country, but not necessarily
J75 041 applicable in ours.
J75 042    |^If our theoretical scientists and engineers lack the
J75 043 proper understanding of the New Zealand scene, no matter how much
J75 044 they engross themselves with overseas technical literature and
J75 045 textbooks, their talents are unlikely to contribute much to the
J75 046 unique problems that confront the New Zealand coal industry.
J75 047    |^Comprehension of overseas developments in coal use is
J75 048 certainly important, as long as it is tempered with local
J75 049 knowledge *- to the extent, for instance, that overseas
J75 050 technology might even be applied in New Zealand in a different
J75 051 way and to a different end.
J75 052    |^These *"distinguishing features**" of the New Zealand coal
J75 053 scene, are described under the following headings:
J75 054 |_New Zealand's Pattern of Energy Use
J75 055 |The Relative Lack of Industrial Development
J75 056 |New Zealand Coal, especially Sub-bituminous Coal
J75 057 *<*7NEW ZEALAND'S PATTERN OF ENERGY USE*>
J75 058    |^*0The first difference in energy use between New Zealand
J75 059 and the much bigger world outside, is in the pattern of fuel use
J75 060 that developed here, a development of which New Zealanders,
J75 061 realising on the opportunities offering, can feel justly proud.
J75 062    |^The abundance of hydro-electric potential was one of the
J75 063 early factors that determined New Zealand's pattern of fuel use.
J75 064 ^We had no need for thermal power stations such as were
J75 065 developing overseas. ^New Zealanders came to regard cheap
J75 066 hydro-electricity almost as a national heritage and the country's
J75 067 leaders were careful to keep increases in cost of household
J75 068 electricity to a minimum *- the proportion of electricity used by
J75 069 householders, was a source of wonderment to the rest of the
J75 070 western world.
J75 071    |^The lack of suitable coking coal, and competition from
J75 072 cheap hydro-electricity, meant that a viable carbonising industry
J75 073 did not develop on the scale that developed overseas, to provide
J75 074 gas as a household fuel. ^Again, without suitable coking coal,
J75 075 and without the necessary minerals or a market for the product,
J75 076 there was no growth of a conventional steel industry, generally
J75 077 associated overseas with the distribution of *"town**" gas.
J75 078    |^So, the two uses for coal which commonly consume 80-90% of
J75 079 the coal production in other countries *- power generation and
J75 080 steel production *- were almost unknown in New Zealand.
J75 081    |^These were the factors which determined the country's fuel
J75 082 utilisation pattern in the early years and which, for instance,
J75 083 left New Zealand without a viable gas industry which could have
J75 084 provided some immediate outlet for the large reserves of natural
J75 085 gas which have come available in more recent years.
J75 086    |(^Most of the circumstances which determined this
J75 087 fuel-consumption pattern are changing now *- with the available
J75 088 hydro-electric sites in the North Island now developed, and with
J75 089 an (unconventional) steel industry growing, New Zealand can
J75 090 expect to see a new pattern of coal consumption more similar to
J75 091 that in other countries.)
J75 092 *<*7THE RELATIVE LACK OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT*>
J75 093    |^*0The New Zealand economy has been basically a rural
J75 094 economy, depending on primary produce *- not an industrial one as
J75 095 we find in most of the countries whose technology we often tend
J75 096 to follow.
J75 097    |^Most industrial development, apart from that associated
J75 098 with primary produce, is on a smaller operating scale than is
J75 099 found overseas. ^Coal production and use has invariably been on a
J75 100 smaller operating scale, denied the economies of scale that are
J75 101 often available elsewhere. ^With industrial-coal use overseas,
J75 102 capital charges on the more expensive coal-handling and burning
J75 103 equipment, have always adversely affected the position of coal as
J75 104 a competitive fuel. ^On New Zealand's smaller scale, capital
J75 105 charges can have an even more crippling effect on cost
J75 106 competitiveness, and promoters of industrial coal are always
J75 107 faced with a dilemma *- of the need for increased convenience in
J75 108 coal use (requiring more expensive equipment) and the need to
J75 109 avoid unacceptable capital costs.
J75 110 *<*7NEW ZEALAND COAL, ESPECIALLY SUB-BITUMINOUS COAL*>
J75 111    |^*0The major use for coal in the past has been in industry
J75 112 *- mainly cement works, dairy factories and meat works *- and the
J75 113 total consumption of industrial coal has not changed much over
J75 114 recent years. ^Some oil-burning plant has converted to coal *-
J75 115 some North Island fuel users, including coal users, have
J75 116 converted to natural gas.
J75 117    |^New Zealand's reserves of coal are of the bituminous,
J75 118 sub-bituminous and lignite types.
J75 119    |^The bituminous coals of the relatively-isolated West Coast
J75 120 (South Island) were the first coals to be used, mainly because
J75 121 they were similar to the coals the early settlers had known at
J75 122 home. ^They were suited to gas manufacture, and to manual firing
J75 123 *- in ships, railways engines, and industrial boilers.
J75 124    |^The advent of the mechanical stoker, designed primarily
J75 125 for use with overseas weakly-coking coals, did not contribute as
J75 126 much as expected to the industrial use of coal, in the face of
J75 127 the growing competition from the new fuel oil. ^Many bituminous
J75 128 coals were too highly swelling to suit these stokers. ^The
J75 129 sub-bituminous coals were not properly understood, and were very
J75 130 much underestimated, commonly being dismissed as *"low-rank
J75 131 lignites**"!
J75 132    |^West Coast coal production is still an important
J75 133 proportion of New Zealand's total production, but the emphasis
J75 134 has gradually shifted towards sub-bituminous coals which today
J75 135 are the coals of greatest economic significance. ^These coals,
J75 136 more widely distributed throughout the country and nearer the
J75 137 centres of population, are unusual in comparison with most
J75 138 overseas coals. ^As the fuel technologists' growing understanding
J75 139 of their unique properties brought modifications to the
J75 140 established firing systems and led to the development of new
J75 141 ones, the special properties of these coals came to be better
J75 142 exploited.
J75 143    |^New Zealand's most abundant coal reserves are in Southland
J75 144 and Central Otago *- the lignite fields. ^At present, consumption
J75 145 of lignite by industry, although increasing, is still small, but
J75 146 it will be on these lignites that New Zealand will ultimately
J75 147 depend for her energy reserves in the longer term.
J75 148 *<*7SUB-BITUMINOUS COAL*>
J75 149    |^*0The developing pattern of coal use in New Zealand has
J75 150 been primarily around sub-bituminous coal, an unusual coal by
J75 151 world standards. ^An understanding of the reasons for the
J75 152 different circumstances in New Zealand and of the expectations
J75 153 for the future, is dependent on an understanding of the
J75 154 properties of these coals. ^Much of this paper is devoted to a
J75 155 description of these properties, and the effect of the properties
J75 156 on future developments in the coal industry.
J75 157    |^This sub-bituminous coal is typified by that from the
J75 158 Waikato field which today contributes most to the annual coal
J75 159 production. ^A typical average analysis (on an
J75 160 as-sampled-at-the-mine basis) of industrial coal from the largest
J75 161 producing Waikato mine, is shown below:
J75 162 **[LIST**]
J75 163    |^*4Moisture *- *0most industrial coal contains at least 2%
J75 164 or 3% surface moisture, depending largely on the fines content,
J75 165 on the condition of mining and subsequent handling of the coal.
J75 166 ^A typical Waikato coal will have an equilibrium moisture content
J75 167 (70% Relative Humidity) of about 16% and a moisture-holding
J75 168 capacity (100% {0RH}) of about 18%. ^This high level of inherent
J75 169 moisture is the main reason for the relatively-low heating value
J75 170 of the coal. ^Thoughts of removing some of this inherent moisture
J75 171 to reduce transport costs and improve firing, are generally
J75 172 tempered by concern for an increased tendency to spontaneous
J75 173 heating.
J75 174    |^*4Ash *- *0a typical ash content of Waikato coal is 4 or
J75 175 5%, of which up to one half is inherent ash, bound in the coal
J75 176 substance. ^Whereas most industrial and power-station coal in the
J75 177 western world, is washed before use (to reduce the ash content),
J75 178 the naturally-low ash levels with New Zealand coals, have not
J75 179 required, up till now, the installation of a single coal washery.
J75 180 ^The ash of Waikato coals is generally characterised by a high
J75 181 calcium content, averaging 30-40% {0CaO}. ^When the coal is burnt
J75 182 at relatively-low temperatures, much of the ash has the
J75 183 appearance of wood ash.
J75 184    |^*4Ash-Fusion Temperatures *- *0by world standards,
J75 185 ash-fusion temperatures are low *- sometimes the hemisphere
J75 186 temperature in reducing conditions is below 1200*@\0C. ^The
J75 187 latest power-station boilers, designed for use with these low
J75 188 ash-fusion temperatures, have an increased combustion-chamber
J75 189 volume. ^In industrial use, (although some troubles are
J75 190 experienced with these low fusion temperatures), the problems,
J75 191 for various reasons described later, are not as serious as
J75 192 overseas experience might forecast.
J75 193    |^*4Volatile Matter *- *0volatiles are high *- generally the
J75 194 volatile matter/fixed carbon ratio is between 0.8 and 1.0.
J75 195    |^*4Sulphur *- *0levels are generally less than 0.3% and
J75 196 most of this (typically over 90%) is organic sulphur. ^Some
J75 197 pockets of higher sulphur coal occur, mainly outside the Waikato
J75 198 area, but these coals are not used to any great extent.
J75 199    |^*4Free-Burning Properties *- *0the sub-bituminous coals
J75 200 are non-swelling and non-coking. ^As they carbonise, the
J75 201 particles simply shrink, retaining their entity and their
J75 202 original shape. ^The resulting char is rather similar in
J75 203 appearance to the original coal. (^Compare this with the
J75 204 behaviour of bituminous coals, commonly used in most western
J75 205 countries, which under these conditions, soften and fuse together
J75 206 in the carbonising process, to form coke.)
J75 207    |^*4Reactivity *- *0sub-bituminous coal and its char, are
J75 208 highly reactive, and this high reactivity has several effects on
J75 209 the combustion process, as described later. ^In magazine-fed
J75 210 domestic appliances for instance, where a bed of coal remains
J75 211 without air supplied to it, the apparently inert coal retains a
J75 212 condition, aided by the insulation provided by the fluffy ash,
J75 213 where the fuel bed can lie dormant for more than a week, to be
J75 214 rekindled when the air supply is restored.
J75 215 *<*7PRODUCTION OF SUB-BITUMINOUS COAL*>
J75 216    |^*0Coal seams are relatively thick and close to the
J75 217 surface. ^Currently, less than a quarter of the Waikato
J75 218 production is taken by underground methods, but this proportion
J75 219 is certain to increase.
J75 220    |^Mechanised mining with continuous miners, was introduced a
J75 221 few years ago, in two of the larger Waikato underground mines.
J75 222 ^Previously, mining was all by manual methods, with mechanisation
J75 223 limited to loading operations. ^The faulted nature of the seams
J75 224 and the roof conditions, have not suited continuous miners, and
J75 225 longwall techniques are planned to take their place.
J75 226    |^With these faulted and undulating seams, it is difficult,
J75 227 with mechanised mining, always to avoid floor and roof material
J75 228 or intrusions and other seam inconsistencies, as could be more
J75 229 readily achieved with manual methods of mining.
J75 230 *#
J76 001 **[370 TEXT J76**]
J76 002 ^*0The term on the right hand side of the equation is the
J76 003 effective load vector.
J76 004 *<2.2.2 *1Dynamic Modal Superposition Analysis*>
J76 005    |^*0The equations of motion are in general a set of linear
J76 006 coupled equations with the number of unknowns and number of
J76 007 equations equal to the chosen number of degrees of freedom. ^It
J76 008 can be shown that with a suitable choice of the damping matrix
J76 009 the equations of motion can be uncoupled by transformation to the
J76 010 normal coordinates of the elastic structural system. ^The normal
J76 011 modes are the eigenvectors derived from the equations of undamped
J76 012 free vibration and the natural frequencies are functions of the
J76 013 associated eigenvalues. ^The normal modes are a linearly
J76 014 independent set of vectors and so form a basis for the
J76 015 displacement field. ^Any deformed shape in the real coordinate
J76 016 system can be represented as a linear combination of the normal
J76 017 modes. ^The scalar quantities by which the normal modes are
J76 018 multiplied are referred to as the modal amplitudes.
J76 019    |^The equations of motion can be solved with much less
J76 020 computational effort in the modal coordinates, as the equations
J76 021 are uncoupled and can be solved independently, and often not all
J76 022 modes of response need to be considered. ^Once the modal
J76 023 responses have been found the responses in the actual coordinate
J76 024 system can be determined by inverting the coordinate
J76 025 transformation. ^The principle of superposition, applicable to
J76 026 linear elastic structures, is then used to add the responses from
J76 027 all of the normal modes to determine the total dynamic response.
J76 028    |^The steps involved in carrying out a modal superposition
J76 029 analysis are:
J76 030 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 1**]
J76 031 |_1.
J76 032 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 033 Formulation of the structure mass and stiffness matrices
J76 034 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 035 |2.
J76 036 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 037 Calculation of the normal modes and frequencies
J76 038 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 039 |3.
J76 040 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 041 Formation of the generalised mass, damping and stiffness
J76 042 matrices, and the generalised load vector
J76 043 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 044 |4.
J76 045 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 046 Solution of the uncoupled equations of motion in the modal
J76 047 coordinates
J76 048 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 049 |5.
J76 050 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 051 Transformation of the modal responses back to structural
J76 052 coordinates
J76 053 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 054 |6.
J76 055 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 056 Superposition of the responses from each normal mode
J76 057 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 058 **[END INDENTATION 1**]
J76 059    |^The equations of motion will only uncouple if the damping
J76 060 matrix has a suitable form. ^Rayleigh showed that the equations
J76 061 will uncouple if the damping matrix is a linear combination of
J76 062 the mass and stiffness matrices. ^In this case the damping matrix
J76 063 exhibits properties of orthogonality with respect to the mode
J76 064 shapes, as do the mass and stiffness matrices. ^It can be shown
J76 065 that Rayleigh damping results in a hyperbolic variation of the
J76 066 proportion of critical damping with modal frequency. ^Because
J76 067 little is known about the mechanisms of structural damping, the
J76 068 Rayleigh damping model is often used in modal superposition
J76 069 analyses as it is convenient to apply.
J76 070    |^In analyses including soil-structure interaction effects
J76 071 it is often required to model the radiation damping effects with
J76 072 the use of dashpot members incorporated at the foundation of a
J76 073 structural model. ^The introduction of the additional damping
J76 074 terms into the global damping matrix invariably results in the
J76 075 damping becoming non-proportional, that is, the damping matrix is
J76 076 no longer a linear combination of the mass and stiffness
J76 077 matrices. ^In that case the equations of motion do not uncouple
J76 078 using the undamped free vibration mode-shapes. ^This problem is
J76 079 discussed in detail in Section 2.4.
J76 080    |^Modal superposition analyses can really only be used for
J76 081 the response analysis of linearly elastic structures. ^For
J76 082 non-linear elastic or inelastic structures modal analyses are not
J76 083 strictly valid although approximate response predictions for such
J76 084 structures can be obtained by estimating equivalent linear
J76 085 properties.
J76 086 *<2.2.3 *1Response Spectrum Analysis*>
J76 087    |^*0In the modal superposition analysis method an actual
J76 088 accelerogram record is input and used to determine the effective
J76 089 loading function. ^The modal responses are calculated separately
J76 090 and combined. ^The maximum response in each mode will in general
J76 091 occur at different times through the dynamic response. ^Response
J76 092 spectrum techniques allow the maximum response to be predicted
J76 093 directly from the modal properties of the system and the
J76 094 calculated response spectrum [2.3] of the earthquake
J76 095 accelerogram. ^It is thus possible to predict the maximum
J76 096 response in each mode and to estimate the maximum response which
J76 097 would be obtained from the superposition of modal responses.
J76 098 ^This can be done by various simple combination schemes.
J76 099 ^Probably the most common of these is the so-called Square Root
J76 100 of Sum of Squares ({0SRSS}) method. ^Any maximum response
J76 101 quantity (displacement, velocity, member force, base shear \0etc)
J76 102 of interest is calculated for each mode based on the required
J76 103 response spectrum. ^The likely maximum from the combined modal
J76 104 responses is then estimated by summing the squares of the modal
J76 105 maxima and taking the square root. ^The method attempts to
J76 106 recognise that it is unlikely that all modal maxima will occur
J76 107 simultaneously but some modes could combine unfavourably. ^The
J76 108 {0SRSS} combination method has been found to give reasonable
J76 109 estimates of the maximum response obtained by including all
J76 110 normal modes. ^Other modal combination methods are also
J76 111 available. ^It should be noted that it is often not necessary to
J76 112 consider responses of all modes of vibration of the structural
J76 113 model. ^Normally satisfactory predictions of overall response can
J76 114 be obtained by considering only a few dominant modes.
J76 115    |^The steps involved in carrying out a response spectrum
J76 116 analysis are:
J76 117 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 1**]
J76 118 |_1.
J76 119 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 120 Formulation of the structure mass and stiffness matrices
J76 121 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 122 |2.
J76 123 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 124 Calculation of the normal modes and frequencies
J76 125 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 126 |3.
J76 127 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 128 Formation of the generalised mass and stiffness matrices
J76 129 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 130 |4.
J76 131 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 132 Computation of the maximum modal response quantities using the
J76 133 response spectrum
J76 134 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 135 |5.
J76 136 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 137 Transformation of the maximum modal responses back to structural
J76 138 coordinates
J76 139 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 140 |6.
J76 141 **[BEGIN INDENTATION 2**]
J76 142 Combination of the maximum responses from each normal mode
J76 143 **[END INDENTATION 2**]
J76 144 **[END INDENTATION 1**]
J76 145    |^A response spectrum analysis will in general require less
J76 146 computational effort than a full modal superposition analysis.
J76 147 ^Damping is allowed for in the analysis method in the response
J76 148 spectrum itself. ^For example, it is common to specify
J76 149 approximately 5 percent of critical damping in building
J76 150 structures. ^The acceleration (or velocity or displacement)
J76 151 response spectrum for 5 percent damped structures responding to
J76 152 the required earthquake accelerogram would be calculated and used
J76 153 as the input response spectrum to the analysis.
J76 154    |^The limitations of the response spectrum analysis method
J76 155 are as for the modal superposition method except that the maximum
J76 156 results predicted are only estimates of the combined modal
J76 157 responses.
J76 158 *<2.2.4 *1Analysis of Nonlinear Structures*>
J76 159    |^*0Accurate response analysis of nonlinear structures can
J76 160 only be obtained using nonlinear analysis techniques. ^Because
J76 161 the stiffness matrix changes with time in the nonlinear
J76 162 structure, the normal modes and frequencies also change and modal
J76 163 analysis techniques are no longer suitable for the response
J76 164 analysis. ^In addition, the principle of superposition can only
J76 165 be applied to linear structures, so solution of the equations of
J76 166 motion for nonlinear structures is not possible in the frequency
J76 167 domain.
J76 168    |^Approximate dynamic analyses are often carried out on
J76 169 nonlinear structures by assuming some equivalent linear
J76 170 properties to be appropriate. ^For example, in reinforced
J76 171 concrete structures cracking can reduce the flexural stiffness of
J76 172 the members significantly. ^When carrying out dynamic analysis of
J76 173 reinforced concrete structures it is common to specify the
J76 174 estimated cracked flexural stiffnesses. ^A dynamic modal analysis
J76 175 is then carried out assuming linear elastic response. ^This is
J76 176 the so-called Equivalent Linear Method.
J76 177    |^Dynamic analysis of structures which dissipate energy by
J76 178 hysteretic effects, such as inelastic yielding, can also be
J76 179 achieved approximately using the Equivalent Linear Method.
J76 180 ^Although hysteretic damping cannot be incorporated in a linear
J76 181 analysis it is possible to include additional viscous damping in
J76 182 the dynamic model. ^Appropriate secant stiffnesses and damping
J76 183 levels may be difficult to estimate though, and the accuracy of
J76 184 the equivalent linear method is likely to deteriorate as the
J76 185 degree of nonlinearity increases. ^An example of this method is
J76 186 presented in Chapter 4 in which it is attempted to predict the
J76 187 nonlinear response of soil deposits over bedrock during
J76 188 earthquake shaking.
J76 189    |^Many structures will display strongly nonlinear behaviour
J76 190 during response to earthquake excitation. ^The only way to
J76 191 accurately predict response is by nonlinear dynamic analysis
J76 192 using step by step solution methods in the time domain. ^The
J76 193 incremental form of the equations of motion is set up and the
J76 194 solution precedes in a series of small time increments using the
J76 195 tangent stiffness matrix. ^At each time step the actions in the
J76 196 members are determined. ^If a change in the stiffness of any
J76 197 member is found then the global tangent stiffness matrix is
J76 198 updated. ^It is possible to follow the nonlinear response of
J76 199 structures very accurately using this approach. ^Detailed
J76 200 nonlinear load-deformation behaviour of members can easily be
J76 201 incorporated.
J76 202    |^Nonlinear dynamic analysis is computationally expensive
J76 203 compared with modal analysis and response spectrum methods.
J76 204 ^There are also numerical difficulties which arise, such as the
J76 205 load overshoot problem, which is due to sudden stiffness changes
J76 206 in a structure. ^These can generally be overcome by choosing a
J76 207 suitably small time step for the analysis.
J76 208    |^In any dynamic analysis in the time domain the time step
J76 209 chosen should be small enough so that the response of the
J76 210 structure can be accurately followed. ^One criteria **[SIC**] which
J76 211 has been suggested is that the time step should be no greater than
J76 212 about one quarter of the shortest significant natural period of
J76 213 the system. ^If the time step is too large the contribution of
J76 214 high frequency components is filtered out, but often without
J76 215 drastic loss of accuracy. ^However, for some structural systems
J76 216 the contributions of higher mode effects may be important. ^It
J76 217 has been suggested [2.5] that higher modes may be excited more in
J76 218 inelastically responding structures.
J76 219    |^When developing finite element models for the dynamic
J76 220 analysis of structures it is necessary to decide how the real
J76 221 structure should be represented by a simple mesh of nodes and
J76 222 elements. ^In general, a larger the**[SIC**] number of members
J76 223 will give a more accurate solution, though requiring more
J76 224 computational effort. ^A finer mesh will result in a larger
J76 225 number of high frequency modes of response being modelled. ^The
J76 226 mesh size can be related to the maximum frequency of motion for
J76 227 which accurate response will be obtained and the elastic wave
J76 228 propagation speeds in the structure. ^Consider, for example,
J76 229 modelling the dynamic response of a continuous shear beam of
J76 230 finite length. ^A dynamic analysis model can be chosen with
J76 231 several shear beam members placed end to end. ^If accurate
J76 232 predictions of the motion of a particular frequency are required,
J76 233 then the length of the shear beams would have to be chosen small
J76 234 enough so that the length multiplied by the required frequency is
J76 235 less than the shear wave velocity in the material. ^It would also
J76 236 be necessary to select a time step for the analysis which is a
J76 237 suitably small fraction, say one quarter or less, of the period
J76 238 of vibration corresponding to the required frequency. ^In
J76 239 structures which respond inelastically the problems of choosing
J76 240 suitable mesh size and time step are compounded. ^Sensitivity
J76 241 studies can be carried out but the choice is often made on the
J76 242 basis of experience and engineering judgment.
J76 243    |^A computer program developed by Sharpe and Carr [2.6], for
J76 244 the dynamic analysis of inelastic plane frame structures subject
J76 245 to earthquake excitation, was used extensively in this research.
J76 246 *<2.3
J76 247 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J76 248 *3WATER-STRUCTURE INTERACTION EFFECTS IN OFFSHORE CONCRETE
J76 249 GRAVITY PLATFORMS*>
J76 250 **[END INDENTATION**]
J76 251    |^*0Water-structure interaction effects are extensively
J76 252 reported in the literature, mainly with regard to wave loading on
J76 253 offshore platform structures. ^Many of the principles are the
J76 254 same in considering the earthquake response of submerged
J76 255 structures but there is a fundamental difference. ^In the wave
J76 256 loading case the structure is essentially stationary and the
J76 257 water is in motion whereas, in the earthquake response case, the
J76 258 structure is moving and the surrounding water is essentially
J76 259 still.
J76 260    |^Wave forces on submerged objects can be calculated using
J76 261 the Morison equation [2.7]. ^The application of the Morison
J76 262 equation to wave loading is discussed more fully in Chapter 8 and
J76 263 only a brief description is given here. ^The force per unit
J76 264 length \0F exerted on a stationary submerged cylindrical body
J76 265 with cross-sectional area \0A and diameter \0D by a fluid with
J76 266 mass density \15r is given in \0Eqn. 2.4. ^The quantities \0a and
J76 267 \0v are the instantaneous fluid acceleration and velocity.
J76 268 |**[FORMULA**]
J76 269    |^The first term is a linear inertia force and C*;i**; is
J76 270 the inertia coefficient.
J76 271 *#
J77 001 **[371 TEXT J77**]
J77 002 ^*0Avocado oil, obtained in high levels from the flesh of the
J77 003 fruit, is now finding considerable use within the high profit
J77 004 cosmetic industry (Canto {0et al.} 1980). ^Additionally, jojoba
J77 005 beans provide a series of wax esters, and these have been
J77 006 suggested as a potential replacement for sperm whale oil (Coyle
J77 007 1982).
J77 008    |^Grape seed oil has been produced for many years in Europe
J77 009 but is not now of much importance as a commodity oil (Amerine
J77 010 {0et al.} 1972). ^However, oils extracted from the seeds and
J77 011 stones of certain fruit are finding applications in specific
J77 012 niches of the market. ^For example, the fat obtained by solvent
J77 013 extraction of the kernels of mango fruit has been found to be a
J77 014 good partial substitute for cocoa butter (Baliga & Shitole 1981,
J77 015 Moharram & Moustafa 1982, Lakshminarayana {0et al.} 1983), which
J77 016 is a high-value fat product. ^Other fruit seeds that have also
J77 017 been investigated on a laboratory scale as a source of oil are
J77 018 kokam (Sampathu & Krishnamurthy 1982), prickly pear seeds (Sawaya
J77 019 & Khan 1982), apricot kernels (Dawes & Cleverley 1966), and
J77 020 papaya seeds (Matsui 1980).
J77 021 *<*4Food colours*>
J77 022 |^*0The major groups of natural colouring substances in fruits
J77 023 are carotenoids, anthocyanins, and chlorophylls. ^Last century
J77 024 the food-colour industry was based entirely around colours from
J77 025 natural sources, and it was not until the early 1920s that
J77 026 synthetic food grade colours became available. ^One of the first
J77 027 to be produced synthetically was \15b-carotene which had
J77 028 previously been extracted from carrots and oranges. ^A full
J77 029 spectrum of synthetic colours is now available. ^However, with
J77 030 the increasing public awareness of possible health problems
J77 031 associated with their use ({0e.g.}, cancer, hyperactivity in
J77 032 children), interest is being redeveloped in the field of natural
J77 033 colours.
J77 034 *<*1Carotenoids*>
J77 035 |^*0Carotenoids are frequently responsible for the red, orange,
J77 036 and yellow colours of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. ^Natural
J77 037 carotenoid extracts have been used as food colourants for many
J77 038 years, for example, carrot and tomato
J77 039 **[TABLE**]
J77 040 extracts, annatto from the seeds of *1{6Bixa orellana *0\0L.},
J77 041 saffron, oleoresin, paprika, and red palm oil (Preston & Rickard
J77 042 1980, Gordon & Bauernfeind 1982, Counsell & Knewstubb 1983,
J77 043 Lampila {0et al.} 1984). ^Some natural carotenoids have
J77 044 provitamin A activity and thus nutritional value in addition to
J77 045 their visual contribution to foods.
J77 046    |^It should be noted that large quantities of synthetic
J77 047 carotenoids are produced as *'nature identical**' *- {0i.e.},
J77 048 having the same composition as those from natural sources.
J77 049 *<*1Anthocyanins*>
J77 050 |^*0The other major group of food colourants is the anthocyanins.
J77 051 ^These red to purple compounds are also widely distributed in
J77 052 nature. ^Structurally they are glycosides consisting of an
J77 053 anthocyanidin moiety and a sugar residue. ^The anthocyanidin
J77 054 component is the principal determinant of the anthocyanin colour,
J77 055 and only 6 major anthocyanidins are found in foods (Table 2). ^In
J77 056 contrast to the carotenoids, the anthocyanins are obtained
J77 057 entirely by extraction from natural sources. ^The limitation of
J77 058 anthocyanins over synthetic azo dyes is mainly in the
J77 059 deterioration of colour on processing and storage. ^However, they
J77 060 may be used successfully in high-acidity foods such as soft
J77 061 drinks, jams, and jellies (Hrazdina 1981). ^An additional problem
J77 062 is that the red colour is maintained only in the acidity range of
J77 063 {0pH} 1-4 (Francis 1977). ^Anthocyanin extracts are produced
J77 064 commercially in large quantities from red grape skins because of
J77 065 the abundance of this raw material as a waste product from the
J77 066 wine industry (Salgues 1980, Usseglio-Tomasset 1980, Pompei &
J77 067 Lucisano 1983).
J77 068    |^Many other fruits have been suggested as potential sources
J77 069 of anthocyanins (Francis 1977); recent pilot-plant extraction
J77 070 studies have been carried out using the Japanese plum *1{6Prunus
J77 071 salicina *0Lindl.} (Itoo {0et al.} 1982), anil trepador
J77 072 *1{6Cissus sicyoides} *0(Toledo {0et al.} 1983), and elderberries
J77 073 (Pfannhauser & Riedl 1983).
J77 074    |^The red beet *1{6Beta vulgaris *0L.} shows promise as a
J77 075 source of natural red colourant. ^Depending on the cultivar, beet
J77 076 contains various proportions of betacyanins and betaxanthines
J77 077 (red and yellow colourants structurally related to anthocyanins).
J77 078 ^These compounds are known as betalaines, and their use in food
J77 079 has been reviewed by \von Elbe (1977).
J77 080 *<*1Chlorophyll*>
J77 081 |^*0The natural form of chlorophyll in plants is not used widely
J77 082 in foods. ^Rather, a modified form (sodium copper chlorophyll) is
J77 083 used, where the central magnesium atom of the natural product has
J77 084 been replaced by copper. ^The substitution improves the hue and
J77 085 the stability of the colour. ^Although chlorophyll occurs in some
J77 086 fruits, such as kiwifruit, they are not a rich source.
J77 087 *<*4Sugars*>
J77 088 |^*0Although sugars occur to high levels in fruits they are
J77 089 rarely extracted as a primary product because glucose and
J77 090 fructose can be produced more cheaply from other sources such as
J77 091 by enzymic treatment of starch. ^There are minor supplies of
J77 092 sugar that have been produced from fruit; for example a part of
J77 093 the annual production of currants in Greece is used as a raw
J77 094 material for sugar extraction using hot water (Sipitanos &
J77 095 Papargyris 1979). ^Sugar is also recovered from the excess juice,
J77 096 skins, and waste materials from the pineapple canning industry
J77 097 using ion-exchange techniques. ^Purification need not be complete
J77 098 as the sugar is reused in the canning syrup (Lancrenan 1982). ^A
J77 099 pilot-scale production plant for the extraction of both sugar and
J77 100 tartrate from grape pressings has been described (Ropot {0et al.}
J77 101 1983); again, purification proved to be unnecessary as the sugar
J77 102 was used in a subsequent fermentation process.
J77 103 *<*4Acids*>
J77 104 |^*0Acid extraction is an important industry which has developed
J77 105 in conjunction with grape wine production in Europe (Amerine {0et
J77 106 al.} 1972, Cappelleri 1981). ^Tartaric acid (as potassium
J77 107 bitartrate) is a by-product obtained as insoluble crystals which
J77 108 settle out during the storage of wine. ^Grape pomace can also be
J77 109 extracted to recover tartrates; precipitation as calcium tartrate
J77 110 improves yields.
J77 111    |^Citric acid recovery from citrus fruits is discussed
J77 112 subsequently. ^It has recently been suggested that Japanese
J77 113 quinces (*1\6Chaenomeles *0\0sp.), which are rich in malic acid,
J77 114 could also be an important source of acid for the food processing
J77 115 industry (Lesinska 1983).
J77 116 *<*4Pectin*>
J77 117 |^*0Pectin is a substance which has commercial value and is
J77 118 present in many fruits (Kertesz 1951). ^The two major sources of
J77 119 pectin on the world market are apples and citrus fruits. ^Even
J77 120 though these two fruits contain relatively high pectin levels,
J77 121 the main reason for their utilisation lies in the huge tonnages
J77 122 of pomace and skins that are available as waste products from the
J77 123 juicing industry each year. ^Many different types of pectin are
J77 124 produced including low esterified and amidated pectins (Valet &
J77 125 Schoon 1983). ^The properties of the pectin produced depend on
J77 126 the fruit species from which it is extracted. ^Thus pectins
J77 127 produced from mandarins, grapefruit, bitter orange, and lemons
J77 128 all have slightly different applications (Royo Tranzo {0et al.}
J77 129 1980). ^The cashew apple (*'false fruit**' of *1{6Anacardium
J77 130 occidentale} *0to which the cashew nut is attached) has been
J77 131 proposed as a new source of pectin (Ogunmoyela 1983); until now
J77 132 there has been an under-utilisation of this fruit although it
J77 133 contains high levels of ascorbic acid, minerals, and pectin.
J77 134 *<*4Flavours and essential oils*>
J77 135 |^*0Essential oils and essences contain the flavour and aroma
J77 136 compounds that may be obtained from fruit, and are
J77 137 **[TABLE**]
J77 138 commonly extracted in conjunction with the juice concentration
J77 139 process. ^In order to reduce freight charges and avoid
J77 140 fermentation problems at ambient storage temperatures, much of
J77 141 the world trade in fruit juices is as juice concentrates (3-8
J77 142 fold), with the level of concentration depending upon the initial
J77 143 level of sugar in the juice. ^The concentration procedure usually
J77 144 involves a heating step under vacuum in order that the volatile
J77 145 components, primarily water and including some of the flavour and
J77 146 aroma compounds, are driven off. ^This volatile fraction can be
J77 147 further concentrated by distillation to produce a final essence
J77 148 containing the volatile flavour and aroma compounds at a level of
J77 149 several hundred-fold that of the original juice. ^Essences from
J77 150 apples and berry fruit are amongst the most common available, and
J77 151 in addition there is a wide range of synthetic equivalents on the
J77 152 market.
J77 153    |^Essential oils may be obtained from many herbs and spices
J77 154 and, very commonly, from the skins of citrus fruits. ^They have a
J77 155 wide range of applications, for example, in foods and drinks, and
J77 156 in soaps and detergents where their aroma properties are
J77 157 particularly useful.
J77 158 *<*4Enzymes*>
J77 159 |^*0Several fruits are known to contain relatively high levels of
J77 160 proteolytic enzymes, and various commercial procedures have been
J77 161 developed for their extraction. ^Applications of these enzymes
J77 162 range from use as meat tenderisers to soap powder additives. ^The
J77 163 purity of the enzyme preparations is not generally high because
J77 164 most applications do not require it, and this feature contributes
J77 165 to their relatively low production costs. ^The most common and
J77 166 cheapest enzyme extracted from fruit is papain, obtained from the
J77 167 papaya fruit. ^The enzyme is found in its highest concentration
J77 168 in the latex present in the green unripe fruit and in the leaves.
J77 169 ^Pineapples contain stem and fruit bromelain (two separate
J77 170 enzymes), and figs contain ficin (Gaughran 1976, Dev & Ingle
J77 171 1982). ^Although more expensive than papain, both stem bromelain
J77 172 and ficin are obtainable commercially. ^These and similar plant
J77 173 proteases, and their industrial prospects, have been reviewed by
J77 174 Caygill (1979).
J77 175    |^Actinidin, which is present in kiwifruit, is discussed in
J77 176 the section dealing with New Zealand fruit.
J77 177 *<*4Vitamins*>
J77 178 |^*0Many fruits are rich in L-ascorbic acid (Table 3) and have
J77 179 been used as a natural source of the vitamin either as the fresh
J77 180 fruit or in extract form. ^The commercial extraction of fruit
J77 181 vitamin C in a purified form has not been reported, which is
J77 182 almost certainly a reflection of the fact that vitamin C is much
J77 183 more cheaply obtained synthetically.
J77 184 *<*4Miscellaneous*>
J77 185 |^*0Some examples of more minor by-products from fruit processing
J77 186 are extracts of apricot, peach, plum, and cherry stone (all
J77 187 contain amygdalin) as a substitute for almond flavouring (Corradi
J77 188 & Micheli 1982), and an edible flour has been produced from
J77 189 finely ground cherry pits (Hanson 1976). ^Some spices are
J77 190 obtained specifically from fruits: allspice is the dried unripe
J77 191 fruits of *1{6Pimenta dioica}, *0a small tree native to the West
J77 192 Indies and parts of Central and South America (Hill 1952).
J77 193 ^Various spices and oils can be prepared from capsicum varieties
J77 194 such as the bell peppers, chilies, paprikas, pimientos, and
J77 195 tabascos. ^Other spices which are also classed as fruits are:
J77 196 juniper berry, pepper, star anise, and vanilla (Hill 1952).
J77 197 ^Another important fruit which yields several processed products
J77 198 is the cocoa *'bean**' (*1{6Theobroma cacao}*0). ^Not only are
J77 199 the seeds used in cocoa production, but a hydrocolloid may be
J77 200 obtained from the juice expressed from the flesh of the fruit.
J77 201 ^This has found use as a valuable emulsifying and stabilising
J77 202 colloid in foods and beverages. ^The waste flesh is then further
J77 203 utilised as an animal feed (Drevici & Drevici 1982).
J77 204    |^Certain fruits contain proteins that are intensely sweet
J77 205 and are being evaluated for use in the non-nutritive sweetener
J77 206 market. ^Monellin *- extracted from the serendipity berry
J77 207 (*1{6Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii}*0) *- is approximately 2000
J77 208 times sweeter than sucrose, whereas thaumatin, a protein isolated
J77 209 from the fruit of a West African plant *1{6Thaumatococcus
J77 210 daniellii}, *0is the sweetest substance known, being
J77 211 approximately 4000 times sweeter than sucrose (Parker 1978).
J77 212 *<*4The citrus industry*>
J77 213 |^*0One of the largest and most complex processing operations
J77 214 involving fruit is that of the citrus industry (Braverman 1949).
J77 215 ^The principal products are juice and juice concentrate, but
J77 216 because of the huge quantities of waste produced, the manufacture
J77 217 of a large range of by-products is also economically viable.
J77 218 ^Thus the industry provides a useful case study of the
J77 219 versatility which is possible, due at least in part to the scale
J77 220 of operation.
J77 221 |^*4Juice: ^*0This is generally the primary product, the majority
J77 222 of which is sold as frozen concentrate. ^Juicing produces large
J77 223 quantities of skins and fibrous waste.
J77 224 |^*4Oil: ^*0High-quality oil can be obtained from the glands or
J77 225 sacs in the flavedo (outer skin of the fruit). ^The value of this
J77 226 oil is dependent upon the species and the particular variety of
J77 227 citrus used. ^Oil can be used either for its taste, aroma, or for
J77 228 both attributes in such products as food and beverages and in
J77 229 sanitisers and cleansers.
J77 230 |^*4Acid: ^*0Citric acid can be extracted from fruits with high
J77 231 acid content such as lemons and limes.
J77 232 *#
J78 001 **[372 TEXT J78**]
J78 002 |^*6T*0he balance of power in information systems in both
J78 003 hardware and software is shifting from the northern to the
J78 004 southern hemisphere. ^In the case of hardware it is shifting from
J78 005 the {0USA} to Japan. ^In my opinion the balance of power in
J78 006 non-hardware elements, such as application software, engineering
J78 007 services and education is shifting to Australia and New Zealand.
J78 008 ^Why?
J78 009    |^Australia and New Zealand's geographic isolation, previous
J78 010 archaic import barriers (ex-import licensing, duty, and sales
J78 011 tax), and traditional *"have a go, do it yourself**" attitudes
J78 012 have combined to lead us to utilise computer systems to the full
J78 013 before upgrading them and to cram applications software into the
J78 014 smallest possible configuration. ^This contrasts with the {0USA}
J78 015 where large powerful systems are used for one specific purpose,
J78 016 such as personnel, finance, or production use. ^In New Zealand,
J78 017 systems must of necessity be multi purpose.
J78 018    |^We have shaken off our primary industry mentality and womb
J78 019 to tomb Government hand-out welfare state attitude, and with
J78 020 deregulation and privatisation has come the realisation that
J78 021 knowledge is power and information systems are what knowledge is
J78 022 all about.
J78 023    |^With all due modesty, we are an intelligent well educated
J78 024 society with plenty of creative capability and a willingness to
J78 025 *"have-a-go**" even when others say it can't be done. ^The fact
J78 026 that we speak only one major language, while culturally
J78 027 objectionable, is good news in respect of our ability to compete
J78 028 and communicate in the information and technology arena. ^We are
J78 029 also a computer literate community, despite complaints about the
J78 030 lack of computers in schools.
J78 031    |^Japan \0Inc. in the past seems to have difficulty in
J78 032 mastering the blend of creativity and logic and the thought
J78 033 processes necessary for software development.
J78 034    |^Apart from our advantages in terms of ability to develop
J78 035 application solutions for the rest of the world, we have a very
J78 036 major geographic advantage, which if we choose to exploit it
J78 037 would give us a competitive edge in the electronic storage and
J78 038 dissemination of information world-wide. ^Because the sun rises
J78 039 earlier in Gisborne than in any other {0OECD} country, we are
J78 040 ahead in time. ^With electronic transfer of information
J78 041 instantaneous, this means for example, that if shares become
J78 042 available internationally on a given date, New Zealanders could
J78 043 buy them before people of almost any other nation.
J78 044    |^Futures fall due first in New Zealand. ^The implications
J78 045 for the money market are considerable. ^Information is power, and
J78 046 potentially New Zealand could become the information centre of
J78 047 the world.
J78 048    |^For years, successive New Zealand Governments have been
J78 049 berated for insufficient support to manufacturers, exporters,
J78 050 scientists, farmers, doctors, teachers, tax payers, \0etc, \0etc.
J78 051 ^Invariably, artificial constraints on imports, local
J78 052 protectionist policies, subsidies, and support incentives have
J78 053 all been tried and have in many cases created more anomalies than
J78 054 benefits.
J78 055    |^As far as information systems technology is concerned,
J78 056 local software houses, would-be hardware developers and
J78 057 organisations such as {0NZCSA}, now incorporated in {0ITANZ},
J78 058 have lobbied for Government assistance for years, with very
J78 059 little success. ^Last December the Beattie report made some major
J78 060 recommendations on improving New Zealand's record in scientific
J78 061 research and development.
J78 062    |^Despite considerable criticism of \0Mr Tizard and the Labour
J78 063 Government for not implementing these recommendations, nothing
J78 064 significant seems to have been done to date. ^The Beattie report
J78 065 got only passing reference in this year's budget.
J78 066    |^Despite the hand-wringing of the scientific establishment
J78 067 and the plaintive cries of the technocrats, many entrepreneurs,
J78 068 having come to the conclusion that Government assistance will not
J78 069 be forthcoming, and that it is probably undesirable anyway, are
J78 070 getting on with the job.
J78 071    |^New Zealand in fact, has an excellent track record of
J78 072 innovative firsts in science and technology. ^New Zealanders were
J78 073 the first to split the atom, design the jet propelled boat, and
J78 074 isolate thermophylic enzymes. ^In information technology, a New
J78 075 Zealander, Leslie John Comrie, in 1938 used mechanical
J78 076 calculators to establish what has been called the first computer
J78 077 bureau in the world. ^During the second world war, New Zealand
J78 078 scientists systematised data for the Allied armies. ^Comrie,
J78 079 using his calculator, provided the {0US} Air Force with a
J78 080 desperately needed set of bombing tables. ^In 1958 William
J78 081 Pickering, another remarkable New Zealander, led the team which
J78 082 launched Explorer 1, the first artificial satellite.
J78 083    |^This track record is continuing, both within New Zealand
J78 084 through the innovative use of information systems, and
J78 085 internationally through the successful export of skills, hardware
J78 086 and software. ^The platform is established.
J78 087 *<*6SKILLS, HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE*>
J78 088 |^A*0s far as skill is concerned, New Zealand systems designers,
J78 089 analysts and programmers are keenly sought overseas, and
J78 090 regretfully we lose some of our best talent to Europe and
J78 091 Australia. ^Increasingly, however, as New Zealand-based software
J78 092 and consulting companies establish themselves in Australia,
J78 093 Europe, Asia and the United States, these people will be able to
J78 094 fulfil their need for travel and challenge while still
J78 095 contributing to the international presence of New Zealand in
J78 096 information technology.
J78 097    |^In the consulting field, once more, New Zealanders are
J78 098 highly regarded overseas, particularly in South East Asian
J78 099 countries. ^One of Eagle Technology's associate companies, Worley
J78 100 Consulting, is heavily involved in consulting on the building of
J78 101 power stations, design of plant, civil and mechanical
J78 102 engineering, and information systems throughout South East Asia.
J78 103    |^In the hardware arena, some years ago there was
J78 104 considerable noise made about the possibility of establishing a
J78 105 silicon chip manufacturing capability in New Zealand using our
J78 106 plentiful supply of ironsand raw material. ^To my mind,
J78 107 thankfully the idea was abandoned. ^This could have been a
J78 108 technology albatross. ^I do not think it is practical for us to
J78 109 compete with the giants of Japan \0Inc. and Silicon Valley in the
J78 110 production of chips. ^These production facilities require massive
J78 111 investments of capital, suffer from wild fluctuations in demand
J78 112 and prices for their products, and have to keep pace with rapid
J78 113 and increasing technology changes.
J78 114    |^I believe it would be naive of us to attempt to compete
J78 115 with the likes of {0IBM}, Intel, National Semiconductor, Motorola
J78 116 and Japan \0Inc.
J78 117    |^Only one significant computer, the Poly, has been designed
J78 118 and made in New Zealand, and even then it was an assembly of
J78 119 imported disk unit, screen and printer into a locally built
J78 120 cabinet, rather than a locally manufactured machine. ^It was
J78 121 designed for the educational market and incorporated
J78 122 sophisticated colour graphics. ^When the Poly was launched in
J78 123 1981 by Progeni Systems, it was hoped that the Education
J78 124 Department would endorse it as the preferred computer for
J78 125 schools, but this hope did not eventuate. ^Ironically, the
J78 126 machine found an export niche with an order from the People's
J78 127 Republic of China.
J78 128    |^Examples of successful specialised hardware products
J78 129 developed in New Zealand include Delphi's multi-channel
J78 130 radiometer, which the {0US} space agency {0NASA} chose to use
J78 131 aboard the space shuttle to measure energy from the sun and sky,
J78 132 the oceans of the world, snow, ice and rock formations. ^The same
J78 133 company, Delphi has also made and marketed a portable
J78 134 haemoglobinometer, a small, robust blood analyser especially
J78 135 useful in third world countries where patients may be far from a
J78 136 hospital. ^Fisher and Paykel have exported over *+$12 million of
J78 137 respiratory humidifiers to twenty five countries. ^Other devices
J78 138 include an electronic taximeter able to divide fares up when
J78 139 passengers share rides, and computerised petrol pumps. ^Given
J78 140 more attention to research and development and the willingness of
J78 141 Government, industry and scientific establishments to implement
J78 142 joint ventures, there is tremendous scope for successful export
J78 143 of niche hardware product.
J78 144    |^Joint ventures offer an excellent vehicle for development
J78 145 of such products. ^Our own company right now is involved in a
J78 146 joint venture with Auckland University and an Auckland
J78 147 manufacturing company, with some modest funding from Trade and
J78 148 Industry, to develop and manufacture in New Zealand an advanced
J78 149 design, low cost uninterruptible power supply unit for export.
J78 150 ^The explosive demand for personal computers, the fact that
J78 151 businesses are becoming more and more reliant on computers, and
J78 152 the fact that power supply is suspect in many countries, lead us
J78 153 to invest in this project. ^Prototypes are currently under
J78 154 development and we expect to be exporting volume product in 1988.
J78 155    |^Apart from the export of hardware products, the
J78 156 maintenance and servicing of products represents an excellent
J78 157 overseas earnings potential for New Zealand companies. ^Typically
J78 158 subsidiaries of multi-national computer suppliers ship products
J78 159 back to the plant for servicing and repair as their local
J78 160 expertise is restricted to diagnosis and board swapping.
J78 161    |^Products such as fixed disk units are serviced on a return
J78 162 to base arrangement. ^We have a sophisticated repair facility in
J78 163 Auckland and one of our {0US} based suppliers has appointed us as
J78 164 the repair base for all its products installed in South East
J78 165 Asia.
J78 166 *|^*6I*0t is in the development and export of software, however,
J78 167 that New Zealand has achieved considerable success, and here
J78 168 there is scope for significant export earnings.
J78 169    |^The most publicised success story in New Zealand software
J78 170 development is the Logic Information Network Compiler or {0LINC}
J78 171 product. ^This product was developed by Peter Hoskins and Gil
J78 172 Simpson and launched in 1979, disastrously, until they persuaded
J78 173 Unisys (then the Burroughs Corporation) to support and fund the
J78 174 marketing and further development of the product. ^Within 18
J78 175 months they had sold 700 copies of the system in 35 countries,
J78 176 but interestingly only 20 of these sales were in New Zealand.
J78 177    |^Today they have 200 systems in Japan, 160 in Brazil, and
J78 178 50 in New Zealand. ^Overseas earnings for this year will be in
J78 179 excess of *+$10 million. ^In May this year David Lange opened the
J78 180 latest {0LINC} Development Centre in Christchurch in the new
J78 181 Canterbury Technology Park. ^This is claimed to be the biggest
J78 182 software development centre in the southern hemisphere, with a
J78 183 lavish *+$6 million, three storey office, conference and training
J78 184 centre, complete with a grand mirror glass circular building,
J78 185 hydraulically raised stage, glass fronted lift, pools, and storey
J78 186 high waterfall. ^*+$38 million worth of hardware is installed in
J78 187 the centre. ^This is a success story in anyone's book.
J78 188    |^A similar story is that of Fact International founded by
J78 189 Grant Wallace and John Blackham, in 1978 with the support of Bill
J78 190 Foreman, chairman of Trigon Industries \0Ltd.
J78 191    |^Today Fact International has total assets of over *+$4
J78 192 million, distributes its products through 11 marketing channels
J78 193 in six countries, and has over 200 sites using its system. ^It
J78 194 employs 80 permanent staff and occupies some 26,000 square feet
J78 195 of office space in three countries. ^Fact's international
J78 196 customers include: International Harvester, Australia, Polymer
J78 197 Technology in Massachusetts and Guangdong Float Glass in the
J78 198 People's Republic of China. ^Right from the outset, Fact has had
J78 199 a very close relationship with Wang, and in fact Wang recently
J78 200 took equity in the company.
J78 201    |^Another locally developed software product released with a
J78 202 lot of razz-matazz in 1985 is Exsys, Data General's *"logical
J78 203 successor to fourth generation languages**". ^Data General's
J78 204 brochure claims Exsys is *"the world's first expert system for
J78 205 business software development. ^A major breakthrough, Exsys makes
J78 206 possible the development of systems directly from statements of
J78 207 fact in English.**"
J78 208    |^An Auckland-based software developer, Mana Systems has
J78 209 just recently rung up *+$1 million in export sales for its fourth
J78 210 generation language product Manasys, which runs on Fujitsu
J78 211 systems. ^Fujitsu has provided financial support in the form of
J78 212 advance royalties to fund development.
J78 213    |^Countercorp, another Auckland software house, in
J78 214 partnership with Digital Equipment, is launching its successful
J78 215 locally developed financial management system, Decfin, on the
J78 216 Australian market.
J78 217    |^These are excellent examples of New Zealand developed
J78 218 software products being successfully marketed internationally.
J78 219 ^One thing they all have in common, however, is that they have
J78 220 been funded by multi-national hardware suppliers. ^While there is
J78 221 not necessarily anything wrong with this, it does mean that
J78 222 obviously the products will be restricted to the funding
J78 223 suppliers' equipment.
J78 224    |^There are a number of significant software developers in
J78 225 New Zealand who have elected not to throw in their lot with a
J78 226 specific supplier, and have developed broader-based solutions for
J78 227 the international market.
J78 228    |^Progeni, which I mentioned earlier regarding the Poly
J78 229 Computer, are one of the longest established developers of
J78 230 products for international markets.
J78 231 *#
J79 001 **[373 TEXT J79**]
J79 002    |^*0With the possibility of using the new techniques to add
J79 003 to our knowledge of larger historical earthquakes, the Division
J79 004 plans to comprehensively review {0N.Z.}'s historical seismicity
J79 005 over the next five years, to give as complete a description of it
J79 006 as the data from all sources permits.
J79 007 *<*6ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY*>
J79 008 *<*2{0N.Z.} GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, {0D.S.I.R.}*>
J79 009    |^*0Earthquake related research projects principally involve
J79 010 the Earth Deformation and Engineering Geology sections, which
J79 011 together constitute the Geotechnical Group of {0NZGS}.
J79 012 *<1  *1Deformation Mapping*>
J79 013    |^*0The mapping of late Quaternary deformation (active
J79 014 faults and deformed marine and fluvial surfaces) is continuing.
J79 015 *<2  *1Geodetic Monitoring*>
J79 016    |^*0The geodetic monitoring of crustal deformation is being
J79 017 carried out at some 50 sites.
J79 018 *<3  *1Historical Geodetic Data*>
J79 019    |^*0The analysis of historical geodetic data is being
J79 020 undertaken to derive crustal deformation parameters for
J79 021 approximately the last 100 years. ^This period being one which
J79 022 includes several major crustal earthquakes.
J79 023    |^Much of this research was initiated under the Royal
J79 024 Society of New Zealand's Earth Deformation Studies programme
J79 025 which coordinated the activities in this field of the {0DSIR},
J79 026 Lands and Survey, {0MWD} and the Universities, and has been
J79 027 augmented by contributions from overseas workers.
J79 028    |^The objectives of the current research projects are:*-
J79 029 |1
J79 030 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 031 ^The improved description of paleoseismicity and its effects
J79 032 through dating both deformation of marine and fluvial terraces
J79 033 and fault displacements. ^The episodic movements identified have
J79 034 been attributed to major earthquakes. ^One of the effects of such
J79 035 earthquakes is induced landsliding, currently being documented in
J79 036 the Wellington region along the Wellington fault.
J79 037 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 038 |2
J79 039 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 040 ^The improved understanding of contemporary crustal deformation.
J79 041 ^The principal technique being utilised for this is the analysis
J79 042 of geodetic data which has enabled description of significant
J79 043 deformation in parts of New Zealand for approximately 100 years.
J79 044 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 045 |3
J79 046 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 047 ^Collaborative integration of {0NZGS} results with those of other
J79 048 researchers for investigation of the relationships between
J79 049 crustal deformation kinematics and major earthquakes.
J79 050 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 051    |^The information obtained by the above projects is utilised
J79 052 in applied projects, such as :*-
J79 053 |1
J79 054 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 055 ^Seismotectonic hazard assessments of major developments, such as
J79 056 hydroelectric power schemes and major urban areas. ^These studies
J79 057 integrate geological mapping, Quaternary mapping, geodetic
J79 058 monitoring, and historical and micro-seismicity (in conjunction
J79 059 with the Geophysics Division, {0DSIR}).
J79 060 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 061 |2
J79 062 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 063 ^The promotion of mitigation of fault rupture hazards via the
J79 064 utilisation of simple planning procedures under the Town and
J79 065 Country Planning Act.
J79 066 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 067 |3
J79 068 **[BEGIN INDENTATION**]
J79 069 ^The development of strong motion records related to the
J79 070 earthquake hazards of specific sites, to be used for the dynamic
J79 071 displacements analysis of embankments or slopes (in conjunction
J79 072 with {0PEL}, {0DSIR}.)
J79 073 **[END INDENTATION**]
J79 074 *<*2PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING LABORATORY, {0D.S.I.R.}*>
J79 075 *<1  *1Strong-motion Recording.*>
J79 076    |^*0One of the major thrusts of earthquake engineering
J79 077 research at {0PEL} is the operation of the New Zealand
J79 078 strong-motion earthquake accelerograph network and associated
J79 079 research on engineering risk. ^The primary aim is to collect
J79 080 accelerograms in the epicentral region of major damaging
J79 081 earthquakes to use in developing design spectra. ^Twenty records
J79 082 of up to 0.19\0g ground acceleration at epicentral distances of
J79 083 between 20 and 60 \0km in earthquakes of magnitude 4.8 to 6.0
J79 084 indicate that {0NZ} spectra agree well with those predicted by a
J79 085 Japanese response spectra model, but are matched poorly by {0US}
J79 086 models which underestimate the response at short periods. ^The
J79 087 {0NZ} spectra to date, admittedly from medium magnitude events,
J79 088 are quite different in shape from the much broader band El Centro
J79 089 type spectra used in New Zealand design. ^However, the limited
J79 090 {0NZ} data also shows different behavior to Japanese data in that
J79 091 attenuation of peak accelerations with distance, most clearly
J79 092 demonstrated with records from 12 sites ranging from Murchison to
J79 093 Picton in the 1968 Inangahua earthquake, appears much more rapid
J79 094 than in Japan.
J79 095    |^A series of spectra for a major {0NZ} earthquake of
J79 096 magnitude 7 or greater is required to determine the spectral
J79 097 shape in design level shaking and to confirm the Inangahua
J79 098 attenuation with distance. ^A further area of concern is that
J79 099 recent accelerograms have produced indications of soil layer
J79 100 resonance at several sites with periods ranging from 0.3 to 1.0
J79 101 seconds. ^These sites are being investigated by means of
J79 102 vibration tests.
J79 103 *<*2DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY.*>
J79 104 *<1  *1Seismic Hazard Analysis.*>
J79 105    |^*0Work is continuing on seismic hazard analysis with
J79 106 particular reference to the inclusion of geophysical source
J79 107 models.
J79 108 *<2  *1Ground Rupture.*>
J79 109    |^*0Theoretical work concerning the application of
J79 110 bifurcation theory to the development of soil rupture surfaces is
J79 111 being carried out. ^Also being studied is fault rupture diversion
J79 112 and modification caused by the presence of buildings.
J79 113 *<3  *1Dynamic Soil Properties.*>
J79 114    |^*0A set of Californian accelerograph records are being
J79 115 used to study the influence of the dynamic properties of soils.
J79 116 *<*6GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING*>
J79 117 *<*2MINISTRY OF WORKS AND DEVELOPMENT*>
J79 118 *<1  *1Bridge Abutments.*>
J79 119    |^*0In order to obtain a better understanding of the passive
J79 120 earth pressures that develop against bridge abutments built
J79 121 integrally with the superstructure, half size models have been
J79 122 built and tested. ^The abutments were loaded statically and
J79 123 dynamically by pushing them into sand backfill. ^The total force
J79 124 and its pressure distribution agreed well with theoretical
J79 125 predictions except at large deformations when the sand was
J79 126 stiffer than predicted. ^Further tests are being carried out
J79 127 using dense sands.
J79 128 *<2  *1Pile Foundations.*>
J79 129    |^*0Research into the static and dynamic lateral load
J79 130 behaviour is being undertaken as part of a cooperative research
J79 131 programme sponsored by the Road Research Unit. ^It is expected
J79 132 that this research will permit overseas methods to be evaluated
J79 133 for various {0NZ} soil types.
J79 134 *<*2DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND*>
J79 135 *<1  *1Earthquake Soil-structure Interaction.*>
J79 136    |^*0At low levels of earthquake excitation the soil beneath
J79 137 a building foundation behaves elastically. ^As the severity of
J79 138 the earthquake increases nonlinear deformation becomes
J79 139 increasingly more important. ^The nonlinearity increases the
J79 140 apparent damping as well as reducing the stiffness of the soil.
J79 141 ^This project, a continuation of earlier work, is concerned with
J79 142 demonstrating the effect of nonlinear soil behaviour on the
J79 143 earthquake response of footings and raft foundations on clay
J79 144 soils.
J79 145    |^The major innovation introduced in the project is the
J79 146 method used to describe the nonlinear footing stiffness. ^The
J79 147 complexity of finite element modelling is avoided by using an
J79 148 equivalent spring-dashpot approach. ^The small strain stiffness
J79 149 of the footing is controlled by the elastic properties of the
J79 150 soil. ^The maximum load the footing can sustain is controlled by
J79 151 the bearing capacity of the soil beneath the footing. ^Between
J79 152 these two extremes a hyperbolic relationship is assumed.
J79 153    |^The research demonstrates the beneficial effect of the
J79 154 nonlinear behaviour of clay soils and the existence of a natural
J79 155 base-isolation effect.
J79 156 *<2  *1Cyclic stress-strain Behaviour of Clay Soils.*>
J79 157    |^*0This is a laboratory investigation of the
J79 158 strain-controlled cyclic triaxial behaviour of a small number of
J79 159 natural clay soils. ^The tests are of the consolidated undrained
J79 160 type and pore water pressures are being measured during the
J79 161 cyclic loading. ^The purpose of this research is to observe the
J79 162 effect of repeated loading cycles on the stiffness of natural
J79 163 clay soils. ^This is necessary for two reasons: (**=i) because
J79 164 data on natural soils, particularly {0NZ} soils, is needed, and
J79 165 (**=ii) because information on the change in soil properties with
J79 166 cyclic loading is important for the design of foundations to
J79 167 resist earthquake loading. ^It is well established that when a
J79 168 large number of load cycles is involved, clay soils exhibit a
J79 169 phenomenon of cyclic degradation, a type of fatigue effect. ^The
J79 170 question is how serious is this for the numbers of cycles
J79 171 involved in an earthquake.
J79 172    |^Another aspect of the motivation for the research relates
J79 173 to work that is planned on the lateral load behaviour of piles
J79 174 under earthquake loading. ^In this situation the effect of the
J79 175 load cycling on the strength of the clay near the top of the pile
J79 176 is of importance as this affects the maximum displacement and
J79 177 bending moment in a pile during an earthquake.
J79 178 *<3  *1Investigation of In-situ High Strain Dynamic Soil
J79 179 Properties.*>
J79 180    |^*0This project has been carried out to measure the insitu
J79 181 shear modulus and damping factor of soils at high strain.
J79 182 ^Existing insitu wave propagation techniques, such as the cross
J79 183 hole test, are available to measure the low strain soil
J79 184 properties. ^However, for seismic response analysis the soil
J79 185 properties at strains approaching 0.01 is required for
J79 186 theoretical studies. ^High amplitude shear waves were generated
J79 187 and wave forms close to the source were recorded in an attempt to
J79 188 measure the shear wave velocity and rate of strain decay at high
J79 189 strains. ^While the generation of high strain shear waves was
J79 190 achieved problems were encountered in the analysis of the
J79 191 results. ^It appears the use of the tradition wave equation is
J79 192 inappropriate close to a shear wave source in a nonlinear medium.
J79 193 ^Further work is needed to clarify the wave propagation process
J79 194 close to the source.
J79 195 *<4  *1The Seismic Response of Pile Foundations.*>
J79 196    |^*0This work concerns the calculation of the deformations
J79 197 and bending moments in pile foundations during earthquakes. ^The
J79 198 results of recent computer studies have lead to methods appearing
J79 199 in the literature for the calculation of pile deformation during
J79 200 strong ground motion. ^This study will apply these methods to
J79 201 existing foundations and attempt to gauge the usefulness of the
J79 202 solutions obtained. ^The study will also lead to an assessment of
J79 203 the modification of the ground motion by the piles and hence an
J79 204 evaluation of the level of ground motion at the base of the
J79 205 building compared with the free field motion.
J79 206 *<*2DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY*>
J79 207 *<1  *1Retaining Walls.*>
J79 208    |^*0Earlier research into the design of retaining walls is
J79 209 continuing with investigations currently under way on rigid walls
J79 210 rotating about the bottom (cantilever walls) or the top
J79 211 (tied-back walls). ^Passive toe pressure is also being
J79 212 investigated. ^Limit analysis and small scale model tests are
J79 213 being used. ^Seismic design parameters for reinforced earth walls
J79 214 are being investigated using larger scale tests on the
J79 215 Department's 20-tonne shaking table. ^Associated with the work on
J79 216 the walls is a theoretical study of the effects of vertical and
J79 217 lateral motions on the basic Newmark sliding-block model.
J79 218 *<2  *1Seismic Liquifaction.*>
J79 219    |^*0Experimental work is underway to investigate the seismic
J79 220 liquifaction of sands as a follow up to previous theoretical
J79 221 work. ^Extensive field tests, with special emphasis on dutch and
J79 222 peizocone testing, have been carried out in the Inangahua region
J79 223 where liquifaction occurred during the 1968 earthquake.
J79 224 *<*6STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN*>
J79 225 *<*2BUILDING RESEARCH ASSOCIATION OF {0N.Z.}*>
J79 226 *<1  *1Wall Racking Tests *- end restraint conditions.*>
J79 227    |^*0The standard P21 racking test is used to determine
J79 228 Bracing Ratings for wall units. ^The test requires the specimen
J79 229 to be cycled in 1\0mm increments up to 8\0mm lateral
J79 230 displacement. ^In order to ensure adequate ductility of the
J79 231 component, the wall is racked to a 40\0mm displacement and cycled
J79 232 +/-40\0mm for four cycles during which the reduction in load is
J79 233 not to exceed 20% of the peak load.
J79 234    |^It has been noticeable from the failure modes of the
J79 235 various wall panels that have been tested to the P21 standard
J79 236 racking test, that a common mode of failure is the separation of
J79 237 the tension chord from the bottom plate. ^It has long been
J79 238 recognised that in typical house construction braced walls often
J79 239 have additional restraint against uplift. ^This is provided
J79 240 either by the presence of return walls that are nailed to the end
J79 241 studs, or by axial compression resulting from the application of
J79 242 gravity loads.
J79 243    |^The current work programme attempts to more closely model
J79 244 the actual end restraint conditions within the P2l test. ^The
J79 245 restraint is provided by a short length of timber nailed to the
J79 246 end stud of the panel and restrained against uplift by a bolted
J79 247 saddle. ^The end restraint so provided has the flexibility of the
J79 248 nails in shear.
J79 249    |^As anticipated from the performance modes observed, the
J79 250 provision of end fixity affects the behaviour of the panel quite
J79 251 markedly. ^The panels tested to date (Gibraltar Board) have
J79 252 significantly higher initial stiffness, but degrade during the
J79 253 high displacement cycling, indicating less ductile performance.
J79 254 *<2  *1Profiled Sheet Metal Diaphragms.*>
J79 255    |^*0The objectives of this research programme is**[SIC**] to
J79 256 develop design and testing methods which would enable the
J79 257 strength and stiffness of profiled sheet materials, used as
J79 258 cladding to buildings, to be taken into account in the structural
J79 259 design.
J79 260 *#
J80 001 **[374 TEXT J80**]
J80 002    |^*0In May 1986 the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, in
J80 003 conjunction with the British Post Office and other engineering
J80 004 institutions, held an International Postal Engineering Conference
J80 005 in London to which I was the New Zealand Post Office delegate.
J80 006 ^Forty-six formal papers, together with a number of informal
J80 007 presentations, were delivered on a wide range of postal
J80 008 engineering developments and the whole event was well organised
J80 009 and intensely interesting. ^The venue, the Institution of
J80 010 Mechanical Engineers' own building, deserves a small mention as
J80 011 it is a lovely old building with memorabilia of past presidents
J80 012 and events located throughout the rooms. ^The conference
J80 013 facilities, however, were of the highest modern standard and even
J80 014 included a video projector.
J80 015    |^If there was a central theme it would have been *"avoid
J80 016 damage to mail**" and the British Post Office researchers, in
J80 017 particular, were well aware of this need as was clearly
J80 018 demonstrated in many of the papers presented by this particular
J80 019 group.
J80 020    |^Probably the most important paper of the conference in
J80 021 this regard was one on the subject of *"The Development of Damage
J80 022 Free Level Transfers**".
J80 023    |^A flat-bed belt conveyor is an excellent method of moving
J80 024 parcels without damage provided there is no movement of the
J80 025 parcels from one belt to another. ^For many years the standard
J80 026 method of effecting such transfers has been to drop the parcels
J80 027 over a small distance. ^The need to do this was brought about by
J80 028 the large diameter rollers that were required to drive the thick
J80 029 woven belting used (Figure 1). ^If thinner lighter belting could
J80 030 be used then the rollers could be of smaller diameter and a level
J80 031 transfer from one belt to another becomes practicable (Figure 2)
J80 032 as the gap between the rollers can be greatly reduced. ^This
J80 033 principle works well except at T junctions where parcels transfer
J80 034 to a belt moving at right angles to the first belt. ^With the old
J80 035 system the parcels would be dropped on to the belt and no lateral
J80 036 thrust would be applied but, with level transfers, the transverse
J80 037 belt is pushed sideways by the on-
J80 038 **[FIGURE**]
J80 039 coming parcels (Figure 3) and ultimately the belt will lose
J80 040 tracking. ^This problem was resolved (after much experimentation)
J80 041 by utilising a conveyor belt constructed from small glass
J80 042 reinforced plastic strips which are linked together with metal
J80 043 rods so that they can articulate around the end rollers. ^By
J80 044 running this type of conveyor belt in a shallow metal trough all
J80 045 lateral movement is eliminated. ^Another consideration in this
J80 046 design is the contouring of the walls of the conveyor trough,
J80 047 particularly at intersections, to remove any likelihood of parcel
J80 048 jams.
J80 049    |^This system has been installed in the latest Parcel
J80 050 Concentration Centre at Reading and during a visit there I was
J80 051 told that parcel damage had been reduced by a factor of at least
J80 052 10; and that a secondary advantage was the elimination of parcel
J80 053 jams and the consequent reduction of downtime on the parcel
J80 054 sorting machines (two large tilt-tray machines).
J80 055    |^The Safeglide chute is another very important concept
J80 056 covered by the technical papers. ^This development by the British
J80 057 Post Office was originally raised at a previous Postal
J80 058 Engineering Conference and has since been verified by experience
J80 059 as a successful design. ^It is practice to use spiral chutes to
J80 060 move parcels from one floor to another but with the traditional
J80 061 flat bottomed chute damage to mail can occur due to the speed
J80 062 that the heavier parcels, in particular, can generate in sliding
J80 063 down the
J80 064 **[FIGURE**]
J80 065 chute. ^The Safeglide chutes have a computer designed profile
J80 066 (Figure 5) which effectively controls the speed of descent of
J80 067 parcels in such a way that they all, irrespective of weight, move
J80 068 at a constant velocity without interaction. ^If the parcels are
J80 069 stored on the chute they distribute themselves across it and are
J80 070 self starting as soon as the lower parcels are removed. ^Care is
J80 071 taken at both entry and exit points to avoid sharp changes in
J80 072 direction, again to avoid jam points. ^The profile can be
J80 073 designed to suit the situation ({0ie} the type of mail to be
J80 074 transported) and the chute is of modular design with either steel
J80 075 or reinforced fibre-glass segments bolted to a vertical post.
J80 076 ^However, this post is one of the restrictions of this design and
J80 077 work is now being undertaken to eliminate it. ^The Safeglide
J80 078 chute is a very successful design, now in use in a number of
J80 079 United Kingdom postal centres and other commercial situations.
J80 080    |^One of the problem items in mail handling is the packet,
J80 081 those items of mail too large to be letters and too small to be
J80 082 parcels, such as magazines, newspapers and records. ^Two papers
J80 083 were presented at the conference on the development of machines
J80 084 to handle this type of mail. ^The {0BPO} has built, in
J80 085 conjunction with a private firm, a large automatic sorting
J80 086 machine, consisting of an endless belt of plastic containers open
J80 087 at the top and with a hinged door at the bottom. ^The operator
J80 088 codes the destination of the packet into the machine's computer
J80 089 and it automatically indicates by a row of moving lights which
J80 090 container has been programmed to accept the packet. ^The operator
J80 091 places the packet in that container which carries it around to
J80 092 the rear of the machine where it deposits it into its correct
J80 093 destination, usually a mail-bag. ^The container can be swung
J80 094 through 90 degrees by the machine so that the packets can be
J80 095 discharged to either side of the belt allowing two sorts at each
J80 096 destination. ^The other automatic sorting machine, developed by a
J80 097 private firm, consists of small automatic guided vehicles
J80 098 ({0agv}) running on a suspended track. ^The operator codes the
J80 099 packet's destination and places the packet in an extended arm of
J80 100 the {0agv} **[SIC**] this then moves off at a steady 3{0km/hr}
J80 101 and deposits the packet at the required destination point. ^The
J80 102 {0agv} then returns to the coding point for its next packet.
J80 103    |^Both  are interesting developments in
J80 104 **[FIGURE**]
J80 105 an effort to solve a difficult problem.
J80 106    |^Other papers presented at the conference covered such
J80 107 diverse subjects as:
J80 108 |(**=i) The coding and sorting of mail. ^New coding desks, new
J80 109 ergonomically designed coders and new sorting machines are at
J80 110 present being developed by the British Post Office again with the
J80 111 help of private firms.
J80 112 |(**=ii) Optical Character Recognition ({0OCR}) machines. ^Work
J80 113 is continuing on the development of {0OCR} machines which
J80 114 automatically read the address, apply the code and do a primary
J80 115 sort. ^A number of these machines were seen in operation but the
J80 116 point should be made that while they are at present capable of
J80 117 reading/ cancelling/ coding and sorting up to and above 30,000
J80 118 items an hour such mail is generally machine addressed and very
J80 119 standardised. ^The complete {0OCR} machine reading both hand
J80 120 written and machine written mail is still some time away from
J80 121 development.
J80 122 |(**=iii) ^Postal indexation (whereby the reader is encouraged to
J80 123 use a detailed postal code which in some instances such as
J80 124 America can define the proposed recipient to one side of a
J80 125 particular city block) was a well discussed topic with papers
J80 126 describing various countries' methods of coding the envelope and
J80 127 using the index in the mechanical sorting of mail.
J80 128 |(**=iv) ^Postal management information systems and the use of
J80 129 computer systems were also discussed. ^A prime example of this
J80 130 type of system for postal work is in the Swedish Postal Centre in
J80 131 Stockholm, Tomteboda, which has no less than five computer
J80 132 systems working in the building all connected to a main frame and
J80 133 management information is available from any one of 40 points
J80 134 throughout the building (and it is a massive building) within two
J80 135 minutes. ^Another system in Denmark uses the computer system to
J80 136 issue work orders for and to maintain control over some 4000
J80 137 maintenance points in one of their complexes. ^As Sir Ronald
J80 138 Dearing, Chairman of the British Post Office, pointed out in one
J80 139 of his addresses to the conference, the microchip appears a real
J80 140 threat to the postal system with its speed and accuracy but at
J80 141 the same time it can be a very valuable device and must be made
J80 142 to work for the mail system.
J80 143    |^On the final day of the conference delegates were taken to
J80 144 Swindon for the official opening of the new {0BPO} Research
J80 145 Centre. ^This centre has brought all the Post Office researchers
J80 146 together into the one large complex and the 180 engineers and
J80 147 technicians employed there are working on a wide range of postal
J80 148 engineering matters. ^They are developing new letter and packet
J80 149 sorting machines, addressing particular problems in the handling
J80 150 of mail such as ways and means of machine sorting plastic
J80 151 enveloped mail, looking into the security of Post Offices and
J80 152 cash carrying vans and the many other problems related to getting
J80 153 a letter from point A to point B.
J80 154    |^In his opening speech Sir Ronald Dearing made the point
J80 155 that engineers' role in mail handling was increasing and that it
J80 156 was only during the past 30 years that postal mechanisation had
J80 157 really started to develop.
J80 158    |^During and after the conference a number of postal centres
J80 159 were visited and it is of interest to note the present day
J80 160 trends. ^The move now is to house postal centres in single
J80 161 storied warehouse type buildings instead of the large
J80 162 multi-storied buildings that were favoured several years ago.
J80 163 ^The two latest {0BPO} postal centres at Watford and Reading are
J80 164 both built along these lines and in fact part of the Watford
J80 165 Postal Centre was once a factory. ^In most postal centres visited
J80 166 the parcel sorting machines were either tilt tray or tilt slat
J80 167 machines of a certain European manufacture. ^These consist of an
J80 168 endless chain carrying wooden trays or slats on to which the
J80 169 parcels can be ejected after the destination code has been fed
J80 170 into the machine. ^The parcel is carried around to the designated
J80 171 discharge point and deposited either left or right by the tilting
J80 172 of the wooden trays or slats. ^The tilt slat machine can only
J80 173 operate in a straight line and this is a limitation. ^The tilt
J80 174 tray on the other hand can have a number of differing
J80 175 configurations and is more versatile for this reason. ^I was
J80 176 advised by the manufacturers of this type of machine that the
J80 177 tilt slat machine is now being phased out in preference to the
J80 178 tilt tray, for two main reasons:
J80 179 |(**=i) ^The tilt tray is more versatile (both in configuration
J80 180 and carrying capacity), and
J80 181 |(**=ii) ^The manufacturers have developed a
J80 182 **[PLATE**]
J80 183 new tilting device for the tilt trays which equates well to the
J80 184 smooth discharge of the tilt slat machines.
J80 185    |^The postal centres visited all had a high degree of
J80 186 mechanisation, particularly for the handling of parcels.
J80 187    |^This report should not conclude without further comment on
J80 188 the magnificent Swedish Postal Centre in Stockholm, Tomteboda.
J80 189 ^This is a very large complex, possibly 500 metres long with a
J80 190 rail terminus at one end, several truck delivery docks, and
J80 191 extensive mechanisation throughout. ^The building is so large
J80 192 that staff who are required to service plant around the building
J80 193 are provided with scooters. ^However it is not just its size,
J80 194 which is impressive, but also the fact that throughout the
J80 195 building the postal authorities have gone to considerable expense
J80 196 to provide bright original murals and paintings, not only in the
J80 197 public areas but also in the work areas. ^For example, there are
J80 198 a number of pen and ink pictures of scenes of Stockholm along one
J80 199 wall of the corridor leading to the large cafeteria and outside
J80 200 in the roof garden stands a Swedish version of \0St George and
J80 201 the dragon built up from items of scrap metal.
J80 202    |^But this is still not the most impressive thing from an
J80 203 engineering point of view. ^This must be the use of automatic
J80 204 guided vehicles to move mail around the complex. ^These vehicles
J80 205 are large electrically driven machines with fork-lift prongs at
J80 206 the rear. ^When the postal assistants have loaded a container it
J80 207 is placed in position over a series of cups set into the floor
J80 208 and this generates a signal to the central computer that there is
J80 209 mail waiting.
J80 210 *#